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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
SEVENTH EDITION.
THE
ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND GENERAL LITERATURE.
SEVENTH EDITION,
WITH PRELIMINARY DISSERTATIONS ON THE HISTORY OF THE SCIENCES,
AND
OTHER EXTENSIVE IMPROVEMENTS AND ADDITIONS;
INCLUDING THE LATE SUPPLEMENT,
A GENERAL INDEX,
AND NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS.
VOLUME IX.
ADAM AND CHARLES BLACK, EDINBURGH;
M.DCCC.XLII.
ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA
ENGLAND.
PART III.1
GOVERNMENT AND LAWS.
Govern- L—Government.
ment and
Laws.
Formal
constitu¬
tion.
“ TJY the constitution of a country, is meant so much
of its law as relates to the designation and form
of the legislature ; the rights and functions of the several
parts of the legislative body; the construction, office, and
jurisdiction of courts of justice.” This is the definition
given by Paley. It seems necessary to add also, “ what¬
ever prerogatives are vested in the executiveat least, in
case any powers and privileges are conferred on it beyond
what, from being indispensable to the administration of
the public affairs of a community, must be common alike
to all executives. Even with this addition, the mere me¬
chanism of a government, in the three principal relations
which it bears to its subjects, is all that is here described.
Yet something more is generally understood by a constitu¬
tion, and would seem to be properly comprehended under
that name. A government, it is true, may and must be
influenced in a hundred ways by independent circum¬
stances, and by manifold considerations, which are no part
of it. But when certain specific tendencies and principles
are directly and designedly moulded into its original con¬
formation as so many distinct ends and maxims, or when
they are subsequently developed by it or incorporated
with it, so as to guide and qualify its spirit, they become
entitled to the character of constitutional as much as the
organization itself. There is no doubt that the mechan¬
ism of a government, if left to itself, will mainly determine
the nature and direction of its movements; yet this me¬
chanism consists of a moral and intellectual agency. It
is accordingly capable of accommodating itself, and of
working in subjection to whatever rules and impulses may
be impressed upon it by the society whose instrument it is.
No society can be so stationary but that changes must
take place, sooner or later, for the better or for the worse,
in some one or other of the conditions, whether of principle
or of organization, which make up its constitution. When
these happen to take place, hardly any society can have
been so judiciously constructed from the first, or be so
fortunate in all its future circumstances, that lawyers
shall be able at once to call every change which is for
the worse, unconstitutional, and which is for the better,
constitutional. An approximation to this favourable situ¬
ation has been one of the great and innumerable advan¬
tages of the uniform and gradual progress by which the
English constitution has been distinguished. Its history
is the history of the internal policy of a people, who at
every advance in civilization succeeded in occupying one
advanced post after another, fortifying their free position
at every remove. The early prospect would have discou¬
raged the most sanguine philosopher. But the evil ten¬
dencies were suppressed, and the good ones brought for¬
ward, until the process appears to resemble the natural
development by which a germ grows up into a plant, with
but little occasional help from the pruning hand of man.
Precisely the reverse might have happened. It is what
takes place during that imperceptible decay, which, by a
foolish analogy to vegetable and animal life, it has been
supposed that institutions are also destined to undergo.
The bulk of mankind more easily perceive that abrupt
and extensive changes, the innovations by which new prin¬
ciples, or a new organization, are introduced, amount in
fact, as far as they go, to a new constitution. This may
be done legally or illegally. If illegally, it is a revolution ;
a case which by the supposition has nothing to do with
law. If legally, the letter of the law and the forms of the
Govern¬
ment and
Laws.
Colleo'e" t'1'S ^art ^ie art*c^e t^ie Editor is indebted to William Empson, Esq. Professor of the Laws of England at the East India
VOL. IX.
i
A
2
ENGLAND.
Govern- constitution may be used for the purpose of substituting to have stated ment and
ment and a WOrse as well as a better government to the extent t ia^ can nev because such a proceeding, he says, pre-
, Laws- y the ancient constitution is displaced. The question, what of ’ nment t0 be dissolved. Blackstone (vol. i.
name will most properly describe any specihc measure of sum S ses himgelf stiU m0re strongly to the same
this class? must depend upon the nature and degiee o P- ) P government will presuppose its own
the measure. There is on these occasions another ques- feet, adding, Bja^t ^gover w ^
tion for a people, prior in time, and far more important than de _ . in c'vor.nt-inn
• 1 , ^   if lo tlioiv dntv tn ascertain
discussions about a name. It is their duty to ascertain
whether the proposed change is, under all the circum¬
stances, a practicable improvement, and to fix where t ie
authority for deciding this point can, upon the whole, be
aesiructiuii. auc   ., .•  
extreme in theory nor as impracticable in execution as
this language would represent. There is really no ques¬
tion in this case about resistance, nor what can reason¬
ably be called dissolution. Whilst, on the one hand, the
- this p0int- Can’ c1!?11 rffnr™ law has nothing to do with possibilities belonging to the
most safely lodged. A comparison of the different me a ^ t • bt 0f resistance; on the other, the
thods by which the latter problem can be solved will show “ 'lmafte a"J “cr which may be lawfully resisted
what little cause there is for maintaining, as some mo- dea of a supreme power y ^ of ^ # ^
W11UL little eauot. mv-.v- — ---   o-
dern writers are disposed to do, that the course adopted
in England is too loose and arbitrary to be consistent with
the positive character implied in a constitution.
Three very different systems may prevail in this respect.
The two first are alluded to rather than recognised in
English history. Its whole tenor proceeds upon the last.
Every country has at one time or another given more
or less countenance, upon some favourite points, to the oe-
lusion of fundamental laws and unalienable rights ; mean¬
ing by these, laws and rights incapable of alteration, except
bv a violence or decay equivalent to the suspension, it not
dissolution, of society. Confounding the principle of mo¬
ral and of legal obligation, Chief-Justice Hobart, fiom the
bench, and Blackstone, calmly writing in his closet tor
the instruction of the eighteenth century, concur in stat¬
ing that the supreme power of every state is necessarily
subject to one condition. By this condition, all legislative
commands against natural justice must be void in them¬
selves, that is, void in law. WTith much less latitude than
has often been given to the law of nature and to the rights
of man, this exception might be made to cover extensive
and dangerous ground. Lord Coke, for example, has said,
that a statute against Magna Charta, or one to prevent the
Irish from coming into England, would be void. In tins
manner the Stuarts were taught by servile judges to be¬
lieve that most of the prerogatives anciently affixed to
the crown were irrevocable even by act of parliament. A
similar opinion, grounded on the doctrine of the three
estates of the realm, was formerly propagated concerning
the episcopal right of sharing in the legislature. At the
Reformation, Bishop Gardiner conceived, that m conse-
auence of the forced absence of himself and his brethren,
i.  u TLp pvnmnle
in points where it is called supreme, is of course a con¬
tradiction. Thus in an absolute government society must
be remitted to its first principles before the right of popu¬
lar interposition can be recognised by it. An ordinance
of Louis XIV. declared that the extinction of the family
of Bourbon would raise a case of this kind, and that on
the occurrence of such event the right of electing to the
crown of France would revert to the French people. But
limited governments stand in an entirely different posi¬
tion. Minor contingencies, far short of the transgressions
which justify an appeal to arms, or of the accident which
summons a nation to the Champ du Mars to agree upon
a successor to a vacant throne, are part of their necessi¬
ties The entire legislature may be only supreme sub
modo For under the doctrine both of fundamental laws
and constitutional charters, every variety of restriction
maybe imposed upon the legislature. I he prudence of
these restrictions is more than problematical. But wher¬
ever a government consists of several parts possessing co¬
ordinate authority, the demand for some external control
necessarily arises ; since encroachments of one part on the
other must be expected ; and means ought to be arranged
beforehand for bringing them back peaceably within their
^ In this manner, wherever the doctrine of fundamental
laws is admitted, a sufficient authority, as, for instance, a
hio-h court of justice, should be created for the purpose ot
inquiring into and correcting any violation of them with
which the ordinary legislature may happen to be charged.
It will be necessary, besides, to chalk out, as in pri¬
mary assemblies or otherwise, the extraordinary course
bv which the policy of the fundamental laws themselves
rrr^eedingVwouM be of none effect 'ffe^xampie ^£l«td aTSirffctrilyTpt
was followed, but equally mvam, ^“yfredhimrelf plied by the founders of the United States. But they are
which the bishops were excluded, although some ot them
attended and voted against it, to be ipso facto null. I he
more intelligent a nation really becomes, the less likely is
it thus to presume in favour of the political optimism of its
at  r j . , c j
lish constitution is not established on any strictly tunua-
mental laws, and still less are any specific questions re¬
served by it for the direct intervention of the people. But
there are analogous dilemmas which may arise under it as
- orop former times No ; limited and a mixed monarchy. Many, indeed most, of
own or of foimer times. Jo net o ^ J tbese dilemmas appear to be left open to the chances ot
thb/i^thVforce of invading arms in 1066, or in the au- unnecessary aggravation, by the want of some similar ar-
thing in t fe inuc nr ;n anv length of raneement. A government, composed of several members
thonty o. „ee;Vp o-pnprf tions with distinct powers, can only exist as such on the suppo-
prescription whatsoever, to disable successive generations
from exercising their own discretion respecting the pro¬
priety of their existing institutions.
Another plan is to set apart, in a written charter or de¬
claration, certain excepted cases. The high matters which
are the chosen objects of this deliberate sanction, are con¬
ceived to acquire thereby the privilege of being placed
beyond the control of the ordinary legislature, and of being
reserved for the direct volition of the body of the people.
Locke, in treating of the right of popular resistance, seems
with distinct powers, can only exist as such on the suppo¬
sition that they each remain content with their own share,
or that, in case one should trespass on the other, the irre¬
gularity can be set right by recurring to expedients legal¬
ly providing for the emergency. Every one ot the triple
divisions of the English legislature has in its turn made
experimental encroachments, against which there exist
but imperfect and often very circuitous guards in the con¬
stitution. By the law of constructive contempts, once so
flagrantly abused, either house of parliament is armed
3
ENGLAND.
Govern- with a despotic weapon. This weapon is beginning to
ment and gather a prudential rust in the sheath at present; but the
Want or the jealousy of a superior court is a poor excuse
for a]i0wing it to continue there at all. The mysticism
belonging to the maxim that the king can do no wrong,
coupled with the recognised absence of any remedy against
the crown for any possible amount of misgovernment, prov¬
ed the ruin of the Stuarts. It encouraged them in the opi¬
nion that the supreme power was lodged, not merely in
part, but wholly, in the sovereign, and that it might be
abused with legal impunity. The 16th Charles II., as re¬
newed by 6 William and Mary, declares that a new par¬
liament shall be called within three years of the determi¬
nation of the former ; but no measures are taken by either
statute for the assembling of a parliament in case the king
should not choose to call one. The security is left to the
old indirect check, the stoppage of the supplies, and to the
new one, which, by means of the annual mutiny act, has
been derived from a source where an aid to freedom could
hardly have been expected, namely, the innovation of a
standing army. There is at present abundance of rectify¬
ing principle and of auxiliary appliances in the sounder
portions of the English constitution, which will prop up the
rest, and hold the feebler part to its work. Otherwise
the history of the Habeas Corpus act is a striking proof
of the inadequacy of all general declarations. In doubt¬
ful times these are merely waste paper, unless accompa¬
nied by positive arrangements for carrying them into exe¬
cution, and subjected to proportionate penalties on their
infringement and neglect. The act of IB Charles I. had
provided, that if the king neglected to call a parliament
for three years, the peers might assemble and issue writs
for choosing one ; and, in case of neglect by the peers, the
constituents might meet and elect one themselves. This
act was repealed with great ignominy at the Restoration.
But it seems to have left the crown its due precedence,
and to have provided, with as little impatience as pos¬
sible, for the securing an object which all parties are agreed
it is absolutely necessary some way or other to secure.
The debates upon the command of the militia previously
to the breaking out of the civil war, are a memorable in¬
stance of the folly of leaving great constitutional rights
in obscurity up to the fatal hour when they can no longer
be settled calmly and on reasonable terms. If it be impor¬
tant to define rights in times of tranquillity, it is no less
so to provide the particular forms by which, in case of
violation, the remedy may be applied. It is true that
these collisions approach to the character of revolutions.
When a king has so far separated himself from his parlia¬
ment, there is little chance of their returning to that har¬
mony by which alone a constitutional monarchy subsists.
No previous arrangements can completely meet the crisis
after it has occurred; but they may mitigate its severity,
and, by the mere fact of their known existence, may do
the still more acceptable service of preventing its occur¬
rence.
According to the third and remaining plan, the consti¬
tution recognises the existing legislature as supreme for
all purposes whatsoever. To this plan the English nation
has always stedfastly adhered. From the time when the
commons of England were adopted into the legislature
(49 Hen. III.), or shortly afterwards, the legislature has,
without any deviation worth mentioning, been the parlia¬
ment ; that is, the king, lords, and commons, in parliament
assembled. The popularity of parliaments has been so pa¬
ramount throughout, that the public have never until re¬
cent times been tempted to look elsewhere for rules, incli¬
nations, or opinions. The supremacy of parliament kept
its hold, like an anchor which nothing could shake, in the
most stormy seasons, and under every variety of circum¬
stance. The impossibility of complying with the custo- Govern-
mary forms was satisfied as often as it occurred, by the ment and
nearest approximation which could be obtained. This Laws,
was no less remarkable in the course taken as far back
as the supposed resignations of Edward II. and Richard
II., than on the later occasions of the imperfect convention
parliaments. Nobody suggested the propriety of calling
together the people to restore Charles II., or to instal
William III. into the vacant throne. Mr Hallam ob¬
serves, that in the combination of gift, descent, and popu¬
lar election, which took place on the accession of Henry
IV. in the year 1399, there was as great formality as in
1688, making due allowance for times and men. The sem¬
blance of election remained with the members of the guasi-
parliament. They had been summoned by the king’s writ,
but, from not having his commission, they did not take
that solemn name, and only called themselves the estates
of the realm. Wherever it was possible to preserve by
fictions the appearance of a regular parliament, fictions
were called in. Thus, during the infancy of Henry VI.
the shadow of the royal infant, then only nine months
old, opened his first parliament, and made appointments
during pleasure. On the derangement of George III.
the regency was appointed under the great seal. To keep
up the entireness of the body politic of the state, the co¬
operation and personal will of the king were necessarily
assumed in the very act which was to supply his personal
incapacity. It was from the court of parliament that
Richard III. obtained a confirmation of his alleged title.
He rested upon it as “ the known quieter of men’s minds
and the Earl of Surrey appealed to it as the one conclusive
authority, when taunted afterwards by the successful com¬
petitor for the crown upon Bosworth Field. Though Wol-
sey, “ hating parliaments,” which therefore hated him,
“ had been the means that none was holden in the realm
but one for the space of fourteen years yet Henry VIII.
told them that he was informed by his judges that he was
never so great as when sitting there in his estate royal.
The great test of the omnipotence of parliament was its
power of altering the succession. This, which was the
established doctrine of the prior period, it was by a sta¬
tute of Elizabeth made treason to deny. At the begin¬
ning of the civil wars, Charles I. called the peers together
at York ; and the cavalier members seceded from the
House of Commons. Under these circumstances a me¬
taphysical question might easily have been raised, as to
which was the real parliament. But the locality of West¬
minster was like keeping the field of battle. It decided
the direction of that wonderful and superstitious homage,
which made Clarendon complain that “ an implicit reve¬
rence for the name of parliament was the fatal disease of
the whole kingdom.” The substance and vitality, how¬
ever, of the institutions to which the entire authority of
national legislation is transferred, are still more important
than the name. For this purpose their independence as
intelligent deliberative assemblies must be secured. No
question can be made concerning open violence. Any
attempt by intimidation to force the repeal of a law or a
change of measures, or to overawe either house, is trea¬
son. But, further than this, no minority or fraction of
the people must be allowed to exercise over the legisla¬
ture an influence of opinion, which the constitution does
not attribute to the people at large, or at least does not
provide them with the means of exercising. This is a
subject of great delicacy; but still there must be some
limits. Accordingly, both in law and practice, limits
more or less elastic have been put on the nature and de¬
gree even of the moral pressure which may be urged on
parliament from without.
Tumultuous petitions having been carried to a great
ENGLAND.
Govern- excess during the long parliament, the statute 13 Charles
ment and JJ. in consequence, imposed several restrictions upon pe-
Laws- titions for any alteration in church or state. But notwith-
standing the opinion of Mr Dunning, and the present prac¬
tice, these restraints have been judicially determined not
to be affected by the bill of rights. Mr Hallam says
that he has traced public meetings for the debate of poli¬
tical questions no higher than the year 1769, and, sub-
iect to very few exceptions, petitions simply political not
** •. I • _ I. miQrfmtPPrl to tllP body
litated the ruin of the states-general of France. A few Gove™
votes beyond what a question would have obtained upon mutant
its general merits may thus be stolen, and a few indivi- ,/
duals may thus push themselves forward into temporary
notice. But public opinion can never be truly ascertain¬
ed, any more than the public interest comprehensively
promoted, by desultory and individual pledges. For this
purpose the public must act in concert. W ith this view,
kings of England have sought to satisfy themselves and
iect to very few exceptions, petitions simpiy poiiucdi uut u & T . it] regard to the reality of the
bi,rr
mental to a representation which stops short of annual par- points. Un the occasion or 11 «
i r •  i   mivavr ovo tlio rlramnera- memb
liaments and universal suffrage. They are the democra-
tical counterpart to addresses of loyalty to the throne, and
of confidence in the government, which are said by Evelyn
to have come in even in the time of Cromwell. Ihe rig t
will probably not be used, certainly not used frequently,
till a want of sympathy between the representative body
and the people,or particular classes, begins to be suspected.
The sense of the public, so taken, may often be found to
clash with the sense of particular constituencies. In this
case, two questions necessarily arise for a member’s con¬
sideration : first, what weight either one or the other
ought to have as mere authority in overruling his own opi¬
nion ; and, next, which of them, in the event of competi¬
tion, is entitled to a preference. The same constitutional
answer will apply to both difficulties. The inclination on
the part of the English constitution appears to have settled
down, after some previous oscillation, to one consistent
course, as soon as the commons began to feel and act up
to their real dignity and strength. A member must ne¬
cessarily be returned for a particular place. The ques¬
tion is, Are his duties therefore local ? The terms of
the writ of summons had all along plainly signified that,
although chosen by a single district, he was chosen for
the wants and service of the realm. Nevertheless many
instances formerly occurred of the commons begging for
time to consult with their constituents. It may natural¬
ly be presumed that this was nothing more than a timid
way of evading unreasonable requests. Because their
ancestors, afraid of Edward III.’s designs upon their
subsidies and fifteenths, had declined to be made con¬
sulting parties to his wars, it was absurd in James I. to
imagine that he could altogether call away from politics
the English gentry of his day. Yet at so late a period
members were expected to bring to the House of Commons
an answer concerning the royal choice of particular men
as ministers ; and on the occasion of the Reform Bill, con¬
cerning the policy of a particular measure. This is the ut¬
most advance which the English constitution has made to¬
wards admitting the doctrine of the will of the people or the
instructions of constituents. So narrowed, it is a proper,
and at times an indispensable part of every rational sys¬
tem of representation. It is practically quite consistent
with the general rule that the select body of electors are
trustees for the entire community; and that their repre¬
sentatives are the only organ by which the public will is
on all subjects ultimately and conclusively expressed.
This then is the English system. It seems to be an
extreme and fanciful subtilty to doubt whether the title
and character of a constitution can properly belong to it.
It is something in its favour that it can appeal to expe-^
rience as practically embodied in a government, now of
ancient standing, at once the most progressive and the
most permanent which the world has ever yet seen. W hy
is it less a constitution because it gives to its ordinary con¬
temporary legislature the most plenary attributes of su¬
preme political power, and because it disclaims the sup¬
position that its early constitutional legislation had or
could have the sanction of any higher authority ? The
assent of any one generation can be of neither greater nor
less value than that of another. It is not wonderful that
a society, setting up for itself for the first time, or obliged
by circumstances to begin anew in an enlightened age,
should try to build upon the basis of fundamental laws.
But it is fortunate for a constitution, of which the first
stone was laid in haste and ignorance, and in the dark, and
which nevertheless always kept so far in advance of its
^les^rfon ian Bnr^y ^delcenled foTrgue conten.poraries. aa to serve other nations for the model
against the propriety of the interference of the House of been ^d by winch
c*^w.i***-» w  £ j ill
Commons in matters of war and peace; and to take the
distinct ground that its members by its institution had
minds only of a compass each for the place which he served.
But parliament had already heard the contrary within its
walls. The movement of society which had made it im¬
possible to execute the statute requiring the member of a
district to be an inhabitant, had brought out, in the reign
of Elizabeth, the first parliamentary declaration in behalf
of the complete legislative authority of members of the
House of Commons, in full accordance with the letter and
conditions of the ancient writ. In the declaration that
members were to act not only for their constituents, but
for the whole kingdom, it was evident that a great prin¬
ciple was proclaimed. If sycophants then contested it,
Mr Hallam, speaking of modern days, says very truly,
that it is one which at present “ none but the servile wor¬
shippers of the populace are ever found to gainsay.” The
weightiest arguments in Burke’s letter to the sheriff of
Bristol, against particular instructions, are little more than
the applicatioh and extension of this principle. The ne¬
cessity of going back to their constituents for a specific
assent, was one of the main grounds of that incompeten¬
cy to the duties of a representative assembly which faci-
regularities were afterwards to be condemned, that it start¬
ed with no similar pretensions. If it were to suit the ages
through which it was to endure, it could only do so by
a plastic mode of conformation. In this manner its people
were educated along with it and up to it, the two acting
and re-acting upon each other. Hence an instinctive in¬
telligence and conformity, otherwise almost unattainable,
appear to have been secured, which political changes have
hitherto slightly disturbed. Some bad logic, and a few in¬
cidental anomalies, are a small price to pay for conciliat¬
ing opinions and smoothing over the transitions through
which, in the course of centuries, an improving nation has
to pass. But the mode in which these alterations have
been made is objected to. The body of the people, it is
said, ought to have legislated upon them in their own
persons. It is surely a sufficient answer that it would be
difficult to name a year, when in point of fact more would
not have been lost than gained by tying up the hands of
parliament, and putting its legislature to the circuity of an
appeal to the freeholders of the county courts. The na¬
ture of things does not admit of there being any greater
security for good government than can be given by a le¬
gislature of which a popular representative assembly, pro-
ENGLAND.
Govern- perly chosen and seasonably renewed, is a member. To
nent and caii Jn the people to council, is to abandon to that extent,
Laws. uncier circumstances too of great probable excitement, the
advantages of representation ; and for no countervailing
benefit, unless on the singular supposition that a people
incapable of choosing able and honest representatives, will
be found capable of being able and honest legislators them¬
selves. The device is much more likely practically to
delay improvement than to check encroachments; since,
for the latter purpose, the restraints it imposes are either
unnecessary or insufficient. There can be no substitute
for the spirit of a people. With that spirit, these precau¬
tions are not wanted; without it they are vain. The two
cases which look most suspicious in English history (one
in substance, the other in form) are the proclamation-sta¬
tute of Henry VIII. and the septennial bill. The parlia¬
ment of Henry VIII. gave royal proclamations in certain
cases the force of law. The extent of the innovation has
often been exaggerated. But, with regard to the present
question, there can be no doubt, that a generation which
by royal order changed its religion four times in twelve
years, would, on the subject of royal proclamations, have
as readily acceded to his majesty’s desires. A few cor¬
porations petitioned against the septennial bill. But an
observer of the prior, contemporary, and subsequent con¬
duct of the body of the people on this point, and a reader
of Burke’s speech against triennial parliaments, will per¬
haps see little reason to believe or to wish that the people,
if calmly consulted, would have come to a different con¬
clusion. It should be recollected, that the question is
one of pure argument only, and not of history. By the
common law a parliament, unless dissolved, lasted for the
king’s life. In 1694 this duration was first shortened to
three years; but in 1717 these three years were lengthened
to seven. Thus, the law of triennial parliaments, spoken
of by some as an almost vital part of the English consti¬
tution, was never known in England but for neither more
nor less than the space of twenty and three years.
Every government is characterized by the ends which
it proposes as its primary objects, and by the means which
it applies for the attainment of its ends. These objects
represent what is vaguely called its spirit. The only means
properly at its command refer to the making, interpreting,
and executing laws. It follows that the most important
distinctions in this respect between one government and
another, must be found in the specific provisions which de¬
termine the formation and distribution of the legislative,
judicial, and administrative power. The English constitu¬
tion is a limited or mixed monarchy; limited, by the maxim
that the king has no rights but those which are prescribed
and ascertained by law ; mixed, by the fact that the parlia¬
ment, in which the sole legislative authority resides, con¬
sists of the king and the three estates, the nobility, clergy,
and commonalty of the realm, as comprised in the two
houses of Lords and Commons. The suppression of par¬
tial interests is sought to be attained, and the practical
recognition of the great end of government, namely, the
happiness of the whole body of the people, has been prin¬
cipally developed and enforced by the share which the
people exercise more or less in the government. This takes
place in the legislative department, by means of their re¬
presentatives; in the judicial, by the agency of the jury ;
in the administrative, by the doctrine of official responsi¬
bility, and from the example and control of a great diver¬
sity of popular local municipal institutions.
A more considerate legislation is promoted by a se¬
cond legislative assembly. A great addition is also made
to the political stability of a limited monarchy, by form- Govern¬
ing the members of this second assembly into an here- ment and
ditary nobility. A mixed government has, however, a still Laws,
greater advantage. It naturally leads to and facilitates a
division of powers, which is the most important of all the
checks that mere arrangement can produce. According
to this division, the authority of parliament is strictly con¬
fined to the original enactment of the laws. The duty
of the judges is as strictly judicial. They have no more
to do with the politic administering of the law than with
the making of it. The law being thus made, and thus
interpreted, the entire charge of carrying it into effect is
vested immediately or mediately in the crown. Whilst
the several parties who make, interpret, and execute the
laws, are kept, in this manner, perfectly distinct, it becomes
exceedingly improbable that any confusion, either uninten¬
tional or wilful, should arise between the principles pro¬
perly belonging to their several operations. This is a cau¬
tion which the cause of public liberty, as well as that of
civil justice, alike imperatively require. Blackstone1 has
expressed a strong opinion as to the propriety of the ex¬
ecutive being only a branch, and not the whole, of the
legislative ; also2 that the judicial authority should in some
degree be separated from both. This was one of the points
on the paramount importance of which Jefferson and
Adams were agreed when they came to apply the experi¬
ence of the English constitution to the construction of
their own.
Eastern nations, notwithstanding their supposed imme¬
morial civilization, appear never to have got much nearer
than the inhabitants of the South Sea Islands to a con¬
ception of the just foundation on which alone the rights
and duties of sovereignty rest. On the other hand, the
citizens of Greece and Rome were fully aware that politi¬
cal society was grounded on the advantage of its members.
Their patriotism was not more exalted by the pride of
national independence than by the consciousness of being
responsible only to the law. Nevertheless, the real con¬
dition of these great commonwealths was for the most
part in lamentable contradiction to the individual ability
and virtue by which their history has been made famous
throughout all ages. The glory of free and classical an¬
tiquity was frequently clouded, and was brought at last
to an abrupt and final termination. This is apparently to
be attributed to the defective mechanism of their institu¬
tions, more than to any other cause. Their construc¬
tion and division of the legislative, judicial, and executive
authority were all along so imperfect, that their negli¬
gence of the means of a better political arrangement can
only be accounted for by their ignorance of its necessity.
There is nothing to this effect, even in their theoretical
works upon government, when carefully examined. Poly¬
bius, it is true, gives the preference to a combination of
monarchy, aristocracy, and democracy, as being in a de¬
gree more stable than the simple forms. Cicero also agrees
with him in saying, that this was the true Roman consti¬
tution ; but he most unwisely adds, in compliance with
the Roman jealousy of kings, that wherever the execu¬
tive is placed in a single hand, the government is mixed
only, not tempered, and must be ruined by the vices of
the individual. Different writers appear to have meant
different things by the same word. Aristides denomi¬
nated the government a mixed one as late as the time of
Marcus Aurelius. Tacitus saw through the fictions, and
thought that the word implied more, otherwise he would
scarcely have said that such a combination may be more
easily praised than effected, and that were it effected it
1 Commentaries, vol. i. p. 146 and 154.
2 Ibid. p. 269.
6
ENGLAND.
Govern- could never be lasting. In case, however, the constitution
inent and ]iacj nothing further than realize the above combina-
Laws. tjon jn t|ie generai sense which alone these philosophical
statesmen were contemplating, it would have stopped in¬
finitely short of the principal benefits which it has con¬
ferred. The separation of the three great branches ot
political authority into distinct departments, as it is one
of the most probable consequences of a mixed monarchy,
so is it beyond all comparison the most valuable. Unfor¬
tunately it had not taken place under the imperfect spe¬
cimens of mixed government with which they were ac¬
quainted. It is not surprising, therefore, that in theory
the philosophical truth of such a corollary should never
have occurred to them. If that consequence had been
duly presented to his mind, Tacitus must surely have seen
reason to question the cycle of Polybius, and to feel gi eat¬
er confidence in the political contrivance by which the ef¬
ficiency and the durability of states have both been found
in practice to gather equal strength. No political pheno¬
menon can he more interesting than the circumstances
and the method by which a government has thus arrived
at the high distinction of first uniting improvement and
Stability, liberty and order, and has been enabled to com¬
bine the greatest of all ends with what, from the failure
of the most celebrated experiments, it may be well sup¬
posed were means very difficult both to discover and to
apply. Sanguine spirits often appear to imagine that as
apod a constitution as can be devised may be struck out
and fitted upon at a moment’s notice. The history of the
English constitution may teach them greater caution. A
distinct examination of its respective parts will show, not
only how slowly they have been formed, but to what ex¬
treme risks at different periods the existence and the
principle of each have been, and perhaps must^^v^;
1 ^The^English constitution is more historical than philo¬
sophical. It has been the gradual development of na¬
tional good sense, shown in a spirited and prudent improve¬
ment of tendencies and events, without any of the ambi¬
tion of a regular, preconcerted system. Its object was
never stated in a declaration of the abstract rights of man,
nor its organization derived from a metaphysical analysis
of the elements of human nature. He must have been
indeed a prophet, who, at the time of the Norman conquest,
could have foreseen the course by which it would outstrip
the feudal monarchies which resembled and surrounded
it. The difference lay in this : For successive centuries,
circumstances played favourably for a people who had the
merit or the good fortune to profit by them as they occur¬
red. M. Key is so far right. England has experienced
the truth of Aristotle’s observation with regard to Crete.
An insular position has great advantages for political ex¬
periments. Assistance has also frequently come in from
the most unlikely quarters, and the scale has more than
once been turned by causes to which, as far as we can ob¬
serve, no nobler name than that of accident is to be as¬
signed. At one time the very strength and concentration
of the monarchy of England, as compared with the weak¬
ness of the monarchy of France, brought the barons, the
people, and even the church, into a closer union for their
defence. At a later period the impoverishment ot the
crown by foreign wars, and the alienation of the crown
lands, brought it into dependence upon, what was most
fortunately, one national parliament instead of several dis¬
tinct provincial assemblies. The separation of the great¬
er from the lesser barons, the assembling of the commons
and the lords in different chambers, the transit through
which the exemptions claimed by the clergy became dis¬
qualifications, the conversion of the jury from their origi¬
nal character (whatevdf that may hhve becn) into a popu¬
lar tribunal, have turned out to be the hinS in_ ment and
English freedom has ultimately turned. They are in Lawg
stances of incidents, in themselves at first comparatively
trifling, diverted by circumstances into a deeper channe ,
or transmuted by a noble alchemy into a much higher
purpose than what was their original purview and intent.
Although the English government was from the first a
limited monarchy, it was not for nothing that monks and
lawyers lent a hand in the pious frauds of forging tales
about Alfred, Kentish privileges, and imaginary Saxon
laws, or in encouraging the more recent fiction ot the
notorious anti-tallage statute. . The stoutest antiquarian
who ever argued that the title of William the Conqueror
represented merely the feudal conquisitio, and not the
conquest of the nation, nevertheless must admit from time
to time great historical distinctions. The nature and de¬
cree of the limitations practically needed and applied to
the powers and mechanism of the several component parts
of the government varied exceedingly at different periods.
The importance even of the grand division between the
legislative, judicial, and executive authorities, was far from
being at once recognised and observed. > ^
A constitution upon paper and in practice are such very
different things, that we must look into the history ^
well as the laws of a country, in order to know at anynion>
given time what was the real contemporary character ot
its o-overnment. English antiquarians have been more or
less&successful in tracing back the dates of their most po¬
pular institutions. But the sense in which the same in¬
stitutions were in point of fact understood and adminis¬
tered at different periods, and the security which they
were capable of affording, are distinct and much more in¬
teresting questions. A people and their government, it is
true, are always cause and effect to each other; and none
more so than those of England. In the present instance,
however, there can be no doubt but that the nairative o
English parliaments and of English juries establishes their
existence, as a matter of pedigree, long before there was
spread throughout the community either the spirit, the
knowledge, or the means to turn them to their legitimate ac¬
count. The systematic regularity of modern governments
was unknown even to the ancient republics. No wonder,
therefore, that it was wholly unthought of either by the
feudal chieftains themselves, or by the rude vassals who
attended to do suit and service at their courts. Our an¬
cestors were satisfied, we are told, with the rough stand¬
ard of measurement taken from parts of the human body,
though differing in different men, till Henry I. ordered
the ulna or ell, which answers to our modern yard, to be
made the precise length of his own arm. To lay down
any thing like a precise standard for civil obedience, was
left for later times, and for arms still stronger than those
of any king. Even long after the golden rules and mete¬
wand of the law were recognised at W estminster, acts of
violence were frequent over the kingdom, with more or
less remonstrance; so that judicandum est legibus non
exemplis is a maxim which the constitutional inquirer is
obliged to keep constantly before him. .
The history of England opens with a society divided
into castes. The distinctions taken by the law were one¬
rous and severe. There is a great difference between
Glanville and Beaumanoir. Nevertheless, the blot upon
Ma^na Charta itself, in the limitation (liber homo) cannot
be explained away. The later threat of Richard II. after
thb^ unsuccessful insurrection to which the peasantry had
been driven by oppression, is equally intelligible. The if
condition, he told them, should be made yet more miser¬
able. Thb statute of labourers, which was passed in the
reigfi of Edward HI., was in the same spirit. It continu¬
ed td bdn rtO loss absurd than wicked favourite with after-
ENGLAND.
Govern- times. It is impossible to look over the whole interme-
ment and diate legislation concerning the lower orders down to the
Laws. reign 0f Elizabeth, without perceiving that most of its pro-
visions are as much statutes of police as of trade. They
have the air of being expressly directed to the object of
preventing the consolidation of the different degrees of
society into one people. When we compare the laws of
England in this respect with those of the continent, we
cannot estimate too highly the comparative equality of
ranks, and the absence of exclusive privileges. Neverthe¬
less the laws were bad, and public opinion worse. The
dialogue on the Exchequer, written towards the close of
the reign of Henry II., observes, that in all cases of secret
slaying, whether of English or Norman, the penalty should
be levied on the hundred, “ unless there are plain indicia
of the servile condition of the deceased.” The petition
of the commons to Richard II. that villeins might not be
put to school and so get on in the church, “ for the honour
of all freemen,” was re-echoed two hundred years later,
in the cry against the Lord Cromwell, on account of his
“ villein blood.” The class was then about to disappear.
It is evident that it was only by its extinction that preju¬
dices incompatible with real equality under a free consti¬
tution could be removed. The gradual elevation of the
entire population into the condition of freemen, put all
ultimately in possession of rights which had been wrested
from the crown by feudal leaders and independent yeo¬
men with a much more partial object. It took ages to
compass this emancipation, and to reverse the proportional
shares of the national wealth, as held by the king, the
church, the nobility, and the commons. If all the land
of the kingdom had continued to be the portion of the
church, the king, and the immediate tenants of the crown,
who, according to the list in Domesday-book and Brady,
did not exceed seven hundred in number, this consum¬
mation would never have been accomplished. Civil wars
and commerce, by scattering properties and displacing
chivalry, broke up the feudal system much more effectu¬
ally than any positive enactment. The possession of pro¬
perty gave leisure; leisure, especially when the reforma¬
tion and the press stirred up the human mind with new
and more liberal excitements, gave knowledge. Even
without the strength of numbers, the combined influence
of property and knowledge must give power. Until the
body of a people has obtained the intelligence necessary
to understand something of their own interests, and the
power of making an attention to their interest and feelings
a matter of prudence on the part of the higher classes, it
is in vain to expect that just principles of government will
be steadily acknowledged, much less that they will be stea¬
dily put in practice.
The king appears in the law-books as the source of al¬
most every institution and every right. There is no other
independent political existence save his baronial court.
Nevertheless, as far at least as concerned the people,
the king was originally still more powerful in fact than
even in law. There was always a legal control upon him.
But it was lodged at the beginning in an assembly where
as yet the people bore no part. Bracton, who wrote under
Henry III., probably not long before Leicester’s writs to
knights, citizens, and burgesses, appears to have as little
anticipated them as he could have anticipated their effect.
In his perversion of the imperial law to the purposes of a
limited monarchy, he declares that the. will of the prince
must be according to his counsellors; that is, of “ his
court of earls and barons.” He terms them his “ as¬
sociates,” and makes them his superiors; for he adds,
“ were the king without a bridle from the law, they ought
to put one on him.” The court of peers, or royal council
of hranee, by the non-attendance of the tenants in chief,
7
sunk into the great judicial tribunal of the country, and Govern-
became known by the name of parliament, after the time nient and
of St Louis. The peers of England were not so confident Laws-
of their feudal exemption from supreme legislative con-
trol; consequently, when, about the same time, or a little
earlier, the aula regis or great council of England assum¬
ed a new form, it separated into two compartments; one
judicial, or the supreme courts of justice; the other legis¬
lative. The last consisted originally of the earls and ba¬
rons only. By the time that the incipient House of Com¬
mons became its colleague, the name of parliament was
appropriated, and, from its omnipotence over the feelings
of the English nation, has become almost consecrated in
their behalf. It was long before the parliament felt its
strength, or knew how to use it. In the mean while the
constitution, directly or indirectly, within doors and with¬
out, kept making head. During the struggles which the
crown, reign after reign, was maintaining, sometimes with
different members of the royal family, at others with the
aristocracy, and at others against the church and papal
usurpations, the people became important as allies. The
people appear on the whole to have judiciously sided,
where, according as the temporary pressure was felt to
bear, it was for the interest of the public that they should
side. It is difficult, owing partly to the uniformity which
prevails at present, to comprehend the sudden turns which
this instinctive policy might call upon them to make.
A sagacious and honest yeoman may have been with
King John to-day, and with his barons to-morrow. To
look merely at property: the Conqueror retained in his own
hands fourteen hundred manors, the reserved rents on which
Burke, in his Abridgment of English History, reduces to
LAO,000 of the money of that period. The resumption of
the grants of Henry VI. was prefaced by a public declara¬
tion that his ordinary income did not amount to more than
L.5000. In the next reign we find Edward IV., inde¬
pendently of parliamentary supplies, the owner of above a
fifth of the lay property of the kingdom. Within half a
century the scale had again changed its balance. Whole¬
sale confiscations, succeeded by the minuter and more po¬
litic arts of Henry VII. humbled the pride and broke the
combinations of the nobility. Although the nominal ren¬
tal of the royal demesnes was reduced to L.32,000 at the
accession of James L, yet the idea of any danger to the mo¬
narchy from aristocratical competition was almost a faint
tradition at the time of Lord Russell’s trial. He justly
exclaimed, in allusion to the apprehension, “ We have no
great men now.” Previously to this revolution in society,
it depended for the most part on the personal capacity
and character of the sovereign, whether the contingen¬
cies to which a wise constitutional jealousy ought to have
been most alive, would come from the turbulent intrigues
of the aristocracy, or from monarchical ambition. The
royal prerogative attracts the first and the liveliest atten¬
tion, as its power is always present and most promptly felt.
Besides, it was absolute in language, prominent in form,
and often irritating in the subject and occasion of its exer¬
cise. But all the great points whence a cloud might have
arisen over the freedom of the, nation had been soon fore¬
closed, and, in spite of occasional, indeed numerous vio¬
lations, were closely watched. . There is no denying that
many remaining prerogatives were absurd and even odious.
Still the nature and the danger of the grievances to which
the people were legally and practically exposed from
them are usually overrated. The Stuarts let no preroga¬
tive drop willingly ; and it is well known that they labour¬
ed hard to revive some that were obsolete. Yet Lord
Bacon declared, on presenting an address to King James,
that there was no grievance in the kingdom “ so general,
so continual, so sensible, and so bitter, as the preroga-
II
ENGLAND.
Govern- five of purveyance.” Nevertheless, what did it amount
ment and to when represented in money? From one cause or ^n-
Laws other, the commons receded from their negotiation, rather
than buy off this their master grievance, and that ot mili¬
tary tenures into the bargain, at the cost of an annuity o
L 200 000. In the interval which elapsed between the
depression of the nobles and the rise of the commons, the
monarch had the stage comparatively to himself. The
crown also at that critical moment passed into a line ot
able and haughty princes. Mr Hallam observes, that
constitutional freedom was consequently retrograde from
Henry VI. to VIII.; yet it is evident, from what passed
during that period, that the hardy plant was not only
alive,gbut safe. Bills in the form of acts, instead of peti¬
tions, which by adding to or diminishing from what the
commons had petitioned for, had been for ages scandalou -
ly abused, begin with the reign of Henry VI. ^ he first
writ of habeas corpus, apparently so simple a result
Magna Charta, was obtained against Henry VII., the wil e
of the Tudors. Elizabeth had her father s spirit, and can
scarcely be suspected of relaxing a hold which she coil
have decently retained. Yet in 1586 the House of Com¬
mons first succeeded in bringing the inquiry into election
returns from out of chancery before themselves By un-
fairlv selecting the arbitrary passages from the leign o
Elizabeth, and misrepresenting them as the ordinary
course of her government, Hume gave both colour and cur¬
rency to sophisms, which betrayed a muchgreater passion
for ingenious paradox than for historical ti ut . S
lish people are wrong, it seems, in charging the Stuarts
personally with the misgovernmeht which provoked the
great rebellion. That misgovernment is represented to be
nothing more than a continuance of the ancient Ensl s
constitution, such alone as their ancestors had known d
According to this statement, the fault of the fetuai ts would
have consisted in carrying down the prior constitutiona
misrule into times which would no longer bear it. It such
had been the fact, it is a fact which those times must
certainly have known. But the understanding of contem¬
porary parties was plainly all the other way. History has
reserved the positive admission of Charles I. to the con-
Cvy, in a reference too remarkable not to prove that he
was himself conscious of, and was aware also that his sub¬
jects knew, the whole extent as well as spirit of Lis inn
vations. What a satire on his own and on his father s go¬
vernment, that he should, in 1640,' hold it out to his pa -
liament as a boon, that he would return to the Precedents
of a sovereign whom they had already endeaied to the
people as “ Good Queen Besswhose reign, however, we
know, notwithstanding, to have abounded with tyrannical
executions, gross and frequent enough, it might have bee
thought, to have satisfied any of her successors. It is not
the less true, that the time had come when the authority
as well as the ceremonies of the court must undergo mu¬
tations, at which minds, with much larger views of go¬
vernment than that of Clarendon, would be startled, and
perhaps annoyed. The state of society required popular
changes to be admitted, for which no precise precedent
could be found. Under these circumstances, men Iwe
Selden, for instance, a little too apt not to look for liberty
beyond their law-booH must often have felt erjbarraeeed Govern
hbw to act. The Stuarts, however, did as much as could ^
well be done towards relieving their subjects from diffic
116 Uniucklly6 fhr ^the Stuarts, none of the innovations
wlTh they attempted, nay not even the consistent system
to which it had been their object to bring the practice of
their government, were so new and so outrageous as t
principles on which they professed to reign. No coun¬
ty set a higher value than England, whether it was
pleaded on behalf of the prerogative royal, or in the much
more reasonable case of civil possessions, on the some¬
what too stationary title of prescription. The coronation
oath on the one hand, and the oath of allegiance on the
other, the theory of the feudal system, and many passages
in their annals, had accustomed them to look to a roug
notion of contract as the criterion of submission. The
divinity studies of the early lawyers, and the usages of
the puritans, tended to influence the thought and language
of modern times by the course of authorities in the Old
Testament. But these views were common property. All
went there for what they wanted, and all found it. 1 he
partizans of despotism and freedom, Hobbes and Locke,
Bossuet and Algernon Sidney, discovered, the two first in
Chronicles, the two last in Deuteronomy, arguments for
their opposite systems. It was far otherwise with the nove -
ty which the Stuarts took up, and made the creed of their
supporters. The new creed was precise and positive,
and the whole spirit of English history was in contradic¬
tion to it. No later than the 13th Elizabeth, a statute had
been passed, declaring it treason to maintain in any wise
that the king and parliament had not the power to him
the succession. It was natural to lament that the feel¬
ing of feudal attachment was decayed. But the doctrine
of a divine hereditary patriarchal right was a strange in¬
vention to replace it withal. The cavalier loyalty of Or¬
mond belonged to former days, and had nothing in com¬
mon with the superstition of Mainwaring and Sancroft.
Principles utterly inconsistent with all that had been ever
written on the subject, almost with all which had been evei
done, became the favourite and insulting theme of speeches,
proclamations, sermons. Thence the dread of the convo¬
cation sitting after the dissolution of parliament, thence
the unanimous resolution that their new canons would
not bind even the clergy; thence the protests against
the new pulpit law, to make the king more absolute
than his predecessors. Roman Catholic ecclesiastics had
put theirP hands to Magna Charta. The Oxford decree
was the boast of the Church of England. The latter
books of Hooker, on account of their heretical latitude,
were to be made out to be fabrications; whilst Jeremy
Tavlor, the grea'. ornament of his profession, pronounces
that there are few cases of conscience in which a man may
hope for half as much conviction as on passive obedience
and non-resistance. Non-resistance was soon improved
into absolute compliance. It became, in other words, the
indefeasible legitimacy of modern days. Ihese proi i-
gies of doctrine defeated themselves. They misled the
governors and provoked the governed, and, in James t ic
Second’s expostulation with the seven bishops, returned
their advice in repairing the grievances at wl?lcV1 b ved and desired that all things might be reduced to the good order
those, whether in church or state, he was willing shoul '^re sure looked upon with the greatest reverence. (1. Clarendon,
and practice of Queen Elizabeth ; which tothep ‘>1 > the last edition. It is one of the worst omissions in the former garble
519.) This important passage is printed ^r t^ *t 1 with a ratlier later date. It is in itself a complete answer to the
text. The speech is imperfectly given in the parhamenta y , English history, for its testimony against them,
comparison laboured by Hume The truth is that^he Stuattsh^^ ^ ^ ^ part of the Glossary 0f even the orthodox
Bishop Nicholson observes, in his L had (!alLd IVlJgna Charta, Libertatnm Ang&carum diploma et sacra anchora; and
S'-t oft^lou,v manifested ty dames I.
Govern¬
ment and
Laws.
' Y^''
ENGLAND. 9
them their poisoned chalice to their own lips. A limited ladder had been so completely destroyed, that, in the Govern-
monarchy and unconditional allegiance are a contradiction words of the age of Selden, an English tenant would be ment and
in terms. The only consequence of allowing to a brave the first person to lay his landlord by the heels. The
and thinking people rights and privileges in the statute- landlords and the sovereign have been both amply indem-
book, and yet closing up every practicable channel through nified in increased security, for whatever either may have
which, if they are violated, a legal remedy can be ob- lost. At the same time the constitution and the country
tained, is the generating a spirit which sooner or later have been infinite gainers by the general adoption of a
must force itself a way by some great convulsion. Another more rational patriotism. The civil exemptions which the
revolution, and the example of a new dynasty, were made peers possessed in their individual character were all along
necessary ’to establish the truth of the opinion which insignificant. The judicial authority vested in their ter-
Gourville expressed in vain to Charles II.: “ A king of ritorial jurisdictions was superseded by circuit judges,
England who will be the man of his people, is the greatest and by justices of the peace in every county. That which
king in the world ; but if he would be any thing more, he had been reserved to them collectively was of a kind more
is nothing at all.”’ So evident, indeed, has it ever been honorary than formidable, and one which there was little
since the5Revolution, that no king can long carry on the temptation to abuse. The small value which they attach-
government upon any other terms than by becoming the ed to their power as a civil tribunal is proved by the in-
man of his people, as represented in parliament, that the termission which took place of all writs of error to the
royal legislative negative has fallen into abeyance for a lords from the time of Henry IV. till the accession of James
centuryand a half.& Elizabeth, at the close of one ses- I. Their criminal jurisdiction, except in the case of im-
sion, rejected forty-eight bills which had passed both peachment, was confined to the members of their own
houses. The last exercise of this prerogative was in 1692, order. From the time that the commons were united
when William III. refused his assent to the bill for trien- with the lords, and their joint assent became equally in-
nial parliaments. With the modifications, and under the dispensable to all legislative measures, the sole undivided
circumstances in which alone the negative of the president glory of Bracton’s baronial court was at an end. A sta-
of the United States can be interposed, it is easy to see tute of Edward II. declares that every legislative mea-
how the head of that republic may prudently venture on sure not sanctioned by the consent of king, lords, and
the exercise of a pov/er to which it would be the height of commons, shall be void. It states also that this is ac-
imprudence in a king of England so far to put himself in cording to custom. Nevertheless it was long before the
opposition to both houses as to revert. It cannot be said commons had the courage to act upon this supposed equa-
that the change is in the mode of operation only, and lity. Sometimes they stultified themselves by way of po-
that the king does now by influence what he used to do licy, to avoid any possible responsibility. On ordinary oc-
by prerogative. It is notorious that, on several occasions casions they felt themselves overshadowed by the neigh-
since 1692, influence has failed in doing that which the bouring greatness of the lords. Thus they applied to
acknowledged prerogative would have done by its single them on great emergencies, begging that they would send
word. The result is, that the king, who for many centu- some of their members to instruct them in their duty
ries was more powerful in fact than in law, is more power- (as in 1st Richard II.), “ on account of the arduousness
ful in law than in fact at the present time. of their charge, and the feebleness of their own power
If under the same forms the rise of the commons has and understanding.” In the same manner, on the insani-
changed imperceptibly, but entirely, their relative posi- ty of Henry VI. they left the establishment of the regen-
tion with regard to the crown, this has happened to a cy with the peerage. “ You, the peerage, in whom, by
still greater extent between them and the barons. The occasion of the infirmity, resteth the exercise of his au-
power of the nobility consisted in their immense posses- thority.” In the reign of Charles I. the commons are
sions, in the clan-devotion of their dependents, in their seen for the first time taking the lead, and carrying the
territorial jurisdictions, and in the original superintending lords along with them. Several of the lords in that cri-
authority of the supreme feudal court. The blow struck sis gave in their adhesiqn, and co-operated with the com¬
at their properties, both by force and artifice, speedily mons. Before this, the spectacle of their concurrence had
took effect. The shake once given was so certain of always been, the commons walking in the train of the
spreading further, that the formation of new aristocratical lords. New principles must accompany such a change,
fortunes out of the monastic confiscations has never been The House of Peers could no longer claim the privilege
made an imputation on the policy of Henry VIII. It was of legislating exclusively for the benefit of their order,
as the favourite of Elizabeth more than as the lord of nor proceed on the distinction that they sit in their own
Kenilworth, that Leicester succeeded in making the gen- right, answerable only to themselves ; whereas the House
try of Warwickshire wear his livery. The original rela- of Commons, as a representative body, is answerable to
tion between lord and tenant implied protection on the one the people. The sophistical distinction can hardly serve
hand, and obedience on the other. If the tenant could at present to prop up the privilege of their proxy ; a pre-
not alien without the lord’s license,, the lord could not tension not less incompatible than popular instructions
transfer the tenant’s seignorial dependence without the with the first duty of a deliberative assembly. Fifty years
consent of the tenant. The social movement, common- ago, when Paley first published his Moral Philosophy, the
cingat the top, naturally occasioned a relaxation in these peers had so far fallen into the back ground, and political
duties and sympathies on the part of the lord in the first reasoners had so far learned to look to reason only, that
instance. This broke the charm. It soon became evi- Paley defends the institution of a House of Lords as a part
dent that king-maker could be the title of no future War- of the British constitution, on grounds which would have
wick. There had been a series of concentric circles, amazed Simon de Montfort, and perhaps somewhat scan-
through which the feudal feeling rose from the vassal of dalized John earl of Somers. His main argument is found-
the mesne lord up even to the throne. But all gave way ed on the use of a second and totally distinct legislative
at once. It was clear that the mischievous distinction be- assembly, in order to protect the state against popular
tween a king de facto and a king dejure could not be re- caprice and fury. Ever since the Revolution, the mo-
called, nor the allegiance of the subject transferred from mentum in English legislation has lain necessarily in the
the regal office of the sovereign to his natural person and commons. The king and the lords have both sought to
blood royal, when once the feudal feeling lower down the keep there a hold, by way of influence, so as to fight their
VOL. IX. B
10
ENGLAND.
Govern- battle in that field always in the first instance, and thus
ment and procure an additional guard against the chances of more
Laws, direct collision. The reform bill has to a certain de-
gree stopped up the communications by which this ar¬
rangement had been in substance effected ever since, and,
in fact, long previously to, the Revolution. Mr Hume re¬
marks, on the existence of two legislative assemblies, se¬
parate from each other, yet each of them supreme, as one
of the great anomalies of the Roman institutions. The
characteristic danger of such a state of things exists also
wherever the consent of two or more men is required in
carrying on public business. The only difference is, that
the danger in the latter case is often counterbalanced by
greater advantages ; and that the mischief will probably
be less violent from their opposition in the passive shape
of refusing to legislate in the same direction, than in the
more active shape which their opposition might have as¬
sumed in Rome, that of positively legislating, one against
another. It is evident, however, that a society, the ele¬
ments of which, by the supposition, are not paralysed and
torpicj, must soon find out the means of evading the evils
of a political stale-mate. The necessary unanimity.can be
only obtained by reciprocal compromises and forbearance.
If we will have the benefits peculiar to such institutions,
we must be content to pay the price. In the administra¬
tion of justice, the limits which separate pertinacity and
weakness is one of the difficult discretionary questions
which judges and jurors have to settle with their respec¬
tive colleagues. If every member of a jury or a senate
were to be as impracticable as Cato is described to have
been, institutions of this nature could in no country be
allowed to last a week. gjaomdoe
Mr Hume and Mr Bentham appear to agree in think¬
ing, that in the case of numerous assemblies called upon
to determine the much more extensive and variable ques¬
tions which arise in the general conduct of political af¬
fairs, it would be unwise to rely upon the exercise of a
similar discretion, as sufficient security for the analogous
compromises which are nevertheless indispensable condi¬
tions to an efficient co-operation. For this purpose they
both acknowledge the propriety of some species of influ¬
ence, which shall make the one to a certain degree de¬
pendent upon the other. In such a case the only question
which remains practically to be argued will be its nature
and the mode and degree of its exercise. If Dr Paley
gives too much countenance to influences approaching to
a sordid bias, Mr Hallam, it may be feared, is somewhat
too confident in the assurance that moral influences will
of themselves always secure a just, or at least an ade¬
quate, concurrence.
Polybius has showp that the simple forms of govern¬
ment, however suited originally to this or that stage of
society, necessarily become in time unsuitable. What he
describes as the specific germ of decay, “ congenite in each
form,” would be more properly described as an alteration
in society itself. This alteration drags the government
after it into the requisite modifications of its form. It is
one of the great merits of a mixed government, that, with¬
out the violence of a revolution, it can accommodate it¬
self to these changes in a community, and pass the initia¬
tive with comparative facility from one class to another,
just as the leading shoot in society may happen to be mak¬
ing head. Under a nominal invariableness in the balance,
some variance in the weights must always be going on.
The crown was not easily content to resign the ascenden¬
cy it once enjoyed. When the higher classes had to out¬
ward appearance ceded the political powers they had for¬
merly possessed, they were enabled afterwards by circum¬
stances to continue in the covert enjoymentof it, to a much
greater extent and a much longer period than any one
could beforehand have presumed. James I. probably was Govern-
not aware of the tendency of the proclamation by which, ment and
on calling his first parliament, he directed the sheriffs to
address the writs upon a principle substantially the same
as the late reform bill. There can be no greater proof, on
one hand, of the respect of the people of England for an¬
cient forms, and, on the other, of the moderation by which
the higher conciliated the jealousy of the middle classes,
than the fact that the adoption of this principle was postpon¬
ed during the next two hundred years. In those classes,
including the gentry and independent commonalty of the
realm, in whom for some time past the heart s blood of
the country has mainly been formed, the reform bill has at
last placed the command of the House of Commons. The
power which this portion of the community before exer¬
cised indirectly over the whole parliament, and especially
over that house, it now exercises directly. The conse¬
quence is, that there is a much greater security than be¬
fore, that no measure detrimental to their interests, and
in opposition to their feelings, will be agreed to by a
House of Commons of which they are themselves now
made the constituents. There need be no fear for the
duration of moral frame-works like that of government,
on the ground of their supposed analogy to the growth and
decay of material forms. There seems also no better foun¬
dation for the inference drawn by Polybius, in his compa¬
rison between the governments of Carthage and of Rome
as they existed at the time of the campaigns of Hannibal,
where he says that a mixed government, in which the pre¬
ponderance has passed from the monarchical and aristo-
cratical to its popular members, has run its course, and is
so much nearer to its termination. Difficulties enough
remain inherent in the nature of all government, which
no possible adjustment of the machinery can reach. But
a mixed, though incomparably safer than a simple, go¬
vernment, has some difficulties peculiarly its own. It de¬
pends on a nicer balance of proportions, and it calls for a
greater degree of temper, patience, and mutual conces¬
sion from its members. A rational and public-spirited
House of Commons must be in constant danger of offend¬
ing one or other of the extreme parties in the state.
Whilst its honest concurrence with the other branches of
parliament must frequently incur the displeasure of the
demagogue and his mob, the sovereign or the peerage,
one or both, are often not unlikely to regard its general or
particular opinions with equal jealousy. A constitution
thus settled is only safe as long as the more intelligent
part of society can take advantage of its intermediate po¬
sition, and arbitrate between the extremes. A House of
Commons, identified with the great arteries of the nation,
contains within itself no inherent security for good govern¬
ment, beyond the power of stopping bad measures, and of
sending good ones up for their acceptance to the other
partners in the firm. If they accept, well; if they reject,
a class of cases arises, on which all the good sense and
good humour of a country may be wanted, in order to
guide a people to discriminate aright on the course which it
becomes them to pursue. Unless a power of rejection, ac¬
cording to a liberal construction of independent judgment,
be conceded, the whole benefit of a second assembly will be
altogether lost. The power of rejection may, however, be
so exercised by a headstrong monarch or by a small he¬
reditary body, especially when, in the case of the latter
body, the greater part of the legislature have been recent¬
ly raised to the peerage from the ranks of one political
party only, as to amount to a declaration that they are
looking only to themselves, their own interests and pas¬
sions. A civil disseverance from the sympathies of the na¬
tion, like that of the Roman Catholic clergy, justifies the
extreme remedy of removing the obstacle by whatever
ENGLAND
II
Govern- means. The occurrence of such fatal obstinacy in the
ment and person of the sovereign, would be an exception to every
Laws, presumption upon which hereditary monarchy is eegraft-
ed on a mixed government. The Contingency of so re¬
mote and so insane a possibility could only be formally
counteracted by some such expedient as is adopted with
respect to the veto of the president of the United States.
In the instance of a refractory House of Peers, the con¬
stitution has given the king the means of applying this re¬
medy by a creation of additional peers. 1 his course was
taken by Queen Anne on a much more questionable occa¬
sion, namely, for the sake of a mere ministerial majority.
It is not the less clear that a justifiable occasion might oc¬
cur. If the king took courage to apply the constitutional
remedy, all would proceed as usual. If he shrunk from
it, the public would be remitted to those ultimate consi¬
derations of civil prudence which are always in reserve.
They are the very same considerations which justify the
sacrifices of natural liberty which men must make upon
entering into a commonwealth. They may equally justify
the sacrifice of social order which man is called upon to
make whenever a commonwealth is overturned. It is to
higher authorities than the precedents which are to be
found in Rushworth, that freemen have recourse when
they are compelled to seek new modes of legislation by
forms which announce that the constitution has been de¬
stroyed.
The spirit and effect of institutions and of measures de¬
pend, as has been shown, in a great degree upon circum¬
stances beyond themselves. The same institution at dif¬
ferent periods produces very different results, whilst the
collateral and unforeseen consequences of a measure are
frequently much more considerable than the objects which
its framers had in view. All that is most important in the
present forms of the English constitution, is of a certainty
to be traced, however obscurely and imperfectly, from a
very early date. At the same time, it has become wEat
it is, only by making the most of a series of fortunate con¬
tingencies. The English government may be advanta¬
geously compared with the Roman in its best characteris¬
tic, the tendency to progressive self-improvement. In the
nature of the improvements there can be no comparison.
According to the process pursued, the substance has
been in a course of much more extensive alteration than
the forms. With regard to the latter, the change has
chiefly consisted in removing partial impediments out of
the way of certain movements, in strengthening particular
springs to meet particular pressures, and in separating the
several parts of the mechanism by more positive divisions,
lest they should clash one with another. The manner
in which the English clergy overreached themselves, by
standing on their claim to exemption from temporal juris¬
diction, and on their right to be taxed for temporal pur¬
poses, if at all, by themselves only, and in an assembly of
their own, is very instructive and curious. They chose to
remain apart, a separate estate; and resisted the attempt
of Edward I. to incorporate the inferior clergy in the
House of Commons, when that house as yet existed
mainly for taxation. They procured their convocation
about the same time instead of it. Afterwards, in its
palmy state of general legislation, they discovered, when
it was too late, that their exemption was turned into an
exclusion. In 1663 the supreme head of the church of
England found it no longer necessary to keep up appear¬
ances with a body already but a shadow. Without a law,
a struggle, or even a word, convocations have died away.
The clergy, on submitting to taxation by a temporal as¬
sembly, have acquired in return the humble privilege of
voting for the members of a house in which they cannot
•sit. A few bishops in the upper house are all that re¬
mains in the English institutions, of that third estate Govern-
which was so necessary a part of the diets and states- ment and
general of the continent, and which made so great a <LJlaws‘
figure in our own original cdnstitution. The suspension
of the royal negative, and of ecclesiastical convocations,
has, almost unobserved, become part of the modern Eng¬
lish system. Yet the change which has been thus ope¬
rated is far more important, though it is short of what it
is sometimes represented, than many which have been
the subject of fierce contentions, and introduced by the
most deliberate enactments.
The transitions which we have hitherto been consider¬
ing, are independent of and paramount to legislation.
They follow slowly but necessarily the variations in the
condition of society and in public opinion, which must de¬
cide nifte tenths of the materials and spirit of every go¬
vernment. We proceed, therefore, to consider the prin¬
cipal alterations which positive legislation has successive¬
ly effected in the three great divisions of political power.
The main objects of a government have been mention¬
ed as being the making, interpr'eting, ahd executing the
law ; the first being the office of the legislature, the se¬
cond that of the courts of justice, the third that of the Ex¬
ecutive administration. It will be proper to examine each
shortly in detail, both as to its duties ahd its form. The
English legislature, acting together as king, lords, and
commons, is vastly too cumbersome to take upon itself
the detail of the executive. This union, therefore, has
never been thought of. Its incompetency either as a whole
or in its parts to discharge judicial duties is not so sOOn
perceived ; consequently bills of attainder, of pains and
penalties, and impeachments, are part of the legal history
of the most recent times. In the infancy of courts of jus¬
tice, and when the traditional supremacy of the aula regis,
out of which both they and the legislature had emanated,
was yet an active historical recollection, parliament in all
extraordinary cases continued to claim an original judicial
authority. But this pretension gradually dropped, and the
appellate jurisdiction is now evidently near its close. Re¬
garding the legislature in its legislative capacity only, it
will be seen that its form has remained the same as a
whole since the first admission of representatives from the
commons. The changes which have taken place have
been confined to the construction of its constituent parts,
and to the view taken of the characteristic rights pecu¬
liar to each.
In considering the several members of the legislature,
the king takes constitutionally the precedence. Nothing can
be more superficial and incorrect than the view presented
by Blackstone of early English history upon this part of
the subject. It was not until the accession of Edward 1.
that the several titles of election, descent, and testament,
on which the claims to the crown were before rested, as
best served the occasion, became consolidated in that of
hereditary descent. This appears to have taken place in
analogy to the descent of land. The rival pretensions of
the houses of York and Lancaster tended to throw the
law once more into confusion. Being principally tried
and determined upon the field of battle, the law had too
much the appearance of giving way to force, or to its
hollow consequence, a mere ostensible election. Yet,
even in those times, there was no notion that the crown
was left at the personal disposal of the monarch. Wil¬
liam the Conqueror, it is true, had set up a donation from
Edward the Confessor. But Richard II. on giving his
signet to the Duke of Lancaster, as testifying his wish that
the latter might succeed him, added, “ but that did not
depend upon his pleasure.” The lords, in a remarkable
lecture to the protector, the Duke of Gloucester, whose
powers under the will of Henry V. had been limited by
12
ENGLAND.
Govern- the parliament (for lords and commons are mentioned in
ment and act), say his desire was grounded neither in precedent
_ Laws. nor jaw. « tije which the king that dead is, in his life,
nor might by his last will, nor otherwise, alter without
assent of the three estates, nor commit or grant to any
person government or rule of this land longer than his
life.” The extraordinary provision of 28 Henry VIII. c.
7, is the first and only instance of putting the crown into
settlement, with a remainder “ to such persons as the king
by letters patent, or last will and testament, should limit
and appoint-” It is plain that the testamentary power so
granted to her father had puzzled men's minds in the
time of Elizabeth: and that temporary authority to be¬
queath the crown has to answer for the strange and almost
oriental scene by which the death-bed ot that princess
was disturbed. Since the Revolution, however, the par-
liamentarv title is the one established in fact. Since the
reign of Elizabeth it bad been the only one recognised in
law. The king never had a legislative initiative, but only
a simple concurrence. The change of the form from pe¬
titions to bills, took away no right, but only an abusive
advantage. The real legislative authority of the crown
still continues in point of law the same that it has ever
been. It was at no time more than at present, at no time
less. The right to make law by proclamations, and the
right to unmake it, whether by the repealing di&simulu-
vimus of Edward III., or by a dispensing and suspending
power, were always arbitrary7 usurpations. For these are
utterly inconsistent with the principle, and almost with the
letter, of the statute of Edward IL, which had declared
the assent of the lords and commons to be as necessary as
that of the king; since the maxim that the same solem¬
nity which bound is required also to unbind, is a rule of
English law. The disuse of the royal negative since the
reign of William IIL.is purely matter of discretion ; how¬
ever paramount the political necessity by which that dis¬
cretion is determined.
The peerage was formed, under the feudal system, up¬
on the principle of tenure, that is, of land held directly of
the king; the mitigated sense in which the soil ot the
western world was understood to belong to the sovereign
having been always very ditterent trom the absolute owner¬
ship of the sovereigns of the East. At the first, all ten¬
ants in chief had a right of summons to parliament, not
yet known, however, by that name. During the period
which elapsed between the demise of John, the last year
of whose reign is remarkable tor the division of the greater
and lesser barons, and the middle of the reign ot Rich¬
ard II., when peers were first created by letters patent,
tenure becan to be disregarded. The political principle
had so tar got the better of the feudal, that in the 49th
Edward HL the ancient writ of summons was changed
from homage to ligeance. The turtber ditierence in the
form of this appointment, as whether it was to be made
by writ or patent, was of little consequence. But the
dispensation from the necessity ot holding land in chief
was an important innovation. On the one hand, mere ter¬
ritorial possessions, distinct from descent, ceased to confer
a title to a writ of summons ; on die other, the w rit in its
general form might easily in time, by multiplying cases
of dependent poverty, have turned this august assembly
into the lacquevs of a court. It was w ell that a sense of
dignity took die other course; though disfranchisements
on account of poverty, as the act degrading die Duke of
Bedford in the reign ot Edward D and the xesolution
against Lord Ogle in the reign of Edward \ L, wTere pre¬
cedents liable to be abused- Hie questions, where the
power of creating peers should be lodged, and the terms
on which it should be exercised, were likely in early times
to be determined by other circumstances than reason.
The mode finally adopted, by which the power is intrusted Govern-
to the sole discretion of the crown, appears to be, upon
the whole, the most desirable. Yet the prerogative was so
unsettled in practice, and probably also in law, that down to
the reign of Henry VII. the assent of parliament was gene¬
rally expressed in patents of personal creation. Upon this
usage West founded his theory, in opposition to Prynne,
that such assent was a necessary condition. W hatever
may have been understood to be the lawr, the practice was
liable to all the objections so triumphantly urged against
the bill twice proposed by Lord Sunderland in the begin¬
ning of the last century, for limiting the number of the
peerage. Whilst a restraint upon the royal prerogative of
creating additional peers wrould occasion more evils than
it could cure, no similar risk accompanies the withhold¬
ing from the crown a powrer of punishing by exclusions
or of privileging by exemptions the actual members of
that body. Accordingly, Lord Coke holds that even dis¬
pensations, answering to the excuses formerly besought
by poor boroughs, granted by the king in relict of lords
petitioning to be spared the burdensome service of atten¬
dance, were contrary to law. The mode in which the pre¬
rogative of creation was exercised varied with the times,
but never seems to have been felt to be a grievance. The
jealousy of the Stuart creations before the breaking out
'of the civil wars, and the remonstrance against the Scotch
and Irish honours, was only a temporary ebullition. The
degradation which the decay of families might have
brought upon so much of the peerage as was called by a
general writ of summons, came to a certain degree with-
in the control of two principles: the one, that a patent
without wrords of inheritance is simply a dignity ior life;
and the other, that peers might be summoned only to a sin¬
gle parliament. There are instances of ninety-eight lay¬
men who were summoned only once, ot fifty others who
were summoned two, three, or four times. The present
course, however, of descendible nobility, is as old as the
reign of Elizabeth. The uniformity of our modern usage
would be corroborated, amongst other causes, by the con¬
temporary extinction of a corresponding variation which
had previously subsisted in the summons of the ecclesias¬
tical members of the House of Lords. The bishop* are
said to sit by a usage compounded of a triple title. They
are supposed to be the representatives of the church,
to have been more learned counsellors than the lay nobi¬
lity, and to be the life-proprietors of the baronies attach¬
ed to their sees. The last condition, however, is wanting
in the sees erected by Henry \ III. But parliamentary
bishops formed a small portion ot the spirituality in the
upper house. Out of one hundred and twenty-two abbots
and forty-one priors, who occasionally sat previously to the
dissolution of the monasteries, it appears that only twenty-
five abbots and two priors were constantly summoned.
There are numerous instances of the allowance of exemp¬
tions to abbots and priors after summons, by reason ot
their holding nothing of the king. This ground ot exemp¬
tion, as insisted on and admitted, shows whence the duty
was derived. It does not follow but that the grounds of
right on their part might be more extensive. It is accord¬
ing to this distinction that the writ requiring the atten¬
dance of the temporal nobility by summons, belongs to a
period and style when its duties were an obligation, and
were recognised as such ; the patent to a period when they
had become an honour. The most important parliamen¬
tary change, however, which collaterally resulted from the
dissolution of the monasteries, was the subordinate con¬
dition to which it reduced the church numerically in the
House of Lords. This alteration was likely to diminish
the general political influence of the church much more
than the subsequent cesser of the convocation in 1663.
ENGLAND.
Govern- The authority of the convocation being confined to the
ment and clergy, the public at large had little immediate interest
Laws. jn its'operations beyond the share which they might there-
''“■’'V'—' in please to assess themselves by way of ecclesiastical con¬
tribution towards the public burdens. In point of fact,
the temporalities even of the church seem to have lost no¬
thing from either cause; much less its substantial influ¬
ence. Few will think, whilst the clergy have been shut
out from the commons, and lowered down to the compli¬
ment of a single bench amongst the lords, that their friends
have not done for them behind their backs quite as much
as they could have done for themselves if present. The
influence of the church of England in its apparently al¬
most unrepresented and unprotected state, is a great proof
how little comparatively depends on the means by which
an end is to be produced, when a power, composed of a
wealth, an intelligence, and an opinion competent to pro¬
duce the end, is really in existence out of doors. Al¬
though the dignitaries of the Roman Catholic church
varied in numbers from time to time, yet they always
formed the actual majority of the House of Lords up to
the Reformation, which, nevertheless, they could not stop.
Here, again, with what prudent reserve did the Roman
Catholic clergy husband for ages the political power which
mere numbers vested in their hands; and how evident is
it that, whatever form, even of superstitious incarnation,
the dominant spirit of a government may assume, it is
only by compromises that it can subsist. The Stuarts,
the great examples of every species of political misrule,
would have been ruined by this alone; they were bent on
acting up to the very extent and margin of their powers.
Nobody reading English history previously to the Reforma¬
tion would have an idea that during all that time the tem¬
poral nobility were in a minority; that therefore their le¬
gislative importance existed only by permission ; and that
every act of the House of Lords might be said to be in
strictness the will and pleasure of the church.
The number of the lay nobility has fluctuated consider¬
ably. It had advanced from fifty-five in the reign of
Henry VIIL to one hundred and six in that of James I.
It is at present three hundred and ninety-one. The aris-
tocratical complaint made by Lord Delamere under James
II. that, ever since the time of Henry VII., a systematic
project had been pursued to humble the peerage, by
means of multiplying its numbers, and by introducing
into it persons of mean extraction, was particularly inju¬
dicious. Unless something of this kind had taken place,
the extreme disproportion between the two houses, in their
external as well as in their personal titles to consideration,
would have deprived the peerage of a great part of its pre¬
sent strength. If the order was to be more than a pa¬
geant, it became most desirable to increase its numbers to
the extent of giving them a better chance of bearing some
comparison in ability and character with the select repre¬
sentatives of the rest of the nation. It was scarcely less so
to recruit into their ranks those members of the common¬
alty who, whatever might be the obscurity of their pedi¬
gree, were most distinguished for their wealth or services.
Thus alone could the body have been protected against
the narrow sense of corporate pretension which must
otherwise have infected it. The long recollections which
feudalism has left, and the recent jealousy which has col¬
lected around corporations, notwithstanding their former
usefulness, demonstrate the depth of the national re-action,
which all invidious exclusiveness unavoidably provokes.
In fact, no amount of popular opinions has been sufficient
to save the combination of the great Whig families from a
suspicion of aristocratical tendencies of this description.
The popular criticisms on the corn-law legislation of land¬
ed proprietors are a proof of the keenness which watches
13
every supposed connection between public policy and par- Goverc-
tial interests. An evil not quite similar, but equally, in-
deed in all probability more, destructive in its consequen-
ces to the object and safety of the peerage as a branch of
the legislature, must follow, whenever its vacancies are too
long filled up from a particular party in the state. It is
self-evident that the chances of a difference of opinion
between a House of Lords partially constructed, and a
popular House of Commons, cannot be raised with impu¬
nity beyond a certain point. Under the most accurately-
balanced government, the question, whether the Lords
shall at any time interpose their legislative negative, must
of course, as in the case of the king, depend at last on
their own discretion. The difference in practice is found
in their respective positions. There can scarcely remain
a possible presumption in favour of the single opinion of
a chief hereditary magistrate, when a majority ot the na¬
tion, aware of that opinion, is found constitutionally ranged
against him. On the other hand, abuse in their original
appointments, and ignorance of the duties and necessities
of their station, must have gone to an extravagant length
indeed before a body of the nature of the House of Lords is
put in equal peril by the rejection of whatever measures
may be sent up to it by a majority of the House of Com¬
mons. Take either extreme ; a House of Lords in constant
collision with the Commons, or a House of Lords only oc¬
cupied in registering its edicts. In the former case, it
cannot exist long ; in the latter, it is already existing only
in name.
The popular part of the English constitution is lodged
in the House of Commons, which originated in the year
1295 ; and, in its present extension, consists of the repre¬
sentatives of different interests or sections of the commu¬
nity, by individuals of their choice. It is very singular
that the simple expedient of popular representation, an
indispensable condition to every form of a free govern¬
ment in a great kingdom, never occurred to the legislators
of antiquity. By this device, the experiment of a free
government is entirely changed, and becomes, under all
circumstances, infinitely more practicable, safe, and bene¬
ficial. According to the ordinary theory of the English
constitution, the House of Commons is said to represent
the whole population, as far as it is supposed to be by its
circumstances independent. Of these, the knights, or the
members returned by the freeholders of the county, are
alleged to represent the interest concerned in agriculture :
whilst the citizens and burgesses, or the members returned
by certain towns, have been described as representing
the interest concerned in trade, ihe basis of English
representation, at first very limited, and long extremely
fluctuating, was never so extensive as to answer to the
first part of this theory; and time rendered it, by the
rise of some places and the fall of others, still less so.
The reform bill has probably more nearly approximated
towards realizing the theory of a representation as uni¬
versal as the independence and intelligence of the peo¬
ple, at the present than at any former period. ihe
most that can be said of the latter proposition is, that
some such division as it assumes between real and per¬
sonal property, agriculture and trade, probably appeared
originally between the two classes of members. This was
the natural course as long as the duty of the House of
Commons was confined to taxation. The original demar¬
cation would probably continue visible as long as {parlia¬
mentary attendance was considered as a burden rather
than an honour. Historically, this and any similar distinc¬
tion gradually fell into disuse soon after the 23d Henry
VI. That statute required the knights of the shire to
be actual knights, or such notable esquires and gentle¬
men (generosi a nativitate) as had estates sufficient to be
14
Govern¬
ment and
Laws.
ENGLAND.
knights, and by no means of the degree of yeomen. We
find that a county member who had been actually elect¬
ed, was set aside because he was not of gentle birth. A
great change must be commencing before the possibility
of the want of such a precaution could be suggested ; and
still more before the precaution, when taken, should not
immediately succeed. The change may be assumed to
have begun as far back as the 19th Edward II. when there
were twenty-eight county members who appear not to
have been knights. Of course the arrangements and very
elements of society must have been still further broken
up, before a manufacturer could have a chance of a suc¬
cessful nomination with the freeholders of a county court.
It is but little that positive legislation upon these points
either accelerates or retards. It can recall nothing; and,
to be effectual, must continue to be in harmony with the
wants and character ot the times. This was abundantly
proved in the failure of the statute of Henry V. the object
of which was to compel members to be inhabitants of the
places for which they served. The attempt fixes the era
when the deviation from the old connection was attract¬
ing general attention. Its pertinacious vitality in the
statute-book is a striking instance also of the extreme
reluctance with which the English people, so far from
anticipating needless innovations, have consented to affirm
the innovations made by time itself. Prynne shows that
Cornish names were formerly returned in the elections for
Cornwall, and northern from the north. Clarendon opens
his memoirs by stating the little communication which
passed between different parts of the country, even with the
metropolis, almost to his own time, except in the circuits of
the lawyers. The names of the members for the counties
were aristocratical, those for the boroughs plebeian. A
few burgesses begin to be called esquires in the returns of
Edward IV. By this time the House of Commons was be¬
coming of sufficient importance to render parliamentary
influence with a borough an object of ambition to the no¬
bility and gentry of its neighbourhood. Ihe character of
the borough representation opened and extended itself ac¬
cordingly. It soon embraced every description of person
who had a claim to enter into public life. The lawyers,
to whom attendance was probably less personally incon¬
venient than to others, appear to have come in earlier
for more than their reasonable share. But this expansion
and adaptation beyond its original purpose could alone
have made the inequalities and anomalies of the borough
representation tolerated so long. The citizens and bur¬
gesses, though always more numerous, seem to have felt
their social inferiority, and for a long time to have con¬
tinued more humble minded than the knights. Of the
three hundred members, the average number from the 23d
Edward I. to Henry VIII., a third or more were returned
by the boroughs. During this long interval the sheriff
exercised a discretion, to the use or frequently to the
abuse of which the parliamentary existence, by prescrip¬
tion, of many unincorporated boroughs is to be ascribed.
Boroughs by charter, even from mesne lords,^ and towns,
whether the ancient or the actual demesne of the crown,
made up the list. Many boroughs were originally incon¬
siderable places; and others imperceptibly decayed. This
latter cause would take effect from the reign of Henry
VIII., the date at which the elective franchise became
constitutionally too valuable to be left, when it had been
once enjoyed, to the mercy of the sheriff, or to be al¬
lowed by its possessors to drop into disuse. The royal
prerogative of new creations which existed in the House
of Lords, existed also over the borough compartment of
the House of Commons. Elizabeth indulged herself in
the plenary exercise of it in England, as treely as her
successor did in Ireland; but, supposing that her sub*
jects had ventured to remonstrate, she was too wuse to Govern-
have ventured, in return, on his indecent answer: “ The
more the merrier, the fewer the better cheer. Ihe pre-
rogative of adding to the boroughs, however, is one which
could not last in an enlightened age. The same rea¬
soning which pleads against a parliamentary or popular
appointment of the peerage, presumes a parliamentary or
popular appointment of the commons. It is not so sur¬
prising, that after the shaking up of the political Opinions
of the nation during the civil wars, one instance only of
borough creation (that of Newark) should have occur¬
red, as that Charles II. should have made the experiment
even of one. Borough creations were the great reservoir
whence the successive accessions to the numbers of the
House of Commons had been supplied. Nevertheless,
owing to the course pursued previously to the passing of
the reform bill, the interests engaged in commerce and
manufactures appear, notwithstanding the vast contempo¬
rary augmentation of their wealth, to have had less power
in parliament, or at least less influence on legislation, than
in an earlier age. The House of Commons in the first
parliament of James I. consisted of 470 members. The
last unreformed and the present reformed representation,
reckoning the additions derived from the Scotch and Irish
unions, are not much more numerous. They both give a total
of 658. The difference between the two lies in the propor¬
tions in which these numbers are divided amongst the seve¬
ral classes of the people. It has been calculated that a
hundred and fifty-four persons returned a majority of the
former house. Counties formed the only large constitu¬
encies, whilst scarcely a single large town was represent¬
ed. At present the franchise is compounded of a ratio of
property and numbers. Mere nomination is destroyed;
and, on analysing the numbers, it will be seen that the
members for counties are 252, the members for towns
and the universities 406. This question of proportion,
though it has been assumed by critical writers, was evi¬
dently never before seriously thought of. The necessity
of entering on such comparisons had not yet arrived. The
means of securing the impartiality of the sheriff, and the
independence of the electors, was formerly a more im¬
mediate and important point. It is impossible, from the
gross partiality of the sheriffs (officers annually appointed
by the crown), to reason upon the old returns. Ihe free¬
holders of a county court were of course placed compara¬
tively beyond their reach; yet sheriffs contrived to aid in
the virtual disfranchisement even of counties. Accord¬
ing to Prynne, it appears by the indentures that, as late as
the 8th of Henry VI. the attorneys of a few great people
could dictate or manage on occasion the representation of
Yorkshire itself. In the meanwhile political information
was spreading. Reformers of all kinds sallied forth. The
decayed boroughs, and the consequent flagrant inequa¬
lity of representation, became the subject of a criticism,
founded on theories more or less correctly derived from the
practice of earlier times. The very word representation
provoked observation, and was in many instances in ridi¬
culous contradiction with the fact. It appeared impossible
that this could be what the constitution intended by the
name. Even James I. was struck by it on his accession.
The charge given by him to the sheriffs, on calling his first
parliament, not to direct a writ to any ancient town, being
so ruined that there were not such sufficient residents as
to make a proper choice, comprehended a most desirable
reform. The fault was in the mode which he proposed for
carrying it into effect. The supposed prerogative was more
than could be safely entrusted to a sheriff of James I.
The system grew more unreasonable every day, both in
reality and in appearance ; and, to complete its indefen¬
sibleness, the stain of corruption gradually crept in, and
ENGLAND.
Govern- deepened the offensive spectacle into a scandal and a nui-
jnent and Sance. The reform bill has at last brought this long out-
Laws‘ standing grievance to a satisfactory conclusion. The elec-
tive basis is so enlarged as to comprehend all the elements
of sound national self-government, and the independence
of the electors is amply secured against all danger but
from themselves. The interference of the executive in
elections may be more immediately dangerous to freedom ;
but a constitution undermined by corruption is infinitely
more disgraceful to the parties who are guilty of it, and
to their fellow-countrymen, who sit still in stupid conni¬
vance at their baseness. Lord Coke, mentioning the first
case of bribery on record (in the 13th Elizabeth), de¬
nounces it “ as poisoning the very fountain itself.” The
disease was communicated slowly. It is not yet a hundred
years since it had reached the height and notoriety of
being a public evil and a national dishonour. Clarendon,
in his disdainful notice of the first ministerial intrigue in
order to buy over a majority by bargaining and not by
reasoning, leads us back to the origin and cause of all.
He fastens on the government the first link of the chain,
the length and burden of which naturally increased at
every remove. Bolingbroke, the distinguished father of
the modern Tories, lays the principal blame of it on Clif¬
ford. Members who could make money of their own votes,
found it was worth while to pay for the votes of their con¬
stituents. Evelyn’s Memoirs contain frequent ejaculations
on the increasing expense and debauchery of elections,
before and after the Revolution. In works of the date
of Brown’s Estimate and Chesterfield’s Letters, it is no¬
ticed, for the first time, that the franchise of making law's
for the English people was disposed of by boroughmongers
under private pecuniary contract, or brought openly to
market by burgesses and freemen, for the competition of
public sale. The expense of elections, to say nothing of
bribery, had become so ruinous, even in the earlier days
of Burke, that in a speech on one of Mr Sawbridge’s mo¬
tions, he says, “ the expense of the last election has been
computed (and I am persuaded that it has not been over¬
rated) at L.1,500,000—three shillings in the pound more
than the land tax.”
The antiquarian question of the origin and progress of
the House of Commons is interesting, not merely as the
title-deeds to English freedom, but as constituting an im¬
portant chapter in the history of man and of society. It
describes the germ and development of an institution which,
in its extensive and permanent application, is an invention
of modern times, and the most likely of all, not even except¬
ing the steam-engine and the press, to influence the for¬
tunes of the human race. In this view, the great consi¬
deration is not so much the steps by which its component
parts were formed, as those by which its authority was
obtained. There can be no doubt that the early summons
to the commons was not honorary, but onerous. Long
after the general right was perceived to be a national
advantage, the particular exercise of it was felt to be an
individual hardship. The real history of almost every peo¬
ple is in its exchequer. This is emphatically the case wfith
England. Fiscal considerations lie at the bottom of its
most celebrated institutions and enactments. Every body
worth taxing was to be got at in some form or other. The
right of arbitrary tallage upon towns was limited and invi¬
dious. It was abolished in the 25th Edward I. by the time
that the new experiment was coming fairly into play. In
the facilities which representation afforded to taxation,
government soon found a compensation for the slight ad¬
ditional control and inconvenience which the co-optation
of the commons into the legislature might by degrees and
at times occasion. The yeomen owners of freehold lands
were to give an account of their pecuniary capabilities in
[15
that character. Wherever property had grown up in other Govern-
shapes, as in towms, it w as also to be made amenable. Ap- ment and
parently when this was done by way of deputies, which
was the ordinary mode in the estates and diets of the mid¬
dle ages, no particular directions issued. There is not a
word said in the writs concerning the qualifications of the
electors, or the numbers to be elected, or the forms to be
observed, either in counties or in boroughs. Two was the
number fixed upon, probably to prevent subsequent con¬
fusion, either by prevarication, mistake, or sickness^ and
usage would soon turn the practice into law. Whilst taxa¬
tion was the great object at stake, it was one in which all
might equally be trusted for labouring to reduce the sub¬
sidy to the lowest point. The franchise in boroughs would
easily devolve from the towns’ people at large to a select
council, when all that the voter got by insisting on the pri¬
vilege, was a liability to pay his share towards the parlia¬
mentary wages of the member. The election struggles of
a later age, indeed ever since the committee of wdiich Ser¬
jeant Glanville was the chairman, have been vain efforts to
undo the effect of these irregularities and encroachments.
But the great objects of a national legislation and the spirit
of freedom were of older date. Long before the actual
existence of the commons as a third estate in parliament,
the barons had extorted from their monarch, and had
transcribed into the rude articles of Magna Charta, a prin¬
ciple and a feeling, before which the traditional longings
after the laws of Edward the Confessor speedily expired.
There was little left for the patriots of after times to add,
but the necessary machinery of more adequate forms and
institutions. Magna Charta seems to have been looked
upon almost as a personal contract, which it was necessary
to renew at the commencement of every reign, in order
to make it binding upon successive sovereigns. The terms
of its successive confirmations (Lord Coke reckons no less
than thirty-two) fixed in the minds of men an inseparable
connection between the grant of supplies and the redress
of grievances. The House of Commons put forth at dif¬
ferent periods the claim to its peculiar privileges and its
general powers. As early as the reigns of Richard II. and
Henry YL, we find it refusing to proceed in the public
business without a sufficient answer. For a time the two
houses voted separate and unequal aids. The first notice
of the maxim that parliamentary aids must be granted by
the commons and agreed to by the lords, appears in the
9th Henry IV. As the report expresses it, when both are of
accord, the grant is to be signified to the king by the mouth
of the speaker of the House of Commons. This is said to
be “ in manner and form accustomed, to the end that the
lords and commons may have what they desire of the
king.” The strictness of this privilege can never have
stood on any sufficient reason. It was unimportant whilst
the two houses voted their subsidies singly, and bound
each other to different amounts, which continued to be
the course with the clergy in convocation to the last. It
was still more indifferent which of the two began from the
time that supplies were voted by them in concurrence,
since either house, by the use of its negative, could protect
itself. Restraints on the initiative are not worth contend¬
ing for. The exclusive right of determining all questions
connected with the elective franchise would have been a
more equitable distinction. Upwards of a quarter of a
century before the third estate was called to parliament,
the barons had paid the subsidy demanded of them into
the hands of four of their own order, with directions to
expend it at their discretion for the benefit of the king
and kingdom. It was not until after the Restoration that
the House of Commons was provoked, by the scandals of
the court of Charles II. to adopt the much more respect¬
ful form in use at present, for the control and appropria-
16
E N G L A N D.
Govern- tion of the national expenditure, although Clarendon de¬
ment and claims against it as an unheard of innovation. Oi a.; their
civil rights, immunity from taxation, except through par¬
liament, has been that of which the Eng.>."i people were
most tender, and which they first succeeded in thorough¬
ly and irrevocably establishing. After the reign or Ed-
ward III. a few" attempts, ill concealed under the soft
words of loans and benevolences, are slight exceptions to
the universal current of precedents. On this, admitted
by Clarendon to be the clearest of all points, the Muarts
dragged the judges with them into the abrss. The pa¬
tience and perseverance of the English people are equally
signalized in the steady parliamentary resistance by which
the account of ages was closed with the act of the loth
Charles I. c. 8, against the imposition of tonnage and
poundage, without consent ot parliament. It is the last
act in the statute-book against arbitrary exactiuns ot re¬
venue. The right to participate equally in general legis¬
lation was obtained early, but slowly enforced. The loth
Edward II. had recognised the necessity of the concur-
rence of the commons to all measures whatever m the
most positive terms. It is probable, however, that for some
time afterwards, its assent tor ail purposes except taxation
was little more than constructive. The commons, it is
true, after the next reign, figure, by name at least, aimost
always in the enacting clauses; the laws being generally
said to be made by the king, with the assent ot the .ords,
at their request. At this period, however, the king, by
diminutions and additions to a petition, often so complete¬
ly changed its nature, as to become himsell the real legis¬
lator on its contents- They consequently insisted, in the
2d Henry V. “ considering they had ever been as well as-
senters as petitioners," that without their assent it should
be no statute. The abuse was only put an end to in the
reirni of Henry VI- by the slight variation of drawing up
the'bills in their present form. There '.s only one instance
mentioned during the tyrannv ot Henry ^ HI. of the re¬
jection of a bill supported by the crown. the commons
found courage on several occasions to resist the rne^smes
of his children. The year 9 Henry IV. above referred to,
is also remarkable for the first assert;?!; in bebaii tree-
dora of speech in parliament, by cec^iricg t^.e king
is to take no notice of what passes there. ThU impunity is
confined, however, to the locality of the speech so spoken.
\ publication of it bv the press or otherwise is responsible
to the ordinary law' The earliest defir.Ton of privilege
on arrest is in Larke’s case, in S Henry * L The case of
Storie in the kth Edward YL is the first commitment which
has been recorded of one ot their own body for contempt.
In proportion as the House of Commons became gradual¬
ly more and more mixed up with the genera, anairs opiate,
the possession of these powers and privileges rose in im¬
portance, as being essential to its independence. Mere as¬
surances of this or that immunity are of no avail, unless
the means of realizing them also exist- The necessity to
which Sir Thomas More was obliged to yield, of retiring
into private life, in order to escape the displeasure of
Henrv YtL, on account of a speech in the House of Com¬
mons,' shows that the season for a valid parliamentary oppo¬
sition had not yet arrived. In the attack upon the five mem¬
bers in the house itself, Charles L outheroded himself.
On other occasions, he had lain in wait for the dissolution
of parliament, which was his usua. ^.gaal for resuming
more open hostilities against the liberties of his people.
As soon as the speaker's mace had been msec chanted ot
its protecting power, the royal warrant was wont to go
forth against the most popular ot the rate members by
whom his illegal designs had been principally thwarted.
The law and the fact, however, improved togetner. Both
houses have long been in possession of whatever powers
can be necessary for the performance of their public du¬
ties. Popular members are as safe after as during sessions.
Nobody dreams of intimidation. Parliamentary corruption
has not merely declined ; it has almost disappeared. If a
comparison between the pensioners and placemen of an¬
cient parliaments, with the modest list of officers of the
crown sitting there at present, be satisfactory, what ought
to be felt at the contrast between the unblushing bribery ot
Walpole's administration and the purity of modern govern¬
ments? The compulsory economy introduced into the
treasury has co-operated, with other causes, of which the
chief is public opinion raised under the sanction of the
middle classes, to elevate the standard of public morals
amongst public men. The boundary which separates legi¬
timate and undue influence, is that at which practical po¬
liticians no less than theoretical reasoners have arrived at
last. As corruption began at the top, it has first ceased
there.* Whatever remained to be done in improving the
public spirit of the elected, as well as of the electors, it is
the direct tendency of the reform bill to accomplish. The
elective franchise is now thoroughly identified with the
nation, and is made, in the eyes both of those who choose
and those who are chosen, more visibly and entirely a
public trust. The destruction of the nomination boroughs
leaves no pretence for the open constituencies which per¬
severe in converting the trust into a sordid personal advan¬
tage. The parts which unfortunately appear to continue
tamted are as yet inconsiderable. Unless they yield to
the alteratives by which the whole body politic has been
renewed and strengthened, they must be cut out. His¬
tory holds out no hope that the inconsistency of incorrupt
representatives and of corrupt electors can continue long.
The supposition of a legislature consisting of three co¬
ordinate authorities, does not imply a defined line or lo¬
gical division to which they must each conform, and which
every body can distinguish ; on one side of which, the con¬
currence of the several parts must degenerate into mere de¬
pendence ; whilst, on the other, their separation must form
into impracticable opposition. The experience, however,
of all mixed governments, more especially a comparison
of the case of England with that of countries subject to
the simple forms, establishes the fact that it is not a
mere fiction, concealing under nominal distinctions the
real servility of the inferior in their subjection to the supe¬
rior members of the supposed partnership. It is evident
that a sort of adjustment does practically take place, suffi¬
cient to produce a palpable effect. The nature and tem¬
per of a particular society may easily make such a consti¬
tution impracticable. But, under fortunate circumstances,
it in a great measure accomplishes the ends which it is its
professed object to perform. The problem assumes the
natural inclination of its respective parts to press unduly
on each other. In tracing a constitution which has been
formed by time, and has endured through ages, the tendency
of the several biases must be expected to be more appa¬
rent, now one way, now another, than in a government ot
entirely new construction. Encroachments at different pe¬
riods are more likely to take place, from a recurrence to
former usages on one side, or from a spirit of re-action to
them on the other, in constitutions which have grown up,
like those of England and ancient Rome, by the amend¬
ments of centuries, than in mechanical contrivances, like the
government of Lycurgus and that of America, modelled
from the beginning and at once, on an express design. Ac¬
cordingly, English history presents examples of each branch
of the legislature in its turn assuming a legislative power.
The king has issued his proclamations to create, not to
promulgate law, under the pretence of state expediency.
An irregular exercise of the equivalent power of suspend¬
ing or dispensing with the law, in other words, a claim to
Govern
ment ant
Laws.
ENGLAND.
Govern- untie by himself the knot which the entire legislature had
cent and tjed5 }ia(j prevailed so long, that even at the Revolution
Laws' it was only partially denounced. Ordinances authorized
bv both houses, whether for the militia or otherwise, are
equally indefensible. The same is the case a fortiori with
resolutions by either house singly against putting in exe¬
cution such laws as happen to be unacceptable to it, but
which the other branches of the legislature are not will¬
ing to repeal. Notwithstanding a most unguarded admis¬
sion by Mr Justice Gould to the contrary, in the conflict¬
ing decisions which arose out of Wilkes’s case, there can
be no doubt but that the doctrine of Lord Mansfield is
correct. Speaking of declarations of law made by either
house of parliament, he observed, -that he never thought
himself bound in his judicial capacity to honour them
with the least regard. The vote of the commons in 1648,
that their single enactment was law, called forth on the
Restoration the statute of 13 Charles II. It subjects to
the penalties of prcemunire, the advised affirmation that
both or either of the houses of parliament have any le¬
gislative authority without the king. The unconstitutional
attempts of both houses, especially of the lords, to extend
their jurisdiction as courts of justice, brings us properly
to the next consideration.
Judicial The necessity of separating the judicial from both
power. legislative and the executive power, and of vesting
it in independent tribunals, is now universally admit¬
ted. But it is a necessity which antiquity never perceiv¬
ed ; and it was in direct opposition to the letter and the
spirit of the feudal system. Therefore the successive
generations which moulded the English constitution into
shape, may be excused for having learned it but slowly and
by experience. English history providentially is stained
with fewer judicial iniquities, which are the greatest of all
crimes, than that of almost any other country. But a fail¬
ure of justice is the worst feature of the long period com¬
prehended in the lines of Plantagenet and Tudor. Per¬
haps the greater part of the deficiency is to be attributed
. to the imperfect division of these powers, especially of the
executive and judicial. Lord Clarendon has left a pic¬
ture, sketched as late as the middle of the reign of Charles
L, of what may be expected from a legislature, a court of
justice, and a board of administration, all in one. Officers
of the crown became “ a court of law to determine civil
right, and a court of revenue to enrich the treasury^; the
council table by proclamations enjoining to the people
that which was not enjoined byr the laws, and prohibiting
that which was not prohibited; and the star-chamber,
which consisted of the same persons in different rooms,
censuring the breach and disobedience of those proclama¬
tions by very great fines, imprisonments, and corporal
severities; so that any disrespect to any acts of state, or to
the persons of statesmen, was in no time more penal, and
the toundations of right never more in danger to be de¬
stroyed. The supreme courts at W estminster were ori¬
ginally derived out of the royal court or aula regis, which
consisted ot the great household or personal officers and
the barons. They were intended to dispatch the ordinary
judicial business, especially during the absence of the
household and personal officers in attendance on the king-,
or when the barony might not be assembled. The autho¬
rity of these derivative courts, whatever might be the
case with the aula regis as far as concerned the barons,
was not in the eye of the law inherent. It was supposed to
be delegated to them by the king, as the fountain of justice
to his subjects. 1 he judicial power of parliament, however,
was not displaced, nor meant to be so, by these auxiliary
institutions. Fleta, writing in the reign of Edward I.
treats it as still the high court of justice, “ w'here doubt-
lul cases of judgments are resolved.” There can be no
VOL. IX.
17
doubt but that annual parliaments were first demanded, Govern-
and their intermission felt to be a much more serious mentand
grievance on account of their judicial than of their legis- Laws,
lative capacity’. It is evident, from the state of the early
statute-book, that the meeting of many a parliament might
have been saved had they met onlyr for the purpose of le¬
gislation. There is a memorable order of 18 Edward I., by
which petitioners to parliament are apportioned to the
several subordinate courts of justice, both for their own
dispatch, and to enable parliament to attend to public busi¬
ness. If the matter happened to be so great or of such grace
that these courts could not end it, the chancellor and
chief ministers were with their own hands to bring it before
the king and his council. Coke observes, that wherever
the king and council are mentioned judicially, it is to be
interpreted to mean the House of Lords. The celebrated
treason statute, 25 Edward III. closes its enumeration of
the treasons specified therein with the express reservation
of “ other like cases of treason which may happen in time
to come.-’ In which case “ the judge shall tarry without
going to judgment of the treason till the cause be showed
and declared before the king and his parliament, whether
it ought to be judged treason or other felony." The re¬
servation, however inconsistent with the right of a people
that the law shall be defined beforehand, so that thev mav
know what to avoid, and under what penalties, is plainly
a reservation of judicial and not of legislative power. In
fact, this parliamentary superintendence is recorded, on
the authority of Chief Justice Thorpe, to have been at that
time the common course in other cases as well as trea¬
son. He stated, in the 40th Edward III. a that he and Sir
Hugh Green went together to the parliament, when there
were present at least twenty-four bishops and earls, and
asked the opinion of those who had been the makers of the
late statute of jeofail, concerning the alteration of a re¬
cord.” “ At another time.” the same judge says, *• we were
commanded by the council, that when any case of doubt
should happen, we should not go to judgment wit hout good
advice; therefore,” adds he, in the case then before the
court, “ go to the parliament, and as they will have us do
we will, otherwise not. The danger from this anoma¬
lous tribunal would have been increased a thousand fold,
ii the lords had succeeded in the unwarrantable claim
which they7 set up in 11 Richard II. to a law of parliament
differing from the civil and the common law. The exten¬
sion of this irregular claim by Coke to the privileges of
the lower house was more, certainly, than the imperious
barons of Richard II. ever contemplated by their mutinous
declaration. But it is still more unwarrantable, and more
surprising, that Burke should have renewed the doctrine
of a parliamentary supremacy, in judicial proceedings be¬
fore parliament, over the rules of ordinary law. As the
penalty of this grievous error, his admirable Report on the
proceedings against Warren Hastings remains compara¬
tively unknown.
I he share which the House of Commons took in this judi¬
cial jurisdiction was, it any, very inconsiderable. Thorpe
in the above passage uses the word parliament, but men¬
tions only earls and barons. The ordinances Henry IV.,
which has provoked so much legal spleen, from its direct¬
ing that no apprentice or other man of the law should be
elected a knight of the shire, took its hint from a previ¬
ous one in the reign of Edward III. against iawyers prac¬
tising in the king’s court. They were accused of putting
f orward, as public petitions of the commons, matters which
concerned only their own clients. Notwithstanding the
expression client, the ground of disqualification here as¬
signed relates probably to what was formally legislative,
and not judicial business, something like the private bills
of the present day. I rom the course of the constitution,
c
18
ENGLAND.
Govern- as well as on their own disclaimer, Mr Hallam considers
ment and that the intermeddling at all-in judicature by the com-
Ijaws- mons upon the petitions addressed to them, was pure usur-
  nation. He suggests that their intrusion may probably
account for the disuse into which, from the time of Henry
IV. the lords allowed their appellate authority to fall. It
is very difficult to make out the steps by which they could
have claimed the right in question. But there is some
difficulty in conceiving that the influence of the House
of Commons was so commanding at the period in ques¬
tion as the alternative supposition would imply. Could
they be strong enough to make good a mere encroach¬
ment of this sort, and leave a competitor like the House
of Lords no other method of resisting their invasion of its
ancient right than by also abandoning it altogether t Writs
of error were resumed by the lords about the accession of
James L, renouncing all claim to any original jurisdiction
in judicial causes. This is surely anomaly enough. All
pretence for the other had disappeared in the equality of
persons, in the uniform supremacy of the law, and m the
acknowledged excellence of the ordinary tribunals. Not¬
withstanding this disclaimer, the extent to which the Eng¬
lish legislature, under circumstances more or less excu¬
sable, perplexes itself with questions properly belonging
to courts of justice, is subject to serious objections. It no¬
where appears to such disadvantage as in bills of attainder,
of pains and penalties, and divorce bills, which are all
proceedings of a judicial nature applied to a case of ex
post facto'law. In judicial inquiries, carried on as such
by either house, its numbers, partialities, habits, and the
intrinsic difference between legislative and judicial con¬
siderations, make it impossible to convert a legislative
assembly into a satisfactory court of justice. This truth
has been frequently, and is still, occasionally verified. In
its character of a court of ultimate appeal, the House of
Lords escapes the disgrace which must otherwise have
been heaped upon it long ago, by retaining the jurisdic¬
tion only in name, whilst the jurisdiction is m fact aban¬
doned to its legal members. There is more to be said for
so peculiar an exception as that of an impeachment. But
later precedents, as in the instance of Warren Hastings
and Lord Melville, do not warrant the expectation that an
impeachment, even before such a body, can easily become
an efficient instrument of justice. The only judicial mat¬
ters which can be brought before the House of Commons
are proceedings for contempts. Hurried on undei great
excitement before the whole house, they are exposed in
an aggravated shape to whatever risk proverbially disqua¬
lifies an individual from being a judge in his own cause.
It is only in comparison with what is recorded of the trial
of disputed elections by the house itself, that election
committees have acquired a conditional reputation. Com¬
mittees on private bills are frequently legislative only in
form, whilst they are in reality judicial inquests. They con¬
sider themselves above even the forms of justice. No-
thino- is more common than for members to oblige their
friends, by stepping in to divide upon the merits of a case,
where they have never heard a syllable of either the evi¬
dence or the discussion. It is a singular instance of the
force of habit, and of the barrier raised by technical dis¬
tinctions, that this is done by persons who would act ne¬
vertheless with perfect honour upon a jury.
In a simple state of society the judicial and executive
authorities are always found united. Eastern kings admi-
nistered justice at the gate ; St Louis under the oak. A
confusion between these authorities is therefore, under
all governments, in the natural course of things a more
probable event. The original theory of the English con¬
stitution, as far as theory can be predicated of its rude
provisions, saw no incongruity between the duties. The
traces of an entirely opposite presumption are still amongst Govern,
the minor embarrassments of at least the language of the
law. The administration of justice in the name of the
kino' was formerly more than an honorary prerogative.
It was a feudal truth and necessity. It is now a fiction
which can only mislead bot*h kings and peop e. Black-
stone says, that when the law calls the king the fountain
of justice, it does not mean that he is the author of it, but
the distributor. Yet there are many things contrary to
this distinction, and the contradictions show most strongly
the mischief of these metaphorical compliments. The pay¬
ment of fees on original writs, the unjust rules in the ex¬
chequer in behalf of the prerogative, the flagrant fines in
the olden time as the only means of obtaining common
justice, presuppose that the king was so far its author that
he could only be asked to grant it upon his own terms. Judi-
cial extortions became less frequent after Magna Gharta ;
but they prove the grievous necessity which existed for its
assurance that the subject should have remedial justice,
“ freely without sale, fully without any denial, and speedily
without delay.” A tax on justice is one of the worst sources
of royal revenue, under whatever title it be imposed. At
the present day the propriety of completely sepaiating ex¬
ecutive and judicial duties is the tritest truism. It is next
to impossible that a sovereign should have the leisure, the
attainment, or, in the most important cases, the impartiality,
to administer justice in his own person. The guilt of tam¬
pering or of intimidation addressed to the judges, to whom
the king has on the part of society committed his judicial
trust, is a heinous offence in the meanest subject. W hen
it proceeds from the king it is aggravated a thousand fold.
But it is not enough that the hands of justice should be
pure. Their purity should be beyond suspicion. For this
purpose the independence of the bench ought to be main¬
tained above all possibility of fear or favour. Perhaps there
is no better evidence of what had long been only tradition
concerning the personal attendance of the king in his
courts of justice, and on the limits within which he was
confined, than is contained in the case of jurisdiction of
the House of Peers in the year 1666. It is there said,
that “ when the king attends in the House of Lords in his
judicial capacity, he sits but as chief justice, doing nothing
singly, but by plurality of opinions, as when the kings
would in person sit in the king s bench, which they have
in former time done, where all is said to be coram rege,
though now he never come there; and in our memory
King James hath sate in the star-chamber. It is natu¬
ral that the king’s presence should be last seen in the
courts, which were not made unintelligible to common
understandings by the forms of the common law, and
which, by retaining the longest the name and the charac¬
ter of his council, seemed to keep the nearest to his per¬
son. Serjeant, when elected speaker in 1640, tells Charles
I. “ My disabilities are best known to myself; and to your
majesty, I suppose, not altogether unknown ; before whom,
in the course of my practice and profession, it hath been
your goodness towards the meanest of your subjects divers
times to do me the honour and favour to appear and bear a
part as an ordinary pleader.” So little did the Plantagenet
generation know what they ought to have prayed for on this
subject, that in a list of very bold articles presented by par¬
liament, to which Henry IV. consented in the eighth year
of his reign, there is found the following request. It was
prayed his majesty, that, “ considering the wise govern¬
ment of Other Christian princes, and conforming himself
thereto, he would assign two days in the week for petitions,
it being an honourable and necessary thing that his lieges
who desired to petition him should be heard.” James I. had
a great longing to exhibit every phasis of his learning to his
subjects. After having been told in Wraynham’s case by
V.
ENGLAND.
Govern- the judges, cessat rer/nare qui cessat judicare, it is not
ment and surprising that he should think the opinion of Lord Coke,
v Laws. tjiat kjjjgg 0f England were incapacitated from the exer-
cise 0f any judicial functions, little short of treason. No¬
thing, however, is more fully settled than that, as on one
hand, the House of Lords, the Privy Council, and the
ordinary tribunals of the common law, derive all their ju¬
dicial authority in the first instance from the crown; so,
on the other, whatever judicial authority the king origi¬
nally possessed, it was possessed as in a reservoir, and
has since all passed out of him into the appointed chan¬
nels of his courts.
Direct interference on the part of the crown with the
integrity of the judges was unfortunately not peculiar to
the Stuarts; but it ended with them. It was carried by
them also to such extravagant and unheard of lengths, as
to throw all previous outrages of this description into the
shade. The ignominy of the imputation has rested there¬
fore principally on their name. Elizabeth had the sense
to respect the honour of the interpreters of her laws ; so
that Coke felt what he called the taking of auricular con¬
fessions by James to be a novelty and a disgrace. The
course, however, of the whole judicial history of England
teaches a great lesson : the extreme difficulty of maintain¬
ing freedom with dependent judges. The struggle began
at Nottingham, with the treasonable surrender of the infant
constitution of their country by Tresilian and Belknap, in
their discretionary expositions of law to Richard II. The
impunity of intervening centuries tempted the colleagues
of Finch and Crawley to believe that, supported by a so¬
vereign at least as arbitrary, they might in their day set
parliament at defiance. Although their virtue often fail¬
ed, yet, in the main, the judges of the supreme courts of
Westminster did their duty beyond what could have been
expected. Fortunately for their characters, special com¬
missions, composed chiefly of courtiers, were issued on
most occasions of jealousy and alarm. In consequence,
they Iseem to have kept their ground in the confidence of
the public much better than the subordinate magistrates,
who were subject, but in a less degree, to the same in¬
fluence. These latter never gave much satisfaction. The
ancient conservators of the peace, instead of continuing to
be elected by the freeholders, were turned, in the first
year of Edward III. into nominees of the crown. The
necessity of suppressing the malefactors, who appear in
those days to have been at times encouraged by members
of the nobility, could not prevent the justices so appoint¬
ed, on the extension of their jurisdiction, from becoming
speedily unpopular. A petition from the House of Com¬
mons, in the 11th Richard IF, declares that “ every
freeman in the land would be in bondage to these jus¬
tices.” Even in the retrograde years between Henry VI.
and VIII., the difference between the independent tribu¬
nal of a jury, and that of perpetual officers connected with
the executive, was well established. The right that cri¬
minal proceedings should follow the course of indictment
and of the common law, is repeatedly and earnestly urged.
Juries had so far begun to do their duty, that the fiscal
purposes of Henry VII. could only be carried into effect
by enabling these creatures of his power, removeable at his
pleasure, to try all offences except treason and felony by
themselves. The restoration of a jury to its pristine rights
was one of the measures by which Henry VIII. won, on his
accession, the popularity which he afterwards so cruelly
abused. This affectation of a return to the old constitution¬
al character of the English courts of justice, was soon over¬
thrown by terrible innovations, like the creation of the pre¬
sident and council of the north, and of the Welsh marches.
The worst part of these novelties consisted in their in reali¬
ty placing the judicial and executive authority in the same
J9
hands. What could the subject expect from a tribunal Govern-
of which Wentworth was the president? MrHallam says m®nt and
that these and other irregular tribunals, when abolished vJVav^V,
by 16 Charles I., had usurped so extensive a cognizance
as to deprive one third of England of the privileges of the
common law. It was nevertheless reserved for the high
churchmen of Charles II. in the year 1664, to return to
the charge. Legislating against what they unjustly called
seditious conventicles, they ventured to arm a single jus¬
tice (it is necessary to remember only what were the de¬
pendent justices of those days) with the power of inflict¬
ing seven years transportation on a third conviction of the
offence of worshipping God contrary to act of parliament.
The objection applies still more strongly to the original
authority of the sheriff. The shrievalty was generally sold
by the Norman kings, and was an office of great emolu¬
ment, and still greater influence. The coroner, with his
limited inquest of criminal police, was left to popular elec¬
tion. But the sheriff, from the conquest downwards, except
during the sixteen years which intervened from the 28th Ed¬
ward I. to the 9th Edward II., was nothing but the annual¬
ly nominated servant of the crown. Great judicial autho¬
rity was intertwined with his civil superintendence over
his county; the more so, because the law has never suf¬
ficiently distinguished between acts which are judicial,
and acts which are ministerial only. Although in the
hundred and the county, as well as in the baronial court
(not being courts of record), the freeholders were the
real judges, both of law and of fact, the sheriff’s authority
was the subject of great alarm. The principal sources of
this jurisdiction were by degrees turned into other chan¬
nels. Criminal pleas were taken from him entirely as far
back as Magna Charta. The complaint upon which that
clause was founded had only sought that he should be
restrained from hearing them except when assisted by
the coroner. The confidence felt in the popular presence
of that officer for decompounding and breaking up this
dangerous identity of powers, appears by several other
writs in Rymer. The justices-in-eyre, not being the
same always as the judges of Westminster, were probably
often but partial improvements on the local administra¬
tion of the sheriff. Their circuits, however, facilitated
the transfer of most of the civil as well as the whole cri¬
minal business into a more strictly and purely judicial
court. The civil cases still cognizable in the county
court, in which the sheriff is both presiding officer and
executioner of justice, are the inconsiderable and almost
obsolete remains of former usage.
From this brief review, it appears that formerly the judi¬
cial power was often placed in the same hands with the
legislative and the executive. This probably never took
place without the people suffering severely from it. The
small territorial jurisdictions, civil or criminal, must have
been the worst of all. The existence of other checks at
present, and the vigilant rapidity with which public opi¬
nion keeps hovering over and bearing down'upon all offi¬
cial misconduct, may blind us as to the importance of the
principle itself. A hazard, of which the only actual mis¬
chief is in the precedent, may seem not too much to
incur for the convenience of this or that exception. At
the same time, no nation is wise which in such a case
presumes too far upon its security. A judge, when mem¬
ber of the legislature or of the cabinet, is in a position
which ought to create, both with himself and with the
people, a degree of watchfulness, not to say jealousy,
far beyond the case of other men. It is to be remarked,
that the greatest of all exceptions which occurs in this
respect in English practice, that of the Lord Chancel¬
lor, occurs in the very instance where the existence of
the judge depends on the casualties of the ministry of
20
ENGLAND.
Govern- which he is a leading member. An examination of the
ment and judicial removals during the Stuarts shows the extent to
Laws. thn hnnps and fears of the bench were constantly
which the hopes and fears of the bench were constantly
' v ~ played with. It was a system, and not an accident. No¬
thing short of the 13th William III. could have put it
down. That statute altered the patents of the com¬
mon law judges, from patents during the king’s pleasure,
to patents during their own good behaviour. 1 he little
that was left to be done, was done at the accession ot
George III. This last amendment consisted in excepting
their commissions from the fate of all other crown ap¬
pointments, that of being vacated on its demise. It was
a very prudent waiver of the little remnant of arbitrary
power- which, strange to say, had in the interval been
misused. But the waiver could of necessity be made by
any actual sovereign, solely at the expense of his suc¬
cessor. If a stop had been put to the analogous suspi¬
cions connected with the promotions of judges and the
translations of bishops, it would have obviated an evil of
more frequent recurrence. On considering the elements
of the character and of the happiness of the nation, the
English people are perhaps not more indebted to their par¬
ticipation'in legislation by means of the House of Com¬
mons, than to their share in the administration of justice
in the capacity of jurors. Not only has the executive
been kept at bay by their interposition, for the legal veri¬
fication of the fact at issue, but the legislature has received
more than one useful warning from their collateral influence
on the’law itself. For both these purposes it was indispen¬
sable that intimidation should be removed from a juror as
thoroughly as corruption; and that offences impute o
him in the discharge of his duty should be investigated
and punished as cautiously, as reverently, and befoie as
impartial, if not as solemn a tribunal, as similar offences
imputed to a judge. The day when m Bushel! s case, the
court relinquished the pretension of fining or imprisoning
a jury for its verdict, ought to be as memorable as any in
the annals of the victories of justice. It heralded in, an
was in no degree less important than, the day which made
it impossible that any successor of Pemberton (for even
the chief-justice who tried Russell had paid too much re¬
spect to freedom) should be arbitrarily displaced. In this
point of view the dissatisfaction expressed by Jefferson with
the corresponding rule in the constitution ot the Tinted
States, that the judges are irremoveable, except by a
resolution of two thirds of congress, is very surprising.
The exception would seem amply sufficient to secure the
legislature the necessary discretionary control. Tonsi¬
dering the position occupied by the ordinary courts ot
in slice in the United States and in England, it is impos¬
sible that they can make any serious encroachment on
the other departments of the state, without a degree o
negligence or connivance on the part ot the legislature
utterfy inconceivable. The cry against judge-made law,
on the ground of its being an unwarranted encroachment,
appears also, to the extent to which the common law courts
have carried their incidental legislation, to be quite un¬
founded ; and most of all in England, where the common-
law fudges are much more justly liable to the inconsistent
accusation of standing too stoutly upon the letter and strict¬
ness of the law, and of having brought on the necessity of
an equitable jurisdiction and of irregular tribunals, from
their narrow adherence to precedents and forms. I hey
are not answerable for the main defects of the English
system, whether in the body of the law itself, in the cen¬
tralization of the metropolitan courts, or in the inadequa¬
cy of the local jurisdictions.
Fxeeutive A gbvernment, where in point of form the legislative
power and judicial authority appears to emanate from the crown,
is certain to have placed its executive power solely in the
king. Long after the two former authorities have sue- Gjnern-^
ceeded in gradually emancipating themselves from every Lawg
thing but the antiquarian recollection of their original sub-
ordination, the latter arrangement will in all probability
retain its pristine vigour. This is the consequence of
the substantial advantages which belong to a single and
permanent executive. Such, at least, has been the course
pursued in England. The founders of the republic of the
United States, from their near observations upon the
French Directory, and from their personal experience of
the disunion of executive committees during the war ot
independence, admitted the propriety of placing the ne¬
cessary powers of the general administration in the hands
of a single individual. The name, whether king or presi¬
dent, is hardly worth discussing. The great questions are,
the mode by which this supreme magistrate shall be ap¬
pointed, and the powers with which he shall be invested.
In comparing with this view the English and the Ameri¬
can systems, the principal difference between them is in
the mode by which the executive is appointed, and not m
the amount or nature of its powers. In their jealousy of
the concentrating effect of power, the Americans have sub-
ieeted all the members of congress, the senate as well as
the house of representatives, and the office of president
equally with the senate, to the principle of rotation ; only
differing in the degree of rapidity with which the elective
wheel in the several cases performs its circle. By this
specific the evil tendencies of political power are supposed
to be reduced within manageable limits. Impartial specta¬
tors, on comparing the risks of hereditary descent as ex¬
perienced in England, with the risks already manifested
in the quadriennial presidential elections of America, may
perhaps be disposed to decide in favour of an hereditary
parliamentary title, with reference to the actual passions
and prospects of society. A four years’ lease of the pre¬
sident’s chair may be too exciting a prize to be safely left
to popular competition. Besides, the very character and
abilities most likely to be admired, are those on which the
temptations of such an elevation must act with the great¬
est force. It is one of the advantages of the English
system, that whilst the doctrine of descent greatly limits
the probability of dangerous talents in a sovereign, the
mechanism of the constitution is so well arranged and
understood as to do its work without them. The powers
vested in the royal executive are not extreme; for they
are nearly the same as those which it has been found ne¬
cessary to maintain in the United States, notwithstand¬
ing all the advantages of a new country.
Under an ancient but progressive government, the exe¬
cutive authorities of the chief magistrate, like all the other
authorities of the state, must be capable of being consider¬
ed in three different points of view. These are, the histo¬
rical, the actual, and the philosophical. Its constitutional
history will vary, both in the facts which it exemplifies, and
in the reasoning by which it is explained, at difieient pe¬
riods. The correct legal description of it at any given
moment, for instance the present, can represent at most
only the law and practice of the age. I he philosophical
conclusion, how far it ought to extend in reason, may be,
and probably will be, only obscurely signified in either of
those inquiries. Mr Allen, in his inquiry into the rise
and growth of the royal prerogative in England, and Mr
Hallam, in different parts of his constitutional history,
have left little to be added upon the first division. Mr
Bentham, in his treatise upon legislation, has generalized
upon the last. The legal exposition of the second is all
that Blackstone properly undertook. Nothing certainly
can be more absurd than the language wdfich he has co¬
pied, in order to express the paradoxical fictions of the
supposed attributes of sovereignty, perfection and perpe-
ENGLAND.
Govern- tuity. The parliament which consented to describe the
ment and forfeiture of the crown by James II., under the eupho-
' Laws. nism 0f an abdication, proceeded in the selection of the
word on many precedents. Their ancestors, at every
compromise with royalty, had demonstrated much indif¬
ference to words, provided that the end and consumma¬
tion were substantially achieved. In English constitutional
law, an unlimited and almost oriental deification of expres¬
sion is found alongside of rights strictly limited and speci¬
fically defined. The Plantagenets, however, were much
more cautious than the Tudors in bringing this inconsist¬
ency to the test of a collision. Unluckily for the Stuarts,
they were mystified by the welcome homage of servile
civilians and meddling churchmen. By forcing on the so¬
lution of the problem, they learned too late, that from the
fact of the prerogative being incorporated with the law,
whatever was not found there could not possibly be with¬
in it. Even Locke’s definition of prerogative, which Black-
stone has thought fit to praise, is too liberal, not only for
the rights of reason, but for the rule of law. “ The dis¬
cretionary power of acting for the public good” does not
extend to all cases “ where the positive laws are silent
but to such points only as the constitution has expressly
reserved for this discretion. Otherwise we come to the
intermediate inherent power on which James I., in his
Flowers of Grace, claimed for royal proclamations the force
of temporary laws. The proper course on such extraor¬
dinary occasions is for ministers to act on their responsi¬
bility, and trust to parliament for an indemnity. The
Stuarts were doomed to make the additional discovery
that, among prerogatives strictly legal, there were some,
both prerogatives of authority and prerogatives of reve¬
nue, which, being false in principle and mischievous
in effect, the public had become sufficiently intelligent
and powerful to recall. Our early kings, in the insidious
reservations (salvo jurecoronce nostrce) by which they nar¬
rowed many of their most popular concessions, had suc¬
ceeded in a great measure in rendering that part of the
constitution unimproveable and fixed. This was the
course, before notions of an abstract jus regium by con¬
sent of nations, or the doctrine of a native immortality in
the prerogative, which acts of parliament even could not
reach, had been yet imported into courts of law. A
struggle which could only be kept up by these new and
desperate assertions, was evidently near its close. These
novelties were in part the penalties of the Reformation, at
least as applied to England. Henry VIII. obtained for
the crown a new prerogative on that occasion. It was
a more dangerous one than perhaps all before it, in conse¬
quence of the greatness of the subject which it concerned.
The act of supremacy was the corner stone of the high
commission court. Mr Hallam truly observes, that “ the
real aim of the clergy, in enormously enhancing the pre¬
tensions of the crown, was to gain its sanction for their
own.” They played into each other’s hands. If, as Mr
Hallam affirms, the nation might be considered, up to
1640, as having been, “ in regard to spiritual dominion, a
great loser by the Reformation,” it would have lost every
thing in regard to the crown, had civil liberty depended
on tlie loyal sophistries of the church. The apparent
strength of the executive on the breaking out of the civil
- wars, presented so formidable an aspect, as to deceive
even Strafford not only into a desertion of the cause of the
people, but into the adoption of the language and senti¬
ments ot Laud. From the example of foriper times, and
trom the external superiority which necessarily surrounds
the throne, he egregiously miscalculated the means of the
two parties who were then about to decide this battle by
an appeal to arms. It is scarcely less surprising, after its
result, to find political judges like Jefferies so intoxicated
21
by the saturnalia of the Restoration, as to continue to ha- Govern-
zard these and similar insane dicta, down to the very eve m®nt an<^
of the Revolution. On that event the nation carried the , aws‘
principle of the exclusion bill by acclamation. The ex-
elusion bill was looked upon, from the time that it was
first mooted, as the extreme case. It was among the prin¬
cipal argumentative advantages of the Revolution, that it
put an end to all discussions founded upon the supposi¬
tion of inviolable prerogatives, then and for ever.
It is perhaps not too much to say that the direct prero¬
gatives, in respect of authority, which were objectionable,
are all either abolished, or, in case the law of England
allowed of desuetude, are obsolete. Some few incidental
ones remain, which appear to be in the course of removal;
since recent legislation has happily shown a desire to look
towards a reformation of the law. It is unfortunate that
the direct prerogative, which is. on the face of it the most
revolting, nevertheless, from its having so long principally
supplied the king’s service with seamen, demands, in the
immediate modification of it, considerable caution. Ma¬
rine impressment, it must be remembered, came in, how¬
ever, upon no supposed necessity of this nature. It is the
remnant only of a doctrine and a practice which at one time
included soldiers, and many classes of civilians. Like most
other prerogatives, it was abused under Charles I. for the
purpose of extortion. Several of the common people who
refused loans are said to have been pressed into the navy.
There has fortunately been such little demand for prero¬
gative learning since the great argument of ship-money,
that the judgment of Sir M, Foster in Broadfoot’s casej, in
the year 1743, in support of the legality of impressment,
was wanted to recall the attention of English lawyers to
the several conditions which the law requires as evidence
of a subsisting prerogative. The debates on the alien act
revived these discussions for a season. The lawyer and
the statesman look at questions of this kind from different
points of view. The first regards what is; the second,
what ought to be. For whether the particular powers
are wanted, and where they should be placed, are further
questions. In case these questions are settled in the af¬
firmative, it is unwise, by division, rotation, or a multipli¬
city of checks, to reduce their efficiency below a certain
point. Society loses more than it gains by such expe¬
dients, as often as necessary powers are thus incapacitated
for the due performance of their functions. This was fre-
quently attempted in ancient times. On the other hand,
governments cannot be too cautious against the abuses
which constitute the provocations to such restraints. Un¬
just interpositions of the nolle 'prosequi, and of pardon by
the crown, gave popularity to the appeal of murder. Lord
Holt, looking back rather than around him, called the
anomaly “ a noble remedy.” Several petitions were ve¬
hemently urged by the commons of former days against
the generous prerogative of mercy. The degradation
by James I. of the prerogative of honours, by bartering
them, for the first time in English history, for money, and
the subjecting the peerage by Queen Anne to the perso¬
nal ambition of a minister, have the same tendency. They
bring the prerogative itself, as well as the subjects of it,
into disrepute. The prerogative of making peace and
war was tarnished by the base negotiations of Charles JJ.
It was damaged later still, when Chatham himself was
not able to withstand the electoral prejudices of his sove*
reign in behalf of a campaign in Germany. The observa¬
tion may be extended through every department of admi¬
nistration. It applies especially to the formation and the
government of so jealous and delicate an engine as that of
a standing army. The moderation which the executive
had displayed in the exercise of more qualified powers,
could alone have introduced into and kept in the mu*
22
ENGLAND.
Govern, tiny act the clause by which courts-martial are enabled
ment and to punish mutiny and desertion with death. It was insert-
Laws. e(i for the first time in 1718; and it was only carried at
the time by small majorities. Of the impolicy of creating
an atom of waste power there can be no dispute. But if
the power is really wanted, they are sorry horsemen who
are obliged to keep the strength and courage of their
horse permanently below his work, as their only means of
riding him. On the supposition that the powers are fitting
powers for the executive magistrate to possess, the appro¬
priate remedy is to apply ministerial responsibility to such
cases, and to take care that the responsibility shall be a
reality and not a name. The healthiness and vis medicatrix
of the general system must do the rest.
The prerogatives of revenue depend on a different class
of considerations. The financial purchase of tenure by
chivalry from Charles II. and the subsequent arrange¬
ments entered into on granting successive civil lists, have
not gone so far towards completely sweeping out the holes
and corners of the exchequer as might have been wished.
The last fibres of the barbarous fiscal pretensions which
flourished there in former days have still to be rooted up.
The national revenue, properly considered, consists of the
portion of his property which each subject contributes to
the state, in order to secure the remainder. I hat being
the just principle, its demands should be limited in amount
to what is necessary for the proposed object, instead of
setting a fiscal net to catch an irregular and indefinite
number of certain matters. Further, by an accurate cal¬
culation and repartition, the necessary taxation ought to
be equally borne, in respect of their means, by all the
king’s subjects, instead of falling upon particular indivi¬
duals on the happening of particular contingencies. In its
original state most of the ordinary or prerogative revenue
raised the least possible sum with the greatest possible in¬
equality and inconvenience. The greater part of what
remains is only remarkable for its picturesque absuiuity.
There is, however, one terrible exception, far too mons¬
trous to be left for mitigation to the humanity of the
treasury. Nothing can be worse than the wholesale for¬
feitures and confiscations which still sweep in the tiain
of our criminal proceedings. In spite of the praises be¬
stowed by Blackstone on Mr Yorke’s essay in defence of
the law of forfeiture, and although the people owe the 25th
Edward III., which has been called the magna charta of
treason, almost solely to a squabble between the king
and his grantees the barons, for their several portions of
the spoil, according as the late owner had been found
guilty of treason or of felony, it is impossible that the lea-
son and humanity of a great country can much longei per¬
mit cruel iniquity, abandoned by the most civilized pait
of Europe, to be justified upon antiquarian learning or by
metaphysical refinements. .
Blackstone’s declaration at the commencement of his
chapter on prerogative, that the powers which are ves .ed
in the crown by the laws, are necessary for the purpose cu
society, maybe thought even now, if their whole detail is
minutely examined into, to go something beyond the truth.
The exceptions, however, can be in practice of no great
consequence. I he most obscure member of pniliament
would have nothing to do at the present day but to attack
any indefensible exception, by a motion for its repeal.
From the era that a general control over the government
passed into the House of Commons, influence has so much
superseded force, that questions of pure prerogative have
lost much of their importance. According to present
usage, any transaction arising out of its exercise, if it is at
all interesting or doubtful, must be brought sooner or later
before the House of Commons. The difference in the
three modes of proceeding, between which alone a minis-
ter has to choose, Comes to iittle more than the option at Govern,
which of its stages the transaction shall be brought there.
This will depend on circumstances. It may be a case in
which there is no pretence of a prerogative, as on a sus¬
pension of the habeas corpus act. Or the principle of a
prerogative may be pretended; but it may be suggested
that the means'for carrying it into effect are defective, as
was suggested in the alien act. If there be time to apply
to parliament to strengthen the executive, a prudent ad¬
viser would recommend, especially wherever a continuous
measure is required, of necessity, on the first of these sup¬
posed occasions, but on both of them would he equally
recommend, that the authority of parliament should be
called in. In case a temporary emergency arises, more
especially one which will not wait for parliament, as in the
instance of the embargo laid by proclamation upon vessels
laden with wheat in the scarcity of 1766, every adminis¬
tration is bound to take the responsibility of the measures
demanded by the emergency; and parliament is bound
to indemnify the authors of them for venturing upon a
discretionary rigour beyond the letter of every day s law.
The third supposition yet remains to be mentioned. W hen
a minister is confident of the existence of the prerogative,
and that the necessity for exercising it has arrived, there
can be no occasion that the immediate representative of
the executive should advertise for a parliamentary discus¬
sion. Let him use the instrument in the manner in which
it was left by the constitution to be used. The opposition
for the time being have it always in their power (and
may be usually trusted for the inclination, as in the late
Dutch embargo) to press the question to issue, and obtain
the opinion of parliament upon both the point of right and
the point of policy. For, on state-questions or this de¬
scription, the members of a government are as answerable
to the community which they serve, for mistakes in po¬
licy, as for mistakes in right. The distinctions were only
of use before the House of Commons ventured upon the
general superintendence which it exerts at present. Black-
stone observes, that “ the king, in the exertion of lawful
prerogative, is and ought to be absolute,” subject to the re¬
sponsibility of ministers. Yet, from the nature of the case,
as it is now understood, the king cannot be more or less
absolute, nor his ministers more or less responsible, within
than without these bounds. An unlawful prerogative may
be assumed, a lawful one may be abused. As long as the
constitution lasts, the king is in both cases alike person¬
ally secure. The unconstitutional adviser is in both cases
equally answerable upon impeachment, and to the same
degree. The decision against general warrants, when the
official practice of three quarters of a century was at last
brought into a court of justice, exemplifies the jealousy of
the law in its own defence. The truth is, that the most
satisfactory account of the mysterious maxim, that the
king can do no wrong, since for every act done by him
there must be responsibility somewhere, is an innovation
which even the Revolution itself did not immediately intro¬
duce. The earliest strong assertion of it which Mr Hal-
lam has perceived, is in a speech by the Duke of Argyll
in the year 1739. Public opinion must have stopped short
indeed, when a Whig, like Burnet, thought ministers were
liable for advice given at the council, but not for the
resolutions taken there ; that is, they were to be liable for
their own words, but not for the act, which might be the
act of the sovereign himself. Whilst this distinction re¬
mained in force, it was possible that the whole question in
these cases might turn on the limits of prerogative, and on
the fact, whether the necessity of coming to parliament
for fresh power could be evaded. Ibis distinction, or
something not distinguishable from it, was the shield be¬
hind which, strange as it now appears, both Whig and
ENGLAND. 23
Govern- Tory ministers, Somers as well as Harley, alike retreated,
ment and since the Revolution.
Laws. prerogative, as above treated of, regards solely the
remnant of those powers and privileges which had been
vested in the crown from time immemorial by the com¬
mon law. What is left is a small portion of a heteroge¬
neous sovereignty, which had been originally wrested from
a weak community by mere force, or which pertains to
principles and circumstances long since decayed. From
a sort of obscure traditional feeling, the word prerogative
is more associated in men’s minds with the personal will
and pleasure of the sovereign, than with his political and
strictly legal duties. The thing itself has, however, gra¬
dually fallen into the general mass of executive authori¬
ty. Considered in this point of view, great additions
have in later times been made to it. These additions
consist qf powers derived directly from parliament, and
transferred to the supreme magistrate on the simple sup¬
position that they are necessary for the public welfare.
The preliminary question, Are they indeed necessary?
occurs still more naturally on a demand that new powers
should be granted, than on the suggestion that ancient
powers might properly be retained. It is only when that
point has been made out, that a prudent legislature will
enter on the consideration of the precautions by which
their abuse may be prevented, whilst their efficiency is
maintained. To mention only one or two examples : The
patronage of office has its risks in a free government.
Yet it must be remembered that Polybius saw, in the in¬
fluence which the contracts and public works gave to the
Roman senate, the necessary link by which its connection
with the Roman people was held together. At all events,
the disadvantages of the actual extent of ministerial pa¬
tronage belongs to the greatness of the British empire,
and to the nature of its colonial possessions. The most
rigid economy can alone reduce it within certain limits.
An enormous national debt must still leave the public
burdened with the additional evil of a proportionately
enormous fiscal law ; more equal in its assessment than,
but perhaps almost as harassing as, the ruder aids and in¬
cidents of feudal jurisprudence. It is made both more
costly and more pernicious, from the childish weakness
of insisting that the bitter pill, if it must be taken, shall
be concealed under the form of indirect taxation. The
difference in the powers, as given by the common law and
by the riot act, to public officers over unlawful assem¬
blies, is scarcely so great as to be considered a dangerous
augmentation to the force of any government. At the
same time, whatever it may be, the same authority, or
something very like it, may have become necessary for
the preservation of the peace, when avast manufacturing
population is collected together on one spot; liable to be
thrown out of employment at every moment by the oscil¬
lations of trade ; accessible, besides, and accustomed al¬
most daily to the most inflammatory appeals. This is the
case also with regard to the extension of a regular police,
and to the employment of the military in subordination
to a civil magistrate. The change, however, which would
most surprise Whitelocke and the patriotic parliament-
men who argued the militia question under Charles I.,
would be the mutiny act and the army list of the present
day. They would think that the king might well consent
to the concession of coming to parliament for its sanction,
as his portion of the compromise. The balance of power
in Europe was the only cause at first assigned in justifica¬
tion of a standing army; and it is still the burden of the
mutiny act preamble. Our immense provincial dependen¬
cies have also to answer for it in part. However, another
and a domestic necessity must have been silently making
prodigious way, when so cautious a statesman as the late
Lord Liverpool defended in parliament the numerical in- Govern-
crease of the army, not by a reference to the state of Eu- ment and
rope or the colonies, but by a comparison between the Laws-
amount of the population now and in former times. It
would be impossible to govern with so slight a pressure
as society is at present used to, without a strong execu¬
tive. It is fortunate, therefore, that, from the systematic
regularity which prosperous civilization has favoured, the
actual powers of the executive government have become
more consolidated, and their operation more uniform. The
effect of the whole is, that in Mr Hallam’s opinion at the
time of writing his invaluable work on the constitutional
history of England, the English executive, “ though shorn
of its lustre, has not lost so much of its real efficacy, by
the consequences of theRevolution, as is often supposed;
at least, that with a regular army to put down insurrec¬
tion, and an influence sufficient to obtain fresh statutes of
restriction, if such should ever be deemed necessary, it
is not exposed, in the ordinary course of affairs, to any se¬
rious hazard.”
On the supposition that this opinion was correct at the
recent period when it was delivered, experience alone can
determine how far the supposed influence alluded to in it
has been affected by the subsequent change in the con¬
stituency of the House of Commons. The supposed eu¬
thanasia of the English constitution, namely, the establish¬
ment of that simple monarchy which Hume and other
writers have predicted as its natural fate, has been thrown
back to an indefinite distance by parliamentary reform. If
any thing like the same good sense and good fortune which
have hitherto prevailed in the history of the people and
their government shall be continued, there seems little
reason why they should be thought to be hurried, by a
measure of that principle and extent, within the perils of
the opposite extreme.
Neither the principle nor mechanism of the reform bill
has so changed the nature of the account. The differ¬
ence of opinion entertained by different persons on a ge¬
neral comparison of the forces at work in the Ena^ish con¬
stitution, seems of itself positive proof that the variance,
whether before or since, has been only in the inclination,
but that the constitution is on its balance still. At the
same time it must be admitted, that the interest which
was strong enough to carry the reform bill, is tolerably
secure. It is not difficult to prognosticate what would
have been the issue of open resistance to the new politi¬
cal adjustment which has been settled upon its terms. It
was impossible, also, from the causes which urged it for¬
ward, that the adjustment could have been much longer
peaceably delayed. The impoverishment of the crown by
the alienation of the royal demesnes ; its abandonment of
claims and maxims become odious or ridiculous ; its po¬
litical incapacity to act on the House of Commons by the
disfranchisement of old or by the creation of new boroughs;
the scandal of private nominations, the still greater scan¬
dal of corrupt corporators and bribed freemen ; the doors
of parliament thrown open to the people through the
publication of the debates by means of a daily, almost
an hourly press ; the increase of dissenters, displacing the
monopoly of the clergy; a liberty, nay license, of discus¬
sion, popularising crude analogies to a new and kindred
democracy in the United States, and reaching over every
question and up to every individual in the land ; public
opinion circulating from one end of the kingdom to the
other, and brought concentrated with electrical rapidity
at any moment to any point; the rights of conscience,
of free opinion, and of political equality, so proudly recog¬
nised that they overcame at last even all the recollections
arrayed against the Roman Catholic persecution of Pro¬
testant reformers; the universal responsibility of ministers
24
ENGLAND.
Govern, for every act of government now as universally acknow-
ment and led^ed ; the rise of immense towns, swarming with active
Laws* artisans easily excited and easily combining; the con-
slant accumulation of numbers, competence, and intelli¬
gence in the great and powerful body of the middling
classes; the disappearance of the last relics ot feudal
castes and prejudices ; the swamping of the ancient histo¬
rical nobility by a modern aristocracy of wealth, favourit¬
ism, and corruption; the final breaking up even of the
court and country party, whilst in their stead had risen
up and found themselves face to face, those two parties
which must always exist in open commonwealths—on one
hand, the honest and also the servile partisans of power-
on the other, the seditious and also the constitutional
friends of the people ;—these are but a part of the altera¬
tions which had changed not only the face but the core ot
England. A new soil, so to speak, had been turned up.
A revolution in society had outstripped the Revolution
of 1688. The rights of Englishmen, as Blackstone calls
them (but what are in truth the rights of man, wherever
man is civilized enough to understand and to preset ve
them) had grown into fuller consistency and bulk, ine
national system, now in its manhood, made, as it were,
more blood, and required that the arteries should be en¬
larged which were to carry it to the heart. .
A political student, after looking at the points to which
all governments should strive, at the imaginary com¬
monwealths of theory, and at the degree of approxima¬
tion which, from amongst their thousand experiments,
mankind appears to have ever realized, may think that
there is good reason to be content both with the end and
with the means which the English constitution recognises
and secures. He will perceive that English liberty was
long heavily mortgaged, but that the mortgage was never
foreclosed. Its standard-bearers were sometimes down,
but the pennon itself was always flying. Nations who re¬
gard England as a model, whether to be copied or to be
surpassed, should remember that no nation can hope to
buy a suitable constitution ready made. The end ought to
be one all the world over, namely, the happiness of the
people. But the condition of the people may be so differ¬
ent, as necessarily to demand the greatest difference in the
means. The quantities with which moral and political
problems have to deal, so far from being fixed, are in con¬
stant fluctuation ; and the truths which they have to esta¬
blish can never be tried by taking extreme cases. An
assimilation and correspondence between that which acts
and that which is acted upon, are conditions grounded on
the nature of the human mind. In no case is strict atten¬
tion to them more indispensable than in the relation be¬
tween a people and its institutions. The best security for
this is gradual adaptation. The Americans take English
experience and English character into new circumstances,
with the woods to back them. They may ride with a
looser rein, and may try bolder tricks in legislation, than,
in an old, densely-peopled, and overwrought community,
any person, at least any reasonable person, acquainted
with human nature and the difficulties of the case, could
venture to recommend. They will not undervalue the
necessity of such compromises with the nature of things
and of events; since, in truth, no country ever made a
greater sacrifice to the predominance of circumstances
over principles than America has made, and is still mak¬
ing, over half her empire, in the most fatal of all excep¬
tions. It is a worse one than the barbarism of the bar¬
barous age of Magna Charta; an exception limited not even
by the test of freedom, but that of the colour of the skin.
It may be doubted whether the English experiment would
not have failed, as the same experiment failed elsewhere,
if its authors had rushed in the first instance to the point
where their posterity at present stand. Light things may Govern,
hurry forward, but the elephant must make sure of every m™twand
step he takes. , . .
A free government must be complicated in its parts.
The checks introduced by circumstances, habits, and opi¬
nions, and which have been subjected to gradual amend¬
ments, remain a hundred times more effectual than any
mere appeal to reason, which is all indeed that a totally
new system has to make. The latter, however theoretically
superior, must trust to its argumentative merits for its
hold on the minds and affections of mankind. Montaigne
expresses great contempt for long philosophical discussions
concerning the comparative advantages of different forms
of government. When he refers not only in opinion, but
in reality, to usage as the sole criterion in every case, he
is guilty of a gross exaggeration. This however ought not
to prevent due respect being paid to the truth on which
the very exaggeration is grounded. The whole history
of England is the narrative of a long preparatory school¬
ing to fit its people for their actual institutions. Institu¬
tions certainly are faulty which cannot stand the more
summary test of Pope, when he disposes of these ques¬
tions by a single line, “ whate’er is best administered is
best.” For this in sensible prose must be understood to
mean that the government is best which contains the best
provisions for securing a good administration of all public
affairs which depend on the relation of the governors and
the governed. This security, it will appear by the de¬
scription which has been given, it is the great object of
the English constitution to establish by the proper for¬
mation and distribution of the legislative, judicial, and
executive power.
II.—Laws.
The civil law approached to the character of a univer¬
sal language. The breaking it into fragments on the fall
of the Roman empire, and the substitution in its stead
of the coarse and mixed materials of the barbarian and
feudal codes, had the effect of the contusion of tongues.
Each code was nothing more than a partial dialect. Whilst
the rest of Europe fell back more or less under the legal
dominion of its ancient master, England alone stood out.
It was impossible, however, that it could altogether resist
an influence so universal; and it is probable that a great¬
er impression was incidentally received than contempora¬
ries were aware of, or than antiquarians have since been at
the trouble to retrace. Mr Hallam observes that a good
work, pointing out the extent to which the Roman law
affected Bracton and his successors, is a desideratum in
our legal literature. Nobody has yet felt a sufficient in¬
terest in, or been sufficiently conversant with, both sys¬
tems to supply it. The distance to which England was
thrown from the common orbit of classical jurisprudence,
appears to have been even something more than the differ¬
ence which separated the northern and southern divisions
of France, where the one was subject to a customary, and
the other to the Roman law.
English civilians and foreign scholars always treated
the vernacular common law with the greatest possible
contempt. John of Salisbury, in the reign of Henry II.
calls it aucupatio verborum. Whitgift derides the learn¬
ing which is learning nowhere but in England. Erasmus
must have seen it to great advantage in the person of Sir
Thomas More; nevertheless he mentions its professors
in terms scarcely more respectful than the scurrilities of
the college-play of Ignoramus, got up in its ridicule for
the entertainment of James I. Evelyn is content so that
he escaped from it vrith no harder word than “ that un¬
polished study.” The provocation given by Law-Latin and
ENGLAND.
25
)Govern- Law-French has since been got rid of; that of tenures and
mentand their commentators still remains. Any insular jurispru-
Laws. dence, growing up during the middle ages, must have cer-
tainly suffered in its philosophy and its symmetry by ex¬
cluding the written wisdom of the Pandects. By way of
compensation, it is suggested that the alienation was of
great advantage to English freedom. Whatever was gained
in this direction is probably to be attributed more to the
class to which the professors of the two systems respec¬
tively belonged, than to the supposed exemption of black-
letter precedents from the arbitrary spirit of the imperial
constitutions. The Inns of Court were long the principal
seminaries in which the gentry of England completed their
education ; whilst, in the universities, the foundations for
the study of civil law rivalled those for the study of divi¬
nity. The civilians and canonists, cousins-german by de¬
scent, thus became twin-brothers in feeling. In fact, civi¬
lians were formerly almost always churchmen. The dif¬
ference of pedigree between them and the common law¬
yers was visible down to the time of Laud. The civil law,
in any comprehensive sense of it, may be said to be ex¬
tinct in England. To the degree, however, in which it
exists, the English constitution is likely to find as warm
supporters at present in Doctors Commons as in West¬
minster Hall.
The first point, on inquiring into the laws of a country,
is to ascertain where the power of making them is lodged.
It is very desirable that, as far as possible, the power
should rest exclusively with the distinct and supreme au¬
thority of a recognised legislature. In this manner, laws
adequately and publicly discussed will receive perhaps
as general and as efficient a promulgation as the subject
admits of. Certainly no better security can be devised
against the possibility of constructive and ex post facto
liabilities, than the practice of open debates, and the rule
that legislative measures shall be strictly prospective.
The connection between legislation and legislature is the
doctrine of the English law. It can nowhere be express¬
ed more strongly. But the history of what is called
the common law shows the difficulty of acting upon it
throughout. Popular customs will have already taken
root before a steady government is formed, or, at least,
before it is so far universally established, as to take under
its cognizance the whole field of legislation. With re¬
gard, therefore, to this class of self-sown customs, the
best thing probably that the legislature can do, when it
becomes adult, is to acquiesce in them. Certain divisions
of the law, and those not the least intricate and impor¬
tant, will from time to time be elaborately commented
upon in text-books. Particular rules will also be adopt¬
ed by the profession ; and these soon become the grounds
on which properties and expectations rest. For instance,
“ the practice of conveyancers” easily goes the length of
making by necessity the law in that department. Much
more is this the case with the opinions and the practice of
the regular tribunals. For this purpose it is by no means
necessary that the statute-book should contain an intima¬
tion corresponding to the threat of the Code Napoleon.
“ Le juge qui refusera de juger sous pretexte du silence,
de 1’obscurite, ou de 1’insuffisance de la loi, pourra etre
poursuivi comme coupable de deni de justice.” Direct legis¬
lation must be infinitely more active, and must complete
its work in a far more workmanlike way, than the parlia¬
ments of the Plantagenets, and even than the parliaments of
to-day, not to leave vast chasms for judicial construction to
fill up. The English law at different periods has been in¬
debted to all these collateral sources in different degrees
for accessions to its wealth. Nobody can now determine
how far Alfred and our other supposed lawgivers collect¬
ed or composed the documents transmitted in their names.
VOL. IX.
It is not the less unreasonable to assume on that account,
with Chief-Justice Wilmot and others, that the “ common
law is nothing else but statutes worn out by time.” Ma¬
dox has observed that the laws of the Anglo-Saxon kings
are as different from the writings of Glanville as the laws
of two different nations. Some of the points are brought
out in contrast in the second volume of Mr Hallam’s
Middle Ages. p. 466. Yet, if we are .driven to any parti¬
cular date for the origin of the present common law, it
must be a moment not much anterior to the age of Glan¬
ville. He wrote as early as the year 1180; and the laws
called by the name of Henry I., which are in their spirit
thoroughly Anglo-Saxon, must, by. their mention of Gra-
tian’s decree, be as late as the very end of the reign of
Stephen. Mr Hallam makes a very judicious suggestion.
He supposes that these laws, like the water ordeal for the
common people, contain the ancient usages of inferior
jurisdictions, whilst the treatise of Glanville, he conjec¬
tures, comprehends only the rules of the Norman lawyers,
by which, through the influence of the circuits, and by other
means, the former were gradually superseded. The un¬
written usages were become completely fixed by the time
of Bracton’s compilation, towards the end of the reign ot
Henry III. There are no grounds whatever for conjec¬
turing that these fluctuations were preceded or ratified
by any direct legislative notice.
At a later period, namely, in the year 1322, it was ex¬
plicitly enacted that all matters to be established for the
estate and welfare of the realm should be treated in parlia¬
ment. After so solemn and public a declaration, it might
much more plausibly have been supposed that every subse¬
quent alteration, whether in the civil or in the criminal law,
would be accompanied by a parliamentary sanction in evi¬
dence of its title. What a change, however, took place both
in one and the other ; yet no “ statutes worn out by time”
can here be pretended. It is indeed remarkable that
the statutory changes long bear but a small proportion
to those which were obtained from other quarters. Al¬
though usage after this period can have crept in only
now and then imperceptibly, undoubtedly the sages of
the law kept insinuating their opinions, even extrajudici-
ally, from time to time into the system. But by far the
greater part of the innovations, real and apparent, were
derived through the means of judicial decisions preserved
in reported cases, and argued out by help of what has
been quaintly called the “ logical deduceableness” of the
principles of the common law. The grounds of every
judgment were set out on the record till the reign of Ed¬
ward HI.; afterwards they were taken down by certain
grave and sad men in the year-books; and latterly, they
have been left to reporters of a less accredited description.
These precedents constitute an immense repertory of case
law. If regard is paid to the smallness of the basis com¬
pared with the vastness of the superstructure, the ordi¬
nary course will appear to have been the. synthetical for¬
mation of general rules out of the application and exten¬
sion of individual instances. The portion, however, is far
from being inconsiderable, in which the judicial classifica¬
tion of particular facts has proceeded according to the
allegata et probata, under certain established principles.
Looking at the history of the science, Burke was justi¬
fied in saying, in the report of the committee upon the
impeachment of Warren Hastings, that “ to give judg¬
ment privately^ is to put an end to reports; to put an
end to reports, is to put an end to the law of England.”
Reports of the leading cases are especially valuable where
society and the law are in a state of transition. With¬
out them, the law in such periods soon becomes what
Lord Bacon says the law of his time would have become
without the reports of Lord Coke, a ship without bal-
Govem-
ment and
Laws.
26
.ENGLAND.
Govern- last. Tlie whole equitable law of the court of chancery,
ment and no^ tie(} up strictly as the common law itself, has
Laws. sp\jn, with but very slight exceptions, out of maxims
of conscience and limits upon discretion, laid down ju¬
dicially at as late a day as that of Lord Nottingham and
the Itestoratipn. That part of the English system where
at present thO lucubrations of twenty1 years are more
wanted than in any'Other, Was still in its infancy little
rnore than a hundred years ago. Sir Mathew Hale said,
in 167*2, “ a little law, a good tongue, and a good memory,
would fit a man for the chancery.” Evelyn, noticing the
death of Chief-Justice Treby, in the year 1700, adds, “ ihe
chancery requires so little skill in deep law learning, if the
practiser can talk eloquently in that court, that probably
few care to study the law to any purpose.” Lord Notting¬
ham could not have desired a successor more admirably
qualified than Lord Eldon, to remove from bis court the. last
traces of this reproach. His ingenuity and erudition, how¬
ever, only added still further to “ the mass of learning which
no industry can acquire, nor any intellect digest.” Vesey
junior, and his voluminous successors; have accelerated the
predicted “crisis of a necessary Reformation, when our
laws, like those of Rome, must* be cast into the crucible.
It would be a disgrace to the nineteenth century, if Eng¬
land could not find her Tribonian.” (Hallain.) Mr Den-
tham admits that this legislative crisis will find, in the
store-books of our reports, materials of a higher and more
authentic character than were ever in the possession of any
other country. Although the amendments of the law in
the last session of parliament were more extensive than
those of any single reign since Edward I., they neverthe¬
less do.not affect to have been of a nature to ascertain the
existence or non-existence of a present Tribonian amongst
our reformers..: The extent of the alterations which have
been begun or * are anticipated, ntay be understood by the
complaint of a member of the profession, who has parti¬
cular means of information. “ I regret to find (says Mr
Chitty, in his Concise View, 1884) that students, whether
for tlie bar, or as special pleaders, or as attornies, have of
late nearly suspended all study, upon the supposition that,
whilst innovations in the law are so frequent, it would be
useless one day to learn what must perhaps tire next day
be forgotten or effaced.”
A wise legislature will establish municipal rights in all
cases, when by soi doing it increases the sum of human
happiness. These rights must be dei’ived from the seve¬
ral sources of human pleasure- They therefore necessarily
regard property, person, station, character, or opinions.
Rights are public or private. Out of the first arisfe ques¬
tions between the, governors and the governed;, to the se¬
cond belong the disputes of individuals. The classifica¬
tion of these two descriptions of rights, and the specifica¬
tion of the circumstances which are the occasions upon
which they vest, institute : the: constitutional and the
civil code. But rights .are delusive unless protected by
adequate guarantees. It is the first object of the reme¬
dial law, therefore, to define the circumstances which
amount ,to a legal violation of whatever rights the sub¬
stantive law has conferred. If the injury is considered
to affect tlie public, its recurrence is sought to be pre¬
vented by subjecting the wrongdoer to the penalties of
the criminal code provided on behalf of society at large.
If the injury is of a private nature, the party injured is
entitled to recover damages in the civil court for his own
personal satisfaction. The mode by which the appropri¬
ate legal remedies for an alleged injury are ascertained, is
called the trial. Since every case may involve disputed
points of law and fact, it is requisite to make complete
arrangements for deciding both. The efficiency of a trial
will depend upon the constitution of the several courts,
and the rules: for tegnlatiug their proceedings. The first Govern-
part of this problem concerns the number and locality of
the tribunals, the principle upon which each of them shall
be formed (as whether of a single judge or more, and '
with or without a jury), and lastly^ the scale of appellate
jurisdictions. The chief considerations relating to the
proceedings concent the rules of pleading and of evi¬
dence, or the method by which a party is required first
to make his statement, and afterwards to prove it. When
the trial has established the merits of the case, and fixed
the nature of the remedy, nothing remains but that pro¬
per means should be provided for carrying the judgment
of the court into effect. This can be only done by making
the property, and, on just occasion,1 the person, of the
defendant duly available to the requisition of the law.
1. Comtitntional Law.—r\his has been treated of in the
former section. The shape in which the Roman civil law
has come down to us, as recast at Constantinople by the
imperial jurists, contains not a syllable which can be re¬
ferred to the supposed resemblance between the mixed
forms of government of ancient Rome and modern Eng¬
land. Excepting a few slight privileges belonging to the
peerage as members of a second legislative assembly, Eng¬
lish equality recognises no distinction but that of aliens
and natives. Our doctrine of the unalienability of birth-
allegiance, and our restraints on naturalization, are pushed
to an illiberal extreme. But it is a great blessing to have
escaped the useless and onerous diversity of castes by
which Roman policy was embarrassed, and American free¬
dom is disgraced. England is safe from the interminable
questions of political rights and civil condition arising
among the ingenui, liberti, servi ; and under the discre¬
pancies of the various kinds of citizenship and the Jus
Italicum and Jus Latinum. Shades of colour have intro¬
duced the risk of even still more dangerous collisions into
the United States.
2. The Relations of Private Life.—Under the English
law these relations were for the most part either settled
upon, or have been since gradually brought within, the true
principle, namely, that of deriving from the connection the
greatest advantage to both parties, which, on a comprehen¬
sive view of their interests, the particular relation seems
qualified to produce. On legislating upon this subject, our
law-makers have not overlooked the painful fact, that there
is no occasion where it is more necessary to keep con¬
stantly present to the mind the line which separates mo¬
rals from law. The poor-laws and the factory bill are
doubtful exceptions, in which the feelings of society may
be suspected of having got the better of its judgment.
Otherwise, the law has generally forborne from becoming
responsible for those private virtues which no law can
possibly secure, and has shrunk from an interference far
too powerful not to tend to defeat the end it is desirous
of accomplishing. In the service of adults, the contract be¬
tween master and servant is the only criterion both of their
claims and of their liabilities. The maxim that slaves can¬
not breathe the air of England, has at length comprehended
our distant colonies within its blessing. The extension of
a haughty local privilege into a national truth is the proud¬
est triumph of the humanity and justice of modern times.
The relation of parent and child is placed upon proper
grounds. Parental authority is reasonably limited to the
degree of power necessary for the adequate performance
of the duties which every parent is understood to under¬
take. The most faulty part of the legal distinction be¬
tween legitimate and illegitimate children is not in the
degree by which the parental obligation towards them is
distinguished. The feelings of society must first alter,
and the policy of our rules, and the most effectual method
of attaining our object, must be carefully reviewed, or very
I
ENGLAND.
27
ifiovern-
inentand
Laws.
There is the spiritual promise at the altar to obey, and Govern-
the legal solemnity which makes it petty treason to kill her ment and
lord and husband. Marital restraint and correction carry
little practical benefit will follow from a nominal amend¬
ment of the letter of the law.
.pxes placed the female sex in the East, in Greece, and the poiver oi domestic discipline, in the cose ot a wi e, a
fn Eome ta a permanent tutelary condition. Their dis- greater length than in that ot any other .servant, except
ab'lities were doubtless represented, as in the case ot mi- an apprentice, i he principle ot considering the "1 < <'
is amonSt ourselves to be in reality privileges of pro- capable of committing certain crimes in the presence ot
tectim^^Modem civilization has transferred this state of her husband owing to her supposed submission to his
mbediitv from women generally, to women who consent orders, is made additionally absurd by the inconsistency
to assume the character and status of wives. The marriage with which the supposition is applied. It is time that on
contract cannot be regarded as an ordinary partnership, one or two of these points the law should be put into ha -
Women are certainly the half of the species much the mony with the fact. I here might also be a wholesome
mosTinterested in the rule, that a contact, more or less relaxation of the rule by which a married woman is pre¬
resembling the marriage contract as it is actually esta- vented, under all circumstances except the civil death of
Sea should subsist. The only question which their her husband, from being sued as a single woman. The
advocates can raise must be upon its terms. It is admitted landed property of a wife could formerly be alienated
tint the terms are partial. The question still remains, only by a fine. It was imperfectly protected against the
Can they be improved? Nothing is more imprudent than exercise of undue influence, on the part of a grasping
to volunteer Xcufative changes in an engagement of husband, by her separate examination. Her real and also
this domestic nature, without infinite caution in examining it
into the capabilities of the case. It is impossible to equa
lize its effects and condition to the two parties. There is
an extreme risk of injuring the female by the 'cry ptc-
cautionsand facilities which it has been proposed to inter¬
pose in her favour. The interest which other parties (the
children and society) have to keep families together,
the first of those concentric circles by which a vvell-or-
far as property is concerned, the devices of a marriage
settlement, and the interposition of trustees, seem to ac¬
complish every thing which can possibly be accomplished
by law.
* 3. Beal property.—The lawyers of Greece and Rome
had no idea of the necessity of two systems; one for land,
and the other for goods. In England the systems are en-
dered community is formed, introduces a new and para- tirely distinct. The civil law ot England dm mg a very
mount consideration. The more the subject is reflected considerable period seems to have had little else but land
ml the more will it appear that the English law of to treat of. It characterized land by the expressive deno¬
husband and wife requires mfly very incidental modifica- m.nation of realty; and distinguished it still further by
tions By the late amended marriage act (3 George IV.), establishing its legal title and qualities on exc lusively feu-
the reluctant successors of Lord Hardwicke were com- dal principles. Hypothesis and research will be equally
pelted to retrace his steps, and to submit, on the marriage at a loss to make out any analogy between the Roman
of minors, to the compromise ot factum valet, quod fieri Institutes and Littleton si enures. I he language of Ciaig
non debet. The debates on that occasion affirmed in the would have been unintelligible to Papiman. ■ Whe e t t
most striking manner the necessity of recognising the same word happens to be used, it only deepens the contra-
least of two evils in this delicate chapter of jurisprudence, diction by the chfterence in its meaning. Dower, for exam-
\To necessity, however, exists at all for making parliament pie, by which the Romans described the property which a
the sole tribunal where a marriage can be dissolved. It woman brought with her on her marriage, signifies, in our
is a singular anomaly, that this particular contract should modern application of it, the life-mterest which, on the
become^ the subject of individual and eX post facto legisla- death of her husband, the widow acquires to a third o us
tion in every case where parliamentary divorces for add- land. The changes in society gradually made it impossible
tery are allowed to break in upon the ordinary law. Our to retain the strictness and also the peculiarities of feudal
practice does not leave a doubt that the contract should learning. The “ old books were already antiquated,
be teeallv* voidable for adultery. But it is very question- and several of their cases seldom came into practice in
abl^whetlier, on tranxftrring^liis jurisdiction t'o courls of the time of Sir Mathew Hale The new reports, such as
justice, the interests of society in general, and of females those of Coke, Plowden, and Dyer, the pumsa
in particular, would be promoted by the admission of any which he pressed upon his student, are now become old
other grounds of divorce whatsoever. Nevertheless Cran- books ’ themselves, and are approaching towards a simi-
mer, in the proposed reformation of the ecclesiastical law lar fate; partly by statutory repeals partly from desue-
at the Reformation, was prepared to give to many of the tude or ignorance under a still ^ea^r ^Volution n he
causes on which a separation takes place at present, the law. The wave rom the^ commonwealth which dur ng
effect of a complete dissolution of the marriage. The the reign: of Charles .the Second, carried off part of the
rule which, subject to a few exceptions, prevents a bus- rubbish of former times did little m comparison with
band and wife from giving evidence either for or against what has been done in the first session o a re orme -
each other, seems very unreasonable. The legal conse- parliament. The abolition of fines and recoveries; the
cuences of marriage do not depend, as Blackstone states, amendments in the law of inheritance and dower ; the h-
upon any canonical union of persons, which can be sup- mitation of actions, by which writs and formulas of com¬
posed to suspend or merge, during coverture, the legal ex- plicated absurdity, hazard, anc expanse, are ^one or
istence of the wife. These consequences are much bet- ever; hold out substantial encouragement to expect that
ter accounted for by the rustic simplicity of ancient times, thh labours of the different law-commissions will m course
which regarded the wife as only a servant of a better fa- of time be brought to a satis.acteiy egis ative cone usion.
shion. Ifis evident that a'family partnership, which, when In a practical point of view, the registry )i is vy
it has once been formed, can be determined only by death the most important ot their present rccommen ations. - n
or by criminal conduct of a serious nature, requires a con- undertaking ot much greater di.cuty, ut or una e y
jugal superiority on one side or the other. In this-view the much less urgent, remains behind. ie princip es, t ie
law is censurable rather from the discotirtesy of the occa- reasonings, and tlie language of the aw o rta proper
sional language of some of its authors, than the substance will not bear an enlightened examination at t ie present
ofits provisions. The superiority is certainly evident enough, day. Nothing indeed can be more indefensi e in tie
28
ENGLAND.
Govern- nineteenth century than a legal system, of which such
ment and a book as Coke upon Littleton is the classic. It is a very
Laws, imperfect answer to say that the opinion which Lord
Mansfield once.gave to a West India governor upon the
law generally, applies especially to this part of it: “ De¬
cide according to your judgment, but give rto reasons.
Your decision generally will be right: your reasons al¬
ways will be wrong.” A code itself would be only a par¬
tial remedy, unless it superseded the necessity of looking
back into the volumes which preceded it. Feudal docL
triries are too completely woven into them ever to be
worked out of their text. During centuries when the
legislature either could not or would not act, judge-made
law was by far the least of the two evils to which the coun¬
try was reduced. The judges certainly did their best to¬
wards accommodating the law to the altered condition of
society, by means of the only instrument in their power.
But the course taken led naturally into a labyrinth of fic¬
tions and refinements, which it will now require pretty
muchothe same astuteness to unmake, as was originally
employed fin the making of them. I he complaint is not
that the law is difficult to be understood. That might be
expected#' What shocks a reasonable person at the pie-
sent day, is the finding that so many of its rules, when
they come to be understood, are irreconcilable with either
common sense or with the usages of tbs community which
tileyigcalBiTiijhjm b lo ieoqot on 1 ,'fyiinnm yauufmmO'W
Thus, in descent, instead of regarding the just expec¬
tations of near relations, the law is occupied in tracing
tlie blood of the first purchaser. In forfeiture, instead of
balancing the claims of the family on one side, and the
claims of injured society on the other, the la.w can see
nobody but the original feudal donor. In questions of the
lawfulness of a distress, the difficulties do not turn on the
pointy whether the goods which have been seized repre¬
sent under the circumstances the fair and natural security
for the benefit which the owner of the goods has derived
from the premises where they were found, but whether
the landlord, on putting an occupier in possession of the
premises, had taken care that the terms of the occupation
were so expressed as to be sufficient technically to raise
a tenure. Independently of judicial construction, succes¬
sive innovations have materially broken in upon the feu¬
dalism of the common law. This is the case, particularly
in tjhe restraints imposed upon entails and remainders, in
the free exercise of the testamentary power, and in the
frequency of terms of years which are regarded by the
lawyers as personalty, ihe most important of all inno¬
vations is, however, the extent to which the doctrine ot
trusts and uses has brought the principal questions con¬
cerning land into a court, where forms and principles in
many respects essentially differing from those ot the old
common law prevail. The intermediate legislation respect¬
ing uses, from 50 Edward III. c. 6, to 27 Henry VIII. c.
10, is a characteristic specimen of the English method of
creeping on step by step, after the mischief has run, like
the dry rot, into the frame of society, instead of taking a
comprehensive view of the necessary consequences of the
nejv system, and anticipating the confusion by such a con¬
clusive statute as, after all its previous minute enactments,
it was ultimately obliged to pass. It answers in civil to
the cautious manner with which in criminal jurisprudence
the law of mayhem advars^d, taking successively the dif-
fqveut parts Qf .the human body under its protection, one
after another, until at last came a general measure known
by the name of Lord Ellenborough’s act. Blackstone,
writing in observes that the Chancellors, “ by a long
series of uniform determinations for now near a century
pash with some assistance from the legislature, have raised
anew system of rational jurisprudence, by which trusts are
made to answer all the beneficial ends of uses, without Govern
their inconveniences or frauds.” Considering the strict- “em and
ness of the doctrinal division between legislative and ju-
dicial authority, and the traditional attachment to juries,
the national submission to this legal revolution, consum¬
mated by the great seal, is a remarkable proof ot the im¬
possibility of working the system of the common law in
the present state of society. It may be questioned whe-
ther any country ever adopted, at so comparatively an ad-
vanced stage of civilization, so complete a change; with
little notice beyond an occasional murmur in some quar¬
ters at what was going forward, and that general ratifica¬
tion on the part of the public in the consent that comes
from silence. The nature of a jurisdiction like that of
Chancery, must be to enlarge, and not contract, its cir¬
cle. It is now some time since Mr Butler was of opinion
that half the estates in the kingdom were held in trust.
But there are further changes than those of form. Ihe
very substance of certain titles which make a great figure
in the law-books is wearing out. Two species of incor¬
poreal hereditaments, common and tithe, to which an ex¬
travagant and superstitious importance was formerly at¬
tached, seem shortly destined to disappear; and they will
carry with them into oblivion a mass of favoured learn¬
ing. Common of pasture and of estovers was supposed
to be so necessary to the advancement of agriculture, and
to the maintenance of tenantry and yeomen, that a case
connected with it drew forth ’ from Lord Coke the pas¬
sionate exclamation, “ God forbid that the law should
not be so, for otherwise many commons in England would
be avoided and lost.” Long after the Reformation, a still
deeper horror continued to be expressed by Spelman and
the clergy, at the sacrilegious spectacle of tithe in lay
hands, or of land discharged from the payment of tithe.
When the necessity of statutes of limitation has been re¬
cognised in all other cases, and when even the crown has
submitted to be barred by prescriptions of a reasonable ex¬
tent, the ecclesiastical rule which sent back the proof of
a modus to a time beyond legal memory, was no less im¬
politic than absurd. The tithe owner has to contend at
present against passion and prejudice, as well as against
reason. A violent re-action has taken place. 1 he discou¬
ragement to agricultural improvements, from a suirendei
of a fixed portion of the gross produce, is a ground of ob¬
jection in which the public at large are interested. Ihe
result is, a demand for a general commutation ot tithe,
which cannot be much longer delayed.
4. Personalty.—It is agreed that Bracton borrowed the
chief part of what he has said concerning personal pro¬
perty from the civilians. But the reader of the year¬
books finds himself at the reign of Henry VI. before
goods and chattels have become of sufficient importaivce to
make their way as the grounds of litigation into their re¬
cords. The laws upon property of this description, and on
personal contracts generally, are very much the same all
the world over. This is probably to be accounted for, not
by the supposition that similar laws must have had some
common origin ; but because these things are too perish¬
able in their nature, and too much the subject of daily
wants and traffic, to admit conveniently, under any circum¬
stances, of any great deviation from a common line. Ihe
consequence is, that on this point, beyond some occasional
quaint distinctions between what is realty and what is
personalty, and a little absurdity concerning things which
are merely the subject of base property and miUius in
bonis, there is very little which can be noticed as peculiar
in the English law. Where goods have been lost or stolen,
the effect which, according to circumstances, prescription
and sale ought to have in discussions between the original
and the derivative owner, has been settled upon no discri-
ENGLAND.
Govern- minating principle. The rights belonging to an owner
meat and w]ien he is out of possession have been slowly recognised
Laws jn most countries. Blackstone hastily states, that unless
a right of property were to be transferred by the. salSe
even of stolen goods, in market overt, “ all commerce be¬
tween man and man must soon be at an end. ’ He should
have recollected that England offers the only exception
in civilized Europe to the rule,nemo plus juris in uiium
iransferre potest qtiam quod ipse habet” In the new ques¬
tions which have arisen out of tl>e extended intercourse and
complicated interests of recent times, it is fortunate for
the* legal reputation of the country, that the demand for
the development and application of the great principles
of commercial and maritime law should have taken place
at, a time when Lord Mansfield and Lord Stowell presid¬
ed in their respective conrts.
5. Private Wrongs.—Every right must have its remedy,
otherwise it is a right only in name. Verdicts with a far*-
tiling damages are sufficient evidence that the expressions
damnum absque injuria, and de minimis non curat lex, are
confined in practice within narrow bounds. ■ I he forms
of actions are, in other words, a list of the cases which
the law recognises as civil injuries, and which it accord-
ingly promises to redress in that character. One of tire
great boasts of the English law is the means which it has
taken to render illegal imprisonment almost impossible.
This was at last obtained, but with infinite difficulty, un¬
der the final guarantee of the habeas corpus act. Jfhere
is nothing otherwise remarkable in its estimate of the
wrongs either to the persons or to the personal property of
individuals, or in the general quality of the remedies.pro-
vided by it. The injuries to real property, and the peculiar
remedies applicable in the several cases, partake strongly,
at least in shape and in language, of the characteristic
subtlety and jargon in which the law of real property it¬
self is framed. There are instances, however, with re¬
spect to personal property as well as real, where the strict¬
ness of the rules;at common law had the effect of a denial
of right, and drove the parties into a court which under¬
took to adjust the remedy to the wants and feelings of
society. Chancery would never have obtained a tenth
part of its present jurisdiction, but that the common-law
judges contented themselves with damages, instead of in¬
sisting that a contract should be specifically performed and
goods specifically restored; and unless they had obstinately
refused, since the introduction of uses, to notice the exist¬
ence of a trust. The bankrupt law lias lately been put
upon a footing which appears likely to give, in its text and
its administration, as much satisfaction as can be imparted
to so untoward a subject. Nor does it follow that trades*
men who complain of the million that is discharged by a
penny in the pound, are entitled to lay the blame upon
either the policy or the execution of insolvent acts. The
only effectual protection, that of more cautious credit, is in
their own hands. The Roman system placed the debtor
at the mercy of the creditor. The American system,
according to Chancellor Kent, throws the creditor at the
feet of the debtor. The experience of all countries seems
to show, that in legislating upon insolvency, it is impossi¬
ble to reconcile the claims of humanity and of justice by
the positive declarations of a universal rule.
6. Criminal Law.—Whenever the circumstances and
motive under which a legal right is violated imply an in¬
jury to the public, it is reasonable that the remedy should
cease to be solely of a private nature.;) The English law
is defective in not endeavouring to combine reparation to
the party directly injured, as a subordinate object. But it
properly considers the mischief to the public, and the re¬
medy for the public, as the paramount concern of criminal
justice. Xhe comparative alarm spread throughout society
by different offences is the test of their several degrees of Govern-
responsibility; nor is society entitled to take a criminal ^^ntl
cognizance of them at all, save with the single aim of prer
venting their recurrence. I he original point in this re.-
spect, from which the common law started, and the mode
in which its circle widened, were too coarse and vague to
admit of much discretion in the selection of the principle
adopted, or of any very uniform correctness in its appli¬
cation. Civilization has tended gradually to exclude from
the purview of human punishment the spiritual doctrine
of expiation and the savage instinct of resentment. Pro¬
ceedings pro salute aninuB are left to the ecclesiastical
courts; and the abolition, by 59 George III. c. 46, of ap¬
peals at the suit of the party in all offences, has remov¬
ed from criminal proceedings the last symptom of private
vengeance. Up to a very recent period felony was heap¬
ed upon felony as a matter of course, whenever a new or
temporary provocation happened to arise. No wonder,
where it was impossible that due attention could have
been paid to the nature even of the specific evil and the
proposed remedy, that the just proportion between the new
offences and the great body of the criminal law should
have also been neglected. In fact, they often seem to
have taken their place by chance upon the penal scale.
During the last few years the consolidation of great part
of the criminal statute-law has been performed in a very
workmanlike manner. The repeal of a multitude of ob¬
scure and almost conflicting enactments has been of great
service to the public, and still more to practitioners. It
has simplified the labours of future reformers. But a
comprehensive view, a consistent direction, and a rational
arrangement of the whole subject, is a task reserved for
the commission now engaged upon it. The interests of
society, as protected by the criminal law, are technically
called the king’s peace ; and all offences against these
interests are prosecuted in the king’s name. But it is sin¬
gular that, nevertheless, the burden and the management
of criminal prosecutions, and, in popular language, the
name even of prosecutor, should, contrary to the prac¬
tice of many countries, be thrown upon the party injured.
The principal legal consequence which has followed from
taking the prosecution formally into the hands of the state
is, that society obtains the evidence of the party injur¬
ed, who would otherwise be excluded as being a party to
the suit. The original object of using the king’s name
in this formal manner was probably to entitle the king,
as a matter of course, to the penalties and compensa¬
tions. A barbarous and fiscal rapacity was thus tempted
to scatter wholesale forfeiture with indiscriminate pro¬
fusion over the field of crime. I he 25th Edward III.,
called the magna charta of treason, had no nobler origin
than a contest between the king and the barons, which
of the two should appropriate the confiscations upon con¬
viction. They belonged to one or the other, according
as the offence was treason or ordinary felony. It may
easily be understood, therefore, what little principle exists
in the rude classification of offences into felonies and mis¬
demeanors, distinguished only by the nature of the pu¬
nishment ; the one being subjected to general forfeiture,
and the other to special fine. Under these circumstan¬
ces, a strict revision of the entire department of the cri¬
minal law, keeping steadily in view the one principle of
the good of society, must bring to light anomalies and
divergencies which it will be no less desirable than prac¬
ticable to remove. This is likely to be the case much
more in some questions than in others, bor instance>
the purely religious sentiment was formerly mixed up
with the only consideration which can justify human laws
in inquiring into offences against God; and it still par¬
tially remains so. Judicial perjury is punishable simply
30
ENGLAND.
Govern- under the general description of being the violation of
ment and an oath. If the religious obligation is alone regarded, it
Laws. inay ke contended with some plausibility that the breach
and the offence must in all cases be the same. But if the
danger to society be the point in question, it is clear that
the danger must be materially affected by the nature of
the case in which the perjury takes place. In some in¬
stances zeal without knowledge has been induced to pass
the line by which morals ought to be always kept separate
from law. The political economy of modern days has
overturned many of the most sacred rules of policy and
trade invented by the common-law wisdom of our ances¬
tors. It is in vain that the corresponding statutes have
been repealed, whilst narrow-minded judges feel a pride
in proclaiming that unitarianism, forestalling, and engioss-
ing^.are still indictable misdemeanors. The same reasoning
which annulled the statutory policy of the intei mediate
generations, ought to avail for abrogating equivalent ab¬
surdities; supposed to have been embodied at an eailiei
period in the original structure of the common law. In
many cases legal definitions, as formerly in laiceny, or
the specific enumerations contained in an act of parlia¬
ment, or the purview of a preamble, or the recognised
jurisdiction of our actual courts, may be found to fall short
of their proper object. It is plain to the understanding
of the present day, that the terms of the statutes of trea¬
son, which left even Strafford’s case to forced constructions,
were too monarchical. ’I he decay of the ecclesiastical
courts, of the court of honour, and the abolition of the
star-chamber, threw loose many offences which have never
been examined and arranged on system. It may be
doubtful whether seduction and adultery are properly left
to a civil remedy only. A doubt however can scarcely
be entertained but that the indictable character of words
spoken, as distinguished from words written, ought not
to be derived solely from their containing a consequent
breach of the peace in their tendency to lead to a chal¬
lenge. There is little foundation in reason for the ge¬
neral rule, which, in slander or libel, admits the truth to
be pleaded as a justification always in an action, but never
in a prosecution. A careful investigation of the true prin¬
ciples, which, in a compromise of difficulties, may be the
best guides on many subjects, will lead to another very
important consideration, A great deal of needless, and,
what is worse, pernicious pains, appears to have been em¬
ployed in turning into fixed rules of law what it would be
much more satisfactory to the ends of justice to have left
as questions of fact. This must happen in all subjects and
occasions where the nature and tendency of the act de¬
pends on circumstances which it is almost impossible to
define beforehand. Supposing, what we see no reason to
suppose, that a common jury is incompetent to decide
questions of fact of this description, it becomes the duty
of society to create a competent tribunal. All offences
of opinion are of this nature. But there are numerous
others. Notwithstanding the complaint of Sir Thomas
More against the judges of his day, that, in order to escape
personal responsibility, they threw every thing on the
jury, it is evident that, honestly and dishonestly, English
judges have brought many points, as legal conclusions
of the science, under their own judicial authority, which,
as questions of fact, would have fallen, and much more
properly belonged, to the province of a jury. National
character is involved in the history of the public institu¬
tions and policy of a country. England, both at home
and ’abroad, labours under the imputation that the letter,
and even the execution, of its criminal law, are severe be¬
yond the example of other states scarcely its equals in
general civilization. The difference would appear by
comparing a scale of offenees and punishments under the
English law with a similar table drawn up according to Govern,
the progressive mitigations which have been attempted ^and
by America and France. It need not be feared but that
the experience of opposite systems, and a patient discus-
sion of the peculiarities of England, of the nature and cir¬
cumstances of its population, the distribution of its wealth,
and the free character of its legislation, are sufficient
securities against vague and theoretical innovation. The
result would ascertain what degree of success has attended
the humane endeavours of the enlightened statesmen o
other countries towards the amendment of their penal
codes, and whether any just cause can be assigned jvhy
England may not safely venture upon imitating,their ex¬
ample. The comparison of the nature of comparative
anatomy between the laws of different nations may be
very useful. In this instance it would be most satisfac¬
tory, were it to terminate, as some confidently insist, in
proving that England has already redeemed its light to^
the distinction which it lost in and after the reign^ o.
Henry VII.—Nidli gentium mitiores placuisse pamas. The
executions during the reign of Henry \TII. are reckoned
by Hollinshed to have averaged two thousand a year.
Towards the close of the reign of Elizabeth they averaged
annually about four hundred. Notwithstanding the vast
increase of our population, and the supposed increase of
crime, the criminal return for 1830 gives, on 12,805 con¬
victions, the sentences to death 1397, and actual execu¬
tions only forty-six. In France the criminal return for
the same year (1830) gives, on 4130 convictions, the sen¬
tences to death ninety-two, and actual executions thiity-
eight. ' .
7. Courts of Justice.—The occasions are few and strictly
limited, in which the English law allows the party injui-
ed, or his immediate relations, to right themselves. A
third person cannot justify interfering on behalf of the
private interest of even his dearest friend. It is only as
a member of society that he can step forward on the pub¬
lic grounds of preserving the public peace, rhe great
singularity of the chapter on preventive justice in the
English system, is not, as Blackstone states, that there
should be one at all, but that it is so short. Ihere is no¬
thing, however, which a stranger is not privileged in
doing, in order to prevent the commission of a felony, in
other respects, every one is understood to have transfer¬
red the redress of whatever wrongs he may sustain, as
well of a private as of a public nature, to the collective
justice of the community. Under these circumstances,
it is the duty of the community to establish tribunals for
a prompt, cheap, and efficient adjudication of the differ¬
ences which must necessarily occur. The necessity of
reconsidering the constitution and distribution of courts,
both of original and of appellate jurisdiction, has been at
last forced upon the English legislature. Original tribu¬
nals may be separated or combined upon four principles :
First, by the nature of the causes, whether civil, criminal,
or ecclesiastical: Secondly, By the importance of the pro¬
ceedings ; that is, according to the value of the matter in
dispute, or according to the amount of punishment to be
inflicted: Thirdly, By territorial extent: Lastly, By the
number and description of the judges, and by the differ¬
ent forms in which justice may be administered in each.
The English system admits all these principles.
The supreme courts are classed on the first principle.
They were originally fdunded upon a positive metaphysi¬
cal division, which went so far as to parcel out particular
classes of civil causes to particular courts. Thus all con¬
troversies between subject and subject were to be taken
into the Common Pleas $ all civil questions which might
affect the revenue were to be decided in the Exchequer ;
whilst the King’s Bench had the proper cognizance of ail
E N Gr h A N D.
31
trespasses wliich savoured of a cririunal nature, iti right
of its transcendent authority for the correction of crimes
aftd misdemeanors. By means of rival measures of ludi¬
crous trickery, hardly worthy to be called astuteness, these
courts gradually obtained in most civil actions a concur¬
rent jurisdiction. But this jurisdiction unfortunately re¬
mained stationary while society advanced. In course of
time Chancery took under its cnarge the vast civil interests
with which the common law refused to interfere. Common
lawyers were for a time indignant; but they seem, alter
the first unsuccessful struggle, to heave shrunk from enter-
fit of be^ tlecrded by a local cotwfc Byfehe supposition, tavern,
a better court is understood to be provided elsewhere. Lawg_
The excluded hasps are remitted to it, because either the
difficulty of a cause, or the mischief of an erroneous;judg¬
ment, rises with the amount of the property', and of the pe¬
nalty which ft involves. This is true to a certain degree,
but to nothing like the degree necessary to warrant the
universality of the rtd'e y and least1 of all does it justify the
distinction at tho peremptory point where it is at present
taken. 'Local courts-1 of’every description are now scat¬
tered up aud down 'the country'most irregularly. There
£ 5 SSSST.vithThe political ascendency of the are as Uy as sixty courts of eonscience for the reco.
Chancellors. Consequently,'the greater part of this eqmt- very of small debts, established among vei y unequal p -
able iurisdiction is what no fiction or rule of court has since pulations and at uncertain OiWunees, 1 ncy easiij <0.011 •
be-n ingenious or venturesome enough to reach. Soon after of being parcelled out on an improved system. * On any
die Nofman conquest, it was the policy, perhaps, of the reformation of them, the standard^l^ue m eivd quesj.
Government; btit^still more of the church, to separate ju- tions otight to be materially raised. Ihe jumc al talent
dicialiy the civil from the ecclesiastical authority. The and legal knowledge of the prce^sion, if properly select-
KinsdfBench has revenged itself on Doctors’ Commons ed, are fully capable of supplying the cemapd vvhicl' 1
for die encrOachmentB of Chancery, and has always taken alteration would create. Ihe necessity of local bomb,
iealous care, by its prohibitions, to keep the ecclesiastical is a matter of contemporary fact and reason rathe, than
courts within‘their peculiar province. The province is of authority ; but if great mames are W^tedw tne j^an
still however considerably larger than present opinion
Would have made it; for it would be difficult to make
out how matrimonial and testamentary questions are pro¬
perly matters of spiritual concern. The suspicion enter-
mined by Mr Bentham, that the metaphysical classifica¬
tion of courts must have been the result ot a scramble be-
drawn by Sir Mathew Hal© is ample authority for the
propositions of Lord Brougham. There can be no doubt
but that the confidence of the public would soon be'at¬
tracted to tribunals which, by their comparative accessi¬
bility, would reduce the tlelay, die vexation, add the ex¬
pense, within very moderate compass, in this manner the
tion 01 courts must nave ueen tue leouitui a  - . v —- . . , , 1 1 , •
tween competitors, is not confirmed by our legal history, most crying grievance m.gbtbe^ removed, and die adrot
.  nmufThi-nhnni-the rnnsnlida- nistration of iustice universally facilitated; without giving
The scramble began witn and brought about the consolida¬
tion. Nevertheless, although at first a deliberate arrange¬
ment, itseevps to have been an injudicious one; and as such,
it has been in a great degree abandoned. Every classifica¬
tion of the kind multiplies the chances of clashing juris¬
dictions. It creates also an additional risk of a failure of
justice; since there is a chance the more of a formal
error, by mistaking the appropriate'tribunal- Each court,
having less to do as the business is more minutely subdi¬
vided, can supply the judicial demands'of a wider area.
Thus is-superinduced the further disadvantage of extreme
centralization. Circuits by the supreme judges at stated
periods offiy partially mitigate a portion of these evils.
They have been in use for many ages, and . have the: very
desirable effect of bringing the metropolitan courts nearer
to the great majority-of the suitors or the kingdom; but
it is difficult beforehand to make the calculation oi the
probable business at the several places of a circuit, with so
much accuracy as not to become the occasion oi one or
other of opposite inconveniences. Causes are oiten hur¬
ried through with indecent haste, or are got rid of by an
almost compulsory-arbitration ; or great vexation and ex¬
pense are incurred in waiting far a trial, which, alter all,
is obliged to be put off until the next assizes. The ex¬
pense of our actual courts is a fatal objection to the ex¬
clusive authority which they practically at least enjoy.
When it is at orice universally admitted that it is cheaper
to lose a debt of L.20, rather than to recover it by law,
nothing further need be said. In the main examples
under the English system for distinguishing courts, either
according to the importance ot the question, whether
civil or criminal, or according to the extent ot territory
nistration of justice universally faeilitated; without giving
to our permanent local courts an exclusive original juris-'
diction of all cases whatsoever arising within their lifuit.
The circuit system, though open to serious objections,
might probably, in a balance of advantages and disad¬
vantages, be the best practical compromise for the remain¬
ing difficulties. The periodical visi t s of the supreme judges,
and the presence and example ot the powerlul metropoli¬
tan bar, have doubtless a very wholesome influence in the
provinces. They constitute moveable, local Courts fertile
time being. In the great majority of cases, trials at bar
must have; been always out of the question ; ano. much
more so, while the metropolis was a place talked of rather
than known in remote counties, than at present. I rotn
the earliest times, therefore, the courts :at \V estminster
could not dispense with justices in eyre travelling to the
spot. These deputations of the supreme judicial power are
necessary consequences of the strict doctriheoi venue, and
of the most latitudinarian extension which has yet been
given to the original necessity of summoning a jury from
the scene of action. The size of France more naturally led
to great provincial institutions, like the old Trench parlia¬
ments, or the actual (Jours Roy ales, with their (livers sub¬
ordinate jurisdictions. The different courts existing in Eng¬
land for different purposes, vary-Considerably in the num¬
ber of tlieir judges, and in the forms by which justice is ad¬
ministered. Mr Bentham praises single-seated judicature.
Aristotle, on the contrary, insists that one or more col¬
leagues are wise precautions against the moral or intellec¬
tual obliquities of a single individual, ihe practice of
England offers a choice of every kind. The varieties are
varieties of accident apparently, not of principle. Courts of
civu or criminal, or aceoruiug lu ine caicul u<  n . . . y, \
subject to their jurisdiction, both principles are generally equity, and most of the courts which do not pioceet ac-
combined. This is the case with the baronial, the hun- cording to the common law, have always afforded, am
dred, and the county courts of the common law. The still afford, only a single judge. But the number in tie
same combination was observed in the County Court for supreme common-law courts fluctuated considerably in
Middlesex, as settled by the 23d George II. c. 33. It former times. That of the Common Fleas, for instance,
applies also to the Courts of Requests oi'Conscience, and has been nine, seven, six, four, and hve ; of winch atter
to the judicial authority given to corporations and to jus- number the three principal courts of common^ law consist
tices of the peace. The subjects which exceed the scale at present
l.IJ 1 111 v_.l|^ vy VI t w 12   
On the circuit the number drops down to one,
set to these limited jurisdictions, of course lose the bene- both in civil and criminal cases, xhe trial ot a peer or
32 ENGL
Govern- felony takes place before the whole body of the nobility,
ment and 'j'be inferior courts vary equally. There are the manor
, and sheriff’s court, with the crowd owing suit and service ;
t]lc mayor and aldermen of corporations, assisted, or not,
by their recorder; magistrates with summary jurisdic¬
tion, one or two in certain cases, up to the indefinite
scramble of the bench at quarter-sessions. When mem¬
bers of a corporate body, and justices of the peace, render
their judicial services gratuitously, the financial objection
of a numerous judicature is removed. But it is only the
financial objection; and a remuneration, more than ade¬
quate to the services performed, is likely to be often got
in local influence, or some more objectionable shape- W hen
the aggregate numbers stop short of letting in the pas¬
sions which seize upon all large assemblies, even the ma¬
jority may be yet likely enough to want the requisite cha¬
racter and knowledge. It is absolute^ necessary to keep
down this risk within certain limits. But the importance
of interesting the higher and middling classes in the ad¬
ministration of justice may counterbalance in this instance!,
as in that of a jury, a small per-eentage of errors.
If no very good cause can be assigned for the numerical
varieties which appear upon the English bench on different
occasions, it is perhaps still more difficult to give a rational
account and justification of the distinctions by which the
presence or absence of a jury is determined. The precise
history of the institution, of its original object, and of the
transitions through which it has passed to its present state,
appears to be irrecoverably lost. But enough is left to
show that it was a trial by neighbours, acting in the mixed
capacity of witnesses, sometimes to facts, sometimes to
character, as well as in that of judges ultimately deter¬
mining the truth of the fact upon the result ot the evi¬
dence. They were always the patria, but only in certain
cases the pares, of the parties. As the law advanced to
the dignity of a cultivated science, the line of demarcation
between the facts which were to be proved, and the lawr
which was to be applied to them, became strongly (occa¬
sionally too strongly) marked. If the temporary and casual
inquest returned by the sheriff w^as recognised as the pro¬
per judicature for solving the question of fact, the per¬
manent professional representative of the sovereign was
alone competent to answer the question of law. The jury,
growing up with, and itself a part of, the common law, w'as
thus made the constant adjunct to its courts. It insured
at all events publicity, without which every other excel¬
lence can give little security for real, and npne for appa¬
rent, justice. Yet apparent justice is the source of the
general confidence and satisfaction which forms one of the
principal objects of government in all its branches. In
their own limited departmeqts, courts of equity, admiralty,
and chivalry, arose under the civil law, and ecclesiastical
courts under the canon law. Knowing nothing of a jury,
they,knew nothing of the above distinction ; and the pro¬
fessional judge was of course entrusted with the decision
both of fact and law. Cases in Chancery, where an issue
is directed, gre the mere exceptions of practice., There,
is nothing in the great majority of the questions which
come before any of these courts, as compared with the
civil questions which are tried at the assizes, to warrant
a difference of this description. The interposition of a
jury is matter of command in the one case, and of prohi¬
bition in the other; yet the rule rests only upon prescrip¬
tive'usage, and nqt op reason. The legislature lias often
dispensed with juries, for obvious reasons. It is easy to
understand how a jury is too popular an institution to be
trusted with the administration of unpopular, laws; such
as laffs enforcing rates, excise, and customs, must unfor-.
tunafely;aiways be, A more .agreeable reason will justify,,
the absence ot a jury ig so«ie, but. m some only, oi the
AND.
questions left to justices of the peace. Many causes are Govern-
too free from difficulties, and at the samfe time too fre- ^nUne
quentlyreeurring, to render it necessary or prudent to fill
a jary box by means of a legal conscription on their ac¬
count. Twelve citizens need not be summoned from the
farm-yard or the counter to superintend the prosecution
of aif minor offences, and on every affair of correctional
poliee. Whilst accidental circumstances have had the
greatest share in establishing the distinctions by which in
the higher courts juries are admitted or excluded, it would
be as well to see in what cases some better criterion can
be found. This would be wiser than the opposite courses
which have been recommended by the extreme advo¬
cates of reform ; an indiscriminate reception, or an al¬
most indiscriminate refusal. A jury is an excellent tri¬
bunal for solving arid appreciating ninety-hine out of one
hundred of the combination of facts with which criminal
justice has to deal. It is thoroughly qualified to deter¬
mine all cases of intention, and assess almost all questions
of uncertain damage, as in actions of libel and of trespass.
Whatever abuses may stain certain periods of our history,
the institution has well earned the traditional reverence
with which it is regarded. It is entitled, on collateral
accounts, to the respect of the lawyer and to the grati¬
tude of the people. The distinction by which a question
belonged to the judge or to the jury, according as it was
a question of law or of fact, impressed a peculiar charac¬
ter upon our legal proceedings. It was the occasion of the
remarkable simplicity and precision with which these se¬
parate questions were early discriminated in the English
law. The national character of Englishmen has become
remarkable for its almost judicial sobriety, and for the de¬
gree in which a deep sense of justice and rin invincible
respect for property are singularly combined with popular
public spirit. How much of these, one or all, may be owing
to the immemorial co- operation of the people in the admi¬
nistration of the law, is more than any one can presume
to say. The impression left by English history on Jeffer¬
son is recorded in his declaration, that he would rather
live without parliaments than without juries.
It is for the interest of the parties as well as of the'
public that a suit should be brought to a final termina¬
tion as soon as a reasonable certainty for a correct deci¬
sion has been secured. A government is bound to make
its courts of original jurisdiction as good as, with refe¬
rence to the circumstances of the case, it has the means
of making them. That is the first and indispensable secu¬
rity. Supposing, nevertheless, that there are grounds
for suspecting a failure of justice in any instance, on ac¬
count of misdecision either upon the fact or the lawy the
course to be pursued depends on the stage which the
proceedings have reached. There can be no reason for
withholding from the original court, if it has still charge
of the proceedings, the power of doing justice. This is
done in civil cases, in a court of common law, by means
of a new trial. On the return of the record by the judges
who were commissioned to take the trial at Nisi Prius, the
court from which the record was sent can revise the law
laid down at the trial by the presiding judge, and can also
exercise a discretionary criticism on the verdict of the jury.
In tke event of the question being transmitted to a se¬
cond jury, the judge commissioned to superintend, and
the jurors summoned to ’rehear the facts, may be different
individuals from those concerned in the former investiga¬
tion;; but the class which the inquest represents continues
the .same. It is not a superior court, but only another
edition of the former. The judges on this occasion have
frequently an opportunity of putting the parties to such
- tenns a^ may appear to be advantageous to the ends of
.juatiGe, especially with cegardAo the new!,evidence to be
ENGLAND.
33
Govern- produced. It is a peculiarity belonging to the form of the
ment and action of ejectment, that a party may give himself the
I.aws. . benefit of a new trial without the assistance of the court.
In Lord Bath’s case there had been five successive verdicts
for Lord Bath before the House of Lords decreed a perpe¬
tual injunction. Justice Powell, in the year 1712 (1. Peere
Williams, p. 212), observes that new trials from Nisi Prius
are thingsof which he did not well know the foundation, but
of which he had found the courts in possession. Judges
of equity, possessing the whole case in their own hands,
have allowed themselves a somewhat greater latitude of
reconsidering and recalling their decrees, under the ana¬
logous forms of a rehearing and a bill of review. When
an original court has once pronounced its final judgment,
such a judgment is rightly made conclusive ever after,
unless reversed by a higher court. There is sometimes
the reality, and always the appearance, of hardship in bind¬
ing the losing party to the possibly hasty or prejudiced
opinion of a single tribunal. He will often be desirous of
appealing elsewhere for the chance of its reversal. One
chance of this kind, if the superior tribunal to which it is
carried up is at all properly constituted, will be enough.
This part of any possible judicial arrangement contains a
choice of evils. Unless a power of removal or of appeal be
given, one act of ignorance or of injustice will be fatal to the
unlucky suitor. The other side of the risk is exemplified in
the skeletons presented by the inferior courts for counties,
hundreds, and baronies; or in a still more mischievous vi¬
tality. If the power is given, either both courts are really
kept alive, in which case the temptation to run the gaunt¬
let of both will often take a party through two proceed¬
ings, where he had much better have rested satisfied with
one ; or society and the law-books will be taxed with keep¬
ing up the cumbersome representation of a first court long
after it has fallen into disuse. The differences between a
writ of error from a court of common law and an appeal
from the Court of Chancery are unimportant. They are
the respective names by which the two systems mean the
same thing. It is only upon appeals, in the spiritual court,
that new evidence is received. The absurdity of the
English practice, in marshalling appeals, consists not so
much in its usually allowing an intermediate stage, as in
its converting the whole nobility of the empire into the
supreme appellate court. The barbarous incompetency
of a tribunal of this nature is flagrant enough to satisfy
the condition of raising an exclamation whenever it is men¬
tioned ; and it is neither removed nor concealed by the
additional absurdity which, by way of a great constitution¬
al improvement, imperatively requires at present, besides
the one law lord who is to do the work, the ceremonial
attendance of two suffragan peers in rotation for the pur¬
pose of looking on. A well considered reform has given
the colonies and the spiritual courts an excellent court of
appeal in the late judicial modification of the privy coun¬
cil, It is out of the question to suppose that suitors from
the ordinary courts of the three kingdoms will rest con¬
tented without the benefit of some similar amendment in
the character of the House of Lords as a court of justice.
The scale of original and of appellate courts must be so
constructed as to raise the presumption in favour of the
latter. At present the appeal is carried from the most
learned judicatures in the kingdom to one which neces¬
sarily knows nothing at all about the matter.
Criminal proceedings are carried on with or without a
jury. The latter are called summary convictions. They
were unknown to the common law. At present they take
place in frauds on the revenue, and in many minor oft'ences,
before the particular persons appointed by the several
statutes which have created these extraordinary jurisdic¬
tions. When the commissioner or magistrate has once
VOL. IX.
pronounced his decision on the case as brought before Govern-
him, he is functus officio. The privilege of appeal from meat and
his decision, in order to obtain a second inquiry] into
the merits, is not of common right; it only lies where it
has been expressly given by act of parliament. The word
is connected with the comparative novelty of the proceed¬
ing. For the word appeals had not passed beyond the
spiritual courts until the time of James I. The earliest
mention of appeals to the quarter-sessions is in the begin¬
ning of the reign of Charles II.; and towards the latter
part of his reign they had come into general use. On
the other hand, the writ of certiorari, by which the King’s
Bench removes before itself the proceedings of all inferior
criminal jurisdictions, existed at common law. A certio¬
rari has the object and effect of a writ of error, in an in¬
stance where, from want of learning, error was most like¬
ly to occur. For this purpose, whenever it is granted, the
determination of the justices, like thdt of a jury in the
case of jury-trial, is final as to the matter of fact; and
the superior court, in reviewing their judgment, notices
nothing but what appears upon the face of the conviction.
The power of granting certioraris has been taken away
by express statutory prohibition upon many occasions since
the Revolution. Nevertheless the power is considered
by the King’s Bench as so beneficial to the subject,
that the extent df these prohibitions is as much as pos¬
sible restrained by the utmost jbalousy of construction.
A knowledge of law travels down to the quarter-sessions
in the shape of opinions obtained from the metropolis,
and in the persons of an attendant bar. If one or other
must be dispensed with, it may perhaps therefore be fair¬
ly questioned whether the limited argument on a certio¬
rari is not both more expensive, and at the same time less
beneficial to the subject, than the more comprehensive
re-investigation admitted upon an appeal. The conclusive
nature of criminal proceedings before a jury depends on
an absolute rule which the common law introduced, and
which it has been able to preserve up to the present day
in its own favourite tribunal. No man can be put in jeo¬
pardy twice for the same offence. As long as appeals for
felony were in practice, this maxim might have been
easily evaded. One precedent in direct contradiction to
it is reported by Foster in the trials of the Jacobites. But
when the jury has once been sworn on a charge within
its jurisdiction, and upon a sufficient indictment, it is un¬
disputed law that the prosecutor cannot elect to be non¬
suited, and that there can be no second trial. The points
on which a criminal judgment may be falsified or reversed
by the King’s Bench, or by the House of Lords, either
with or without a writ of error, are all independent of the
merits. Wherever the proceedings below are annulled on
the supposition that the party prosecuted has never been
tried at all, of course he still continues liable to prosecu¬
tion in the same manner as if the former nominal trial had
never taken place. The doctrine of attaints in criminal
cases was at no time held in terror over a jury. At mo¬
ments of violence, arbitrary judges, dissatisfied with a cri¬
minal verdict, formerly imposed fine and imprisonment
instead. This was equally unjust, and was illegal into the
bargain. In the nature of things, however, there can be
no reason why the presumption in favour of the correct¬
ness of a verdict should be placed higher in criminal cases
than in civil. Yet the one is left carefully open to revi¬
sion, while the other is as carefully closed. The distinc¬
tion is partly the result of accident, partly of indifference.
But it is probably in some degree to be attributed to the
fact that it was an object to bring litigation sooner to a
close, where, owing to the poverty of the parties, and to
the rules concerning the costs of an indictment, the liti¬
gation would be prolonged at the expense of the public.
£
34
ENGLAND.
Govern- The present popularity of the distinction is undoubtedly
ment and for t]ie most part matter of tradition. The cause of it is
Laws. t0 found in the despotic practices of former times.
The people gladly acquiesced in any rule which lessened
the number of criminal prosecutions, and secured to a de¬
fendant the whole advantage which had been hardly earn¬
ed for him by the rare contingency of a courageous jury.
It is impossible that even the violent condition of linam-
mitv can make the first impression of any court, especial¬
ly of a court constituted like a jury, so completely satis¬
factory that the conclusiveness of a single verdict cpn be
consistent in all criminal trials with the ends of justice.
The rule in the present state of society operates entirely
in favour of the prisoner. It must do so as soon as the
crown has learned to exercise the prerogative of pardon
on purely public considerations. Amongst these, and in
the first rank, stands the necessity of protecting the con¬
science of mankind against the possible suspicion of punish¬
ing the innocent. If there has been any mistake in fact or
in law, or if any fresh evidence has come to light, the pri¬
soner is certain of receiving from the executive the full
benefit of the discovery, in mitigation or pardon. Un
the other hand, unfounded acquittals are very injurious
to the best interests of a community. They turn back
on society offenders whom impunity has hardened.^ I icy
embolden all who are tempted by vicious propensities to
prey upon the public. They bear down the innocent man s
appeal to a verdict in vindication of his character, by
the cry of acquitted felons. They destroy the confidence
of the people in the truth and efficiency of the law. I he
ancient scruples, by which the statutes of jeofails were
not allowed to amend errors in indictments, had no con¬
nection with truth, justice, or sound humanity. As little
can be said in behalf of any scruple which refuses society,
for the punishment of a wrong-doer, the same assistance
as it affords a private individual in satisfaction of his pri¬
vate injury. It will not be to the credit of the reason and
the temper of the English public of the present day, if
they are not able to remove this inconsistency between
the' two systems, by the interposition of checks and pre¬
cautions, ‘which, whilst they give a proper chance of jus¬
tice to the public, shall secure a prisoner against any fur¬
ther hardship than that of having his case properly de-
cided. . u
8. Judicial Proceedings.—On these points the English
practice bears a remarkable resemblance to the Roman
in some particulars, which have been comparatively aban¬
doned in countries where otherwise the civil law is the
principal authority. It is the more curious to find these
coincidences between two systems, which are otherwise
so different, that Selden observes they have not a term in
common. The original writs of the common law, by be¬
ing the tests whether a party has or has not a right, are
rude approximations to a code. I heir analogy to the set
forms for actions adopted by the Romans is so striking,
that Duck and Noy agreed that the writs in the registrum
l/revium must have been settled by great civil lawyers.
Blackstone (vol. in. p. 117) speaks as if some similar stan¬
dard was in itself undoubtedly necessary to fix the true
state of a question.of right; and lie even subjoins, that an
equivalent method is recognised by all the modern legisla¬
tures of Europe. This is surely a proposition very difficult
to be maintained in the presence of the contrary experience,
both of Scotland, and of the English courts of equity and of
Doctors’ Commons. In the subsequent proceedings, most
judicatures leave the parties to tell their story in their
own fashion. But Mr Stephen, in his excellent work on
pleading, shows, by reference to Quinctilian’s account of
the method of oratorical analysis, which he himself used
in forensic controversies (B. vii. c. 1), how artificially the
Ionic of a Roman advocate was directed to the object of Govern-
bringing out the point in issue. Looking at the different m£n ana
ways in which the testimony of witnesses maybe extract-
ed Mr Bentham says that cross-examination is, both in
the thing and in the name, peculiarly English; for every
thing of the sort is excluded by the interchange of written
interrogatories from the present usage and vocabulary of
the civil law. However, in the seventh chapter of the
fifth book of his Institutes, Quinctilian has again sketched
as accurate a picture of examination and cross-examina¬
tion as a Nisi Prius leader could desire. Every rule of
positive law is necessarily founded on a balance of advan¬
tages and disadvantages. In many cases the line of pru¬
dent compromise between opposite mischiefs is extreme¬
ly difficult to draw and to preserve. Wherever the line
is taken, nothing is so easy or so unreasonable as to cari¬
cature it, by representing only the inconveniences which
every compromise assumes. I his is particularly true with
regard to judicial pleadings. They are merely the state¬
ment made by both sides of their case ; nevertheless they
are a subject which, on account of the opposite mischiefs
of the Scottish and English systems, has lately been the
occasion in both countries of elaborate debate and judi¬
cious propositions for their reform. The nature of the mis¬
chiefs in these two instances is just the reverse of what
might have been expected. Scotch pleadings, which were
carried on under the superintendence of the judge, erred
by extreme looseness; whilst English pleadings, which,
except in extreme cases, had been for ages left to the dis¬
cretion of counsel, became celebrated for the characteris¬
tic error of an extreme strictness and technicality. Ihe
intermediate course taken by the Court of Chancery ap¬
pears upon the whole to be the most rational; though equity
drawing has quite reproach enough in its verbosity and
repetitions, where every word has a pecuniary value. As
soon as the new rules relating to pleadings, which have
been lately framed by the judges of the superior courts
of common law, shall have come into practice, it may be
confidently trusted that the common law will no longer
labour under the evil of voluminousness, in addition to
that of technicality. Originally, parties made their state¬
ments to the judge by word of mouth, with as little form
as a complainant tells his story to a magistrate, or as coun¬
sel at present open the case orally at the bar. During
tbis period a great deal would depend on the talents of the
judge for abridging irrelevant details, and clearing up am¬
biguous expressions. Afterwards, towards the middle of
the reign of Edward III. when writing became common,
the substance of the altercation, to which the evidence and
the argument were to be applied, was required (and very
properly) to be put down in writing in the first instance.
The moment of this transition was the golden age of Eng¬
lish pleadings. Serjeants drew them, and judges settled
them. The judges ceased by degrees to interpose at this
early stage of the suit. But, according to the scholastic
subtilties of that-age, the science of special pleading was
encouraged to become more minute and complicated. A
proportionate degree of technical knowledge was rendered
necessary for the judge, since he had ultimately to award
the prize to the professional combatant who had manoeu¬
vred on behalf of his client with most success on this pre¬
liminary arena. Fitzherbert, Littleton, and Coke expa¬
tiate on the learning, the lucrativeness, the honour, and de¬
lights of pleading. The reports of Chief-Justice Saunders
are the glory of this art; and his mind is a model of the
sort of astuteness which it cultivates. The department
calls for but a small, and that far from the highest, por¬
tion of real judicial ability. It becomes only prejudicial
craftiness the moment that it passes the boundaries within
which a strong and logical understanding would confine
ENGLAND
35
rovern- the speeches of advocates at the bar. The degiee at
lent and which an intimate acquaintance with special pleading still
Laws, j-jjnks jn the list of qualifications for the bench, is a proof
-'-y'--' how much that boundary has been overpassed.
Besides mastering the merits of his case, formal diffi¬
culties of great magnitude are in this early stage of the
inquiry thrown upon an English lawyer. In the first place,
he has to select the appropriate form of action ; and having
done that, he must comply with the established principles
on which the forensic argument is to be conducted, and
which, mutatis mutandis, are equally applicable to all forms.
Our historical sketch of the transitions of English plead¬
ings shows what alone they ought .to be when they are
properly considered. If they are nothing but the state¬
ment made by the parties, of their respective cases,
What is the only object of an intelligent and honest state¬
ment ? It can be nothing else than to keep clear of ex¬
traneous topics, and to get to the point in dispute as soon
as possible. As every legal question consists of the appli¬
cation of a supposed principle of law to some one or other
supposed fact, the first thing to ascertain is, About what
are the parties quarrelling? Do they differ in their view
of the law or of the facts, or both ? The alternative cases
present no difficulty. When there is no dispute about the
facts, there is a simple point of law for the opinion of the
judges. It is at once raised upon what is called a demur¬
rer. On the other hand, when the dispute turns entirely
on the facts, what is wanted, is, that they be brought out
to the jury in so precise and definite a shape, that it is
impossible to mistake the point or points in issue. If
the party is prepared to dispute the correctness of the
law as applied to the supposed tacts, and further, also
the correctness of the facts as stated, questions of consi¬
derable difficulty and difference of opinion open on him.
Must he enter upon both issues simultaneously ? or may
he take first one, and then the other ? and, in the latter
case, with which of the two issues, that of fact 01 that of
law, ought he to begin ? The English common law dis¬
poses of these considerations by summarily making an ad¬
mission of the facts a condition of a demurrer. A legal
proposition can seldom be put forward so manifestly erro¬
neous that a defendant will not think it advisable to re¬
tain both chances in his hands. It is on the facts, namely,
what he should prove, concede, deny, that he must be care¬
ful to watch over his own interests. Points ot law will
comparatively take care of themselves, and the benefit of
these is also secured at all stages. Demurrers are freed
in courts of equity from the above condition. The expe¬
rience in equity by no means justifies the apprehension
entertained by the common-law pleaders, that on the re¬
moval of the condition every cause at common law would
be forthwith burdened with a tentative demurrer. The
discretionary application of costs might easily be made a
most effectual instrument for the suppression of such un¬
warrantable speculations as might at first arise upon a
relaxation of the former rule. The abuses of special
pleading have on many occasions induced the legislature
to interpose. Particular defendants, as magistrates, for
instance, have been favoured, by way of exception, with
the privilege of pleading the general issue; that is, they
are allowed to deny generally the wrongful act imputed
to them, without being called upon to state whether they
mean to deny the law or the fapt, or to piention a single
item of the hundred possible special grounds of their de¬
fence. The English system prides itself on its peculiar
mechanism, every movement of which necessarily tends
to a clear and single point. The plea of the general issue
does much more than lose the advantage for which so
much is sacrificed. It covers every thing with a cloud.
It gives the defendant the privilege of evading the duty
of speaking out, by adopting a common form, which tells Govern-
the opposite party absolutely nothing. The regulation
which refuses a prisoner a copy of his indictment till lie ^
holds up his hand to take bis trial, is scarcely in principle ^
more unjust. Fraud lies in generalities. On the one
hand, a defendant dr a prisoner has a right to know the
particulars of the demand or of the accusation brought
against him; something more than the mere assertion,
that he is liable to a demand or charge of some sort;
what it is being left to appear on the day of trial. On
the other hand, plaintiffs and prosecutors are equally en¬
titled to know beforehand the particulars of the defence
on which their claim is to be resisted ; something beyond
a direct negation. At all events, when the power of plead¬
ing the general issue is thrown over a party as a shield,
the exception should rest on the nature of the case, and
not on the authority of the person. A better distinction
might be found than that of official station. Pleadings
drawn up and communicated by the professional repre¬
sentative of the parties ought to contain a correct narra¬
tive of the transaction in writing. Thus prepared, they
might be expected to be more complete, and at the same
time more relevant and more concise, than any judge could
have obtained from their own mouths if present, et
what would be thought of parties in open court who were
to ramble into the jargon and exaggeration of a declara¬
tion ; or who should indulge themselves viva voce in the
fiction of alleging the utmost preciseness of time and place,
whilst every syllable of the allegations was perhaps notori¬
ously and ridiculously untrue. It is difficult to account
for the origin of such extravagant falsehoods. They are
as indefensible in point of reason, coming from the pen of
a pleader, as if they came from the principal himself, pre¬
ferring his claim and conducting his cause in person.
9. Evidence.—What the pleadings have stated, it is the
object of evidence to establish. One of the most difficult
things to account for, is the absurdity of the rules of judi¬
cial evidence, which have prevailed in all ages and over
all countries. Sir William Jones observes, in his preface to
Isaeus, that “ we may triumph in our elegant and philo¬
sophical theory of evidence, which Aristotle and Plato
must have admired, and by the strict rules of which all
trials in the world ought to be directed.” No panegyric
was ever less deserved. It is perhaps true that the Eng¬
lish theory on this subject is less objectionable than the
theory of almost any other country, inasmuch as its exclu¬
sions appear upon the whole to be fewer and more strictly
limited. But it is faulty enough even in this respect;
whilst whatever other defects may be found incorporat¬
ed in its principles, they are likely to be felt more severely
in practice, in consequence of the unbending rigidity with
which every rule is enforced by English lawyers. Our
judicial system is too careless in requiring or preserving
preconstituted written evidence, even in the case of re¬
curring events and deliberate transactions. The registries
of baptisms, deaths, and marriages, are still left as a part
rather of ecclesiastical discipline than of civil obligation.
They are exposed to great irregularities and losses, whilst
a general registry of deeds remains yet to be established.
In criminal proceedings the attendance of witnesses on
both sides is secured by summary methods. The duty of
appearing for a prisoner as well as against him is equally
a debt due to society by its members; although it is one
which the law was disgracefully slow in recognising. In
civil cases witnesses are obliged also to attend; nor can
they insist upon more favourable terms than the tender ot
their expenses. The English law admits of four heads ot
personal incompetency in a witness: one intellectual, as
want of sufficient reason; and three moral. Of these, the first
is a want of religious belief, extending as far as to disbe-
36 ENGL
Govern- lieve the existence of a God and of a future state of re*
ment and wards and punishments. The second is infamy of charac*
Laws. terj evidenced by a judgment of felony, or for some of-
fence considered by the'law as infamous. The last is> a
direct legal interest in the cause at issue, or in the ques¬
tion asked. The objection that the witness might use the
verdict upon some future occasion, has recently been re*
moved. The only head of incompetency from family re¬
lationship, is the case of husband and wife. It applies
to both, and to evidence offered eithdr for or against each
other. The only instance of incompetency from profes¬
sional relationship, is the rule by which a lawyer is prohi¬
bited from giving evidence against his client concerning
any facts with which he has become acquainted under the
sanction of that relation.
The Objections are equally fatal, whether the acts to
which the testimony applies are sudden or deliberate.
It would be as difficult to justify the want of distinguish¬
ing between these two classes, as to prove the propriety
of the distinctions which, in some ihstances, prevail be¬
tween the admissibility of the same evidence in criminal
as in civil proceedings! The rejection of hearsay is also
too extensive. It may be doubted whether the rejection
should ever be carried further than to declarations made
by a person whom it \vas possible to have produced as a
witness, and who might have been compielled in the cha¬
racter of a Witness to repeat his supposed statement un¬
der the sanction of an oath or other solemnity, and subject
to cross-examination. It does not apply to declarations,
themselves a part df the transaction. The tendency of the
judges of latter days haS strongly run in the direction of
letting in evidence. But more extensive innovations upon
the former exclusions than the judges feel at liberty to
authorize are probably near at band. Amongst these, the
taking away the exclusion on the ground of interest in
a civil suit, is the most important. There can be no doubt
but that the examination of a prisoner, humanely con¬
ducted, would be very favourable to truth. But there is
much doubt whether even an open court could be trusted
with the authority, and still more whether the public would
be satisfied with the change. All the objections above
enumerated go to the competency of a Witness, and, where
they apply, are fatal. All other objections are of minor
consequence. They go orily to the credit, and as such, they
are questions, not of total exclusion, to be determined by
the judge ; but matter for observation, turning on degrees
of credit, more or less, to be weighed by the jury. Two
witnesses, or an equivalent, are universally required by
the civil law. With us, one witness, if believed, was suffi¬
cient for all purposes, until parliament made two neces¬
sary in treason, and until a rough sort of comparative
arithmetic established the demand for something more
than a single witness upon a charge of perjury. Parliament
has insisted upon the aid of three witnesses to a will de¬
vising an acre of land, though a million in the three per
cents, may be bequeathed by an unwitnessed testament¬
ary paper. Courts of equity have imposed a limit on their
encroaching jurisdiction, by allowing the positive oath of
a defendant to be conclusive against the unsupported tes¬
timony of a single witness. The limit has probably a re¬
ference to the double origin of Chancery; first as a court
of conscience, and next as more closely connected with
the civil law. There are but few instances, and those
introduced by act of parliament, where written evidence
is of absolute necessity. The policy of the celebrated
statute of frauds was adopted from the French orddfi-
nance of Moulins ; and it admits of no exceptions where
it applies. But writing is often used by the parties in
transactions which are without the statute. The com¬
mon law is equally strict in both cases, in preventing
A N IX
written instruments from being varied, added to, or ex- Govenr
plained by parole. The rule has been broken in upon to a ment an
certain extent, by a distinction between ambiguitas patens
et latens, of which Lord Bacon has the credit. The best
justification to be made for the exception winch allows
an ambiguity raised by external evidence to be also re¬
moved by external evidence, appears to stand on the fol-
lowing considerations. It restrains the fear of peijury
within a much narrower circle. In the next place, the
author of the writing bad not equal means of protecting
his intentions against an ambiguity of this description.
The admissibility iff copies is tried by the paramount rule,
that the best evidence in existence must be produced.
Mere declarations acquire no further validity by being-
committed to writing. They thus become only written
hearsay. The mode of extracting oral testimony varies
according to the courts in which it takes place. Very
little can be added to the excellence of the system in the
courts of common law. A witness there delivers his evi¬
dence viva voce, in the presence of the public, of the par¬
ties, and of the deciding judge. There is scarcely a limit
to the range of examination and cross-examination, but
the discretion of the court. The practice in courts of
equity is much more imperfect. The examination being
conducted on written interrogatories, and by examiners out
of court, loses all the! advantages of viva voce suggestions
on the spot, of cross-examination, and of publicity. The
very demeanour of the witnessess is removed from the ob¬
servation of the judge who has finally to determine on
their credit. The proof of writings depends on the nature
of the instrument, or on the mode of its execution. The
English law does not affect to create a scale by which the
value of particular evidence may be determined. With
the same forbearance, it has refrained from establishing
any judicial standard concerning the amount of evidence
which is or is not adequate grounds for a judicial deter¬
mination in any cause. These are questions of fact, on
which (beyond a few hints, more valuable to a committing
magistrate than to the deciding judge) the less that is
said in law-books the better. The only security for cor¬
rect decisions is the founding competent tribunals, and
binding them to no other criterion than that of their own
personal conviction. Mr Bentham’s work on evidence,
and his criticism on this branch of the English law, are per¬
haps the most original, and at the same time most useful,
of all his writings.
10. Judgment and Execution.—The object of a civil ac¬
tion is either the recovery of a right certain, for instance,
particular lands, specific goods, a fixed sum as settled by
the agreement of the parties ; or the recovery of uncer¬
tain damages, more or less, according to the extent of the
injury which the plaintiff shall be able to prove that he
has sustained. The first class of cases, by the nature of
the demand comprehended in it, relieves the tribunal from
the vague and discretionary inquiries arising under the se¬
cond. The amount of damage is a fact which a few im¬
partial individuals taken from the body of society-are in
the great majority of cases peculiarly qualified to assess.
This in civil actions is accordingly the province of the
jury. They are likely to be far better acquainted than
learned judges with the real elements on which the cal¬
culation ought to proceed. Damages evidently so exces¬
sive as to be explained only by the imputation of gross
ignorance or corruption, are, bpwever, one of the admit¬
ted grounds for sending back the case to a second inquest.
The judgment against Titus Oates, for scandalum magna-
turn, at the suit of the Duke of York, where one of the
juries of those days had assessed the damages at L.100,000,
was reversed after the Revolution. The costs of a trial
were never given at common law. In most cases, however,
ENGL A N D.
37
they have for a longtime followed as the ordinary incident actual stole, it is of far too little value to be worth cen¬
to judgment. Since the preliminary oaths and pledges of tending tor. It is likely to be soon reduced to nothing,
former days have fallen into oblivion, they constitute the since it is seriously proposed, op grounds of public policy,
Govern¬
ment ami
Laws.
only security of the defendant against frivolous and vexa¬
tious actions. Costs are too material an item in litigation
to be properly bound in any court by one uniform rule.
We are not disposed to recommend, for the sake of consis¬
tency, that courts of equity should be brought under the
strictness. It, would be a better
discretion of the courts of common
lated to the latitude which courts of equity
It is easy to enlarge the statutory power given in some
instances to judges’ certificates, or to grant an analogous
authority to the jury. Certificates for costs might be
made a sufficient restraint on fraudulent attempts against
the credit of the law and, the interests of society. There
are occasions when personal vindictiveness combines un¬
necessarily an indictment and an action in misdemea-
to prohibit altogether jpiprisonment for debt.
Tor the prevention of crimes, the law seeks to obtain a
CQpnteracting infHienee in all directions; in its command
over property, character, liberty, and life. The jury find
merely the fact of guilt. The legislature has to most of-
ed.: The power of arbitrating between these extreme
limits, and of mitigating the penalties where no limit has
been prescribed at the bottom ul the scale, rests entirely,
with tnejudge. The gradation of punishments seems to
call for further revision, with tl^e object of proportion,
mitigation, and precision. The calculation of public da¬
mage proceeds on the principle of prevention, and, is set
nors, or when base practitioners multiply actions for the apart for the judge ; that of private damage looks only to
sake of costs against several parties who happen to he the satisfaction of the party, and belongs to the jury. Ihe
alllegally liable. In ejectments, trespasses, libels, joint- distinction arose probably on totally, different grounds. It
stock companies, and all cases where many rights depend maybe justified, however, by the observation, that the cal-
upon a single title, or the ends of justice may be satisfied cplation in the instance of crimes does not depend on the
by a single verdict, the law in its present state may be indivitjual case, but on a more comprehensive and general
far too easily and too profitabl}' abused. view of the bearings of the whole criminal law than a jury
In consequence of the feudal restraints on the aliena- can well be qualified to take ; and that a greater chance is
tion of land during a great period of English history, it thus afforded of an approach to that uniformity or average
continued to be only partially liable fur its, owner’s debts
of any description, and was not liable at all for ordinary
debts by simple contract. The restraint went far beyond
the poliejr of entails. To the extent that entails were
permitted, a tenant for life might, as far as the princi-
which it is so desirable to obtain. Pardon is a prerogative
properly left with the executive. This is so in America,
notwithstanding the foolish deqial of the possibility by
theoretical writers against republics, equally as in England.
Tim exercise ofTlm prerogative is of course greatly influ-
ple was concerned, have hound the life estate, but no- enced by the recommendation of either the judge or jury.
* i • _ • _ . il. _  1 *   rPK * ! *1!  rPK o /-v (* I * Axtr/Mii* r\V mr r» r i m i n 1 c u/nc n n ft nf
thing more ; since that only is his own. This invidious
protection of land, even when owned in fee against sim¬
ple contract creditors, has been completely removed dur¬
ing the last session. Ever since the 29th Charles II.,
whenever land was at all liable, it was equally so although
held in trust for the debtor, as when it was held in his own
name. No feudal principle interfered to protect personal¬
ty from a creditor. Nevertheless, the absurd expressipn,
that money cannot be sold, and the maxim, so inconsis¬
tently evaded in many cases, that a debt or a right to
sue another was not transferable, had an equally mis¬
chievous effect. No sensible reason qan be assigned why
the principle of foreign attachment should exist for the
benefit of the citizens of London only, and not for the
benefit of every creditor in England. There is even still
less reason why funded property should be placed beyond
the reach of the law, on the technical distinction arising
from its subsisting in the form of an annuity payable
by the nation to the holder of the stock. The bank,
in the management of this property, is a parliamentary
trustee for the owners of it. And the judgment of a court
of law, duly certified on a recovery against a stockholder,
ought to have the same effect as the signature of the ac¬
countant-general of the Court of Chancery for authorizing
a transfer of the stock. There is a dangerous tendency
in facilities for credit to run to too unlimited an extent.
The power of imprisoning the person encourages this ten¬
dency ; and, what is worse, it is frequently resorted to in
The abuse of it in favour of particular criminals wa§ one of
the scandals of many reigns. This had reached so extrava¬
gant q pitch, that Sir T]iomas More praises Henry VIII. on
the ground that never king granted so few. Nevertheless,
such was the complication and severity of the law, that to
execute it according to its letter would have been nqt only
unpopular, but impossible. At the very period when parti¬
cular pardons were a national grievance, general pardons
were looked forward to as public blessings. It is observed
by Sir Bartholomew Shower, that there were never five
years without a parliament pardon, and that eleven were
published by Elizabeth. “ These,” he says, “ it w^as which
made parliaments and crowns the darlings and the desire
of the people.” The dispute whether the crown can pardon
on impeachments, was one of the remains of the jealousies
of former days. It was raging, as a great pplitical question,
as late as the Revolution ; and it is still open to argument
as a point of law. The dissolving parliaments to save his
favourites from impeachment, is charged even by Claren¬
don upon Charles I. as a denial of justice to the nation.
There is a vast variety of writs of execution in civil suits
of the most trifling moment. By way of contrast, Black-
stone notices the slightness of the form by which a mar¬
ginal note put by the judge upon the calendar, is the sole
authority for the sheriff, even in a capital conviction. It
is one only of many instances of the comparative value
set by our ancestors on the formal administration of civil
and criminal jurisprudence. The execution of the law in
the hopes of laying the iOnocent relations of a spendthrift all cases, of whatever description, is intrusted to,f.he offi
under contribution. The humanity of modern times has cial representatives of the executive. Special jurisdictions
thrown open the doors of the debtors’ gaol, by discharges have their special officers; but, by the common law, the
under the insolvent act. The security contingent on the sheriff is in all judicial matters the proper minister of the
person of a debtor was good for much at no time. In itsr crfllHbn’ v*f orjt mmV bilaohr ssw gBkiim !tb otultsi
flTY T ‘I i‘‘TTirinv*^ * teaurge jasrtngoD], 9tri -aouio ujusia jiu •««« , “ . r m „
..A , i L-a i / r u uti aJxaibfi ii htite iauiluuw !o eons
afij io 3H0 snedw «iboi to oioU oril lo Jiua afU jian« anouqaoxa on m . ' ,T a -r
ayuh oaodj'to aonul m aeitteq ani (d baeu natio at gnuirw lua .djnqqK
naiffl baaiovo'i sew -moo 9ilT .oJuJnJa
maw gmjna’/mq ni <a98fio
t m
OOLJ. 3s 3fl0 
b ‘tu ajaoa adT araiinfovail
wod Jaora til .wcl non,
is na'rig •man
tsia yiU Jooridiw ms ilaulw gfloitotsawsiS
died ai ionU x/lsopa ai wsl 110m
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
38
English ENGLISH LANGUAGE. When the Romans in-
Language, vaded the south of Britain, they found the country pos-
sessed by a people of Celtic origin, and speaking a dialect
of the Celtic tongue. This invasion took place about fif¬
ty-five years before the birth of Christ, and the invaders
retained their ascendancy till the commencement of the
fifth century. During this interval, the Romans impart¬
ed to the rude natives some tincture of their own intellec¬
tual refinement, but must have left the British language
as they found it: the foreign settlers were not sufficient¬
ly numerous to produce any change in the speech of the
original inhabitants. When the huge fabric of the Ro¬
man empire began to decay, the Britons, who had the ad¬
vantage of a remote and insular situation, found means to
assert their independence. They however divided them¬
selves into msiny petty states, and exercised many petty
animosities, which impaired the national strength, and
rendered them an easy prey to foreign invaders. 1 he
pirates of Saxony had long been accustomed to make
occasional depredations on their coasts. The Piets and
Scots, that is, the Goths and Celts of North Britain, in-
fined to the fastnesses of Wales, where the prevalence
the ancient language still indicates the continuance of ^
their race. Eight new states were formed by the Anglo-
Saxons, who maintained their independence till the year
1016, when they were subjected to the yoke of a Danish
conqueror. Canute, and his two sons, Harold and Hardi¬
can ute, reigned in England for the space of twenty-six
years. A Danish court, and a Danish army, with other
settlers, must have had some influence on the common
speech, especially as the language of the conquerors was
not very dissimilar to that of the conquered. But the
laws and other public documents continued to be written
in the Saxon tongue, and this new dynasty soon finished
its course. The Saxon line of kings, which was restored
in 1042, terminated in 1066, when Harold the Second
was slain at the battle of Hastings, and William duke of
Normandy ascended the throne of England. The Saxon
dominion had thus continued for the best part of three cen¬
turies ; and as the great body of the people was still of this
race, it is obvious that their national language must have
survived their political power. A writ in the Anglo-
S and at length the sense of Saxon tongne was issued by Henry the Third, who began
the Saxons obtained a permanent footing in the country.
In the year 449, Vortigern, king of the Britons, had re¬
course to the aid of Hengest and Horsa, who first appear¬
ed as allies, but were soon converted into the most for¬
midable enemies.1
The Saxons, like other Gothic tribes, derive their ori¬
gin from a mighty horde which wandered from the east,
and gradually overran the best portions of Europe. So
early as the time of Ptolemy the geographer, this particular
In the language spoken by this ancient people, a great
variety of literary reliques has been preserved. “ The
Anglo-Saxon literature,” says Professor Rask, “ possesses
in many respects, even for its own sake, no small degree
of interest. The numerous anqient laws throw consider¬
able light upon the laws of the old Germans and Scandi¬
navians, as well as upon their customs and civil institu¬
tions. The old chronicles and genealogies are important
sources for the ancient history of the Low German and
the Scandinavian nations. The various documents illus-
.rate much in English history. Evan the theological re-
the Elbe, and their primitive seat was between that river mams, shewing the constitution and doctrine of the an-
and the Eyder. Although at first they were not very formi- cient church, are not devoid of value for ecclesiast ca
dable for their numbers, they gradually obtained a power- history, especially to the modern English and Scottish
ful ascendancy in Germany. Towards the middle of the churches. The translation of several parts of Scriptuie
third centuryfthey entered into a league with the Franks may likewise be advantageously employed m biblical re¬
fer the purpose of opposing the Roman arms; and they searches. But of all, the poetical pieces are the most in-
afterwards enlarged their connexions and increased their terestmg, especially the great Anglo-Saxon poem in .or-
influence till it predominated in a territory of great ex- ty-three cantos, published at Copenhagen in 1815, by the
tent, reaching from the Eyder to the Rhine. This wide Royal Archivarms G. J. Thorkehn, which, fiom its corn-
tract of country was not entirely peopled by Saxons : it
included various nations, united by the ties of a kindred
origin, and actuated by a sense of common interest or
danger; but such was the ascendancy of the Saxons that
they communicated their name to the entire confederacy,
which, among other nations, comprehended the Jutes,
who inhabited the south of Jutland, and the Angles, who
mencement, he has aptly entitled Scyldingis. This is per¬
haps the only Anglo-Saxon piece possessing value on ac¬
count both of its matter and style, particularly for the
nations of the north ; the principal hero being Swedish
or Gothic, though the action lies in Denmark.”3 This an¬
cient poem, more generally known by the name of Beo~
iculf, has been translated into Danish verse by Dr Grundt-
wno mnauueu me suum u,   - ~ .-i i
inhabited the adjacent district of Anglen. Hengest and vig, and ably illustrated by Mr Conybeare.
Horsa, the leaders whom we have already mentioned,
were not Saxons, but Jutes. The subsequent emigrants
were for the most part Angles, and their descendants
were long distinguished by the name of Anglo-Saxons.
The first part of the name denotes the predominant tribe,
The language of the conquerors became the language
of the king’s court and of all the courts of law. The
pleadings of counsel and the decisions of judges were
couched in a dialect which is commonly described as
Norman French, but which in the mouths of English law-
the second denotes the original relation of that tribe to yers became utterly barbarous; and more curious speci-
the Saxon confederacy. The new country which they mens of composition are scarcely to be found than those
acquired was denominated Engla-land, or the land of the which occur in the reports of cases written in a jargon half-
Angies. These German invaders established themselves French half-English. Lawyers have in all ages been con-
in the most fertile districts, and gradually displaced the spicuous for their stiff adherence, with or without reason,
Celtic inhabitants, till at length they were chiefly con- to those forms and maxims in which they themselves have
1 Saxon Chronicle, p. 14. Ingram’s edit. Lond. 1823, 4to. , _ lt . .. „ „
2 A more recent edition may be found in an elegant little volume bearing the following title: Ihe Anglo-Saxon 1 oems ot iseo-
wulf; the Traveller’s Song, and the Battle of Finnes-burh : edited, together with a glossary to the more difficult words, and an his¬
torical preface, by John M. Kemble, Esq. M. A. of Trinity College, Cambridge. Lond. 1833, 8vo.
s Rask’s Grammar of the Anglo-Saxon Tongue, translated from the Danish by B. Thorpe, p. vii. Copenhagen, 1830, 8vo.
4 Conybeare’s Illustrations of Anglo-Saxon "Poetry, p. 30. Lond. 1828, 8vo.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
39
been duly trained. Long after French had ceased to be
the language of legal proceedings, they, adhered to the
practice of reporting cases in the motley dialect used by
their predecessors ; for, as Blackstone remarks, “ the prac-
tisers being used to the Norman language, and therefore
imagining that they could express their thoughts more
aptly and more, concisely in that than in any other, still
continued to take their notes in law French; and of
course, when those notes came to be published, under the
denomination of reports, they were printed in that bar¬
barous dialect; which, joined to the additional terrors of
a Gothic black letter, has occasioned many a student to
throw away his Plowden and Littleton, without venturing
to attack a page of them.”1 By the 36 Edw. III. c. 15. it
was enacted that for the future all pleas should be plead¬
ed, shewn, defended, answered, debated, and judged in
the English tongue, but should be entered and enrolled
in Latin. The statutes of the realm long continued to
be promulgated in French ; and it was only from the ac¬
cession of Richard the Third that Englishmen were go¬
verned by laws written in their native tongue.
The Norman conquest proved fatal to the entire race of
Anglo-Saxon nobility, many of whom lost their livqs, and
almost all of them their property. Not a few of the num¬
ber sought refuge in different monasteries. Some of them
became abbots, and others closed their career as monks.
The lands of the Saxon earls were occupied by the Nor¬
man barons, who found it necessary to consult their per¬
sonal safety by inhabiting fortified towns and castles.
They must have had but little intercourse with their vas¬
sals, whom they probably did not respect, and whom they
had much reason to fear. They retained their native
tongue, and seldom acquired any other. For a long pe¬
riod of time, the peasantry continued unmixed with fo¬
reign settlers: they continued to cultivate the same soil;
and when the written language of the kingdom had re¬
ceived many foreign accessions, the rustic dialect preserv¬
ed its primitive elements with very few material changes.
Much of the patois of different countries consists, not m
adulterations of the modern, but in remnants of the an¬
cient language. Many Anglo-Saxon words and idioms,
unintelligible to persons of a refined education, are still
current among the rural population of particular districts
of England.
The English monarchs of the Norman race were liberal
patrons of such literature as they themselves understood.
French poetry seems to have been much relished at the
court of England; and, according to a very competent
judge, M. de la Rue, it was from England and Normandy
that the French received the first works which deserve to
be cited in their language. The works of many Anglo-
Norman poets have been preserved, and they certainly
form a curious subject of literary research. In this de¬
partment, a learned lady, Marie de France, makes a pro¬
minent figure. Her poems have been recently edited by
M. de Roquefort ; and one of the historical poems of Wace
still more recently by M. Pluquet. A history of the An¬
glo-Norman poets and poetry is speedily expected from M.
de la Rue, who has already exhibited sufficient evidence
of his being well qualified for such an undertaking.
Of the language spoken by the great body of the peo¬
ple about a century after the conquest, the reader may
in some degree be enabled to judge from the following
specimen of Lyamon’s translation of Wace’s Brut dAngle-
terre. The translator describes himself as a priest of Em- English
lye upon Severn, and he is supposed to have completed
his task about the year 1180.
Tha the masse wes isungen.
Of chirccken heo thrungen.
The king inid his folke
To his mete Verde,
And mucle his du3etbe :
Agfin :. Drem wes on hirede. frt Jud ,Jii ‘
Tha queue, an other halve,
• r. r. r Hire hereberwe isohte :
. a 1 2 , J. Heo hafde of wif-monne
Wunder ane moni en.s
“ When the mass was sung, out of the church they
thronged. The king amid his folk to his meat fared, and
many°of his nobility: joy was in the household. The
queen, on the other side, sought her harbour (or lodging) :
she had wonderfully many women.” Here, and in a much
more ample specimen of the same work, we perceive no
mixture of French words. The idiom is essentially Anglo-
Saxon, but with some indications of its being already in a
state of transition: the vestiges of the language, in its
more modern form of English, may be distinctly traced.
Of the language in a state more considerably advanced,
we find a specimen in a facetious poem published by Dr
gfloJhR i*di lo i»ari jmsbaeV (>&£ jaoy nu
Far in sea, by West Spain,
Is a land ibote Cekaygne,
There n'is land under heaven-rich
Of wel of goodness it y-like. » IT
Though Paradise be merry and bright,
Cockaygne is of fairer sight. /Jugint B rno'
What is there in Paradise
But grass, and flower, and green rise ?<
. Though there be joy and great dute, Idivt
There n’is meat but fruit;
There n’is hall, lid re, no bench,
But water mannis thirst to quench.3
In this poem, vyldch apparently belongs to the thir¬
teenth century, we. perceive a further deviation from the
Anglo-Saxon idiqm. In the preceding extract, the obso¬
lete spelling is not retained, and the language is thus ren¬
dered more intelligible. The subsequent quotation is
from a metrical history of England, written by Robert, a
monk of Gloucester, who appears to have lived about the
year 1278. This rhyming chronicle, as Mr Warton has
remarked, is totally destitute of art or imagination. The
author thus describes the island of Ireland, nor does he
fail to mention its exemption from venomous reptiles.
Yrlond ys aler yle best with oute Engelonde.
The sea goth al abouten hym eke as ich ynderstonde.
More he ys than Engolond, and in tho south half he ys
Bradder and more of ynbw than in the north ende y wys.
Ajeyn the lond of Spayne-he stond in the north syderyjt.
Selde snowe ther inne lith, and nameliche thre nyyt.
So euene hot that lond ys, that men durre selde
Here orf in bowse awynter brynge out of the felde.
Lese lasteth ther al the wynter : bute hyt tho more wonder be,
Selde me schal in the loud eny foule wormes se :
For nedres ny other Wormes ne mow ther be noyt;
And jef he beth thider hi cas from other landes y br03t,
Heo dyoth thcnty smel of the lond, other thorj towchyng y wys:
Eche gras that ther inne wexeth a 5eyn venym yt ys.
For men that ben venymed, thorj grases of Yriond
Y dronke he beth y claused sone, idiom Godes sonde.
Hony and mylk ther ys muche,‘ mony folk and bnlde.
This ys the stat of Yrlond, as iche habbe y tolde4
Another chronicler, who however belongs to a period
1 Blackstone’s Commentaries on the Laws of England, vol. iii. p. 318.
2 Ellis’s Specimens of the Early English Poets, vol. i. jp. 61.
3 Hickesii Lingnanim Vett. SeptentriOrralinm Thesaurus, tom. i. p. 231.
4 Robert of Gloucester’s Chronicle, vol. i. p. 43.
40
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
English somewhat more recent, was Robert Manning, more com- .
Language. mon]y caiied Robert of Brunne. He has himself stated
that he had resided fifteen years at Brunne, or Bourne, in
the priory of black canons, when, in the year 1303, he be¬
gan his translation of Grosteste’s Manuel des Peches. This
version still continues in manuscript; but one portion of
his historical work, his translation from Langtoft, has been
edited by the indefatigable Hearne, who rendered a simi¬
lar service to Robert of Gloucester. The inedited por¬
tion consists of a translation from Wace’s Brut. Peter
Langtoft was an Augustine canon of Bridlington in York¬
shire, and is supposed to have died in the reign of Ed¬
ward the Second. The subsequent passage relates to Sir
William Wallace.
Whan Sir Jon of Warene the soth vnderstode,
That the Waleis gane brenne, an oste he gadred gode,
And went to Struelyne agayne Waleis William,
Bot the erle with mykelle pyne disconfite away nam ;
And that was his folie, so long in his bed gan ligge,
Untille the Waleis partie had vmbilaid the brigge:
With gailelokes and dartes suilk ore was non sene,
Myght no man tham departe, ne ride ne go bituene.
There first tham tauht how thei did Fawe kirke:
Alle gate the brigge he rauht, of nouht our men were irke.
Whan the erle herd say, the brigge how William toke,
He douted to die that day, that bataile he forsoke.
The Inglis were alle slayn, the Scottis bare tham wele,
'Hie Waleis had the wayn, als maistre of that eschele.
At that ilk stoure was slayn on our side
God men of honour, that wald to the bataile bide.1
A more curious specimen of composition is to be found
in the Vision of Piers Plowman, which appears to have
been written about the year 1362, and which is common¬
ly ascribed to Robert Langland, a secular priest. The
work, which comprehends a series of visions, is replete
with satire on the different orders of men, especially on
the clergy, both regular and secular; but it is likewise
diversified by a succession of incidents, and furnishes
abundant evidence of the author’s talents for description.
His mode of versification is not unworthy of particular
notice. Alliteration supplies the place of rhyme: the
corresponding sounds are at the commencement, not at
the termination of words. Our extract from this remark¬
able work must necessarily be very brief.
And to the church gan ich go, God to honourie,
By for the crois on my knees knocked ich my brest,
Sykinge for my sennes, segginge my pater noster,
Wepyng and wailinge tyl ich was a slepe ;
Thenne mete me moche more than ich by for tolde
Of the mater that ich mete fyrst on Malverne hulles.
Ich sawe the feld ful of folk fram ende to the other,
And Reson revested ryght as a pope, ,
And Conscience his cocer by fore the kynge stande.
Reson reverentliche by for al the reame
Prechede and provede that thuse pestilences
Was for pure synne to punyshe the puple,
And the south west wynd on Saturday at eve
Was pertliche for prude, and for no poynt elles.
Piries and plomtrees were poffed to the erthe,
In ensample to syggen ous we sholde do the betere :
Beches and brode okes weren blowe to the grounde.
And turned upward here tayl, in tokenynge of drede
That dedlych synne er domys day shal for do us alle.2
After these specimens of verse, we shall exhibit a spe¬
cimen of prose, selected from the seventh chapter of the
Acts of the Apostles, as translated by John WyclifFe.
The translator, who was born about the year 1324, and
died in the year 1384, may be regarded as the father of
English prose. He was the author of various works in Enii
Latin as well as English; but the most important of hisLangto,
literary labours was a complete version of the Scriptures.
He was the great precursor of Luther, who appeared after
an interval of one hundred and fifty years; and it may
perhaps be safely affirmed, that to him the cause of refor¬
mation was more deeply indebted than to Luther himself.
“ This Moises ledde hem out, and dide woundris and
signes in the lond of Egipte and in the Reed See, and in
desert fourti gheeris. This is Moises that seide to the
sones of Israel, God schal reise to ghou a prophete of
ghoure britheren; as me ghe schulen heere him. This it
is that was in the chirche in wildirnesse with the aungel
that spak to him in the mount Syna and with cure fadris,
which took wordis of lyf to ghyue to us: to whom oure
fadris wolden not obeie, but puttiden him awei, and weren
turned awei in hertis into Egipte, seiynge to Aaron, Make
thou to us goddis that schulen go bifore us; for to this
Moises that ledde us out of the lond of Egipte, we wite
not what is don to hym. And thei maden a calf in tho
daies, and offriden a sacrifice to the mawmet, and thei weren
glad in the werkis of her hondis; and God turnyde and bi-
took hem to seme to the knyghthood of heuene; as it is wri-
ten in the book of prophetis, Whether ghe hous of Israel of¬
friden to me slayn sacrifices, either sacrifices of oostis fourti
gheer in desert? And ghe han take the tabernacle of
Moloch, and the sterre of ghoure god Renfam, figuris that
ghe han maad to worschipe hem: and I schal translate
ghou into Babiloyne. The tabernacle of witnessyng was
with our fadris in desert, as God disposide to hem, and
spak to Moises, that he schulde make it aftir the fourme
that he saigh: which also oure fadris tooken with Ihesu,
and broughten into the possessioun of hethene men, which
God puttide awei fro the face of our fadris til into the
daies of Dauid, that foond grace anentis God, and axide
that he schulde fynde a tabernacle to God of lacob. But
Salamon bildide the hous to him. But the high God
dvvellith not in thingis maad bi bond, as he seith bi the
prophete, Heuene is a seete to me, and the erthe is the
stool of my feet; what hous schulen ghe bilde to me ?
seith the Lord ; either what place is ol my restyng ? whe-
thir myn bond made not alle these thingis ?”3
Contemporary with Wycliffe was Geoffrey Chaucer, who
is commonly regarded as the father of English poetry,
and who closed his life in the year 1400. Dr Johnson
has remarked that “ he may, perhaps, with justice, be
styled the first of our versifiers who wrote poetically.”4
He was a man of original genius, improved by a familiar
acquaintance with writers in several languages. For the
native poets who preceded him, he appears to have enter¬
tained but little respect: he sought for better models
among the Latin, Italian, and French writers, and in all
these languages he found works which he either translat¬
ed or imitated. He possessed a lively fancy, and was a
shrewd observer of life and manners. He improved the
language, and refined the taste of his contemporaries. He
taught them to write, if not with new harmony, at least
with new terseness. The work by which he is best known
are his Canterbury Tales; and in these he not only ex¬
hibits many characteristic delineations of manners, but
likewise evinces a rich vein of native humour. They
commence with the following verses, which we have se¬
lected on account of the elaborate analysis to which they
have been subjected by Mr Tyrwhit.5
1 Peter Langtoft’s Chronicle, as illustrated and improved by Robert of Brunne, vol. ii. p. 297*
2 Vision of Peirs Plouhman, p. 80. Whitaker’s edit. Lond. 1813, 4to.
s New Testament, translated by Wiclif, p. 196. Baber's edit. Lond. 1810, 4to.
* Johnson’s Hist- of the English Language, prefixed to his Dictionary.
* Canterbury Tales of Chaucer, vol. iv. p. 106. Lond. 1773, 5 vols. 8vo.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
41
Whanne that April with bis shoures spte
The dfbughte of Mafth hath pierced to the rote,
And bathed every veine in swiche licour,
Of whiche vcrtne engendred is the flour;
Whan Zephirus eke with his sote brethe
Enspired hath in every holt and hethe
The tendre croppes, and the yonge sonne
Hath in the Ram his halfe cours yronne,
And smale foules maken melodic,
That slepen alle night with open eye,
So priketh hem nature in hir corages ; .
Than longen folk to gon on pilgrimages,
And palmeres for to seken strange strondes.
To serve hialwes couthe in sondry londes;
And specially, from every shires ende
Of Englelond, to Canterbury they wende,
The holy blisful martyr for to seke.
That hem hath holpen whan that they were seke.
In the English language, as it thus appeared in the four¬
teenth century, the Anglo-Saxon vocabulary was still pre¬
dominant, but the words had been greatly curtailed in
their inflexions. This plan of simplifying the structure
of speech is to be traced in other instances, where a rude
or a strange race is niingled with a people who have cul¬
tivated a more complex language, bearing Jittle.or no re¬
semblance to their own. The most essential part of the
vocabulary may be acquired without difficulty; but it is
not so easy to become acquainted with the inflexions of
nouns and verbs, or with some other niceties which be¬
long to language in its more complicated form. Many
French words had now been incorporated with the Eng¬
lish language; but the compositions of this period began
to be marked by an affectation of words derived immedi¬
ately from the Latin. If Chaucer did not set the exam¬
ple, he at least followed it; and when he aims at a more
ornamented style, his use of such phraseology is sufficient¬
ly copious. In this respect, he was however exceeded by
some of his successors, particularly Hoccleve, Lydgate,
and Hawes, who inherited no portion of his strength and
originality. Being deficient in taste as well as genius,
they devised a verbose and languid style, interspersed
with many sonorous and polysyllabic terms, with terms
“ aureate and mellifluate,” which did not assimilate with
their native tongue. The same false taste was at length
communicated to the Scotish poets. Dr Nott has remark¬
ed that Barbour had given his countrymen a fine exam¬
ple of the simple energetic style, which resembled Chau¬
cer’s best manner, and wanted little to make it the genu¬
ine language of poetry; and that other poets of the same
nation, particularly Jdmes the First and Henryson, ad¬
hered to this model of a simple diction, and affected no
other ornament than what the proper use of their language
supplied.1 But ultimately the false taste, which had in¬
fected the English poets, was communicated to their breth¬
ren of the north. Tl h
Gower and Lydgate, whose names are very frequently
mentioned with that of Chaucer, are well known to the
readers of early English poetry. Thomas Hoccleve,
whom his editor supposes to have been born about the
year 1370, makes a more inconsiderable figure in the li¬
terary annals of that age, but seems nevertheless to claim
a passing notice. He was deficient in the essential qua¬
lifications of a poet; and, in the opinion of Mr Warton,
“ his chief merit seems to be, that his writings contributed
to propagate and establish those improvements in our lan¬
guage which were now beginning to take place.”
The greater part of the fifteenth century teas highly
unfavourable to the progress of literature in England. English
Tfie repeated contests for thg crown, and the civil wars Language,
which they occasioned, were attended with a great waste
of hyman blood, and-with that incertainty of possession;
anti those reverses of fortune, which leave the mind but
fttle relish for such pursuits as are chiefly calculated to
gratify the taste, So,me individuals, Sir flohn Fortescue,
apd a few other writers, have left favourable specimens-
of prose composition ; and tfley were succeeded by others,,
who made further improvements in style, j Among these
we must include Sir Thomas More,. fArcfibishop Cranmer,
Sir Thomas Elyot, and Roger As eh am. But from the
death of Chaucer, more than a century elapsed before
another writer, deserving the name of a poet, appeared,
in England. This writer was Henry Howard, earl of Sur¬
rey, son and heir apparent to the duke of Norfolk, whom
however he did not survive. He was beheaded in 1547,
in the thirtieth year of his age. Although thus cut off
before the full maturity of intellectual vigour, he lived
long enough to effect some very material improvements in
English poetry. The versification of preceding poets was
more properly rhythmical thap metrical. Although some
improvements had been introduced by Chaucer, he left the
number of syllables too indefinite, and did not reach the
harmony and compression, of which this noble poet after¬
wards exhibited an example. One of the changes which
he introduced was the use of the heroic blank verse. Lang-
land and other poets had indeed dispensed with rhyme;
but their alliterative lines were constructed in a very dif¬
ferent manner. In the following sonnet, he bewails the
death of another eminent poet, Sir Thomas Wyatt.
Divers thy death do diversely bemoan :
Some, that in presence of thy Ifvelihed
Lurked, whose breasts envy with hate hud swoln.
Yield Caesar’s tears upon Pompeius’ head.
Some that watched with the murd’rer’s knife,
With eager thirst to drink thy guiltless blood,
Whose practice brake by happy end, of life,
Weep envious tears to hear thy fatne so good.
But I, that knew what harboured 'in that head,
What virtues rare were tempered in that breast,
Honour the place that such a jewel bred,
And kiss the ground whereas thy corpse doth rest,
With vapoured eyes, from whence such streams avail
As Pyramus did on Thisbe’s breast bewail.
Before the clo&e of the sixteenth century, the English
language had in a great measure attained that form and
structure which it continues to exhibit. A great improve¬
ment of taste had been introduced by a more critical and
more general study of the ancient classics. William Lilly,
the famous grammarian, who had learned Greek at Rhodes,
and who had afterwards acquired a polished Latinity at
Rome, became the first teacher of Greek at any public
school in England. This was at St Paul’s school in Lon¬
don, of which he was appointed the first master about
the year 1500.2 The language soon began to be more
regularly taught in the universities. At Cambridge the
study of it was zealously and successfully recommended
. by Smith, Cheke, and Asqham, who were themselves dis¬
tinguished by their proficiency. The elegancies of Latin
style began to be better understood, and monkish barba¬
rism was gradually banished. Ascham and Haddon ac¬
quired distinction by the style of their Latin prose; and
some of the verses of Leland discover a classical vein pre¬
viously unknown to his countrymen. Before the dose of
the century, many of the Greek and Latin writers appear¬
ed in an English dress, and classical story, with classical
•I6S .q Jf iov t9mun8 lo JiodoJI yd bamnqan no* boJEi-eulli se ^udnoin J &
Nott s Dissertation on the State of English Poetry before the Sixteenth Century (n. cxc.), prefixed to the Works of Surrey and
Wyatt. Lend. 1815, 2 vols. 4to. :
* Warton’s Hist, of English Poetry, voL liiyjutfiftfcfl-l aid ol ho/ftoiq r9gBu unsA odt L; H
vol. ix. .4v§,aiovS JbmxJ -»0I q .vi .lov ”
42
English
Language.
ENGLISH LANGUAGE.
mythology, was rendered familiar to the common reader.
In addition to the French, the Italian and Spanish lan¬
guages attracted a great degree of attention; and from
aU these languages, especially the two former, many works
were likewise translated. New sources of knowledge, as
well as of fancy, were thus opened, and the English
tongue was enriched with a more copious and variegated
phraseology. Surrey and Wyatt were succeeded by poets
of great genius, by Shakspeare and Spenser, as well as by
many others who, though of inferior powers, were yet pos¬
sessed of a vigorous and brilliant imagination. The prose
compositions of Bacon and Raleigh, partaking of the na¬
tive energy of their authors, exhibited specimens or a
condensed and forcible style, to which the preceding age
had never attained. During the earlier part of the seven¬
teenth century, ancient learning was assiduously cultivat¬
ed ; and men of great erudition, Selden, Gataker, and
others, adorned the literary annals of their country, ihe
prevailing taste of scholars had however a strong tenden¬
cy to what was scholastic, if not pedantic; and even the
poets, such as Donne and Cowley, substituted the subtil-
ties of metaphysical conceits, for flights of poetic fancy.
Many words, derived immediately from the Latin, weie
introduced by the learned writers of the period to which
we now refer, A considerable number of these has been
subsequently rejected, while others are incorporated in
the vocabulary. In the mean time, English poetry had
nearly reached its highest limits. Milton s Paradise Lost,
so eminently distinguished as a work of creative genius,
affords the most remarkable illustration of the compass,
power, and harmony of the language. .Nor is Dryden un¬
worthy of being mentioned with this mighty master of the
Emdish lyre. His powers of mind were no doubt differ¬
ent in kind and degree, but he wgs possessed of a genius
truly poetical; and his prose, as well as his verse, exhibits
a rich and copious vein of English phraseology.
The subsequent progress of the language our narrow
limits will not permit us to trace. The history of the
Scotish language is involved in more obscurity. Ihe Cel¬
tic tongue is supposed to have been originally spoken in
every district of this kingdom ; nor has it been found an
easy task to account for the introduction of a Gothic dia¬
lect, bearing a very close affinity to Englisb. Ihat the
Scotish language is merely a dialect of the English, seems
indeed to be the more prevalent opinion ; and this foreign
speech is supposed to have been gradually adopted by
the Piets, who are at the same time described as a people
of Celtic origin. The ancient history of every race of
men which is possessed of no ancient records, and which
has not attracted much attention from more enlightened
nations, must ever be involved in doubt and incertainty.
In the present instance, vve have little to guide our en¬
quiries, besides a few scattered and contradictory notices,
added to the ordinary and well-ascertained progress of
human speech. When other records fail, the histoiy .of
a nation may sometimes be traced in the history of its
language; and a very moderate degree of reflection will
enable us to determine the probability of a Celtic people
thus unlearning their native tongue, and from deliberate
choice adopting another speech completely and radically
different. b! ni HdfJsteJlB 1 .
Dr Geddes, in a Dissertation on the Scoto-Saxon Dia¬
lect, has strenuously maintained this extraordinary opi¬
nion, which has likewise been adopted by a more recent
writer, possessing no portion of his acuteness or learning.
“ The names,” it is stated, “ of all the rivers, mountains,
towns, villages, and castles, of any note or antiquity, from
Berwick-law to Buchanness, and from Buchanness to Ar- Erg
der-Sier, are all evidently Celtic. We must then e,d,erta4
suppose that the language of the Piets was a d a
the Celtic • or that they were not the original inhabitants
5 the country; or, i/fine, that, after the ex,met,on of
the Pictish empire, or rather its union with the Ins
Scots the language of these latter universally prevailed,
and effaced the very remembrance of its Gothic prede¬
cessor. The second of these suppositions is contrary to
history ; the third is belied by experience; the first then
is the only one that is founded in probability. Plus ob¬
servation with respect to the prevalence ot Celtic names,
though too strongly stated, is not without foundation.
We may therefore admit that the south of Scotland was
at some remote period inhabited by a Celtic people ; but
it is not a necessary inference that this people must be
identified with the Piets. Whatever hypothesis may be
adopted, it is not denied that many Celtic names of places
have been retained where the inhabitants have long ceased
to speak any dialect of the Celtic language. It may very
easily be conjectured that this primitive race of Celts was
finally supplanted by new settlers : and that those settlers,
whether Scandinavians or some other Gothic tribe, adopt¬
ed many of the names which the original inhabitants bad
applied to mountains, rivers, and other conspicuous ob¬
jects. That a similar process has been followed in innu¬
merable instances, must be obvious to every person ac¬
quainted with the history of European settlements in
other quarters of the globe: the native appellations are
almost always retained to a certain extent, and are mingled
with other names, borrowed from the language of the co¬
lonists. . .
If we should suppose the Piets to have been a Celtic
people, a very bard problem will remain to be solved;—
by what extraordinary means could a distinct race ol men,
placed in such circumstances, be induced to reject one lan¬
guage, and to adopt another ? This radical and unprece-
dented change Dr Geddes is disposed to ascribe to the
operation of such causes as the following; to the tempo¬
rary subjection of the southern provinces of Scotland by
the Northumbrians ; to the immense number of captives
seized during the ancient wars with the English ; to the
planting of English garrisons in several of the Scotish
towns ; to the amicable intercourse of the Piets with the
English ; and, finally, to the influence of Malcolm Can-
more’s courtiers, whom he supposes to have learned the
English language from Queen Margaret, and her re¬
tinue. But it may without temerity be affirmed that, in
the entire annals of the human race, such an effect was
never produced by such causes. In a more refined state
of society, the love of knowledge, the hope ol gain, or the
influence of fashion, may induce many individuals to be¬
take themselves to the acquisition of foreign languages;
but the great body of the people will ever be disposed to
rest perfectly satisfied with the speech, whether rude or
cultivated, which they have derived from their parents.
It is only by some great revolution, by a total conquest,
or by an overwhelming extent of colonization, that the
current language of a country can be materially changed.
After the Norman conquest, when French became the
language of the court and of the law, and when Norman
barons were planted in almost every corner ot England,
did the combined operation of such causes eradicate the
old, and establish a new language in its place ? Many new
words were unquestionably introduced, but these were
merely engrafted on the old stock of the Anglo-Saxon.
“ Had the Saxon,” as Dr Jamieson well observes, “ found
1 Transactions of the Society of the Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. i. p. 408.
ENG
English its way into Scotland in the manner supposed, it would
anguage. necessarily have been superinduced on the Gaelic. This
has always been the case, where one language prevailed
over another; unless the people who spoke the original
language were either completely or nearly exterminated.
Thus was the Norman gradually incorporated with the
Saxon, as the Frankish had been with the Latinized Cel¬
tic of France. But the number of Gaelic words to be
found in what is called Broad Scots bears a very small
proportion to the body of the language.”1 And this soli¬
tary fact is indeed sufficient to evince that the inhabitants
of the south of Scotland cannot be sprung from Celtic
ancestors. Dr Geddes has ventured to specify the reign
of Malcolm the Third, which commenced in the year
1057, as the period of a general denization of the Saxon
tongue in Scotland. “ That monarch,” he remarks, “ had
been bred in England, and married an English princess.
Her retinue were all English. English, in consequence,
would become the language of the court. The courtiers
would carry it to their respective homes ; their domestics
would be ambitious to speak the language of their masters ;
and thus it would be gradually introduced into' every fa¬
shionable circle.”2 But to introduce a language into every
fashionable circle, is somewhat different from rendering it
the current speech of the people : French has long been
the court language, and the language of fashionable circles
in England, and yet the great body of the people still per¬
sist in speaking English.
The insuperable difficulty of accounting for such a tran¬
sition as has thus been supposed, a transition from a Cel¬
tic to a Gothic dialect, renders the conclusion obvious and
unavoidable, that the Gothic speech of Scotland was de¬
rived from a Gothic race of ancestors. Nor is this con¬
clusion altogether free from difficulties, though they are
of very inferior weight to those which are to be deposited
in the opposite scale. It is the opinion of a late writer,
who has investigated the subject with much ability, that
the Piets emigrated from Scandinavia ;3 and, according
to this opinion, the Piets and Saxons must have spoken
two dialects of the same original tongue. The history of
these kindred dialects may be illustrated from that of
some others, derived from the same Gothic origin. The
Llandic, Swedish, and Danish languages are all descend¬
ed from the ancient Scandinavian. Island, which, as the
learned Bishop Muller has remarked, is entitled to parti¬
cular attention as the foster-mother of northern history,4
was peopled by a colony of Norwegians in the year 874.
ENG
43
This race of men, confined to a remote island, and main- Engrailed,
taining but little intercourse, either of peace or war, with
other nations, has preserved its ancient language with
singular purity.5 * The Swedes and Danes, more extensive¬
ly engaged in the pursuits of commerce, and more close¬
ly connected with the rest of mankind, have exhibited a
different progress : but while both languages have reced¬
ed very widely from the Islandic, they l\ave not receded
very widely from each other; a similar state of society,
similar relations with other countries, and the study of
the same foreign authors, have produced corresponding
changes in both. In the history of these two languages,
we do not find a complete parallel with that of the Scotish
and English: the Swedish and Danish are both dialects
of the ancient Scandinavian, while the Scqtish is deriv¬
ed from the Scandinavian, and the English from the an¬
cient German. But the Scandinavian and the German
proceeded from the same common stock; and when we
ascend to a period sufficiently remote, they are only to be
regarded as dialects of the same language.
It is not to be concealed that Barbour, Winton, Henry
the Minstrel, and other early poets of Scotland, have de¬
scribed their native language as English.0 This applica¬
tion of the name has been explained, with at least some
degree of plausibility, by referring to the circumstance
of the Gaelic being then denominated the Scotish lan¬
guage.7 A Celtic and a Gothic dialept could not well be
described by the same term ; and “ when, by a necessary
contingency, the Gothic language had in the same space,
though in different nations, retained much the same hues,
the name of that dialect, which was spoken by the greater
and politer people, was imparted to the other, inhabiting
a contiguous part of the very same island.”8 Mr Pinker¬
ton is less fortunate in another suggestion ; namely, that
it is not more strange to perceive that the Italian, French,
and Spanish languages were originally termed Romance.
They were all described by this common name, because
they were all derived from the language of the Romans ;
but we are not inclined to believe that the Scotish and
the English tongues stand in precisely the same relation
to each other. (x.)
ENGRAFTING, in Gardening. See Horticulture.
ENGRAILED, or Ingrailed, in Heraldry, a term de¬
rived from the French gresle, hail; and signifying a thing
the hail has fallen upon and broken off the edges, leaving
them ragged, or with half rounds, or semicircles, struck
out of their edges. >
1 Jamieson’s Dissertation on the Origin of the Scottish Language (p. 21), prefixed to his Dictionary.
“ Verstegan reasons in nearly the same manner. (Restitvtion cf decayed Intelligence, p. 180. Antwerp, 1605, 4to.) See like¬
wise the preface to Dr Wallis’s Grammatica Linguae Anglicanae, p. xxii. and Mr Boucher’s Introduction to his Glossary of Obsolete
and Provincial Words, p. li.
3 Pinkerton’s Enquiry into the History of Scotland, vc>l. i. p. 168. Lond- 1789, 2 vols. 8vo.—"Mr Roberts inclines to the same
opinion : “ The Piets, or more properly Phichts, probably a colony of Scandinavians, originally from Scythia, as they are said to
have come over the northern sea. Triad 7-” (Sketch of the Early History of the Cymry, or Ancient Britons, p. 125. Lond.
1803, 8vo.) Professor Magnusen, who has more recently investigated the origin of the Piets, bestows sufficient commendation on
Mr Pinkerton’s learning and research, and to a certain extent is disposed to adopt his leading opinion ; but at the same time he
declares himself unable to approve of all the arguments by which it is supported, especially' of those which rest upon erroneous inter¬
pretations of Scandinavian words and antiquities ; nor does he fail to express his disapprobation of this writer’s unseasonable invec¬
tives against the Celts. (Om Picternesog deres Navns Oprindelse, S. 56. Kibbenhavn, 1817, 8vo.)
* Miiller’s Sagabibliothek, Bind i. S. 4. Kibbenhavn, 1817-20, 3 Bind. 8vo. ^ ‘ , J
4 Dr Sharpe has well stated that “war, invasion, conquest, treaties, intercourse with different nations, commerce, colonies, rise of
arts, logical refinements, controversies, time or age, and the humours of a people, are all causes of alteration in language.” (Two
Dissertations, upon the Origin of Languages, and upon the original Powers of Letters, p. 35. edit. Lond. 17^1, 8vo.)
* Barbour’s Bruce, p. 82. Winton’s Cronykil, vol. i-p. 4. Henry’p Wallace, p. 231.
7 “ Duobus enim utuntur linguis, Scotica videlicet, et Teutonica, cujus linguae gens maritimaspossidet et planas regiones : linguae
vero gens Scoticae montanas inhabitat, et insulas ulteriores.” (Forduni Scotichronicon, vol. i. p. 44. edit. Goodall.)
8 Pinkerton’s Essay on the Origin of Scotish Poetry (p. Ixxi.), prefixed to Ancient Scotish Poems. Lond. 178fb 2 vols. 8vo.
44
ENGRAVING.
Engraving. Engraving is the art of cutting metals and precious
'w-Y-w' stones, and representing thereon figures, letters, or what¬
ever device or design the artist chuses. _
Engraving being properly a branch of sculpture, is di¬
vided into several other branches, according to the matter
on which it is employed, and the manner in which it is
performed. For the method of
Engraving on Wood, see Wood, Engraving on.
Engraving on Copper is the making, conformably to
some delineated figure or design, such concave lines on a
smooth surface of copper, either by cutting or corrosion,
as render it capable, when charged properly with any co¬
loured fluid, of imparting by compression, to paper or any
similar substance, an exact representation of the figuie or
design. . ,
Whether we consider the art of engraving, with regaid
to the utility and pleasure it affords, or the difficulty which
attends its execution, we cannot but confess, that on every
account it deserves a distinguished rank amongst the polite
arts. It is by means of this art that the cabinets of the
curious are adorned with the portraits of the greatest men
of all ages and all nations. It is by this art also that the
paintings of the greatest masters are multiplied, and that
the lov ers of the polite arts are enabled to enjoy those
beauties from which their distant situations seemed to
have for ever debarred them ; and persons of model ate
fortune are thereby enabled to become possessed of all the
spirit, and all the poetry, contained in those miracles of
art, which seemed to have been reserved for the temples
of Italy or the cabinets of princes. When we reflect,
moreover, that the engraver, besides the beauties of poe¬
tical composition, and the artful ordinance of design, has
to express, merely by the means of light and shade, all
the various tints of colour and clear obscure,—to give a re¬
lief to each figure, and a truth to each object; that he has
now to represent a sky serene and bright, and then one
loaded with dark clouds,—now the pure tranquil stream,
and then the foaming sea tempest-driven ; that here he
has to express the character of the man, strongly marked
in his countenance, and there the minutest ornament ot
his dress; in a word, that he has to represent all, even
the most difficult objects in nature ;—we cannot sufficient¬
ly admire the vast improvements in this art, and that de¬
gree of perfection to which it has at this day arrived. See
the article Prints.
Engraving is an art which for the most part is of mo¬
dern invention, having taken its rise no earlier than the
middle of the fourteenth or fifteenth century. The an¬
cients, it is true, practised engraving on .precious stones
and crystals with very good success; and there are still
many of their works remaining, equal to any production
of later times. But the art of engraving on plates and
blocks of wood, in order to afford prints or impressions,
was not known till after the invention of painting in oil.
The different modes of engraving are the following:
1. In strokes cut through a thin wax, called etching
ground, laid upon the copper, with a point, and these
strokes bitten or corroded into the copper with aquafortis.
This is called etching.
2. In strokes with the graver alone, unassisted by aqua¬
fortis. In this instance, the design is traced with a sharp
tool, called a dry point, upon the plate; and the strokes
are cut or ploughed upon the copper with an instrument
of an angular form, distinguished by the name of z. graver.
3. In strokes first etched and afterwards finished with
the graver. By this expedient the two former methods £ngra,.
4. In dots without strokes, which are executed with the
point upon the wax or etching ground, bitten in with the
aquafortis, and afterwards harmonized with the graver, by
means of which instrument small dots are made, or with
the graver alone, as in the flesh and finer parts, unassist¬
ed with the point. . . ,
5. In dots first etched and afterwards harmonized with
the dry point, performed by a little hammer ; called opus
mallei, or the work of the hammer, as practised by Lutma
and others. j , u u
6. In mezzotinto, which is performed by a dark barb or
ground being raised uniformly upon the plate by means ot
a toothed tool. The design being traced upon the plate,
the light parts are scraped otf by instruments for that
purpose, in proportion as the effect requires.
7. In aquatinta, a newly-invented method of engraving,
in which the outline is first etched, and afterwards a sort
of wash laid by the aquafortis upon the plate, resembling
drawings in Indian ink, bister, &c. See AciUATiNrA.
8. On wood, consisting of a single block, on which the
design is traced with a pen, and those parts which should
be white carefully hollowed out. This block is afterwards
printed by the letter-press printers, in the same manner
as a book is printed.
9. On wood, consisting of two, three, or more blocks,
the first having the outlines cut upon it, the second being
reserved for the darker shadows, and the third for the
shadows which terminate upon the lights; and these are
substituted in their turn, each print receiving an impres¬
sion from every block. This mode of engraving is called
chiaroscuro, and was designed to represent the draw ings
of the old masters.
10. On wood and on copper. In these the outline is
engraved in a bold dark style upon the copper; and two
or more blocks ot wrood are substituted to produce the
darker and lighter shadows as before.
Of all those modes of engraving, the most ancient is
that on wood ; or, to speak more properly, the first impres¬
sions on paper were taken from carved wooden blocks.
From this invention it appears that we are indebted to the
brief-malers, or makers of playing-cards, who practised the
art in Germany about the beginning of the fifteenth cen¬
tury. From the same source may perhaps be traced the
first idea of moveable types, which appeared not many
years afterwards; for these briet-malers did not entirely
confine themselves to the printing and painting of caids,
but produced also subjects of a more devout nature, many
of which, taken from holy writ, are still preserved in differ¬
ent libraries in Germany, with the explanatory text facing
the figures, and the whole engraved in wood. In this man¬
ner they even formed a species of books ; such as Historia
sancti Johannis, ejusque Visionis Apocalypticce, and Histo¬
ria Veteris et Novi Testamenti, known by the name of Poor
Mans Bible. These short mementos were printed only
on one side; and two of them being pasted together, had
the appearance of a single leaf. The earliest date on any
of these wooden cuts is 1423, and the subject is St Chris¬
topher carrying the Infant Jesus over the Sea, preserved in
a convent at Buxheim near Menningen. It is of a folio
size, illuminated in the same manner as the playing cards;
and at the bottom is the inscription, Christoferi faciem die
quacunque tueris. Ilia nempe die morte mala non morieris.
Millesimo CCCC0 XX° tertio.
ENGRAVING.
raving- Upon the invention of moveable types, that branch of
-w the brief-maler’s business, as far as it regarded the making
of books, was gradually discontinued; but the art itself
of engraving on wood continued in an improving state ;
and towards the end of the fifteenth and the beginning of
the sixteenth century, it became customary for almost
every one of the German engravers on copper to engrave
on wood also, as may be seen from the first printed books,
in which the initial letters were for the most part highly
ornamented with various appropriate devices. The works
of Albert Durer in this style of engraving are justly held
in the highest esteem. Italy, France, and Holland have
produced many capital artists of this description ; but, for
boldness and spirit, the palm must be given to the prints
of Christopher Jegher, who worked under the direction
of Rubens, and was without doubt assisted by that great
master.
The invention of that species of engraving which is dis¬
tinguished by the appellation of chiaroscuro is also claim¬
ed by the Germans, and seems to have been first practised
by Mair, one of whose prints of this kind is dated 1499.
Many excellent works in chiaro-scuro have also been pro¬
duced in France; and in Italy it was honoured with the
performances of Titian and Parmegiano; but the attempts
of Jackson, Kirkall, and others in England, have not been
equally successful. Since these times, which maybe call¬
ed the infancy of wood engraving, the art has been car¬
ried to very great perfection in Britain; and the present
day may boast of higher attainments in this branch than
were reached at any former period.
In Germany, about the year 1450, prints from engraved
copper first made their appearance. The earliest date of
a copperplate print indeed is only the year 1461; but how¬
ever faulty this print may be with respect to the drawing,
and however defective in point of taste, the mechanical
part of the execution has by no means the appearance of
being one of the first productions of the graver. We have
also several other engravings, evidently the work of the
same master, in which the impressions are so neatly taken
from the plates, and the engravings so clearly printed in
every part, that according to all appearance they could not
be executed in a much better manner at the present day,
with all the conveniences which the copperplate printers
now possess, and the additional knowledge they must ne¬
cessarily have acquired in the course of more*than three
centuries. Hence we may fairly conclude, that if these
were not the first specimens of the engraver’s workman¬
ship, much less were they the first efforts of the copper¬
plate printer’s ability. It is likewise to be observed, that
Martin Schoen, who is said, with great appearance of
truth, to have worked from 1460 to 1486, was apparently
the scholar of Stoltzhirs ; for he followed the style of the
latter in engraving, and copied from him a set of prints
representing the passion of our Saviour. Now, allowing
Stoltzhirs to have preceded his disciple only ten years,
this carries the era of the art back to 1450, as was stated
above. But there is no ground to suppose that it was
known to the Italians till at least ten years afterwards.
The earliest prints which are known to be theirs are a set
of the seven planets, and an almanack by way of frontis¬
piece, on which are directions for finding Easter from the
year 1465 to 1517 inclusive; and we may be well assured
that the engravings were not antedated, for the almanack
of course became less and less valuable every year. In
all probability, therefore, these prints must have been
executed in the year 1464, which is only four years later
than the Italians themselves lay any claim to. The three
earliest Italian engravers are, Finiguerra, Boticelli, and
Baldini. But if we were to refer these prints to any of
the three, we should naturally conclude them to be the
45
work of Finiguerra or Baldini; for they are not equal Engraving,
either in drawing or composition to those ascribed to Bo-
ticelli, which we know at least were designed by that ar¬
tist ; and as Baldini is expressly said to have worked from
the designs of Boticelli, it appears most probable that they
belong to Finiguerra.
With respect to the invention of etching, it is not well
known to whom it ought to be ascribed. One of the ear¬
liest specimens is the print by Albert Durer, known by
the name of the Canon, dated 1518, and thought by some,
with little foundation, to have been worked on a plate of
iron. Another etching by the same artist is Moses receiv¬
ing the Tables of the Law, dated 1524. Etching was also
practised in Italy soon after this by Parmegiano, in whose
productions we discover the hand of the artist working out
a system as it were from his own imagination, and striving
to produce the forms which he wanted to express. We
see the difficulty he laboured under; and, from the exami¬
nation of the mechanical part of the execution of his works,
we cannot doubt that he had no instruction, and that it was
something entirely new to him. If the story be true that
he kept an engraver by profession in his house, the novelty
of the art is rendered so much the more probable. He
died in 1540.
The art of engraving by corrosion, or what is called
etching, with aquafortis, must have very early suggested
itself to the discoverers of copperplate printing; for it
seems to have been the method used by the manufactur¬
ers of warlike implements in their decorations of sword-
blades and the like: and thus the same artists would soon
perceive the facilities afforded by a mode at once easy and
expeditious when applied to higher branches, such as the
copies of pictures and works of art in general.
As to that species of engraving in which the modes of
etching and cutting with the graver are united, it must
have been found necessary immediately upon the inven¬
tion of etching: it was, however, first carried to perfec¬
tion by Audran, and is now almost universally practised,
whether the work is in strokes or in dots.
Engraving in dots is a very old invention, and attribut¬
able to the Italians. Agostina de Musis, commonly call¬
ed Augustin of Venice, a pupil of Marco Antonio, used it
in several of his earliest works, but confined it to the flesh,
as in the undated print of An Old Man seated upon a
Bank, with a cottage in the background. He flourished
from 1509 to 1536. We also find an example of this me¬
thod in a print of “ A single figure standing, holding a cup
and looking upwards,” by Giulio Campagnola, who engrav¬
ed about the year 1516. The background is executed with
round dots, made apparently with a dry point; the figure
is outlined with a stroke deeply engraved, and finished
with dots, in a manner greatly resembling those prints
which Demarteau engraved at Paris in imitation of red
chalk; and the hair and beard are expressed by strokes.
Stephen de Laulne, a native of Germany, followed the
steps of Campagnola; and many of his slight works are
executed in dots only. Jean Boulanger, a French artist,
who flourished in the middle of the last century, and his
contemporary Nicholas van Plattenberg, improved greatly
on this method, and practised it with much success. It
is only, however, of late that it has been considered as an
object worthy of general imitation. John Lutma execut¬
ed this kind of work with a hammer and a small punch or
chisel.
The method of engraving in mezzotinto was invented
about the middle of the seventeenth century; and the in¬
vention has generally been attributed to Prince Rupert.
See Mezzotinto.
Of the method of engraving in aquatinta an account has
already been given under that word. (See Aquatinta.)
46 engraving.
hpinff the most precarious part of the pro-Engnvi
Engraving. But it appears to us not out of place t0 Flv.e information cess requires the greatest experience. When it is sup- v'
general directions; and for more particular information the aquafortis has remained on the plate for
the article already mentioned may be consu e . J.uc]) a ieno.th 0f time that when the impression is taken
Engraving in aquatinta was originally inve > ... j t]ie lio-htest shade in the drawing, it is
Prince, a French artist. For a long time however, his Foduce the l^htes
process was kept secret; and his Prints’ 11 i > P iightest tints are t^en stopped out, and the aquafortis is
at first sold for drawings As a proof that the ai rose i ne u *ue p^ss is repeated as often as
at once to perfection, as has already been rnent.oned^the again P^red ^n, a^d ^ ^ ^ ^
prints which were executed by him are s Manv nhtes are entirely etched in this way, by alter-
be the finest and best specimens of the art It appears, na^toCng out and biting in. It is, however! found
however, that he was only acquainted wit i ie pou ^ extremely difficult, and indeed impossible, to pro¬
grain, and the common method of stopping . d e impressions of minute and complicated objects with
who practised this art in England was Mr Paul Sandb). ^^1^ £ of delicacy andl freedom. To obvi-
By him, we are informed, it was commun t t^- difficulty another process has been proposed, by
Jukes, whose works afford excellent exam^es of the ^r- ^ the touches are laid on the plate with equal ease
fection ,o which the art has been oamedi ^d although “ , ‘ made with Indian ink. Fine
it is now generally pract.sed all »''CT E^op6, yet n no ^ ex|edt«on as or and di.
country is this done with greater success than m Britain, wasne r&in the that it may WOrk freely.
The principle of this process cons^ts imcorio ing 1 covered with the aquatint ground,
copper in such a draw- in the same way a^ ink upon the drawing/ When this is
hibits the appeal ance of at ‘ I .] ’ • drv tfie wh0le of the plate is varnished over with a thin
ing in Indian ink. Hus - bF ^m^lm diy tbe^ ^ P ^ when this is dry the
copper with some substance whm ass^ w Sthe *rt;_ a uPafortis is p0ured on. The varnish immediately breaks
form, and prevents the acid .rom a , » - 1 , } ^ jn tfi0Se parts of the plate where the treacle mixture
The moreemfnutfthe SSs1 ore, it is obvious the inv was laid, and thus they are exposed to the action of the
^ si! froTtt p^wiU more -ly .esemble at.sh acid,
arej^r granulationjbecomes more (Hstinct. The powder
or granulation is called the aqmtmta gram, and p ^ ^ complete,y bit the bordering
‘’“Tlfe'process for using the powdered grain, which was wax is removed, by gently heating it with a piece of light-
first emno^d is the following. The outline being etch- ed paper. It is then cleared from the ground and var-
ed on a copyper.plate! some substance, which easily melts nisi, by means of oil of turpentine; and being wiped clean
with heat adheres to the plate when cold, and resists the with a rag, it is leady for the printe • , ,
^tion of^tlm aqimfortis, Is to be finely powdered and sift- But in this method of aquatint,ng it is found d.fficu o
ed Besides asnhaltum, rosin, and gum sandaric, the sub- produce the necessary degree of coarseness or fineness in
stance^whffilMiave been mentioned in the article already the grain ; and plates which are engraved m^thi^manner
referred to, Burgundy pitch, gum copal, gum mastic, as well
as some other resins and gum resins, may be employed.
Gum copal, it is observed, produces a grain which resists
the aquafortis extremely well. Whatever the substance
be which is to be employed, the great object of the artist
in its application is, to have it equally distributed over
the plate. This is an essential part of the operation, and
afford but a small number of impressions before they are
worn out. On this account it is now more rarely.followed.
The other method of producing the aquatint ground,
which is most generally adopted, is the following. A re¬
sinous substance, as common resin, Burgundy pitch, or
mastic, is dissolved in spirits of wine, ibis solution is
poured all over the plate, which is inclined, till the whole
requires considerable attention.* The usual method is to of the superfluous fluid is drained off, and what adheres to
tmup a quantity of the powder in a piece of muslin, and the plate becomes quite dry m a tew mumtes. The p ate
to stnke it against a stick held at a considerable height being then examined with a magnifying glass, it will ap-
above the nhTte. Thus managed, the powder settles equal- pear that the whole of the spirit having evaporated, the
]y over it. The plate being thus covered equally with the resinous matter is left in a granulated state, or is crack-
d^st or powder,Pthe latter is to be fixed uPo/ it by the ed in every direction, and adheres strongly to the cop-
application of a gentle heat, to melt the particles- This per In this way a regular and beaat^ul, Sr^in/S eaS'^
is usually done by holding lighted pieces of paper rolled produced, which will be found preferable, at least fo
up, and moving them about till the whole of the powder most purposes, to that which is produced by the former
is melted, which is known by its changing to a brown co- method. rIhe grain being thus formed, the other parts
lour. It is now allowed to cool, and after being examin- of the process are conducted in the same manner as De¬
ed with a magnifying glass, if the particles appear to be fore described. _ ...
uniformly distributed, the artist proceeds to the next part Such are the usual methods of conducting this process,
of the process. ! * m We shall add a few hints which may be found useful
Those parts of the design or drawing to be engraved, respecting the different parts of it. \V ith regard to the
which are perfectly white, are to be observed and marked, materials which are employed, it is to be observed that
and the corresponding parts of the plate must be covered
or stopped out. This is best done by means of mastic
varnish, dilated to such a consistence with turpentine as
to work freely with the hair pencil. To give it colour, lamp-
the spirits of wine should be rectified, and of the very best
quality. Resinous matters, as common resin, Burgundy
pitch, and gum mastic, yield grains of a different appear¬
ance and form ; so that advantage may be taken of this
to work treeiy wiui me nair pencil, i ogive n uumui, iciujjj- anec emu iw.m, ou —j ~~
black should be mixed with it, in order that the touches of circumstance by using them sometimes separately, and
the pencil may be distinctly seen. When those parts of the sometimes mixed in different proportions, according to
plate which are stopped out are sufficiently dry, a border the views and taste of the artist. Different proportions
of wax is raised round the plate, in the same manner as of resin may be employed to produce grains of different
in etching, and the aquafortis, diluted with water, is pour- kinds. When a coarse grain is intended, a greater propor-
ENGRAVING.
47
aving.tion is to be employed ; and when a fine grain is wanted, of execution, however, and facility in acquiring the prac- Engraving,
a smaller proportion of resin only is required. The pro- tice of the art, are followed with the unfortunate circum- 'V>-/
per proportions may be ascertained by providing a num- stance, that they favour the production of an indiscrimi-
ber of spare pieces of copper; on these the liquid may nate multitude of prints, which, it is to be feared, may
be poured, and the grain examined, before it is applied to rather tend to vitiate than improve the public taste,
the plate which is to be engraved. After the solution is Engraving with the tool was the kind originally prac-
made, it should remain undisturbed for a day or two, till tised, and it is yet retained for many purposes, bor
the impurities of the resin have subsided, and the liquid though the manoeuvre of etching be more easy, and other
becomes quite limpid. This is the best method of free- advantages attend it, yet where great regularity and ex-
ing it from impurities; for if it be strained through linen actness of the stroke or lines are required, the working
or muslin, it is mixed with hairs, which are extremely in- with the graver is much more effectual; on which ac-
jurious to the grain. It may be added, that the apart- count it is more suitable to the precision necessary in
ment in which the fluid is poured on the plate should be the execution of portraits, as there every thing the most
perfectly still, and entirely free from dust; for if any fall minute must be made out and expressed, according to
on the plate while it is wet, the grain forms a white spot, the original subject, without any license to the fancy of
the designer in deviating from it, or varying the effect
which cannot be removed. Great care should be observ¬
ed in cleaning the plate before the ground is laid on.
This is done with a bit of rag and whitening. The small¬
est stain or particle of grease produces a streak or blem¬
ish in the grain. Still, however, with all the attention
which can be employed, and with the utmost delicacy in
the management, it is necessary to observe that the pro¬
cess is extremely precarious and uncertain ; and even the
most experienced artists find themselves frequently sub¬
ject to very unaccountable accidents.
Artists have frequently complained of the inconvenience
arising from the fumes which proceed from the action of
the acid upon the copper when the plate is large. To re¬
medy this inconvenience, the following arrangement, which
seems well calculated to answer the purpose, was sug¬
gested by Mr Cornelius Varley, ah artist who distin¬
guished himself no less by his mechanical abilities than
by the exquisite productions of his pencil in water co¬
lours : “ Get a frame made of common deal, or any kind of
wood, three or four inches deep, covered with a plate of
glass, and open at one side ; and let the side opposite to
this have a round opening, communicating by means of
a common iron pipe with the ash-pit of any little stove or
other fire-place, shut up from all other access of air but
what must pass through the pipe. It is obvious that any
fumes rising from a copper-plate laid under such a frame
will be carried backward into the iron pipe by the cur¬
rent of air required to maintain combustion in the stove,
either by that masterly negligence and simplicity in some
parts, or those bold sallies of the imagination and hand
in others, which give spirit and force to history painting.
The principal instruments used in engraving with the
tool are* gravers, scrapers, a burnisher, an oil-stone, and a
cushion for bearing the plates.
Gravers are made in several forms with respect to the
points, some being square, others lozenge ; the square
graver being designed for cutting broad and deep, and the
lozenge for more delicate and fine strokes and hatches.
The most generally useful are those of a form between
the square and lozenge; and they should be of a good
length, small towards the point, but stronger upwards,
that they may have strength enough to bear any stress
which there may be occasion to lay upon them ; for if they
be too small and mounted high, they will bend, which fre¬
quently causes their breaking, especially if they be not
employed for very small subjects.
The burnisher is used to assist in the engraving on
some occasions, as well as to polish the plates. It is made
of tine steel well polished. The burnisher is sometimes
formed at one end, and a scraper on the other, each about
an inch and a half long from the point; between them
about four inches of the instrument is made round, and
serves as a handle, and is thicker in the middle than at
the necks, where the burnisher and scraper begin, which
necks are only a quarter of an inch in diameter; The
and will by this means be carried up the chimney, in place principal application of the burnisher in engraving, besides
of being allowed to fly about in the apartment. The pipe
may be very conveniently used by carrying it down
through the table to the floor, and so along to the place
where the chimney may chance to stand; and when the
frame is not wanted, the pipe at one of the joinings
may be made to answer the purpose of a hinge, by which
to turn up the frame against the wall, where it may be
secured, while out of use, by a button or any other con¬
trivance.”1 idcioTj'iq ha/iuT id ffi-w iloidw .bsaubotci
its use in polishing the plates, is to tone and harmonise
the work, and to take out any scratches or accidental de¬
facings that may happen to the plates during the engrav¬
ing ; or to lessen the effect of any parts that may be too
strongly marked in the work, and require to be taken down.
A cushion, as it is called, is likewise sometimes used
for supporting the plate in such a manner that it may be
turned every way with ease. It is a bag of leather tilled
with sand, and should be of the size which will best suit
This method of engraving in aquatinta seems to be the plates it is intended to bear. Cushions are round,
chiefly adapted for slight subjects in general, and for imita- and about nine inches over, and three inches in thickness,
tions of sketches and washed drawings. But for the pro- The cushion, made as above directed, being laid on the
duption of prints from finished pictures it is by no means table, the plate must be put upon it; and the graver being
calculated, because it is not susceptible of that accuracy held in the hand in a proper manlier, the point must be
in the nice management of the tints which is necessary
for this purpose. It is equally unsuitable for book plates,
because, without retouching the plates, the number of
impressions which can be thrown off is very small. On
applied to the plate, and moved in the proper direction
for producing the figures of the lines intended; observ¬
ing, in forming lines, to hold the plate steady on the
cushion, and where they are to be finer, to press more
these accounts, therefore, it is to be considered as greatly lightly, using greater force where they are to be broader
inferior to the other modes of engraving. But as it is
more expeditious,and may be attained with greater facility,
it is undoubtedly useful when it is confined to those sub¬
jects for which it is peculiarly calculated. This rapidity
1 < m jao; hiCI .j-iJiji oflj ffo olfeEi him gv/oiv aril i
and deeper. In making circular or other curve lines,
hold your hand and graver steadily; and as you work,
turn your plate upon the cushion against your graver,
otherwise it will be impossible for you to make any circu-
Philoscrphical Magazine^ vol. xxiii. p. 137.
—
iijio’lani
dole
48
ENGRAVING
Engraving, lar or curved line with that neatness and command of hand
which by this means may be acquired. After part of the
work is engraved, it is necessary to scrape it with the
scraper or graver, passed in the most level direction over
the plate, to take off the barb or roughness formed by the
cutting of the graver; but great care must be taken not to
incline the edge of the scraper or tool in such a manner
that it may take the least hold of the copper, as it would
otherwise produce scratches in the engraving ; and, that
the engraved work may be rendered more visible, it may
afterwards be rubbed over with a roll of felt dipped in
oil. In using the graver it is necessary to carry it as le¬
vel as possible with the surface of the plate ; for otherwise,
if the fingers slip betwixt them, the line that will be pro¬
duced, whether curved or straight, will become deeper and
deeper in the progress of its formation, which entirely
prevents strokes being made at one cut that will be fine
at their extremities and larger in the middle, and occa¬
sions the necessity of retouching, to bring them to that
state. For this reason it is very necessary for those who
would learn to engrave in perfection, to endeavour, by Engravinj
frequent trials, to acquire the habit of making such strokes, "
both straight and curved, by lightening or sinking the
graver with the hand, according to the particular occa¬
sion. If, after finishing the design, any scratches appear,
or any part of the engraving be falsely executed, such
scratches or faulty parts must be taken out by the but1-
nietipr. and further nolished, if necessary, by the above-
mentioned roll.
The dry point, or needle, which has been of late much
used in engraving, is a tool like an etching point, which
being drawn hard on the copper, cuts a stroke and raises
a burr; the burr is scraped olf, and there remains a stroke
more soft and delicate than can be produced in any other
way.
Although the instruments for the use of the engraver
above enumerated and described are very simple, yet
we have thought it advisable to subjoin the following
figures illustrative of their forms, and about half the dimen¬
sions of those employed.
The plate is covered with etching ground in the follow-
ing manner • Heat it upon a stove or otherwise till it melt
the ground in the silk bag, fig. 5, which must be spread
equally over the surface of the copper by means of the
dabber, fig. 6. The ground is then to be moderately
smoked all over, with a candle, and when the plate is cold
it is ready for use.
Etching ground is composed of virgin wax and asphaltum
each two'ounces, and of black and Burgundy pitch each
half an ounce. Melt the wax and pitch in a new-glazed
earthen pot, and add to them by degrees the asphaltum
finely powdered ; boil the whole until such time as, by
taking a drop upon a plate, it will break when it is cold,
on bending it double three or four times between the fin¬
gers. The grqund, being sufficiently boiled, must be taken
off* the fire, arid, being allowed to cool a little, must be
poured into warm water if the weather be cold, or cold
water if the contrary, in order that it may be the more
easily worked With the hands; for it should be prilled along
time, to mix the ingredients more completely, when it
may be divided into small balls for use. The fire must be
moderate, for fear of burning the ground ; and the ingrej
dients must be stirred during the whole time of prepara¬
tion, particularly when the asphaltum is being put in.
Wax for surrounding the plate in the process of biting
in with aquafortis is made of one pound of Burgundy
pitch or black pitch, and of bees’ wax half a pound, melt¬
ed over a slow fire. When meltrid, add about a gill of
sweet oil, and when moderately hot, pour the whole
into water, pull it well, and fashion it into balls for use.
In the conduct of the graver and dry point consists the
whole art, for which there are no rules to be given, all
depending on the habitude, disposition, and genius of the
artist. However, besides the explanations already given,
some general observations arid directions may not be im¬
proper. As the principles of engraving are the same
with those of painting, a person cannot expect to attain
any considerable degree of perfection in this art who is
n
ENG RAY IN G. 49
Ef-aving.not a good master of design ; and therefore he ought to
be we]l acquainted with both perspective and drawing in
general ; for, by the proper degradations of strong and
faint colours, he will be enabled to throw backwards the
figures and other objects of the picture or design which
he proposes to imitate, and which the painter often in¬
trusts to the discretion of the engraver. In working, the
strokes of the graver should never be crossed too much
in a lozenge manner, particularly in the representation of
flesh, because sharp angles produce the unpleasing effect
of lattice-work, and take from the eye the repose which
is agreeable to it in all kinds of picturesque designs; we
should except the case of clouds, tempests, waves of the
sea, the skins of hairy animals, or the leaves of trees,
where this method of crossing may be admitted. But in
avoiding the lozenge, it is not proper to get entirely into
the square, which would give the work too much of the
hardness of stone. In conducting the strokes, the action
of the figures and of all their parts should be considered ;
it should be observed how they advance towards or re¬
cede from the eye; and the graver should be guided ac¬
cording to the risings or cavities of the muscles or folds,
making the strokes wider and fainter in the light, and
closer and firmer in the shades. Thus the figures will
not appear jagged ; and the hand should be lightened in
such a manner that the outlines may be formed and ter¬
minated without being cut too hard. However, though the
strokes break off where the muscle begins, yet they ought
always to have a certain connection with each other, so
that the first stroke may often serve by its return to make
the second, which will show the freedom of the engraver.
In engraving the flesh, the effect may be produced in the
lighter parts and middle tints by long pecks of the graver
rather than by light lines, or by round dots, or by dots a
little lengthened by the graver, or, best of all, by a judi¬
cious mixture of these together.
In engraving the hair and the beard, the engraver
should begin his work by laying the principal lines, and
sketching the chief shades, in a careless manner, or with a
few strokes; after which he may finish it at leisure with
finer and thinner strokes to the extremities. When archi¬
tecture or sculpture is to be represented, except it be old
and ruinous buildings, the work ought not to be made
very black; because, as edifices are commonly construct¬
ed either of stone or white marble, the colour, being re¬
flected on all sides, does not produce dark or brown shades,
as in other substances.
In engraving cloths of different kinds, linen should be
done with finer and closer lines than any other sorts, and
be executed with single strokes. W oollen cloth should
be engraved wide, in proportion to the coarseness or fine¬
ness of the stuff, and with only two strokes; and when
the strokes are crossed, the second should be smaller than
the first, and the third than the second. Shining stuffs,
which are generally of silk or satin, and which produce
flat or broken folds, should be engraved more hard and
more straight than others, with one or two strokes, as their
colours are bright or brown ; and between the first strokes
other smaller ones may be interlined. Velvet and plush are
expressed in the same manner, and should always be in¬
terlined. Metals, as armour, &c. are also represented by
interlining, or by clear single strokes. In architecture the
strokes which form the rounding object should tend to the
point of sight; and when whole columns occur, it is pro¬
per to produce the effect as much as possible by perpen¬
dicular strokes. If a cross stroke is put, it should be at
right angles, and wider and thinner than the first stroke.
9 In engraving mountains, the strokes ought to be frequent¬
ly discontinued and broken for sharp and craggy objects ;
they should be straight, in the lozenge manner, and ac-
VOL. IX.
companied with long points or dots; and rocks should Engraving,
be represented by cross strokes more square and even.
Objects which are distant towards the horizon should be
kept very tender. Waters that are calm and still are best
represented by strokes which are straight and parallel to
the horizon, interlined with those that are finer, omitting
such places as, in consequence of gleams of light, exhibit
the shining appearance of water ; and the form of objects
reflected from the water at a small distance upon it, or
upon the banks of the water, are expressed by the same
strokes, retouched more strongly or faintly as occasion may
require, and even by some that are perpendicular. For
agitated waters, as the waves of the sea, the first strokes
should follow the figure of the waves, and may be inter¬
lined, and the cross strokes, if any, ought to be very lo¬
zenge. In cascades the strokes should follow the fall, and
may be interlined. In engraving clouds, the lines should
sport, when they appear thick and agitated, in turning
every way, according to their form and agitation. If the
clouds are dark, so that two strokes are necessary, they
should be crossed more lozenge than the figures, and the
second strokes should be rather wider than the first. The
flat clouds which are lost insensibly in the clear sky should
be made by strokes parallel to the horizon, and a little
waving; if second strokes are required, they should be
more or less lozenge; and when they are brought to the
extremity, the hand should be so lightened that they may
form no outline. The flat and clear sky is represented by
parallel and straight strokes, without the least turning. In
landscapes, the trees, rocks, earth, and herbage, should be
etched as much as possible; nothing should be left for
the graver but perfecting, softening, and strengthening.
The dry point produces an effect more delicate than the
graver can, and may be used to very great advantage in
linen, skies, distances, ice, and often in water, especially
in small engravings. In most things it is proper to etch
the shadows, only leaving the lighter tints for the dry
point, graver, and other instruments.
Much excellence may be attained, and a great deal of
time saved, by the process of rebiting, particularly in land¬
scape. This process is effected in the following manner:
When all the strokes have been laid in upon the portion of
any subject to be rebit, the lines upon the plate should be
very carefully cleaned out with turpentine and a piece of
stale bread. It is then to be heated, and the dabber, with
a moderate portion of etching ground, applied dexterously
to the surface, care being taken, however, not to permit the
ground to sink into the lines, but only to cover the inter¬
mediate surface effectually. The aquafortis is now to be
applied, and the lines bit down or corroded to the depth
required. This process is, comparatively speaking, of
recent invention, and was wont to be esteemed precarious
and difficult in the management; but a little experience,
and the great demand lor illustrated works oflate years,
have been the means of rendering this, as well as other
matters of detail in the engraver’s art, much more cer¬
tain.
To imitate chalk drawings, a mixture of varied and ir¬
regular dots are used, made more or less soft, so as to re¬
semble the grain produced by the chalks on paper. Every
stroke of the chalks on paper may be considered as an in¬
finite number of adjoining points, which are the small emi¬
nences of the grain of the paper touched by the chalk in
passing over it. When the copper-plate has been proper¬
ly prepared with etching ground, as in the common me¬
thod of engraving, the drawing to be imitated may be
counterproved on the ground of the plate. If this cannot
be conveniently done, black-lead pencil or red chalk must
be applied to varnished or oiled paper, and this chalk or
pencil transmitted to the ground. The outlines of the
G
50 ENGRAVING.
Enetfftviflff.obiect must be formed in the etching by points, whose it is our pride to acknowledge that it has been not a little Engr in; 1
w-V'w' Magnitude and distance must be determined by the qua- beholden to the elegant etchings of the great masters in -v
&ty of the strokes in the original drawing. The artist painting, as well as to their drawings in pen and ink in
may be provided with pointed instruments or needles of its early stages, by which means an eminent degree ot
Various sizes, with single or double points. In forming taste was introduced into the art, particularly m tile de-
the light and shade, he should distinguish between those
hatches which serve to express the perspective of the ob¬
ject, and those which fbrm the ground of it* The princi¬
pal hatches should be more strongly marked ; the middle
tints* if etched, should be marked lightly, or they may be
left till the varnish is taken oft', and be perfected with a
greater degree of softness by needles, or the point of the
partment of linear disposition ; amongst those, the draw¬
ing of a Raffaelle, Michel Angelo, and the learned Da
Vinci, some of which we have occasionally seen and ad¬
mired. Some by Da Vinci were hatched in a square but
delicate manner,' with a white fluid, on dark-coloured pa¬
per. Those of Michel Angelo and Raffaelle inclined
more to the lozenge, in black or brown ink. They even
There nothing carried this style of hatching with the pencil into their
peculiar in the method of applying the aquafortis in this pictures, some of which adorn the Vatican ; and in the
kind of engraving; but it may be observed that it should famous cartoons in his majesty sco lection by Raffaelle.
not be left so long as to corrode too much the lighter Baccio Bandinelli generally hatched his lines in one di-
parts. If the light parts are sufficiently corroded, they rection, particularly a Taking down from the Cross, which
may be stopped up with turpentine varnish and lamp- was sold in LondonatthesaleofthelateSirJoshua Rey-
black mixed together^'and the aquafortis may be applied nolds’ drawings. Vicenzio Dante hatched in a similar
again to the stronger parts p for it will be no detriment way about the year 1550. Julio Romano used also to
to them, if the points which compose the shade burst into draw in this style with the pen, several of which are still
one another, provided the extreme be avoided. When to be found in the most select cabinets of men of taste ;
the work of the aquafortis is finished, and the varnish and for near a century and a half after the invention of
taken off the copper, it will be necessary in the softest etching, it is rare to mention a painter ot eminence who
parts, such as the flesh, to interstipple with proper points, was distinguished in drawings, who did not annex this art
as an effect will be thus produced more delicate than it is to that of painting. But with the application of the burm
possible to attain with the aquafortis only ; and the strong- the art has been gradually improving till the present pe-
est shades will require additional strength to be given them riod. Linear2 engraving is nothing more than drawing
with small strokes of the graver. Drawings made with elegantly on copper. It became more studied as it was
chalks of different colours may be imitated in this man¬
ner, if a plate be provided for every colour. This method
of engraving is intended to form a kind of deception, so
that the connoisseur may not be able, on the first inspec-
found capable of representing the various appearances of
nature. The texture or surface of objects became pro¬
portionally discriminated by such peculiar modifications
of the line as seemed most suitable to the subject repre-
tion, to distinguish between the original drawing and the sented, although, at the same time, it rendered it much
engraving mafie in imitation of it; and it is extremely more arduous in the execution. Hence arose that diver-
useful, as it serves to multiply copies of drawings left by sity of style, and that scope for succeeding excellence,
those masters who excelled in the usC of chalks, and thus which, by combining elegance with simplicity and beauty,
to form and improve young artists, wlto could not have distinguished those artists who have been most conspicu-
access to the originals in the practice ot drawing.,; jrf^i ous in its improvement. . ...
>o To tins account of the history and practice of the art “ It has been said that we are indebted for the origin of
this art to an ingenious Florentine, Masso Finiguerm the
sculptor. He was succeeded by a number of other inge¬
nious men, among whom we rank Botticelli, Andrea Man-
of engraving We sliall annex the following ingenious ob¬
servations by an eminent artist.1 i We present them to our
readersHwitlfout altetiatioii^br ab^dgment. .vorn Jasldifik _
On the li- a “ When compared with painting, the art of engraving is tigna, and other able designers; and in Germany, Albert
near art in but a recent invention, being coeval only with that of Durer, Aldgrave, and Lucas van Leyden, who severally
general, printing; and, like that noble art, it possesses not only a contributed their labours. But in the fifteenth century
similar, but a greater power of multiplying and extending the works of the divine Raffaelle began to be multiplied
the productions of genius over the world, for its language by the correct graver of Marco Antonio, an artist whose
is universally understood. > prints were the delight of that great painter. Antonio
“;It would have been.well for the art if it could boast had many imitators, but none who equalled him for just-
of a more remote date, as we might then have had many ness of contour, for which his works will be ever highly
more of the finest designs of the first painters of antiquity, appreciated among the early productions of the art.
now doomed to oblivion, saved from the rude ravages of Having bad occasion to mention a few of the principal
timei balfitunlfia yldsiimbs S. io jfumwi artists who reared the scaffolding of this elegant art, we
“ But this invention seemed to be reserved for the four- shall proceed to those who have so much distinguished
teenth century, and its improvements for the age of Louis themselves in finishing the superstructure. Among those,
XIV.; an age in which a number of artists, who may be Augustino of Venice began to introduce a better disposi-
said to have invigorated the art and unvested it ^vith beau- U ^
tyi-aroseboth in France and Italy, gj-nmlo vij r, fHu
• Linesyim the first state of the art, like every other pur¬
suit whose excellence is progressive, were comparatively
rude and unmeaning, and,had nothing more to recommend
tion of line in his shades, as well as the ingenious Bolog¬
nese, Augustino Caracci; whilst Egedius Sadelaer dis¬
played no less zeal in Germany. In the sixteenth century
the art displayed still more vigour and taste, and seemed
to have but little more wanting; for all that meagre dry-
them than merely representing a particular sort of mark- ness of line began to disappear, which so manifestly marks
ings, or slight hatchings with the pen, without any, other the early works of II Tedesco, Aldegraff, and other art-
apparent degree of execution or expression ; although ists of a former period. Their works became consequent-
•nod i' qnoig sdl .lobncxalA to eoDJud orlt to ono nl .nolloo'/ 'to oiuixot iLm'-' rr,
1 Francis Legal; Esq. historical engraver to George IT. when Prince of Wales, and F. A. S. E
.■ ' * The author has'taken the liberty bf adbpting here the word linear, from its strict analogy to this mode of engraving, and with
the approbation tef some of the first professors, both in painting and engraving, vldmirnbe ffo' immot to 30?
ENGRAVING.
51
'gtymgraving.
ly more rich in style, by embracing the best productions
of the pencil; and as they were applied to a greater
number of ideas, they became still more interesting and
successful.
“ Patrons were numerous and liberal; and it is but pro¬
per to remark, that the various artists, on their part actu¬
ated by a becoming zeal which was highly creditable to
themselves, were indefatigable. This is a circumstance
not less worthy of imitation than the many admirable mo¬
numents of the art which they produced. Few but ad-
jnired the works of Masson, Poilly, Nantueil, and Rous-
■selet; and some time after the death of the ingenious
Cornelius Bloemart, who had given a grace to his lines
hitherto unknown at Rome, the matchless Audran and
Edelinck displayed their excellent productions at Paris.
But arts are liable to fluctuate; and when the Art of en¬
graving began to decline abroad, it gradually displayed
a high degree of lustre in our ovrn country; and the
variety of styles which has since sprung from the original
manner of engraving, shall be the subject of the follow¬
ing sketch. lo . , • 1
« We shall, therefore, treat more particularly of the dis¬
position of the lines, and their consequent eftects, distin¬
guished by the terms linear expression, imitation, disposi¬
tion, and harmony j with a strict investigation of the first
and most approved subjects, either in etching or engrav¬
ing, and of their essential beauties, as far as they may
tend to illustrate the subject.
• As the great object of this mode of engraving is to
adopt those lines the most expressive of the form and
character of whatever happens to be represented, it is ne¬
cessary to begin by maturely investigating not only the ac¬
tion, but the cause and correspondent effects, of the origi¬
nal picture, in order that the artist may avail himself of
all that is most beautiful in his translation, and efficient
in the aggregate, either with respect to the expression,
.spirit, or sentiment.
n linear “ When historical subjects consist of several figures
ipression where there is generally a variety of draperies, some of
ad dispo- them appearing thick and cumbersome, others more thin
tion* and flexible, sitting close and elegant on the limbs, being
composed of a finer texture or thread ; the coarser stuffs
are consequently more effectually represented by a bolder
•line, as the thinner sort, by the application of a fine line,
gives a more lively representation ; a discrimination which
has been observed of late by the most approved modern
artists in linear engraving. Observations of this descrip¬
tion, when treated in a liberal manner, not only superadd
a degree of truth, but even render the subjects sweeter
to the eye of fancy. In the early stages of the art some
excellent artists have been led into particular and limit¬
ed systems. In the works of such as have affected to de¬
scribe every subject in the same line indiscriminately,
even the arms of the most delicate women are often en¬
graven as if perfectly polished, by approaching to a me¬
tallic appearance, a mode not uncommon among the se¬
cond or third class of artists about the beginning of the
last century ; by which manner all that softness and deli¬
cacy was neglected which is so happily effected in the
linear productions of Strange, Bartolozzi, Morgan, Sharp,
Heath, and others. Those who are acquainted with the
works of the ingenious Chaffard, must with pleasure have
-perceived in his foliage how even the texture of flowers is
imitated from the delicate line-like fibres of which they are
composed, issuing from the stem and spreading their silk¬
en beauties to the sun; and in this class of imitation, the
clear transparency of glass, the rough texture of woollen,
the thinness of lawn, the flickerings of satin, or the light¬
nings of steel, as well as the rude rock, the lucid lake, or
the flashing of the torrent, are all admirably adapted to
linear effect by the almost infinite diversity in their pdn- .Engraving,
struction and general constituent principles, strictly ob-
serving on what laws the beauty of lines consists, by ever
keeping in view the due balance of taste, and a noble, sim¬
plicity of style throughout- It is the business of the
skilful artist to overpower and subdue the difficulties in
his profession ; for no excellence in art is of cheap, or vul¬
gar acquisition. Let it be remembered, that with forming
steel even the enchanting graces of the Venus de’ Medicis
were hewn from a rock, and the almost breathing Apollo
from a block of Parian stone.
“ An elegant English poet, in a critical essay on poetry,
observes that the sound should seem an echo to the sense;
so should the lines in a fine print seem to harmonize with
the subject, by flowing with the external east of the Fea¬
tures, and the predominant passion expressed in the ori¬
ginal picture; for the same character and disposition
of the lines that suit the action of the muscles in one
passion, will be found to appear more vacant and less ex¬
pressive when applied to others, however graceful they
rtiayiapffeakadg odt oeoqcnooi doid w ejpioq odt 'll toi9dJ oi
“ As this is a point of view to which the art has never
yet been fully extended, perhaps it may meet with some
degree of attention, as it will be found of utility in form¬
ing a principle respecting disposition, more particularly
in historical subjects, where the passions are required to
be nicely expressed; and although it may admit of some
slight exceptions, it is a principle that will in general be
found to be true.
“ For example, let it be supposed that the passion of the
figure represented is that of joy, the lines should seem to
expand and swell, with every acting muscle, in the most
delicate manner possible.
“ But, on the contrary, if the subject displays deep sor¬
row, they should rather incline downward, partaking some¬
what of the half straight, seeming to act apparently in
perfect unison and conformity with the features of the
face, with all due subordination to the general effect of
light and shadow.
“ Various observations may be made in this manner on
the principal passions expressed in the human counte¬
nance, which are but few comparatively, even from the
slightest movement to the boldest action. We often find,
on examining the works of those masters who are not so
conspicuous for great clearness of execution; that they
have been occupied by the disposition and energy of the
lines, as in the magnificent and masterly prints of the bat¬
tles of Alexander, from the pictures of Charles le Brun, en¬
graved by Gerrard Audran, where the executive depart¬
ment is no less conspicuous from the burin of the Cheva¬
lier Edelinck in the fine print of the tent of Darius; whilst
Audran displays the true spirit of art, but rarely avails
himself of much of the mechanical principles. The field
and tumult of battle seemed admirably calculated to call
forth his rapid powers, particularly in works of magnitude.
“ The less active scenery of the tent of Darius was well
adapted to the splendid talents of Edelinck, who was ad¬
mirably qualified to display subjects of this nature. This
is sufficiently obvious from the beautiful and interesting
group of the queen mother, and her illustrious family,
kneeling at the feet of the conqueror; his impressive print
of the Magdalene, or his most admirable portraits of the
dignified clergy, distinguished authors, and eminent artists.
These, in point of engraving, are no less remarkable for
taste in the execution, than for truth and nature in ex¬
pression.
“ In one of the battles of Alexander, the group where
Poru&is wounded and supported by the soldiers, tjie rough
discrimination of line finely accords with tleat boid deport¬
ment of character in the grim visage of that gigantic
E X G R A V IK G.
spirit, that it is uiincuiv w say wiicm.c. T 'l®"Vp nnf-ommon effects, such as aerial spirits, or celestial be-
teem the most with masterly execution ; Pa‘ ll ^ b]entlc(j wjth the light, or ghosts commingled with
white war-horse on the right extremity of the p • » Monm or fairy elves by moonlight, who trip the sands,
“ Had Audran .uperadded a greater poruoaol he Xn f ar wood nyarph. Ling their
delicacy and clearness of handling so conspiuious in 3 i„ ,i,» Mnmid element. Such subiects, in point
;I^cf r  *IUkW,nr?. .f wr
undoubtedly'have given i
transcendent acquisitions ; namely, tne vast spirit o. ms “3^^. « —^ a sty„; of a differontciSE
lines, and power in diawing. ( tn r*nmhinp from that of the serious or historical, as they require a
“ lint it is seldom the lot of an individual to com! me ™“ evcn from ,he bm.in. case,
every excellence. Arts too have t len 0* ^ the style may be as capricious as the subjects. Those of
generally require the labour P tQ L,nlte an j RafFaello, m the Vatican, display an uncommon degree of
ameliorate the^polish of Edelinck, to the spirited styl^of ^ ,’0'' 'me
degree11 of lis excellmSe'wii^L'foundin’ tl.ebesi works “ In all works of taste and genius, those which may ap-
“fp a t L s. ,v» skull hereafter exemplify. pear the most simple at a transient glance, will be often
.^^0 he hi pecinltfi^^ found to contain the most art on a more mature invest,-
ferent dass hUhe Celebrated storm of Balechow, from a gation. The first impression may strike the fancy, but
picture of the*famous Vernet. In this print he has trans- the second generally calls up the d.scrmnnatmg powers of
mitted with the graver a certain fluidity and action in re^ the judgment. ... . ■,
nresentinc the liquid element, to wliich the art had never “ Arts generally rise ,n our esteem accordlug to the de-
before attained. To a grandeur of style in the bold swell- gree of exertion of the mental powers which they 1 equue,
ino of the waves he has superadded the utmost transpa- and, as lines are capable of various styles, those wine 1 are
rencv of line ; at the same time having attended to all most Congenial to the subject represented ought to be ad-
ELht restiess spray which seems sporting to the gales hered to in preference to every other consideration, le-
as they roll along. In a fanciful mood one might almost mers and Gerrard Douw demand all the fidelity and <le-
iroagine they heard the motion of the water ; so finely did hcacy of the burin m describing the various drapenes a
this^discriminating artist translate this admirable picture, individualities which belong to that class of painting; but,
“ When we consider the period in which this distinguish- in proportion as the contour is composed of ftwer parts,
ed work was engraved, and that little or nothing had been and the forms more full and elegant, the beautiful flowing
previously done in that department of a similar excellence, qualities of the graver are increased, and its lines, gilt e
it is hoped it will be a sufficient apology for the degree of mofe gracefully over the figures, as may be found in the
admiration here expressed ; for, as Lord Verulam truly works of Strange and others, from Guido and Correggio,
observes, “ we are too prone to pass those ladders by This distinction will not appear so obvious on a superfir
which the arts are reared, and generally reflect all the cial view of the art. But, on a due investigation, it will
merit to the last new performer.” We have already oh- be found, that not only a different modification of lines is
served, they are seldom reared with rapidity, and often- necessary to the various classes of painting, but that even
times that which is considered an invention is only a long a different description of style is requisite to characterize
■succession of trials and experiments, which have gradual- some of the masters in each particular class, from the su-
ly followed, each other, and ought rather to he considered blime and elevated figures of a Raffaelle and Michel An¬
as a Series of human mind than the knowledge of an indi- gelo, to the simple cottagers of Adrian Ostade,
vidual, being the works of ages. In any point of view, “ When we take a more comprehensive view of the art,
the present subject will ever he considered as a high im- we often find, that the styles which are adopted in the
provement and an elegant acquisition in the annals of the different countries in Europe by the artists where the art
linear art. But in historical subjects this artist is by no has in any degree been cultivated, are generally regulated
means equal in point of taste or discrimination. His print by the modes of painting, drawing, and even the colouring
of St Genevive undoubtedly ranks high in the first classes respectively in each, whether historical, portrait, or land-
of engraving. Had his taste in other respects been equal scape, and'is proportionally appreciated according to the
to his powerful clearness of execution, it would have been effective beauty and elegance of the execution,
almost unparalleled ; but it betrays a want of that essen- “ It is not improbable that the clear mode, which at pre-
tial, even in his mode of thinking. Patience and labour sent constitutes the modern German school, is a refine-
are everywhere too prevalent. It remained for Woollet ment on the simple style of Cornelius Bloemart.
to excel both in figures and landscapes. bnE q0 -scffln Italy, Jachimo Frey, that astonishing Swiss, from his
“ In th? various styles and modifications of this express- masterly expertness in drawing, and a rapid use of the
sive art, from the neat to the feeble, and from the bold etching steel and the nitre, almost produced an entire re-
to the jCfttravagant, taste stands sole arhitress ; in brief, volution in the art. The unprecedented richness and ease,
it isishie .who distributes variety with spirit, and conceals the freedom and energy of his style, and the number and.
the appearance of intricacy and labour; who, by a due magnitude of his works, attracted all Italy, and tended
isms jOiarJosxtJiH £iuvfiiga9 ilfirfo JadJ ,9visfctfo oJ 9iod isqotq i«cf a Jr 'gitftttfstte icsnil atuJBlqTnsjaoo v»<wr srus sw rfgooriJlA
1 Whenever M. Bartolozzi happened te speak of those prints, he always expressed himself with a great degree of enthusiasm, think¬
ing hinrself extremely, fortunate in having works of such excellence in his possession. ...
'
Bt A ¥ m %
«! IwgraTU#*greatly to improve the Roman school. About the year
^' ifry**' 1672 we find him working jointly with the nervous Dp*.
rigny Frezza, and Vanauden Aird. From tliis source we
can perceive the style of Wagner, of Cars in France, and
various.masters now living; namely, Francisco Bartoloz-
zi, Giovanni Volpato, Dominico Cunigo, and some of the
early works of the excellent Raphael Morghen.
“ In many instances Frey indicates* that if he had con¬
sidered it of sufficient consequence to the art, he could
have engraved with more clearness, particularly by his cu¬
rious copy, from the celebrated print by Edeljnck, of the
iladona and Child, with St John and Angels, from Raf-
faelje; and, although but an imitation of another style,
tends to show the versatility of his talents, when the judg¬
ment is for a while suspended to know which is the origi¬
nal. We find a performance of Frey’s, entitled La Cha-
rite Burmine, dated 1723 ; a print was afterwards engrav¬
ed from the same subject at Paris by Daulle, dated 1763,
in which he has rather been too profuse in the more me¬
chanical part of the art, and destitute of that ardour which
awell engraved work should not only inspire but maintain.
“ It is not enough for lines to be only well disposed, but
also full of expression; neither is it enough farm line.to
be only clearly cut, but it must also be free fpr in a cer¬
tain free light spirited lines convey an idea of animation,
and are suited to subjects of that description ; while the
long, sweeping, and bold lines are better adapted to the
solemn and majestic productions of the pencil. fnjnL,?
14 A fine print, like a miniature picture, ought to be view¬
ed near the eye; as in itself, from the nature of the art,
will he found a due subordination of effect, ever receding,
from the bold and articulated lines in the fore ground, to
those which are more evanescent and remote.
“ The graceful birch, the mountain ash, and the oak,
have each their peculiar bark and texture ; and these, when
freely indicated, stamp their mark and character most com¬
pletely to the eye. Much of this, as has been formerly
mentioned, depends upon, and is regulated by, the pecu¬
liar style of the picture and the skill of the engraver.
“ As lines seem to partake of motion, in proportion as
they deviate in gentle bendings from the straight and pre¬
cise; even so also in the motion of water seemingly in¬
creased, whether they undulate with the simplest wave,
or swell with the fierce and tempest-curled surge. This
character is sufficiently illustrated in the works of Bale-
chow and Woollet.
“ In the late Mr Brown’s large print of St John preach¬
ing in the wilderness, no engraver has ever more fully dis¬
played the true spirit of Salvator Rosa, particularly in the
original mode of treating the rocks, and the bold style of
the surrounding scenery; in short, in the aggregate it is
a chef d’oeuvre*unparalleled in any country. This is free¬
ly acknowledged, not only by every man of taste, but by
the first landscape engravers.
“ But Brown was perhaps less happy in the companion
to the above, from the celebrated Both, by adapting a si¬
milar mode to that finished and delicate painter. For the
style should ever vary with the subject.
Whate’er Lorrain light touched with softening hue,
Or savage Rosa dash’d, or learned Poussin drew.
“ His admirable etchings of the cottager and- its compa¬
nion, and the Celadon and Amelia, are fine specimens of his
discriminating powers, and characterized with so near an
approach to truth, that we cannot help exclaiming with
tlie poet, yxpiony bun mplmil odi
He sees no other, nature’s self who sees.
it must be acknowledged that it is but seldom
so many excellencies united; for ft is equally rare to see
the finest engraving united to the finest drawing, as to
find it in painting combined with the choicest Colouring;
yet each have their decided fascinations in the gallery,
the cabinet, or the portfolio. 1 . . , ■. .
“ Woollet, whose works abound with nerve and intelli¬
gence in point of character, his style of landscape is de¬
lightfully descriptive ; whether rocks, water, trees, or sky ;
as the Niobe, the Ceyx and Alcyone, and other master¬
pieces from the great Wilson, evince. In tlie winter scene
from Smith of Chichester he has admirably contrived to
convey the effect of the drifted snow by delicate dotting;
and with no less precision he has described the transpa¬
rent ice with clear lines. Of trees, he was the first that
ever faithfully characterized the graceful larch; as may
be seep in his views of the noblemen’s seats. In the print
of the fishery he is indebted to the masterly etching of
John Brown, particularly the shipping, in which there is
perhaps no subject more articulate and perspicuous. The
engraving of this subject is finished by himself. In his
figures he was the founder of a style most happily adapt¬
ed for modern dresses and historical portraiture ; a style
in which he moved with unrivalled reputation. His print
of the death of General Wolf, painted by Mr West, is an
admirable example, and does honour to the British nation.
It occupied him no less than four years. The print of
the battle at La Hogue is another fine specimen of his
knowledge of linear discrimination. In short, when we
consider the talents of this artist, it is difficult to decide
whether he most excelled in modern history or landscape.
The art has to regret that he, who was so eminently qua¬
lified to adorn any line of the profession, has left no works
in ancient history. We have little doubt, from his know¬
ledge, and a real love of the art, he would have left a suf¬
ficient monument in that department also for the pleasure
and contemplation of the real connoisseur and of posterity.
Engraving in this country sustained a heavy loss when he
died; and if the death of so excellent an artist may be
considered as a public loss, it is certainly the more felt
with respect to Woollet, who died while lie was yet im¬
proving in that excellence.1
“ Chattelaine has been termed a manheVrst in'hiS' draw¬
ings, but he must certainly be allowed to be an excellent
one; his etchings are variety itself. 1 Perhaps' in the de¬
partment of etching no artist has so happily tratislated
the pictures of Claude de Lorraine as Francis Vtvares;
that is, with respect to aerial perspective, the peculiar
characteristic of Claude. But his merits aVC not confined
to this master alone ; for he followed Ruysdale, Berghem,
Gainsborough, and Cuyp, with great success. He has
such a free delivery of style, that almost every one who
examines his works is irresistibly impressed with an idea
of performing the very same. Few artists, it' has been
mentioned, have excelled in the etching department. We
cannot, however, omit the name of Peranezzi; who, to
originality of style, which is apparently spontaneous, joins
a certain grandeur which had never been surpassed. He
has transmitted to posterity so spirited a representation
of the Greek and Roman edifices and ruins, that travel¬
lers have often confessed that they have raised their ideas
beyond the magnitude of the superstructures themselves.
It is certain that in works of this stupendous nature, a de¬
gree of ruggedness in the execution corresponds with the
sublimity of the subjects, and thus produces a still great-
1 Although we are now contemplating linear engraving, it is but proper here to observe, that chalk engraving, mezzotiuto, and
*«iuatinta, have also made ample improvements in this country in their various styles of hssoloJiflfl Ha lavaundW
jidreaMfcoij eiu ax asaoiTaoxa iLua’leraTiov.- gaiv'fid iu sJimui'nii 'cbmaijas Raarsid grr
ENGRAVING.
54
Engraving, er power over the mind than if they had been more po-
lished. Some have censured his figures, and not without
cause. This defect has been ingeniously palliated by an
excellent artist, M. Bartolozzi. “ For,” said he, “ if the
purchasers of the vfdrksi of Peranezzi get so much for
their mofiey in the building way, the figures may be sup¬
posed to be given for nothing.” Doubtless those vast
piles of perishing grandeur were never more judiciously
presented to the eye than by this astonishing artist, or
better calculated to affect the mind by calling forth its
most sublime ideas. 4, i. >Laminadn.
“ We have another striking instance of spirited etching
in a different pursuit of the art, in the works of Ridinger,
a name which brings along with it all the savage scenery
of nature.
Assembling wolves in raging troops descend .....
They fasten on the steed, and pierce his mighty heart.
For we shall ever find some peculiar beauty to admire,
gveft in the slightest productions of genius, as well as in
the most perfect productions of the burin.
“ There are few artists who do “hot regret that etching
was unknown to Bolswert, who has done so much without
its aid; from which we may easily suppose how much
-more he could have effected with this charming acquisi¬
tion. For the truth of this remark we may appeal to his
landscapes from Rubens, his animated portraits from Van¬
dyke, and his productions from the Flemish school of his¬
tory, particularly his large print of the taking down from
the cross, from Rubens. D XJ*?
“ There is a fine instance of linear effect in a print of a
Flemish conversation piece by Wille. One of the figures
is drinking out of a glass, and the artist has most decep¬
tively described the texture of the drinker’s face through
the glass. In the same print a female figure shows great
skill in this way; even the floor is characterized by lines;
and the whole strongly marks the most proper mode of
treating subjects of a mere local nature. The beautiful
print of the Petit Physicien is also an admirable imitation,
particularly the little pellucid globule which has just
mounted from the shell. When lines are engraved in a
square acute method of crossing, they generally convey
the idea of hardness to the subject represented. The
scientific Picart seems to have been so much aware of
this, that in a print of his engraving of a large marble
group ofhbrses, from the animated chisel of Perriere, he
adopted this style in order to heighten the imitation.
“ Mason’s print of Marshal Harcourt is one of the many
fine efforts of portrait engraving; and although it was
executed at an early period of the art, it abounds with no
small decree of taste. The celebrated print (called the
table-cloth), from Titian, of the Last Supper, also con¬
tains a Considerable degree of linear discrimination, al¬
though he sometimes carries it to affectation. He is ra¬
ther singular in his mode of engraving hair. Yet the
portraits of Marshal Harcourt and Brisasiere the secre¬
tary may be deemed exceptions. v50*^ X.n® obficnot on
“ While, by the magic of his tooling, he is too apt at
times to give his works indiscriminately the appearance of
bronze ; and we frequently find the same in the figures of
Balechow ; but it seems to have been reserved for Strange
to give the softness of Carnation to copper, and to Wool-
let to give force and clearness with discriminating taste;
Bartolozzi in his lines, elegance, delicacy, and drawing;
while the works of Audran teem with boldness and sim¬
plicity. In the prints of Sir Robert Strange, the greatest
excellence is perhaps his rich and harmonious tones, as
well as the whole effect, which is supported by an expres¬
sive style, which he seems in a great measure to have in¬
vented for his most favourite painters, Correggio, Titian,
Guido, and Guerchino. The softness, the gusto, and the
flowing draperies in the works of these masters, were hisEngmn,
delight. His sleeping Cupid from Guido, and the prints v—
of the Venus and Danae from Titian,,will ever be esteem¬
ed as chef d'ceuvres in the linear art.
Having thus attempted to fulfil our original intention
of discriminating the most expressive combinations of
lines, and of analyzing and illustrating their various pow¬
ers and effects in engraving, we shall now conclude these
observations; and if, from the nature of the subject, and
from the limits of the sketch, we have failed in marking
every brilliant star in the galaxy of the art, it must at
least be acknowledged that we have not omitted some of
those of the first magnitude.
Engraving upon Steel. On the first discovery of the
art of printing from engraved metals, experiments would
mdst probably be made with a view of ascertaining the
fittest metal for the purpose. Indeed it is known that
cbppef, tin, and silver were employed by the early artists;
and there ate some prints by Albert Durer which are
considered as impressions from plates engraved or etch¬
ed on steel. In the collection of Albert Durer’s prints in
the British Museum there are five of these prints, the
chief of which are, Christ in the Garden, a print six inches
by eight and a half, dated 1515; the Lady and the Mon¬
ster, twelve inches by eight and a fourth, dated 1516 ; and
the Canon, twelve and three fourth inches by eight and a
half, dated 1518.
But, for the usual purposes of engraving, copper has,
till within a few years, been supposed to have some ad¬
vantages, which have led to its being nearly always em¬
ployed in preference to other metals; and in one instance
only have we found that steel-plate was used for engrav¬
ing upon in this country, before the late attempts to pre¬
vent the forgery of bank-notes. The plate we allude to
is the Ceiling of the Star Chamber, in the Topographical
Illustrations of Westminster, engraved by Mr J. T. Smith
in 1805.
The great expense of renewing plates for bank-notes,
when any superior engraving is introduced for rendering
imitation difficult, suggested the idea of employing a hard¬
er material than copper to engrave upon. Steel-plate was
tried, and found capable of affording from twenty to thirty
times the number of impressions that could be obtained
from a plate of copper, whilst it was not much more difficult
to engrave upon. The advantages derived from employ¬
ing steel were first made public in this country in 1818,
by the inquiry respecting the prevention of forgery, insti¬
tuted by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts in
London, when a specimen of engraving on soft steel was
presented to the society by the late Mr Charles Warren ;
and it appeared from evidence collected by the commit¬
tee, that notes with ornamental borders, prifited from steel-
plates, were then in use in America. Soon after this period
Messrs Perkins and Fairman from America, in conjunction
with Mr Heath, an eminent engraver of London, formed
an establishmem for printing notes and other engravings
from steel blocks. §n"ooP/BTU9lonw aril gmnoflTiiq.
The methods of engraving on steel, adopted by Warren
and others, were similar to those employed in engraving
on copper; differing only as far as was necessary on ac¬
count of the nature of the material and the process of
hardening the plates in use in the earlier stages of this
invention. In addition to these methods, Perkins, Fair-
man, and Heath employ a mechanical process for increas¬
ing the number of impressions. They first make the en¬
graving on a thick plate of soft steel; the plate is then
hardened, and the impression is transferred, in a spring
press, to the surface of a soft steel cylinder, by rolling the
cylinder repeatedly to and fro on the engraved plate, un¬
der a very considerable pressure. The transfer thus ob-
Rii rmd esd .hsnabiBil nasd Jon biiil doidw (.sJcIn-IosJe t 1
ENGRAVING.
55
tained is in relief, and the cylinder being hardened, it is If plates are not to be transferred, there is some disad-Engraving,
made, by the same spring press, to repeat as many im- vantage in employing thick ones; and more especially in
pressions as may be desired on soft steel, or on copper- cases where an alteration may be necessary, or a mistake
plates, for the purpose of printing from. They usually is to be rectified. In a thin steel-plate it is as easy to
impress steel blocks, each of which will afford several rectify an error as in copper; but in a thick one it is a very
thousand impressions; and -when the cylinder becomes troublesome process. !0V:_ f)J
worn by transferring, a new one may be impressed from Mezzotinto engraving on steel is also found to answer
the original engraving ; and, consequently, an inconceiv- well; and upon that metal some very fine prints have
able number of prints may be obtained from one original lately been done; and the great number of impressions
plate. which a steel plate affords will cause this beautiful style
It ought, however, to be remarked, that an engraving of engraving to be more generally cultivated,
cannot be transferred from steel to steel without injury ; As printing from engraved steel is now much used as a
and that the injury will be greater in proportion to the means of preventing forgery, we shall close this article
with a few remarks on that subject. It appears tp us that
there should be nothing complex in the figures which are
selected for |he engraving; their excellence sliould con¬
sist ip the perfect evenness and parallelism of lines, whe-
j'.ngraving.
delicacy of the work* Indeed, where engravings are to
be considered as works of art, it will always be preferable
to engrave or etch on tempered steel, and print from it
without hardening. A sufficient quantity of impressions
may thus be obtained, and of a superior kind; because ther straight or curved; but curved lines of difficult kinds
steel being harder and more compact than copper, it is should be preferred. Many crossings render a pattern
consequently less worn by the process of wiping off the intricate and confused; they distract the attention and
printing ink either with the cloth or the hand.1 But the dazzle the sight. Wavy patterns, with scattered lights,
power of transferring is of great value in all cases where a have the same effect. In such cases it is difficult to corn-
great number of impressions is the chief object desired, pare one specimen with another, and a general imitation
as in notes, plates for school-books, ornamental borders for is not so easily detected. It will be desirable to unite the
pottery, labels, and the like. work of an artist to that of a mechanical engraver; and
In preparing steel-plates, either for engraving or etch- in such cases the subject should be of sufficient size to
ing, the surface should be well polished, so as to render allow of its being distinctly made out, because it will in-
it compact, of an equable degree of hardness, and per- crease the difficulty of imitation. Where circulation
fectly smooth. The same tools are used as for copper,
but they should be of the kind of steel which is en¬
dowed with the greatest degree of toughness. When a
plate is to be etched, the point which removes the var¬
nish should be sufficiently hard to penetrate the polish on
the surface of the plate; the acid will then bite more
freely, and to a greater depth, without spreading so as to
produce a broad and shallow line. A point of diamond
is, we believe, sometimes employed, particularly where
the lines are drawn with the ruling-machine invented by
Mr Wilson Lowry, the founder of a new school of en¬
graving, which has been of infinite use in diffusing cor¬
rect taste in architecture and sound knowledge in me¬
chanics. The same ingenious artist observed, in the first
etchings on steel, that the lines were broad without depth ;
aud,in consequence, tried to find a menstruumviXuch would
answer the purpose better than the common acids. In this
he perfectly succeeded, and was enabled to bite the lines
deep, and yet preserve the desired degree, of fineness.
Of the common acids, diluted muriatic acid seems to
answerLest, but diluted nitric and nitrous acids produce
nearly the same effectw03 ponohivo moil boiBoqqn ti her
When the graver is to be much employed on a plate,
it should be annealed, in order to render it uniformly soft.
of notes is limited, good engraving on tl)e note will be
some check upon forgery; but the notes of different banks
should be made as distinct as possible, instead of the same
work being introduced in different notes, as may easily he
done with steel cylinders. Where a whole empire is
served with one kind of notes, the temptation to forge is
so great that it cannot perhaps be altogether prevented;
and, therefore, whilst every proper expedient should be
used to increase the difficulty of forgery, no apparent dif¬
ficulty of copying should render bankers and others les?
on their guard against itno'dW .lledg orlj moil hnjnnofn
See Reyurt of the Committee of the Society of Arts, on
the Mode of Preventing the Forgery of Ban'i-Xotes, 8vo,
London, 1819 ; Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, vol. iii.
ftirrWmf y ■ §Ltd 'Iq Rmci r ni JefiJ c8idi
Engraving upon Glass. See Glass, Engraving on.
Engraving on Precious Stones is the representing of
figures, or devices, in relief, or indented, on various kinds
of hard polished lieUtoq 'to eJ-nffb oniL
. The art of engraving on precious stones is one of those
in which the ancients excelled; there being various an¬
tique agates, cornelians, and onyxes, which surpass any
thing of the kind which the moderns have produced. Pyr-
goteles among the Greeks, and Lfioscorides under the first
The plate, after being engraved, may be hardened most emperors of Home, are the most eminent engravers we
effectually, and;with the least injury to the engraving, or read of. The former was so esteemed by Alexander, that
risk of warping the plate, by heating it in a metallic bath,
and quenching the whole in a cooling ffuid. A bath of
the fusible alloy of lead, tin, and. bismuth, which Dr Wol¬
laston proposed for hardening delicate steel-work, will per-
ha
asmn proposed tor naraenmg aeucate,steel-vyork, will per-
laps answer better than any other. (See Cutlery.) It
yill always be an advantage to employ a perfectly fluid me-
he forbade any body else to engrave his head; and Au¬
gustus’s head, engraven by the latter, was deemed so beau¬
tiful that the succeeding emperors chose it for their seal*
All the polite arts having been buried under the ruins
of the Roman empire, that of engraving on stqnes met with
the same fate. It was retrieved in Italy at the beginning
dium for cooling; and we have reason to conclude, front of the fifteenth century, when one John of Florence, and
some hasty experiments, that water heated to its boiling after him Dominic of Milan, performed works of this kind
point is better than cold water for cooling steel. The
quick abstraction of heat, by converting water into steam,
seems to have more effect than the mere cooling power of
a large body of cold water. Plates to be hardened should
be about hall]tfos e io sonhua orii oi .aaoicj
rmnfta orll no oil bnn ol yibatBorioi tobnilva
np way to bp despised. From that time sculptures of this
kind became common enough in Europe, and particularly
in Germany, whence great.numbers were sent into other
countries; fiut they fell far short of the beauty of those
pf the ancients, especially those executed on precious
o TotannU; odT *9tte89’Kf sidaisbianoo 6 iPb adJ- boo <oJau§ siij ^aaamloa aril' .omripiauiJ fine
1 A steel-plate, which had not been hardened, has been'known to afford 95,000 impressions without material injury.
56 E N N
Eneuera stones; for, as to those on crystal, the Germans, and after
ll them the French, &c. have succeeded well enough.
Ennius. |n this branch of engraving artists make use either of
v—the diamond or of emery.
The diamond, which is the hardest of all stones, is only
cut by itself, or with its own matter. The first thing to
be done in this branch of engraving is, to cement two
rough diamonds to the ends of two sticks large enough to
hold them steady in the hand, and to rub or grind them
against each other till they be brought to the form de¬
sired. The dust or powder which is rubbed off serves af¬
terwards to polish them ; and this is performed with a kind
of mill that turns a wheel of soft iron, dhe diamond is
fixed in a brass dish, and, being thus applied to the wheel,
it is covered with diamond dust, mixed with oil of olives;
and when the diamond is to be cut facet-wise, first one face,
and then another, is applied to the wheel. Rubies, sap¬
phires, and topazes, are cut and formed in the same way
on a copper wheel, and polished, with tripoli diluted in
water. As to agates, amethysts, emeralds, hyacinths,
granites, rubies, and others ot the softer stones, they aie
cut on a leaden wheel, moistened with emery and water,
and polished with tripoli on a pewter wheel. Lapis-lazuli,
opal, and some others, are polished on a wooden wheel. 10
E N N
fashion and engrave vases of agate, crystal, lapi^-Mzuli, or -Ennis,
the like, a kind of lathe, like that used by pewterers, is ^
made use of to bold the vessels, which are to be wrought
with proper tools; that of the engraver generally holds
the tools, which are turned by a wheel; and the vessel is
held to them to be cut and engraved, either in relief or
otherwise, the tools being moistened from time to time
with diamond dust and oil, or at least emery and water.
To engrave figures or devices on any of these stones when
polished, such as medals, seals, and the like, a little non
wheel is used, the ends of whose axis are received within
two pieces of iron, placed upright, as in the turner’s lathe,
and so adjusted as to be brought closer, or set further
apart, at pleasure. At one end of the axis are fitted the
proper tools, which are kept tight by a screw. Lastly,
the wheel is turned by the foot, and the stone applied by
the hand to the tool, and shifted and conducted as occa¬
sion requires.
The tools are generally of iron, and sometimes of brass:
their form is various, but it generally bears some resem¬
blance to chisels, gouges, and the like. Some have small
round heads like buttons, others like ferrels, to take the
pieces out, and others again flat. When the stone has been
engraven, it is polished on wheels of hair-brushes and tripoli.
ENGUERA, a town of Spain, in the province of Valen¬
cia, with 5000 inhabitants. About 3000 weavers and spin¬
ners are employed in its manufactories of cloth.
ENGUICHE', in Heraldry, is said of the great mouth
of a hunting horn, when its rim is of a different colour
from that of the horn itself.
ENHARMONIC, in Music. See Music.
ENIGMA. See ^Enigma.
ENKHUYZEN, a city of North Holland, in the circle
of Hoorn. It is situated on the Zuyder Zee, and is
strongly fortified both on the land and on the sea side. It
contains 2600 houses and 6950 inhabitants, who carry on
extensive fisheries, have considerable trade in cheese and
wood, and refine much salt. It has considerable reputa¬
tion for its horticultural products. Long. 4. 5. E. Lat. 52.
42. 22. N.
ENMANCHE', in Heraldry, is when lines are drawn
from the centre of the upper edge of the chief to the
sides, to about half the breadth of the chief, signifying
sleeved, or resembling a sleeve; from the French manche.
ENNEAGON, in Geometry, a polygon with nine sides.
ENNIUS, Q., a celebrated poet of Rhudiae, in Calabria,
a province of the south of Italy, to the east of Tarentum,
born 239 before Christ, in the consulship of Q. Valerius
Falto and C. Mamilius Turrinus. Descended from one of
the petty princes who ruled over this portion of Italy, he
had inherited nothing from them except the barren nobi¬
lity of blood. His early years, if not spent in the camp,
must at least have been disturbed by rumours of war and
threatened invasion. The inroad of Hannibal, 218 before
Christ, and the fearful struggle which ensued between
the two powerful nations of Rome and Carthage, could
scarcely have taken place without extending its shock to
the most remote villages of Italy. In the earlier period of
the contest, we are ignorant of the side to which Ennius
adhered; but we find him, in 204 before Christ, when he
was thirty-five years of age, serving as a soldier in Sardi¬
nia, with such distinction as to attract the notice of Cato
the elder, at that time commander of the island. By him
he was brought to Rome, where his high character and
literary attainments introduced him to the acquaintance of
the most distinguished characters of that city. Scipio Af-
ricanus the elder became his intimate friend. At Rome
he seems to have employed his time in extending the know¬
ledge of the Greek language amongst the younger branches
of the nobility. Even Cato did not disdain to become his
pupil; and the example which he thus set no doubt tended
much to divert the minds of his countrymen towards pur¬
suits of a more refined and intellectual character than had.
hitherto engaged their attention. His genius procured
him the freedom of the city, an honour which had not yet
become w orthless from an indiscriminate distinction. He
passed into iEtolia, in 183 b. c., with the consul Fulvius,
to whose care the war in that country was intrusted; and
he no doubt seized this opportunity of visiting the various
states of Greece. lie seems, however, to have returned to
Rome, where he died of the gout in 169 b. c., in the se¬
ventieth year of his age. Scipio, before he died, had ex¬
pressed a wish that their bodies should rest in the same
grave ; and we know that a statue was erected to his ho¬
nour on the tomb of the Scipios.
Ennius must be considered as the father of Roman epic
poetry; and the eminent services which he performed for
the literature of Rome were fully appreciated by ancient
writers. Throughout his works there ran a strain ol noble
and passionate feeling. The language, though sometimes
rough and unpolished, wras full of power, and even of su¬
blimity. The structure of the verse was more regular,
from the introduction of hexameters, than that in which
his predecessors had sung. The principal work, from
which we have numerous fragments, was the Annules, an
epic poem in eighteen books, in which Ennius sang the
history of Rome, from its foundation till his own times.
In another work, written in catalectic tetrameter, he cele¬
brated the deeds of the elder 8cipio. Besides, he had
composed satires and other minor poems, which seem,
however, to have been rather translations from the Greek
writers: Edesphagetica, or Phagetica, in hexameters, a
gastronomic poem after the Greek of Archestratus; several
epigrams; Epicharmus, a didactic poem on the nature of
things, in trochees and hexameters, from the Greek of Epi¬
charmus ; Protrepticus, of a moral nature ; Prcecepta, per¬
haps the same as the preceding; Asotus, or Sotadicus;
also a Latin prose translation of the well-known Greek
work of Euhemerus on the Gods; and perhaps in prose,
a work on the Rape of the Sabines.
E N 3 E N $ 57
■ Ettofe His tragedies seem to have been generally composed in
• (!' imitation of the Greek dramatic writers, jEschylus, Sopho-
hns< eles, Euripides, and others. Those whose titles have been
preserved to us are the following: Medea, Iphigenia (af¬
ter Euripides), Achilles, Ajax (after Sophocles)> Telamon,
Hectoris Lustra, Alexander, Andromache, Hecuba, Eu-
menides (after iEschylus), Dulorestes, Erechtheus, Cres-
phon, Athamas, Andromeda, Telephas, Thyestes, Phoenix,
Melanippa, Alcmaeon, Cressae, Alcestis, Nemea, Ilione or
Polydorus, and Antiope.
The titles and fragments of several of his comedies
have also been preserved, which, like his tragedies, are
copied from the Greek dramatic writers of the new co¬
medy. They are, Amphithraso, Ambracia, Pancratiastes.
The fragments of Ennius were published by Columna
(at Naples, 1590), and again in the Corpus Poetarum by
Hesselius (4to, Amstel. 1707). The fragments of the An¬
nals were collected and published by P. Merula (Lugdun.
Bat. 1595), and by Spangenberg (Leipsic, 1825), The
tragedy of Medea was published in part, with a selection
of other fragments, and a learned commentary, by H. M.
Plauck. (Hanover, 1807, 4to.)
For a detailed account of the life and character of En¬
nius, the reader may consult W. Fr. Kreidmann Orat. de
Q. Pmtio, Jenae, 1754 ; Krause, Vitce et Fragmenta vete-
rum Historicorum Romanorum, Berlin, 1833, 8vo ; also Fa-
bricii Bibliotheca Latina (1 vol. p. 664), Hamburg, 1721 ;
also Geschichte der Romischen Literatur von Bahr, Garls-
ruhe, 1832.
ENORE, a village of Hindustan, in the Carnatic, eight
miles north from Madras, and situated on the shore of a
salt-water lake, abounding with oysters and other fish* It
is a great resort of company from Madras, who meet here
to fish, and to take the diversion of sailing in pleasure
boats; an enjoyment which is quite impracticable on the
coast, owing to the almost constant surf which beats tipon
the shore. The situation is on a flat sandy bank, where
there are about a hundred native huts;
ENOS, a city of Turkey in Europe, in the district of
the Sea of Marmora. It is on a river of the same name,
but called by the Turks Boris Korfush It has a good har¬
bour, frequented by ships of all nations, which take cargoes
of wool, camels’ hair, cotton, hides, morocco-leather, silk,
copper, and wax. It is said to contain 7000 inhabitants.
Long. 25. 56. L E. Lat. 40. 43. 42. N.
ENOTAEVSK, a town of Asiatic Russia, in the go¬
vernment of Caucasus, situated on the Volga, seventy-two
miles N* N. E. of Astracan. Long. 46.19. E. Lat. 47.15. N.
ENOW IAWKAIA, a village and wooden fortress of
Asiatic Russia, in the province of Astracan. The for¬
tress was built in 1741, for the Kalmucs. It is twenty miles
S. E. of Tchernoyar.
ENS, among metaphysicians, denotes entity, being, or
existence. This the schoolmen ca\\ ens teale an& enspost-
tivuin, to distinguish it from their ens ratiortis, which' is
only an imaginary thing, or exists but in the imagination.
Ens, a river in the Austrian dominions, which falls into
the Danube. It is chiefly remarkable because it is the
boundary line between two largeprovinces of thatdmpife.
these are distinguished by the names'of the Upper*and
Lower Ens. The province of the Lower Eos* is nearly in
the centre of the monarchy. It is bounded on the tiOrth'7
by Bohemia and Moravia, on the east fey Hungary, ow'the
south by Sleyermark, and on the west fey The Upper Ehs.
It extends over 8612 square miles, and is divided into ffehfl
circles, besides one consisting of the'city of Vlenna;and
its suburbs. The names of those circles are, thesUj)per
and the Lower Vienna Forests, and the Upper -and the-
i oT-r ^a®frartsbe%* In 4816! • the> plwvtaceMntailed
,040,412 inhabitants, who haTve« increased eonsiderably
VOL. IX.
since that period, and occupied 85 cities, 339 market-' Kna.
towns, and 4286 villages, in which were 148,172 dwell- ^0®^'
ing-houses.
The face of the country is generally mountainous, al¬
though the warm valley of the Danube and some others
contain land equal to any of Europe in productive power,
and spots whose picturesque beauty is excelled by few in
any country. There are a great number of smaller streams
which empty themselves into the Danube, the banks of all
which are fertile and pleasant. The mountain ranges are
a part of the Noric Alps, running for the most part per¬
pendicular to the river, and varying in height from 4400
to 6500 feet. The soil varies greatly, and as a whole,
including the mountain districts, cannot be considered as
fertile. The surface of the province appears by the ca¬
dastre to be 5,023,580 English acres, and the rivers, lakes,
roads, rocks, and waste lands, with the site of the cities,
towns, and villages, occupy 1,046;860, or somewhat more
than one fifth of the whole. The rest of the iand is thus
appropriated: 2,244,508 acres are under the plough,
96,757 are in gardens, 137,656 are in vineyards, 666,900
are in meadows, 467,254 in upland pastures, and 1,505,440
are woods and forests. Although agriculture is not worse
conducted than in Germany generally, the product of
corn is unequal to the demand for it; and it is calculated
that wheat and rye scarcely yield more than five times
the seed. The breeds of cattle are by no miean,s good,
and neither sheep, oxen, nor cows, are abundant. Poultry
and river fish are plentiful, as are also game both of the
feathered and four-footed kinds. Wine and fruits are co¬
piously produced, and much of both, after supplying the
capital, is sent to the other provinces. The want of wood
for fuel is complained of, and said to be constantly in¬
creasing, although of late years improvements have been
introduced in the management of the woods, roads made
to many places that were before inaccessible; and floats
formed on many of the small rivers, to augment the sup¬
ply. The whole province is a manufacturing district, and
furnishes cottbn, linen, and woollen cloth, silk goods, iron
and copper wares, gold, silver, and plated articles, glass,
hats, paper, hosiery, and the various smaller articles of
necessity or luxury. The chief commodities exported
are wine, saffron, mustard, and wool. The imports con¬
sist of East and West India articles, silk, corn, flour, cat¬
tle, wood, and salt. The city of Vienna has good roads
from it to the most distant parts of the empire, on which,
as well as On the rivers, there is a very great traffic.
The province of the Upper Ens is the westernmost Province
part of the Austrian dominions, with which have been in- the CTp-
corporated a part of the Valley of the Inn, which, before per
1779, belonged to Bavaria, and the larger portion of the
duchy of Salzburg, ceded to Austria in 1816. It is
bounded on the north by Bohemia, on the north-east by
the province of the Lower Ens, on the south-east by
Steyermark, on the south by Illyria, on the south-west by
the Tyrol, and on-the horth-west by the kingdom of Ba¬
varia. It is 7568 square miles in extent, it is divided
into five circles, namely, the Muhlvierthal, the Hausruck,
the Traun, the Innvierthal, and the Salzach or Salzburg.
It contained in 1816 seventeen cities, 122 market-towns,
7725 vHlf^F^ ttnd 124,606 houses, inhabited by 756,890
individuals, since which they have rapidly increased.
The southern part of the province is a mountainous
district, covered with a portion of the Noric Alps, in
wMicli are Glockner on the frontier of the Tyrol, 11,700
feet ‘in height; the Viehbachhorn, 11,058; and several
others exceeding 8000. Some of them dre eovefed with
perpetual snow, and have between them glaciers or fields
of ide of more than sixty square miles in extent. On the
north of the province the mohfetkihs HriiiHH'';separate it
11
58
E N S
ENT
Ens
from Bohemia are lower, but fill almost the whole circle
of Muhlvierthal. The province is well watered, saving,
Ensign, besides the Danube, four other navigable rivers which dis-
charge their waters into it. No country presents more
lakes, and none are of greater beauty than the iraun, the
Kammersee, the Mondsee, and the Hallstadtsee.
A country so mountainous has little opportunity ot
practising agriculture, and, with the exception of Salzburg,
the corn is not supposed to produce more than four tunes
the seed. The province contains 5,751,900 acres, o
which 1,464,750 are under the plough, 44,840 are in gar-
jvards, 649,967 are meadows, 1,393,670
dens, 145 in vineyards,  
upland pasture, and 1,697,040 woods. The remainder is
occupied with lakes, rivers, glaciers, roads, and sites o
cities and towns. One of the chief productions of the
province is salt, which is made from brine springs upon a
very extensive scale at Hallein. In some parts are mines
now worked. These produce annually 2490 ounces of
cold, 6400 ounces of silver, 886 quintals of copper, 490
quintals of lead, and 14,461 quintals of iron, bes.des ar¬
senic, vitriol, sulphur, and gypsum. The iron manufac¬
tures, and particularly that of knives, give employment to
thousands of families. There are also many mi ls on the
various streams, for spinning cotton, linen, and woollen
yarn. It is said that the woollen manufacture alone sup¬
ports more than 25,000 families. In the cities of Lmtz,
Salzburg, and Steyer, there is much transit trade, both by
the rivers and by the three great and excellent roads
Which traverse the province.
Ens, a city of Austria, in the province of the Lower
Ens. It stands near the influx of that river into the Da¬
nube, and contains 380 houses, with 2951 inhabitants em¬
ployed in linen weaving and in breweries. Being on tie
great road to Vienna, it has upwards of twenty inns and
hotels. Long. 14. 21. E. Lat. 48. 13. N. , , ,
ENSEELED, in Falcormj, is said of a hawk that has
a thread drawn through her upper eye-lid, and made fast
under her beak, to take away the sight.
ENSHAM, a town of the county of Oxford, in the
hundred of Wootten, sixty-ohe miles from London. It is
situated on the river Isis or Thames, and on the great
road from London to Worcester and Birmingham, from
which it derives some traffic. It had formerly an exten¬
sive abbey, the remains of which may still be traced. 1 he
population amounted in 1801 to 1166, in 1811 to 1418, in
1821 to 1705, and in 1831 to 1858.
ENSIGN, in the military art, a banner or colours under
which soldiers are ranged, according to the different com¬
panies or parties to which they belong.
The Turkish ensigns are horses’ tails; those of the Eu¬
ropeans are pieces of taffety, with divers figures, colours,
arms, and devices thereon. Xenophon tells us that the
ensign borne by the Persians was a goldpn eagle on a
white ground ; the Corinthians bore the winged horse or
Pegasus on theirs ; the Athenians an owl; the Messenians
the Greek letter M; the Lacedaemonians the A. The
Itomgns had a great diversity of ensigns, the wolf, mino-
taur, horse, boar, and at length the eagle, where they
stopped. This was first assumed in the second year of
the consulate of Marius. A military ensign on a medal
of a Roman colony denotes it a colony peopled with old
soldiers.
Ensign is also the officer who carries the colours, being
the lowest commissioned officer in a company of foot,
subordinate to the captain and lieutenant.
Naval Ensign, a large standard or banner hoisted on a
long pole erected over the poop, and called the ensign
staff. The ensign is used to distinguish the ships of dif¬
ferent nations from each other, as also to characterize the
different squadrons of the navy. The British ensign in &
shins of war is known by a double cross, viz. that ot kt I
George and St Andrew, formed upon a field which is either
red, white, or blue. . _ ^ , . . ,
ENT Sir George, an eminent English physician, born
at Sandwich, in Kent, in 1604. He was educated at Sid-
nev College, Cambridge, and, having afterwards travelled
into foreign countries, received the degree of doctor of
phvsic at Padua. After his return he obtained great prac¬
tice, was made president of the college of physicians in Lon¬
don and at length received the honour of knighthood from
Kino- Charles II. He was extremely intimate with Dr
Harvey, whom he learnedly defended, in a piece entitled
Apologia pro Circulations Sanguinis, contra JEmilmm Pa-
risanum. He also published Animadversiones, and some
observations in the Philosophical Transactions. Glan-
ville, speaking in his Plus Ultra of the modern improve¬
ments in amitomy, numbers Sir George Ent, Dr Ghsson,
and Dr Wallis, with the most celebrated discoverers m
that science. The two former were amongst the first mem¬
bers of the Royal Society. Sir George Ent died in Octo¬
ber 1689.
ENTAIL, in Laio. See Tailzie.
ENTHUSIASM, in a religious sense, implies a trans¬
port of the mind, by which it fancies itself inspired with
some revelation, impulse, or the like, from heaven. In
all a^es,” says Locke, “ men in whom melancholy has mix¬
ed with devotion, or whose conceit of themselves has raised
them into an opinion of a great familiarity with God, and a
nearer admittance to his favour than is afforded to others,
have often flattered themselves with a persuasion of an
immediate intercourse with the Deity, and frequent com¬
munications from the Divine Spirit. Their minds being
thus prepared, whatever groundless opinion comes to set¬
tle itself strongly upon their fancies is an illumination from
the Spirit of God ; and whatsoever odd action they find in
themselves a strong inclination to do, that impulse is con¬
cluded to be a call or direction from heaven, and must be
obeyed. It is a commission from above, and they can¬
not err in executing it. This I take to be properly en¬
thusiasm, which, though arising from the conceit of a
warm and overweening brain, works, when it once gets
footing, more powerfully on the persuasions and actions
of men than either reason or revelation, or both together,
men being most forwardly obedient to the impulses they
receive from themselves.”
ENTHYMEME, in Logic and Rhetoric, an argument
consisting only of two propositions, an antecedent, and a
consequent deduced from it. The word is Greek, iv6v/j,iyj,a,
formed of the verb tv6vfiu<$cu, to think, conceive, a com¬
pound of £v, and Su/xog, mind.
The enthymeme is the most simple and elegant of all
argumentations, being that which a man, in arguing close¬
ly, commonly makes, without attending at all to the form.
Thus, the verse remaining of Ovid’s tragedy entitled Me¬
dea contains an enthymeme : Servare potui, perdere an
possum rogas,—“ I was able to save you, consequently to
have destroyed you.” The beauty would have been lost
had all the propositions been expressed ; the mind is dis¬
pleased with a rehearsal of what is nowise necessary.
Sometimes also the two propositions of an enthymeme
are both included in a single.proposition, which Aristotle
calls an enthgmematical sentence, of which he gives this
instance: Mortal, do not bear an immortal hatred. 1 he
whole enthymeme would be, Thou art mortal, let not, there-
fore, thy hatred be immortal.
ENTLIBUCH, a bailiwick in the canton of Lucerne,
in Switzerland, extending over 110 square miles, and con¬
taining: five parishes, with 12,550 inhabitants.
59
m'
i* V. •< nytiW* rieu ci i9rt'I yvcn odJ io ssnoibBUpa Jnsioftifi obita elorfw orl! i?orn(r HR ir»d ,fwof we, armerfoH moil
ENTOMOLOGY.
„ ;'i .'>u!d to ,bgT 910m etnsovm ytIiujod or/l 4i oLii s’lyJcw liorf} Dsirsff')
nition. Entomology (from evro/Mov^ insect, and Xoyag, discourse), views. Linnaeus wisely separated these two classes, but at Definition
is that branched natural-science which treats of the history the same time injudiciously joined the Crustacea with in-
and habits of the insect tribes. Its subjects are the most sects* placing them in his order Aptem, along with spiders
numerous and diversifiedofany of those topics which engage and scolopeetbro. Fabricius in that respect followed the
the attention of the student of nature; and as they exem- same general plan, and included all those living creatures
plify in a most surprising and admirable manner, both by in the same class, notwithstanding the better example
their structure and instincts, the wisdom of the author1 shown by iBrisson, who; had separated all the species posi-
and creator of all things, and form a highly interesting de-? seased of more titan sits feet, that is, the Crustacea and
partment of human knowledge, we deem their elucidation Arachnides of Limiarck. Since the death of the great
deserving of a lengthened dissertation. \ . , > Swedish rtaturaiist, our improved knowledge of the anatomy
The English term insect is no doubt derived from the and physiology of the imvertebrated classes has thrown a
Latin word insectum or intersectum, signifying into or clearer light upon tlie subject, and many modifications haye
intersected, in allusion to the obvious divisions of head, taken place in the arrangement of the insect tribes,
thorax, and abdomen, of which their general forms consist. Insects, properly so,called, may be defined as animals
The Greek word bears the same signification, c without vertebra, sisorjooted, with a distinct head furnished
with two antenna and a pair of composite immoveable eyes,
"W-t "* ,K •*••• 4 — • and breathing through stigmalic openings which lead to in-
terior, trachea*1 tu /ig .^/fnd'io ttrl.r /i-iclir.ii-;«e has. .V'-ini
As we shall have occasion to mention many terms which
may . not be familiar to the general reader, we deem if ad¬
visable, instead of taking his knowledge ■ for granted, to
commence with a brief enumeration and explanation of the
various orders in Entomology, so that their names, when
subsequently brought forward, maybe associated with some
definite idea. We shall consider all insects as included
under eleven different orders, as follows.
If Coleoptjera (from KoXeoe, a sheath, and. ‘rn^a, wings).
CHAPTER I.
DEFINITION OF INSECTS THEIR ORDERS EXPLAINED—AND
THEIR STUDY DEFENDED.
In the article Animal Kingdom of this work (see vol.
iii. p. 179), we have given a view of the primary divisions
of the subjects of zoological science. The third primary
division, that of the articulated animals, consists of four
great classes:—1. Annelides, such as serpulae, nereids,
leecaes, earthworms* &c.; 2. Crustacea, such as crabs, including all those kinds commonly called beetles. Their
lobsters, and shrimps; 3. Arachnides, such as spiders, scor- membranous wings, which are the true organs of flight, are
pions, and mites ; and 4. Insecta,^ or true insects, such as protected by a superior and anterior pair of harder cqnsist-
beetles, butterflies, and moths. I he class Insecta of Lin- ence, called elytra,' They are all masticators, and are pro-
naeus included not only those last named, but also Crus- vided with mandibles and maxilla:. Plates OCXXI-VTI.
tacea and Arachnides, and was thus almost co-extensive 2. Orthoptera (from eg^og, straight, and wrega, icings),
with what we now regard as a primary division under the including crickets, grasshoppers, locusts, &c. The upper
term Articulata. We have, however, already discussed
those two branches as distinct classes, under their respec¬
tive titles (see Arachnides and Crustacea), and we shall
not repeat the important characters by which they are dis¬
tinguished from genuine insects.
The term insect was anciently applied to a much more
extended series of beings than are now included under that
designation. It seems to have comprised whatever was
destitute of an internal skeleton, and exhibited a body com¬
posed of articulated parts. In this sense it accords with
its application in the writings of Aristotle and Pliny, with
o — / o— JL JrT , 7  * — i ^
wings are of the consistence of parchment, reticulate^ and
more or less incumbent. The mouth is provided with
mandibles and maxillae. Plate CCXXVIIIr;j n()
3. Hemiptera (from y/Aiffv, the half, and <mga, wings),
including the cimices or bugs, the water scorpions, cicadae
or froghoppers, aphides, &c. A portion of their upper
wings is frequently membranaceous, or of the same con¬
sistence as the inferior pair. The mandibles and maxillae
are replaced by a sheath and sucker. Plate CCXXJX.
4. Neuroptera (from vzucov, nerve, and erngee, wings),
including libellulae or dragon-flies, ephemerae, &c. Both
. . n ,    Iiwciiuio; UlHgUIl-lUCB, VpiieiUerif, <XC. DUUI
cer in restrictions however, for these authors .were in ad- pairs of wings are membranous, naked, and finely reticu-
Vance OT tlPir supppssnrtt i’n oa Poi-oc j n/r .i , . , « .... . ,-v ,
vance of their successors, in as far as they distinguished the
Crustacea from insects. Swammerdam and Ray adopted
die definition of the ancient authors, but erred in classing
the Vermes or worms with insects, a combination which
does not appear for certain to have entered into Aristotle’s
lated. Mouth adapted for mastication, and furnished with
mandibles and maxillae. Plate CCXXX.
5. Hymenoptera (from u/xjjv, a membrane, and Krtga,
wings), containing wasps, bees, ichneumon-flies, &c., and
characterized likewise by membranous naked wings, which
■“e ^idon excludes those many-footed species called Juli and Scolopendrce, which, though still included bv some modern
under tlio f°Hg ^ects, were established as a distinct class by Dr Leach (Edinburgh Encyclopoedia, vol. viii.; and Linn. Trans, vol. ix.)
allude lGiUb i°f MynaPoda' and. werf recognised as such by LatreiUe in his Families du iVegne Animal, p. 322. Although we did not
fmmtlie T. m T-' efrSltl0n 1above referred to (art. Animal Kingdom), we think that the removal of the two genera just named
tural cnruUufoi t S V1Sa ’ \ea^es tbe letter in a state to be more clearly defined, as well as actually composed of more na-
“tous Ip- oS?1 part?,Ior’ as MM- Andouin and Milne Edwards have expressed it, p/us homogene. “En effet,” say these authors,
de mtS a "i GUX qU1 la comP°sent alors ont le corps divise en trois parties distinctes, une tete, un thorax, et un abdomen ; trois paires
veux aU ti10™^ ’ souvent deux ou quatre ailea sont suspendues a la meme partie; la tete porte deux aniennes et deux
liouides • nn )0Ut f- esf ffainie d une sene d’appendices modifies pour broyerles alimens solides, ou pour pamper ceux quisont
autrerhncp par ‘cuiier de vaisseaux sert a la respiration, et porte le nom de trachies; il existe un vaisseau dorsal qui n’est
ces etres <inin„VA CfeU1 ^dnuentaire; mais il n’y a point de veritable systeme circulatoire; les sexes sont distinctes ; enfin, la plupart de
erent anr^/u ^ pendant les premiers temps de leur vie, des me'tamorphoses plus ou moins completes; mais jamais ils n’acqui-
or tix-fw/rJ iSf°L c61 anit’ de nouveau^ segmens a leur corps.” (Itcsumc d'Entomologic, p. 12.) All true insects, then, are hexapod,
Mvriapoii* 'j 6 T.^-ra I1°W 01 ate ^ classed with them, but of which the amount of feet is greater than six, belong to the
apoda,—under whlch term the reader’m due time> wiU find their history and classification.
60
ENTOMOLOGY.
Definition, however, present fewer nervures, and are not reticulated,
as in the preceding order. The mouth is furnished with
mandibles and maxillae, and the abdomen of the female is
terminated either by an ovipositor - or sting. Plates
CCXXXI-II.
6. Lepidoptera (from Xitrig, a scale, and cm^a, icings),
containing all butterflies and moths, and generally charac¬
terized by the farinaceous or scaly aspect of the organs of
flight, and the tubular or thread-like extension of the parts
of the mouth. Plates CCXXXIII-VII.
7. Strepsiptera (from tfrgs-\Jwj, a turning or hoisting,
and vriga, icings), including a few peculiar and parasitical
species belonging to the genera stylops and xenos. This
order corresponds to the Rhipiptera of Latreille, but we
adopt Mr Kirby’s denomination, as possessing a prior claim.
Plate CCXXXI. .
8. Diptera (from dig, twice or double, and vmga, icings),
including the house fly, and other two-winged kinds. The
mouth is furnished with a proboscis, and there are two or¬
gans called poisers or balancers (halteres) placed behind
the true wings, one on each side. Plate CCXXXVIII.
9. Suctoria (so designated from their sucking propen¬
sities) is constituted by the genus Pulex of Linnaeus, and
differs from the ensuing apterous orders in undergoing a
regular metamorphosis, and possessing what some regard
as the rudiments of elytra.1 2 Plate CCXXXIX. fig. 13,
13 a, 14, 14 a, 14 b.
10. Thysanoura (probably from b/a£w, to dance, and cusa,
tail),'1 likewise an apterous order, including the Podurai and
other tribes. Plate CCXXXIX. fig. 7, 8, 12, and 12 a.
11. Parasita (so named from their parasitical or adhe¬
sive propensities, because they dwell on the bodies of other
animals) contains the genus Pediculus of Linnaeus, and the
Nirmi or bird-lice.3 Plate CCXXXIX. fig. 10, 11, and 11a.
The study of the structure and habits of this numerous
and diversified class of beings has long been a favourite
occupation with men of science in all the continental coun¬
tries of Europe, and has assumed of late years in the south¬
ern parts of our own island a character of considerable and
increasing importance. Works have been recently pub¬
lished in this country which need fear no comparison with
the most finished examples of pictorial representation ; and
when we consider how sparingly the subject of Entomology
has been hitherto patronized by the-public, we cannot suf¬
ficiently esteem the exertions of those who have thus de¬
voted their time and talents to a pursuit which brings with
it no other reward than the delight which every instructed
mind necessarily draw$ from the contemplation of a favour¬
ite subject. Entomology, in truth, still stands in a difficult
and somewhat dubious position, and presents itself to many
under a far less inviting aspect than its beautiful sister-sci¬
ence of Botany. In connection with the latter study, the
very mass of mankind, even the profanum vulgus, however
ignorant of the technical details, have many early formed,
and therefore pleasing associations. Every country-house
has its flower parterres, and numerous cottages their glow¬
ing borders,—botanic gardens have been formed in the
vicinity of most of the larger cities, while nursery grounds
are frequent in the neighbourhood even of provincial towns,
—to say nothing of the “ flower enamelled meads” which
each sparkling spring and gorgeous summer calls into fleet¬
ing but constantly renewed existence. In addition to the
more attainable nature of this popular pursuit, some bota¬
nical knowledge is also regarded as a requisite branch of Defir |0Ili
medical education; and although a tin box. and a micro- 'x-r—
scope do not constitute a man of science, still the subject
derives advantage from that general though it may be su¬
perficial culture. But in Entomology every thing exists
in a different order of relation. No “ trivial fond regards”
come in aid of the impaler of insects; and even the crea¬
tures themselves are too often regarded with such abhor¬
rence, that one feels the more inclined to admire how those
who endeavour to hand them down to an ungrateful poste¬
rity, should themselves be accused of cruelty.
The time however is surely gone by when an apologetical
defence of the study might be required, or in which the
works of Omnipotence were regarded as important in pro¬
portion either to their magnitude or immediate subservi¬
ence to the human race;—and although we desire not to
fall into an opposite error by maintaining the greater beauty
and excellence of the more minutely elaborated designs of
the Creator, we yet feel that they are fully more calculated
to awaken our wonder and admiration. It would be easy
to say that the richest and most elegant apparel which
adorns the human race is the product of a caterpillar; that
the blistering medicines so essential to the practice of the
sanitory art are compounded from a beetle; that honey
and wax, so valuable as articles of domestic economy, are
derived from the glad labours of a hymenopterous fly ; and
that even that splendid and regal dye the “ Tyrian purple”
of ancient days, supposed to have been obtained from the
Purpura patula, a shell-fish of the Mediterranean, is su¬
perseded by the tinctorial uses of the cochineal, a small and
obscure insect, which nevertheless the skill of the chemist
has rendered indispensable even to the garment of kings.
But in truth far higher and more delightful results ensue
from these researches, than can ever be named in the “ cui
bono” catalogue of a mere economist; for whatever tends
to elevate the mind of youth above the grosser pleasures of
sense, or even occasionally to disconnect our maturer years
from the more turbulent occupations and harassing cares
which life is heir to, assuredly carries along with it its own
reward. We doubt not that a more sedulous and frequent
attention to natural history would in active minds pre-oc-
cupy the place which is otherwise in after years too often^
devoted to more perilous courses. Even the pursuits of
literature are often vague and objectless, and not unfre-
quently engender a sickly sentimentalism, or other morbid
affection in nowise akin to genius. But the objects which
attract the attention of the naturalist are not the melan¬
choly creations of the human intellect, which present so
often but a lurid brightness, or a dim eclipse, in which
noble thoughts are obscured by the “ darkening scales” of
vice or folly. They are the work of Him who cannot err,
and who has doubtless not only peopled the teeming earth
and the translucent waters of the “ great deep” with all
their innumerable and varied wonders, for a wise and be¬
neficent purpose, of which our instruction and amusement
form at least a portion, but has, by the implantation of that
strong instinctive love of nature which all ingenuous minds
possess, demonstrated his desire that we should ennoble our
humanity by magnifying his manifold works, the “ won¬
drous works of him that is perfect in knowledge.”
While the beautiful simplicity and regular order observ¬
able in those phenomena which proceed under the super¬
intendence of omnipotence, commonly called the operations
1 This suctorial order is named Aphaniptera by Mr Kirby, from aQains, inconspicuous, because there is an appearance of something
resembling elytra.
2 In allusion, we presume, to the springing propensities of the insects of this order, which leap by means of a setiform process bent
beneath the abdomen.
3 Those who assume the occurrence of marked transformations as a basis for the grouping of the orders, will rank the first nine of
the above as Metabola, or insects undergoing metamorphosis, and the last two as Ametubola, or insects undergoing no metamorphosis.
O L O G Y.
61
with but a feeble chance of adding to the actual list even Externa]
of indigenous species, and hak probably no chance at all of Anatomy,
ever refreshing his eyes w ith the sight of a plant which
nobody ever saw before,—it is far otherwise with the innu¬
merable tribes of insect life. The “ gilded summer flies”
are numerous as leaves in Vallumbrosa. No recess of the
forest so obscure but there the “ winged messengers” are
seen to sport and play ; and each summer sunbeam falls not
alone on the dewy herbage of the open glades, but lights
up the gorgeous hues of those bright creatures which a
mystical philosophy has ennobled as the types of the disen¬
cumbered human soul, and which even the sombre Dante
has named angelical.
E N T O M
. of nature, are well adapted to the comprehension of under¬
standings laying no claim to the highest order, the more
complex relations of the subject present a vast field for
speculative or theoretical exercise,- sufficient to occupy the
faculties of the most powerful minds. It is thus that, in its
totality, the subject of natural history holds out to each ca¬
pacity the allurement of an occupation suited to every gra¬
dation of intellectual power; for while in its mysterious
interconnection with other branches of natural science, as
well as in its own peculiar complexities, it cannot be effec¬
tively grasped by mere human understanding, its manifold
minor features may be scanned with intelligence by who¬
ever desires so to do.
If indeed the value of a pursuit is to be estimated by the
comparative ease with which it may be followed by persons
of the most moderate fortunes, few can rank higher than
Entomology. While the specimens sought for by the mi¬
neralogist and student of geology are frequently heavy
and cumbrous, and not seldom extremely expensive, and
while that sad representative of the beauties of the living
Flora, called a Hortus Siccus, is but a frail and fleeting me¬
morial of the “ days of other years,” presenting, even after
a tedious and troublesome process of preservation (by
courtesy so called), no trace of their original brightness,
the most exquisite examples of entomological beauty, if
not too roughly handled at the period of their capture, re¬
main, with the most ordinary attention, for a lifetime in their
pristine state,—and what that state actually is, all may sa¬
tisfy themselves in the course even of the most superficial
examination,—
 For nature here
Wantons as in her prime, and plays at will
Her virgin fancies.
Exceeding in amount of species all the other subjects of
zoology,—unrivalled in the dazzling brilliancy of their co¬
lours, which combine the clearness and decision of tint pos¬
sessed by flowers, with the exquisitely varied markings of
the feathered race, and the metallic splendour of the mi¬
neral kingdom,—surpassed by no other work of creation in
the wonderful structure of their parts, and certainly surpass¬
ing all in the adaptation of that structure to the perfect
fulfilment of those natural though to us still mysterious in¬
stincts, which in every age have excited the admiration
of mankind,—is it to be wondered at that the study of in¬
sects should occupy a prominent place in our pursuit of
knowledge ? Much more do we wonder that thousands of
the best educated, and in other respects most enlightened
minds, should still feel averse to a study which unfolds such
a world of unseen wonders.
The subject, too, is literally inexhaustible; and while
some who love to methodize, and thereby to circumscribe,
the subjects of human knowledge, or who err in their esti¬
mate of the perceptive powers of the human mind as ap¬
plied to other matters of enquiry, may be deterred by the
vague boundaries of such a field, a greater number, and
with more propriety it is hoped, may be induced to enter it,
from the very consideration of such a rich and unreaped
harvest. While a fragment of inert matter, which chemi¬
cal analysis determines to differ in its constituent propor¬
tions from other fragments previously examined, is once in
a lustre dignified by the name of a new species, and the
name of a Hairy or a Dolomieu is bestowed on the uncon¬
scious mass,—and while, even in the richer domain of British
botany, the student of that science, however much he may
extend our knowledge of the localities of plants, labours
Non v’accorgete voi, che noi siam vermi
Nati a formar I’angelica farfalla.
Every pool of w ater is pregnant with life ; each lonely moor
or old deserted quarry, which scarcely “ feels in its barren¬
ness one touch of spring,” is the chosen abode of thousands
of living creatures, of small dimensions it is true, but
of singular beauty both of form and structure, and often
adorned with hues,
Which make the rose’s blush of beauty pale,
And dim the rich geranium’s scarlet blaze.
Even the pastoral melancholy of the green mountains is
enlivened by the occurrence of many interesting species.
One of the most beautiful of European coleopterous insects
(Carabus nitens) occurs among the peat hags, and other
places where heath and turf abound, and where its spark¬
ling coat of gold and green, tinged with a brighter lustre
than that of rubies, is singularly contrasted with the black¬
ness of the soil in which it seems imbedded. The deso¬
late and cloud-piercing summits of the highest hills produce
several species, which are the more highly prized from their
scarcity, and the difficulties with which they are obtained.1
We have alluded to the ease and eccwom/with which the
study of Entomology may be pursued, more especially when
our attention is confined to the species of a district. Of
course the collector of foreign insects labours under some
disadvantage, from the more multifarious nature of his sub¬
jects, their larger size, higher price, and more scattered lo¬
calities. But the home collector, especially of the Coleop-
tera, is more favourably situated.2 The total Entomology
of most districts may be amply illustrated within the bounds
of a cabinet of a few feet square, and the most ordinary
attention and regularity suffice for its preservation. Most
districts produce species which are comparatively rare in
other quarters, and thus by means of interchanges nume¬
rous additions may be made from time to time: so that
with a moderate share of assiduity and perseverance, a
large collection may be amassed with little or no pecuniary
outlay. In these and many other pleasant particulars, on
which we need not here dilate, Entomology possesses advan¬
tages over all the kindred branches of natural history.
We shall now pass to a short exposition of some of the
more characteristic features in the structure and functions
of insects.
CHAPTER II.
THE EXTERNAL ANATOMY OF INSECTS.
Our knowledge of the manners of these creatures presents
us with few general results, and this is scarcely to be won-
1 The foregoing brief “ defence of insects” coincides with that which, since the above was written, has appeared in our Entomolofna
Edmensis.
2 A glazed frame or drawer, lined with cork, and capable of containing many hundred species, may be made for a few shillings.
62
entomology.
External dered at, when we consider with how small a number we
Anatomy, have any accurate acquaintance. It may even be doubte
'—  ' whether we are completely informed of the history of any
one species within the entire range of Entomology. Ot
some we know the perfect state, but haye never seen the
larva ; of others the larvae are w ell known, but the perfect
insect remains in obscurity, so that when we consider the
numerous chauges which these creatures undergo, from
their first hatching to their final metamorphosis, we need
scarcely wonder that eVeh the most familiar species pre¬
sent joints in their history, w h eh it is by no means easy
to,unravel. , , h* . odT.
It is otherwise however v%ritli the classification of insects,^
which, depending mainly on an attentive examination of
external characters, is so far independent auxe of anatomi¬
cal investigation and the stud^ ot rhanners, althdugh these,
when ascertained, form of course the truest test by winch
to appreciate the difference between a natural and an arti-
lfe'?^mehif'!l 0 Y'Y1 .. V miiulYm.r. orfa.hmriiiljaia
Tlie period is comparatively recent during which the in¬
ternal structure of insects began to be regarded as a sub-,
reef df interest. Their external characters were the first
to attract attention; and as a communicable knowledge of
these Was necessary for all the practical purpbses of classi¬
fication, as well as to establish the means of mutual undei-
staliding among naturalists, it iS well that that branch has
been rendered so complete and satisfactory. In former
times, whatever facts of interest might have been ascer¬
tained, were too often but of slight avail, iti consequence
of our vague knowledge of the species to which they ap¬
plied. But the most Ordinary attention on the part of the
anatomist, to the systematic works of modern times, will
now suffice to inform him of the place which his subject
occupies in die scale of nature ; and hence the importance,
not seldom overlooked by the physiologist, of even the
minutest external characters, when accurately ascertained
and clearly described. It has indeed been stated as a
truism, that whoever attempts to deduce the real affinities
of the animal kingdom from a cofisideration of the exter¬
nal characters alone, will in most cases mislead both him¬
self and others.1 But it must also be admitted, that
comparative anatomists have too frequently an idea that
nothing is or can he of importance which extends beyond
the sphere of their own exertions. They forget that the
general form and covering, and, in short, the whole of the
external characters, however they may labour under the
misfortune of being obvious to a common observer, are
just as much a part of an animal's organic constitution, as
the nerves, viscera, muscles, blood-vessels, and bones, or
whatever else is most mysterious and recondite ; and that,
in fact, without a precise knowledge of the former, the in¬
formation conveyed by the latter would be uncertain, or of
no avail. The chief advantage of the internal structure is,
that it is less liable to variation from the influence of local
or accidental circumstances: its chief disadvantage results
from the difficulty of its ascertainment, and the contrariety
of opinion wfoich exists among physiologists regarding the
uses of the organs, even after their conformation has been
ascertained. A mere knowledge of external character is
perhaps nearly as useful as an acquaintance, however inti¬
mate, with anatomical structure, when nothing is either
known or sought for respecting the external appearance, as
a necessary guide to the higher knowledge of animal in¬
stincts and modes of life, the uses of living creatures in the
general economy of nature, their exquisite adaptation to
the circumstances under which they are placed, their distri¬
bution over the earth’s surface, and other points of philoso¬
phical investigation. The mere anatomist may smile at the Exten
mere collecto? of shells and butterflies; and with just as Anatuj
much propriety may the mere naturalist or virtuoso smile
in return at him who, knowing, or supposing that he knows,
every convolution df a viscus, or ramification ot an artery,
is yet unable to recognise, amid the perplexingly multi¬
plied varieties Which may be presented to him, the precise
animal which has been the subject of so much anxious and
careful investigation. But when anatomy and natural his¬
tory 'hand in hand, the obscure labyrinth of nature, so
far as" human capacity can penetrate, receives its noblest
illumination.
Notwithstanding the meritorious labours ot bwammer-
dam, Malpighi, Reaumur, and Lyonnet, who were the first
greatly to signalise themselves in the difficult field of in¬
sect anatomy; in spite of the more recent and scarcely less
successful exertions of Cuvier, Comparetti, Ramdohr, Tre-
viramis, Gaede, Sprengel, Savigny, Marcel de Serres, Geof¬
frey St Hilaire, Cams, Meckel, Audouin, and Dufour (to
make no mention of many others who yet deserve to be
held in remembrance),—Such is the immense extent and
variety of this wmnderful class of beings, that we fall infi¬
nitely short of possessing any tiling like a general or com¬
pleted knowledge of their structure. In this paucity of
well-established facts under which we labour, it would
indeed be unphilosbphical to attempt the induction of ge¬
neral rules; and all that we shall here attempt shall be
to record such observations as seem likely to bear sub¬
stantially upon the subject, and to have formed an actual
advance in our knowledge of the anatomy and physiology
of insects.
The study of the interior structure of these creatures does
not at first sight hold out the promise of much that is either
interesting or Useful, The enormous distance which seems
to separate all invertebrated animals from man, and even
from the lower mammiferous and other vertebrated tribes,
has induced the belief that no practical results can ever
spring from such a source. But the philosophical observer,
who knows how important is frequently the connection be¬
tween the greatest and the least of things, and how, like
the thread of Ariadne, the tracing of a slender chain may
lead to unforeseen conclusions of the highest value, will
not despise the lights which a better knowledge even of
insect anatomy may be one day destined to throw upon
some of the many still obscure points in the physiology ot
man. The observations of M. Dufour and others have al¬
ready shown us what an admirable simplicity presides in
these despised tribes over the exercise of those most im¬
portant functions, which in red-blooded animals require
such a complicated organic structure as to be almost incom¬
prehensible. But as we descend in the scale of nature, we
see more clearly the distinction between what is neces¬
sary, or merely accessory or superfluous, and thus by de¬
grees we may attain to a knowledge of the essential cha¬
racters of things.
Even in its more superficial bearings on natural history,
the dissection of insects is necessary to ascertain several
disputed points regarding the sexual distinctions of species,
and to verify our views of the structure of the organs of
the mouth, the antennae, tarsi, and other external parts, on
which our establishment of tribes and genera mainly de¬
pends, When it is desired to dissect an insect, it ought
to be placed on a piece of cork, immersed in pure water;
and the various parts, as they float in the liquid, may be
fixed in their most appropriate position by means of needles.
With a view to prevent deception from any alteration in
the relative position of the internal organs, it is desirable
1 Wilson’s lllnitrations of Zoology, vol. i. pref. p. 4.
"3 K
ENTOMOLOGY.
63
to fix the insect in its natural horizontal posture, and to
commence the dissection from the dorsal region down¬
wards.
The following observations on the dissection of the mi¬
nuter animals may be of service to the student. “ The
first thing that I have to observe is, that all dissections of
small and soft objects, e. g. worms, zoophytes, insects, mol-
lusca, &c. where it is desirable to obtain even tolerably
accurate results, should be performed under water, by which
the parts are kept floating and separated from each other,
and consequently present themselves more distinctly. A
very simple contrivance for investigations of this kind may
be prepared in the following manner:: A mass of tough
wax (not too soft) is to be laid, upon one or more porcelain
saucers or capsules of different sizes, which are then to be
put in a warm place until the wax melts so as to cover the
surface evenly to the depth of a half or a third of an
inch. If the object to be examined be laid upon this sur¬
face, it may be fixed by needles in any position that is wish¬
ed ; and, when covered with clear water, developed and
dissected by means of suitable instruments. Of these, the
best are very delicate forceps ; pointed, well made, sharp¬
cutting scissars; and small knives like cataract needles,
some round, others with cutting edges, and fixed in slen¬
der wooden handles. For separating parts I have also em¬
ployed small horn probes and fine brushes ; whilst for ex¬
amining them a good magnifying glass is frequently indis¬
pensable. If it is wished to preserve a preparation thus
made, wax coloured at pleasure, as for the purpose of in¬
jections, is to be formed into little tablets about a quarter
of an inch thick ; one of them is then to be placed upon
the saucer or capsule containing the preparation ; the lat¬
ter may then be transferred to it, arranged suitably upon
it, fixed there by means of short needles, and both toge¬
ther placed in alcohol. Nor must I forget to mention,
that the examination of very delicate organizations may
frequently be conducted with greater facility and accuracy,
if the object be previously allowed to remain some time in
spirit, and thereby to become harder and contracted. This
applies particularly to the dissection of nervous organs,
and to the examination of very small embryos, of mollusca,
and worms. There are various ways of destroying worms,
insects, &c. for the purpose of dissecting, without injuring
their organization. Mollusca, snails for example, as Swam¬
merdam has remarked, are to be allowed to die in water,
because by that means their body swells, and all the parts
become more distinctly visible ; they may afterwards be
kept in spirit (though not too long) for dissection. Worms,
the larger zoophytes (for the smaller must be examined
whilst alive), caterpillars, &c. are best destroyed by means
of spirit; insects, on the contrary, by being dipped rapid¬
ly in boiling water, or in oil of turpentine.”1 *
SECT. I THE EXTERNAL COVERING OF INSECTS,
Our knowledge of the structure and anatomy of this class
may be said to be still in its infancy ; for although many
important facts have been legitimately generalized, we are
still in ignorance of the formation of a thousand species
for every one which has been examined. As the harder
parts of insects, to which the muscles are attached, are su¬
perficial, the class has been described as bearing their, ske¬
letons externally; and a transcendental anatomy has not
scrupled to determine the exact analogy which each, por¬
tion of their covering bears to the bony irame-w ork of the
vertebrated tribes. This comparison has been instituted
by M. Geoffroy St Hilaire, an eminent physiological natu« External
ralist of France, who maintains, with many of his country- Anatomy,
men, that all animals are vertebrated. The doctrine, what-
ever may be its other merits, is not entitled to the credit
of novelty, as an ^English writer of the name of Willis had,
so far back as the year 1692, published his opinion that
the external envelope of the body of insects represented
the internal articulated column of the vertebrated. tribes.
M. de Blainville, on the other hand, regards the corneous
covering of insects rather as analogous to the skin or cu¬
taneous system of the higher classes.
The hardness of the calcareous or horny en velope of the
greater number of insects is owing, in Latreille’s opinion,
to the consistence of the excretion, interposed between the
dermis and the epidermis, or what is termed in man the
mucous tissue. This excretion also contains the brilliant
and varied colours which add so greatly to the beauty of
the class.- According to M. Odier, who has attentively
examined the composition , of the harder parts of insects,
the substance of this envelope is of a peculiar nature. He
has named it chitine. He observes that the phosphate of
lime forms the great proportion of all the salts contained
in the teguments of insects, wjnle that ingredient is but
trifling in the covering of thp Crustacea, although the lat¬
ter abounds in the carbonate, which is not found in the
other class.3 The facts stated by him militate against.tfie
analogies attempted to be established on the subject; and
the observations of M.: Straus go far to demonstrate that
those teguments do not form a frue skeleton, but really re¬
present the skin of the vertebrated classes. When we use
the wurd skeleton, then, in relation to insects, the reader
will understand its application merely to the external gg-
vp^jg, ; ' * afninn oif-m/ >TjLaidimc
On analysing the elytra of the cockchafer, M. Odicr as¬
certained the existence, Isf, of albumen ; 2d, of an extrac¬
tive matter, soluble in water ; -‘W, of a brown-coloured ani¬
mal. substance, soluble in potass and insoluble in alcohol;
of a coloured oil, soluble in alcohol; bth, of three salts,
viz. subcarbonate of potass, phosphate of lime, and phos¬
phate of iron ; dth, of a peculiar substance which consti¬
tutes a fourth part in wrnight of the elytron. Albumen is
so. generally distributed among the animal organs that its
presence was to be expected. But the oil is deserving of
further experimental observation. Hobiquet found it of a
green colour in cantharides; while, according to Odier, it
is brown in the cockchafer, and red in a species of crioee-
ris. Now as each of these insects is itself of a correspond¬
ing hue, it is natural to suppose that the oil is the colour¬
ing matter. The peculiar substance which forms so large
a proportion of the elytra is named chitine by M. Odier.
If we plunge a coleopterous insect into , a solution of potas¬
sium, and keep up a pretty high temperature, we shall
observe that the so-called skeleton neither dissolves nor
changes its form .; it merely becomes discoloured during
the operation, while all the viscera and interior muscles
disappear; and whatever remains of the insect is chitine.
This substanqe .exists in the whole of the envelope, and is
also found to occur in the more solid covering of the Crus¬
tacea.
If .however we,compare the preceding results with those
obtained by M- Chevrcul in the course of his experiments
on. crustaceans animals, we shall perceive some remarkable
distinctions, in the constitution of their harder parts. The
presence of subcarbonate of potass is a striking character
among insects. It does not occur in the class Crustacea. The
phosphate of lime, a sparing ingredient among the latter,
1 Carus’s Introduction to Comparative Anatomy, translated by Gore, vol. ii. p. 389.
* Rtgne Animal, t. iv. p. 2. * Mem. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. t. i. p. 29.
64
E N T O M
External forms a preponderating part of the salts irt the envelope o
Anatomy, insects, while the carbonate ot lime is absent, althoug i
forms the base of the carapace or covering of crabs and
lobsters. It has been stated as a regulating law m animal
chemistry, that the bones of the higher orders have more
of the phosphate and less of the carbonate of lime in their
composition, while the proportions were reversed among
the inferior tribes. But the observations of M. Odier show
the inadequacy of chemical character to serve as a basis on
which to found our analogies of organization ; for if strictly
applied to insects, that class must be removed trom the
place which they now occupy in our system, and be com¬
bined with others of a higher nature, with which in truth
they have no connection.
The harder and more solid parts of insects are certainly
to them what the internal skeleton is to the vertebrated
tribes. They form the support and frame-work of the body.
It is on this account that the term skeleton, though not
strictly applicable, has been used, both in ancient and mo¬
dern times, to designate the corneous external srjstem of these
creatures. This comparatively solid system is itself formed
by the union of many parts, which however have received no
general name; so that, while in discussing the vertebrated
tribes we merely say that their skeleton is formed of bone,
all that we advance in regard to insects is, that it is composed
of pieces. In the higher tribes each individual bone is well
known by its own distinctive name ; but the insect tribes in
that respect have been but obscurely defined. Guided by
the light of human anatomy, observers have sought to disco¬
ver in insects all those parts to which they could apply pre¬
viously established names; but analogies based upon mere
appearance are incapable of great or useful extension ; and
insects would certainly have been better known had they
been studied in the first place individually, and no far¬
fetched comparisons instituted till after a more ample know¬
ledge of actual organization. But instead of this, the best
determined functions of the superior animals have been
assumed as points of departure, and all the parts of insects
which seemed to fulfil the same purposes have been deter-
minately regarded as analogous. Now it is quite admissi¬
ble to say, that in insects, as among the vertebrated tribes,
there is progression, vision, manducation, &c. because these
are the attributes, more or less general, of all living beings ;
but it has not always been demonstrated that particular
and more special functions are always performed by the
same or apparently corresponding parts. M. Dufour, how¬
ever, has announced the following results in relation to the
articulated animals themselves: \st, that the skeleton of the
Crustacea and Arachnides (two important classes already
described in this work) does not differ from that of insects
except by the mode of growth of the rings of which it is
composed; 2c?, that those two classes of animals and in¬
sects themselves do not differ among each other, but by
the greater or less extent in the development of the parts
of which they are composed.
The same may be asserted in regard to the disparities
observable between the different conditions of insects in
the larva, the chrysalis, and the perfect state. The vari¬
ous forms under which the same species is exhibited, and
the singular and sometimes sudden transformations to which
it is subjected, are'found to result, when analysed, from the
growth of parts. This has been demonstrated by the writ¬
ings of Swammerdam and other modern writers on the ana¬
tomy of caterpillars, as well as by the beautiful and more
recent observations of Savigny on the mouths of Lepidop-
tera in the perfect state, compared with the same parts in
their earliest condition.1 The observation is particularly
O L O G Y.
applicable to the solid parts of insects. In the larva each
segment exists under a nearly uniform development, while
in the perfect state several of these segments have acquired
a prodigious increase. 1 his is the cause of the vast dif¬
ference in their exterior envelope at different periods of
their existence. The nymph or chrysalis is in the inter¬
mediate condition, and is formed, like the larva, of simple
rings, which, however, no longer exhibit an equal degree
of uniformity. But the perfect insect is the final term
of transformation. Considered in a general way, its co¬
vering does not essentially differ from that of the larva;
but the three segments next the head have acquired a
great increase of bulk, to enable them to support the
appendages of legs and wings, which were merely ru¬
dimentary, or scarcely existent, in its first condition; and
the distinction of head, thorax, and abdomen becoming
strongly visible, the entire aspect of the insect has under¬
gone a change.
It is highly interesting to observe the influence which
the decrease or development of one portion of structure
exercises upon another ; in other words, the constant and
intimate relation of the proportion of parts. The maxi¬
mum of increase in the metathorax is always in relation to
the rudimentary state of the mesothorax, while, on the
contrary, the development of the latter produces or accom¬
panies the decrease of the former. Thus also the parts of
the mouth, as demonstrated byM. Savigny, are sometimes
free, and capable of varied movement, for the purposes of
mastication ; while in several tribes they are brought close
together, lengthened, and as it were amalgamated in the
form of trunk or sucker ; and so the segments of the tho-
in the different orders, more or less disunited among
themselves, support the wings, the balancers, the elytra,
according to the various kinds. From these and similar
considerations have been deduced the conclusion that the
increase of one portion exercises over the neighbouring
portions a peculiar influence, which explains whatever dif¬
ferences may be remarked in the individuals of each order,
family, and genus. And this general consequence, which
results from numerous observations, necessarily includes
and accounts for that incoherent series of anomalies so puz¬
zling to the superficial inquirer, but which are only regard¬
ed as such, because the labourers in the field of anatomy
have but seldom taken into their consideration the totality
of the articulated animals, and have more seldom still
thought fit to occupy themselves in a careful comparative
analysis of the parts which enter into the composition of
the external skeleton of these despised tribes.
We shall here briefly consider the essential characters
of the so-called skeleton among the articulated tribes. It is
composed of segments, which are themselves formed by a
determinate number of pieces ; but their most obvious cha¬
racter is, that they are provided with a pair of feet, and
with two openings to the respiratory organs. But along
with such segments as present these parts, we may usual¬
ly observe many others which are not so provided, or at
least in which the feet are wanting ; and they may either
differ in their size and proportions, or closely resemble each
other in those respects. In the latter case, the most simple
form is exhibited $ and if we ascertain the composition of
a single segment, and their amount, we have a knowledge
of the entire animal. This simplicity of form, however, is
not often observable ; for it more frequently happens that
the same individual presents great disparity in the size and
composition of its segments, and in the appendages with
which they are furnished.
The Scolopendrae (belonging to the class Myriapoda) ex-
01 41
1 Mtmoires sur les Animaux sans Verttbres*
&
ENTOMOLOGY.
65
External hxbit, according to M. Dufour, one of the most simple forms
natomy. 0f the articulated classes, in as far as they present the great-
est uniformity of character in the parts of which they are
composed. Even in them, however, we may observe, at
the anterior portion, some pairs of feet, which are rudimen¬
tary, and crowded together towards the hehd; so that it
would be possible to figure an animal still more uniformly
composed, by supposing that the feet thus thrown together
had been developed uniformly with the appendages of the
ensuing segments. We should then have had to recognise
merely a head, and a certain number of rings, all of a like
nature. But it might be possible still further to reduce
and simplify the proposition, by regarding the head itself
as an assemblage or union of segments, bearing appendages
merely analogous to the feet. Thus, to realize the suppo¬
sition of a skeleton uniformly constructed throughout all
its parts, nothing more would be necessary than to give to
the segments of the head a development equal to that of
the others, and to restore to its appendages (the feet) their
essential usage, that of locomotion, instead of the secon¬
dary usage to which they had been subjected. This view
has been presented in order to exhibit what has been re¬
garded as the fundamental plan of insect formation; for it
is in truth the corresponding or unequal increase of the
segments, the union or division of the pieces of which they
are composed, the maximum of development in some, the
rudimentary condition of others, that form the agreements
or differences of character in the entire series of articulat¬
ed animals.1 If the development is uniform, or nearly so,
in each segment, we have the condition of the Annelides,
of worms, and of the larvae, of insects. If, on the contrary,
this equilibrium is destroyed, and the maximum of increase
takes place in the first, second, and third segments ensuing
the head, we have the form and character of a perfect in¬
sect ; if the change is still greater, we reach the Arachnides ;
if greater still, the decapodous Crustacea.
The importance of studying the skeleton of insects is
greater than even among the higher classes, because, being
essential, it forms a genuine basis, and being at the same
time external, it offers to the eye of the zoologist a ready
mode of determination.
While engaged in the consideration of the various or¬
gans of insects, a numerous list of disparities in structure
might no doubt be collected, and the term anomaly, ac¬
cording to its frequent but by no means philosophical ap¬
plication, brought into constant use. That fatal word,
however, has been too often substituted in place of an ex¬
plicit interpretation of phenomena not in any wray difficult
of solution, certain general principles being kept in view.
Of these, one of the most importance is, that all the differ¬
ences exhibited by insects, and all the so-called anoma¬
lous organs which they present, are the result of a greater
or less development of certain parts existing generally
throughout the entire class.2 The contrariety of opinion
among naturalists regarding the existence or proportion of
certain parts of structure, has arisen partly from a discor¬
dance in the use of terms, and partly from the organs
themselves not being submitted to a careful analytical in¬
vestigation. It is thus, for example, that the names of
sternum and scutellum, in place of being bestowed on por¬
tions of which the contours have been precisely determin¬
ed, have only been applied when these portions happened
to exhibit certain accidental and conventional characters.
By this means we read in almost every page of classifica¬
tion, that one insect possesses a scutellum and that another
does not; or that a particular genus is characterized by its
existence, and another by its absence ; while the fact is,
that these parts exist in all insects, although the names in External
their usual application have been bestowed only upon pe- Anatomy,
culiar and not very important variations in Xhc form.
SECT. II THE EXTEUNAL CHARACTERS OF THE PRINCIPAL
SEGMENTS OF AN INSECT’S BODY, VIZ. THE HEAD, THORAX,
AND ABDOMEN.
The form of the external covering of insects, even of
the same species, differs greatly according to the existing
condition of the individual. The segments of which the
bodies of larvae are composed are generally of a uniform
size when compared with each other, and the singular phe¬
nomena presented by metamorphosis consist chiefly in the
greater development assumed by certain segments than by
others. The nymph (called chrysalis among the Lepid-
optera) exhibits the intermediate or transitionary state. It >
segments are unequally developed, and this inequality is
greatly increased on the assumption of the final state, in
which certain segments are prodigiously enlarged, while
others suffer a corresponding diminution. In the imago, or
complete condition, the three segments next the head under¬
go the most notable alteration ; for, besides their increase
of bulk, they become furnished with wings and articulated
legs, which had previously existed in a very rudimentary
condition. In that state also the relative proportions of
the segments are so changed that the identity of several
becomes difficult to recognise, and the most obvious divi¬
sions henceforth consist of head, thorax, and abdomen.
These parts are severally characterized by peculiar attri¬
butes, the nature of which we shall now endeavour to ex¬
plain.
The head is by far the most complicated portion, and it
is necessary that its structure should be well understood,
as it furnishes the most important characters on which mo¬
dern genera are founded or made known. The parts most
deserving of attention are the mouth, antennae, and eyes.
The organs of the mouth present in their different com¬
binations a great variety of form among the articulated
classes. In relation to all such animals as are provided
with a head, more particularly the vertebrated tribes, the
term mouth is never of ambiguous application, but refers to
those parts which are placed exteriorly at the entrance of
the intestinal canal, and effect the process of mastication ;
but in regard to the acephalous or nearly headless tribes,
such as annelides, worms, and the radiated animals, its ap¬
plication is less definite and precise. Among the great
series of living beings included by Linnaeus in the class of
insects, all of which are furnished with a head, the parts of
the mouth are no longer doubtful. It has been remarked,
however, that the sucker of the larvae in the last family of
the dipterous order being entirely interior when not in use,
presents a singular approximation in that particular to the
intestinal worms.
It will be readily conceived that the mouth of insects
must be adapted to the particular manners of life peculiar
to each natural group, and must therefore vary in accor¬
dance with their instinctive habits. It was thus that even
the earliest naturalists perceived and expressed the distinc¬
tion between insects provided with teeth or cutting jaws,
and those furnished with trunks or suckers. The use of
the microscope in modern times, and the deep desire which
prevailed towards the conclusion of the seventeenth and
commencement of the eighteenth centuries, to illustrate the
mysteries of animal organization, produced much more de¬
tailed and exact accounts of the parts of the mouth in insects
than were previously possessed. The works of Leeuwen-
1 Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. i. p. 115.
YOL. IX.
* Ibid. p. 102.
I
ENTOMOLOGY.
External hoeck, Swammerdam, and Ileaumur are mines of informa- respect, that their rn^,(|n’1^t^j1 They AnaS'
Anatomy, ti^n ; vy’hde Scopoli and Degeer still further generalized the ^ ^
observations of these illu-striptm natma ista.,,, Seop i Ja5»eing smalland slender in the glow-worm (Lampyrts),
(Sery^Upns, , „
believe, was the first to apply the knowledge of these parts
in charatptgrizing the genera of the hymenopterous and dip¬
terous orders ; but it is to a celebrated disciple of Linnaeus,
John Christian Fabricius, that we owe the first general
theory of the parts of manducation, and its application to
entomology in general. oaflOD, m .nllimloT vd
The alimentary substances sought for by insects are
either comparatively hard and solid, or of a more soft and
fluid nature. Thence we find upon examination numerous
tribes of insects provided with a mouth so constructed as
to tear and masticate the substances on which it is design¬
ed to act; while many others are characterized by a tube-
like nid^lh 9rresembling a delicate tongue extended
when in action, and spirally rolled upon itself when in re¬
pose. lienee the great primary distinctions among the
prders. of insects, and their recognised division into masti-
catprS; (ni&ndibulata) and suckers (Jiaustellatd), the former
living on solid substances, the latter on such as are fluid.
Whatever may be the structure of the mouth in insects, it
is to one or other of those types of form that each must be
referred. We are indebted to. the beautiful researches of
Savigny (1811) for the first accurate analysis and elucida¬
tion of these parts, and of their relationship throughout the
articulated tribes. Latreille, however, had previously insti¬
tuted a slighter comparison between the mouths of the suc¬
torial and mandibulated tribes, as Lamarck lias admitted
ijjtjhjs.reppfl on Savigny’s, s$j*f]feqoiq lolnsig mit miomA
Savigny divides insects formerly so named into two
groups, the )iexapodes, or such as have six feet, and the
upiropodes, or such as possess a greater number. The
mouth of the latter forms two proper types distinct from
those of the former ; but it is with the (polymorphous hexa-
podes, or such as undergo transformations, that is, insects
properly $0 called, that we are now' concerned. We shall first
consider the parts of the mouth in the masticating tribes.
They are essentially as follows: The labrum, the mandibles,
the maxilla:, the palpi, the labium, and the mentum, the
two latter, according to the views of different observers,
sometimes passing under one and the same name. The
reader may here consult Plate CCXX, fig. 1, a, b, c, d.1
The lab/urn or upper lip (fig. 1, a) is a fattened some¬
what deflexed portion, consisting of a single piece,2 placed
on the upper side of or above the mouth, and capable of
moving upwards and downwards, or vertically. It is vari¬
able in form, buf is usually somewhat square, often wider
than long, and frequently notched or bifid. It is of a hor¬
ny consistence, sometimes coriaceous, or even approach¬
ing to what may be named membranous in certain tribes,
and is attached to the anterior portion of the head by a
YlffiL JjDikicnut grehmil mU to unfit ton
The mandibles or upper jaws (rmndibidce, fig. 1, bb) are
two strong horny pieces, generally of a triangular form,
more or less curved, convex externally, concave on their
inner surfaces, and frequently toothed or serrated on their
interior edge. They are placed on each side of the mouth
by insertion on the sides of the head, immediately beneath
the labrum or upper lip, which usually covers their base.
They are each composed of a single piece of a hard con¬
sistence, and may be said to correspond to the jaws of the
mid very large, projecting, and antler-like in the stag bee-
tle (Lucanus cervus), the species which we have selected for
our engraved illustration. These internal surfaces are fre¬
quently parallel, but their dentations are not always the
same in each, the projections of the one being however fre¬
quently so arranged as to enter the concavities of the other
in order to admit of their closer union. But this is not
seldom prevented by the curvature of the tips ; and in se¬
veral instances, where the mouth is wide, and the mandi¬
bles rather remote from each other at the base, the blades
cross each other a little beyond the centre. The denta¬
tions of the mandibles, though sometimes called teeth, are
merely, projecting parts, although in the orthopterous tribes
a coriaceous lamina seems in some respect to distinguish
them from the body of the mandible to which they are
attached, thus exhibiting an approach to that mode of fix¬
ture called gomphosis, in which one bone is fixed within
another, as in the teeth of the higher tribes. The mandi¬
bles are more variable in their form&than the maxillae, and
may occasionally be observed to differ (as in the genus Lu-
cumisi) in the sexes of the same species.
Immediately beneath the mandibles are situated the
maxilla ov under jaws (fig. 1, cc), which are likewise placed
on each side of the mouth, and take their origin from the
inferior and internal part of that cavity, near the origin of
the under lip. Like that of the preceding parts, their ac¬
tion is horizontal, but their texture is less rigid, approach¬
ing to membranous, their colour usually paler, and their
internal edges toothed, or finely fringed with hairs. The
different portions of the maxillae have received different
names, such as the cardo or hinge, the stipes or stalk, and
the lobus or lobe (one or more) winch forms the terminal
portion. The last named is the most important portion,
as it acts upon the food when preparing for deglutition, and
when armed with teeth its substance is as hard as that ol
tlie mandibles. “ Tins part,” says Mr Kirby, “ is either
simple, consisting only of one lobe, as you will find to be
the case w ith the Hymenoptera, Dynastidee, Nemogvatha, and
several other beetles; or it is compound, consisting of two
lobes. In the former case, the lobe is sometimes very
long, as hi the bee tribes, and at others very short, as in
luster, &c. The bilobed maxillm present several different
types of form. Nearest to those with one lobe are those
whose lower lobe is attached longitudinally to the inner
side of the stalk of the organ, above which it scarcely rises.
Of this description is the maxilla in the common dung bee¬
tle (Geotrupes sttreorarius), and rove beetle ( Staphylinus
ole?is). Another kind of formation is where the lower lobe
is only a little shorter than the upper ; this occurs in a kind
of chafer (Macraspis tetradactykt, Macleay). A third is
where the upper lobe covers the lower as a shield; as you
will find in the Orthoptera order, and the Libellulina, and
almost in Mdoe. A fourth form is where the upper lobe
somewhat resembles the galeate maxilla just named, but
consists of two joints. This exists in Siaphylinida, &c.
The last kind I shall notice is when the upper lobe not
only consists of two joints, but is cylindrical, and assumes
the aspect of a feeler or palpus. This is the common cha-
vertebrated tribes, the process of mastication being pyincir raefcer of almost all the predaceous beetles • (Eutoimphagi,
pally performed,iflyKtjp^ipnn9,J'shey differ, however, in this Latr.).”3 This, lobe, which has been usually regarded as an
•pi mwiin bin; .wood nldmmi nr •tiiiinu;')!! vd hooiJott vianot/ .tnuidci oiit mod wnjJmnia sti ni sTiffifa ‘isav   
•oinlfe orb no anoxtowiasdo aid ni umndn! orfl idi olimtoJ ji &r; boi'-oqruoo ban .rnrg'io null iuulj xolqmoo oiorn gurw
1 a. is the labrun^, surmounted by its broad nasus-t b the mandibulae; c the maxillse; with their jointed p&lni; d the bifid labium,
with its two palpi and broad basal portion or mentum.
* In. the female of a small bee of the genus Halictus it is said to be furnished with a slender appendage.
3 Jntroduc. to Entom. vol. iv. p. 442. ...
1 -Si f q .vx .lov awotua. ot .aiutfmaX
ENTOMOLOGY.
67
I icternal
: latomy.
I
additional palpus or feeler, is strictly analogous, in Mr Kir¬
by’s opinion, to the upper lobe in other insects, and he thinks
it ought rather to be called a palpiform lobe than a .palpus.
When there are two lobes, the upper one is most common¬
ly the longer ; hot in many species of the tribe last allud¬
ed to, the lower equals or even exceeds the upper in length.1
Most of the predaceous beetles have the inner lobe of the
maxilla; armed with ai terminal claw, which, among the Ci-
cindelidae, is articulated and moveable, but fixed in the other
carabideous kinds. The maxillae are chiefly serviceable in
holding the food, and preventing its falling from the month
during tlie action of the mandibles, although in certain
cases they no doubt also act their part in comminution.
They are more fixed in their forms than the mandibles,
and are of more essential service to the naturalist for the
purposes of classification. Fabricius, indeed, has deduced
the principal diagnostic of ten out of the thirteen orders
(or classes, as he terms them), of which his system is com¬
posed, from these important parts.
We shall now briefly notice certain appendages of the
maxillae, the existence of which forms another distinction
between them and the mandibles or upper jaws, which
are never so provided. Towards the middle of the outer
edge of the maxillae are attached two slender articulated
filiform processes, known under the name of palpi (see the
figure above referred to) ; the longer pair being the exter¬
nal, the others the internal palpi. Both are called maxil¬
lary, to distinguish Them from the labial palpi, afterwards
mentioned. According to the view expressed by Mr Kir¬
by in the preceding quotation, the reader will perceive
that each maxilla may be regarded as properly possess¬
ing only one palpus, although in certain tribes the upper
lobe being jointed and palpiform, has occasioned its being
regarded as one of these organs. The palpi are distinctly
articulated, or composed of several jointed parts, and are
capable of rapid and extended motion. They derive
their name from a Greek word, which signifies to feel,
and are supposed to constitute one of the principal organs
of touch. Their uses, however, in the insect economy have
been variously interpreted. Bonsdorf regarded them as
the organs ot smell; while Knock, agreeing in that opinion
so far as regards the maxillary palpi, conceives that those
of the labium exercise the faculty of taste. Cuvier and
Kirby favour touch as their true function, and this view is
confirmed by the constant use which numerous species
make of these organs while walking, by applying them
perpetually to the surface of whatever objects they pass
over. That they perform that function is rendered ex¬
tremely probable by their structure, which is beautifully
adapted, by its peculiar pliancy, to the examination of the
substances with which they come in contact. They are
in some respects analogous to the articulated extremities
which form the principal seat of the sense of touch in ver-
tebrated animals. It has also been noticed that several
aquatic beetles, while swimming, bend back their anten¬
nae, and stretch forward their palpi, as if to explore their
way through the ambiguous and weedy waters; As acces¬
sory to the maxillae, they are no doubt also employed in
the selection of the most suitable alimentary portions of
whatever substances have been previously seized upon by
the more powerful parts of the mouth. In many insects
there is only a single palpus to each of the maxillae.
the mouth is covered above by the labrum, or upper
i ^ c^ose^ below by the under lip, or labium (fig.
1) d). The latter differs in its structure from the labrum,
being more complex than that organ, and composed as it
were of two portions joined together. It varies in its form.
is irsually notched in front, and frequently furnished with External
a triangular tooth in the centre, which is sometimes bifid. Anatomy.
Mr Kirby defines the labium as a moveable organ, often '
biartfculatey which, terminating, the surface anteriofty, Co¬
vers tiie mouth from beneath, and is situate between the
maxillae. It includes the mentum and labial palpi. The
more uncovered portion of the labium, or that which pro¬
jects from the basal portion, is now named langmtte dr li-
gula by Latreille, in consonance with the noTnenclfttjife* of
Fabricius. 'The mentum, or chin, is the lower joint of the
labium when the latter is jointed f in other cases its flaSe.
Some contrariety of opdniofi seems to exist In the Ab-
menclature of these parts. Mr Macleay bestows the flame
of mentum on the middle piece of the lower apparatus of
the mouth; ^ Its anterior portion, to which the palpi are/'so
frequently attached, he calls the labium, while' the basal
part of the mentum is designated the stipes. In this view
the labium of Macleay corresponds to the ligula, or rather
tongue, of Kirby, while the mentum of the latter is analo¬
gous* to the stipes of the former; for it appears that the
term mentum is only applied by the author bf the Intro¬
duction to Entomology to the lower division of the labium,
when that organ (as in Hydrous piceus) appears to cdpsist
of two joints hr pieces. When there is no apparent divi¬
sion, or the only separation consists in a transverse elevated
line (as in some lamellicorn beetles), or an obtuse angle
formed by the meeting of the two parts, then tire entire
piece (the mentum merging in it) is regarded by Mr Kirby
as the jaodfif huJi.uidu.uoia Jum knoJ
Among the greater proportion of masticating insects there
is-placed anteriorly at each side of the ligula a small sup¬
porting piece or article, which takes its rise a little above
the pharynx, and is terminated by a projecting appendage.
These parts were named paraglossee by Illiger; and M.
Latreille regards them as the true representatives of the
tongue of the higher tribes. The labial palpi (Fig. 1, d),
are inserted on each side of the ligula, and are usually
longer than the internal and shorter than the external
maxillary palpi. These palpi have never more than' four
articulations, in which they also differ from the exter¬
nal maxillary, which range from four to six. They are
called labial palpi, because in many eases they derive their
origin from the labium strictly so called; but in reference
to Mr Kirby’s nomenclature of the parts, they might with
equal propriety be denominated lingual palpi, since they
not unfrequently emerge from what that excellent observer
considers as the tongue. Among the predaceous Gbleqp-
tera, indeed, their source seems common to both these
parts, as their base on its upper side is attached to the
labium, on its under to the ligula or tongue. 0 V
In some insects, such as the Orthoptera and dragon-flies,
the membranous portion with which the anterioi* or inter¬
nal face of the ligula is furnished, is thick and dilated near
the centre, in the form of a little tongue, and is often divid¬
ed near the middle by a groove. This portion, in the opi¬
nion of Latreille, probably occupies the place of the pa-
raglossce; for these latter, in the instances referred to, are
wanting, or not to be recognised. * } :0! 7* ' ;
These are the principal parts of the mouth among the
masticating insects. At the anterior root of the ligula,
and a little lower than the middle of the interior space
which intervenes between the mandibles, is placed the
pharynx. In many Hymenoptera this orifice of the oeso¬
phagus opens and shuts by means of an appendage, pre¬
viously noticed by Reaumur in humble bees, and taken by
Latreille for the labrum, in his observations on the struc¬
ture of wasps. Savigny has since paid particular attention
irjqqx.
;ifc c
v i<> -;>li
1 Jntroduc. to Entom. vol. iv. p. 442.
.Stt
68
entomology.
External to it, and has named it the epipharynx or epiglossa. La- lar, ^ ^ tube^open on thlflippSTurfece.
Anatomy, treille conceives it would be more simple to call it the sub- ally folded so. , ^ter the preceding parts
because it is inserted beneath the anterior and su- In ^
perior margin of the head, immediately after the origin of are lodged and comP«se ^ the dl i bave disap:
the labrum! It is formed of two flattened portions, en- When there a?e
tirely or in great part membranous, applied the one upon peared ^ ^he Y the maxiuary, are ex-
the other, and of a triangular form. The upper portion is four of these Part"’ ^ ’ tible Sometimes, as
the most advanced. This epipharynx, instead of being tremely small, ^ ^Swe; lip 1^4“ no^
peculiar, as some have supposed, to the Hymenoptera, may among the PWJ^^
be safely regarded as exMmg in the other masticating m- ^ r"dlwe make frequent use of the lat-
sects, particularly the Coleoptera, among n me i 1 t m jt mav be vernembered that its application is not
represented under a modified form o s rue me strietlv correct as it is not by suction, or the production
membrane which clothes the corresponding portion of the alimentary juices mount towards the
^ Although the hymenopterous tribes differ from the other pharynx, but rather by the continuous pressure of the
mandibulated-orders, by the prolongation of the maxillae parts upon each , ,, , ib th Lepidop.
and,labium, and the valvular aspect of the former, yet the Of all he
carts of the mouth do not present any essential distinction, tera are those which differ least tiom the type ot the man
the8eLerS) however, con- delated order, i" "otere
sists as Savianv informs us, in the absence of the men- account they have been made to follow in a supposed na
turn’properly so^alled. They also exhibit this disagree- tural sequence the hymenopterous insects. Their mouth
mrat ftom the other masticators, in as tar as their maxilla, seems to consist of a labmm and of two extremely sma
embracing longitudinally the sides of the labium, these mandibles; of a trunk spirally rolled, improperly regarded
parts unite together so as to form a tubular body or trunk as a tongue, and presenting interiorly and throughout its
}“*>)^rv4 for suction. As their aliments consist entire length three canals, of whrch, however, *e central
of softish substances, or of nectaroiis juices, which, passing
between the maxillae and the labium, by means of the suc¬
cessive pressure i©f the former parts upon the latter, eventu¬
ally arrive at the pharynx, they may in truth be regarded as
semi-suctorial. Even the Rhinchophori among the Cole¬
optera, and; the Panorpati in the neuropterous order, are
furnished; with an apparent trunk or prolongation of the
Extern
Anatom
alone serves for the influx of the alimentary juices, and
formed of two linear or filiform bodies, surrounding the
pharynx at their origin immediately beneath the labrum.
They represent, under peculiar forms and proportions, the
terminal parts of the maxillae, united, hollowed into deep
gutters on their internal side, and bearing each a palpus,
usually very small and tuberculiform. There is also a la-
lurmslieu wiui an apparent u-uiik in piimmgawinx m *  , . , .. . „ , r. ,
muzzle (promstrum); but that peculiarity is nothing more bium or lower hp, of a nearly triangular form, immoveable,
than an extension of the anterior portion of the head ; and united, as formerly mentioned, to the inferior part of the
the organs of manducation, placed at its extremity, though maxillae, which supports the filiform or trunk-like portion,
of diminished size, in no way differ in structure from those and bearing two triarticulate palpi, covered with scales or
of the other groups of their respective orders. We may hairs, and placed on each side ot the trunk, for which they
add, that the labium or lower lip in the hymenopterous form a kind of sheath. The intermediate canal of the
tribes is generally moveable at its base, as may be observed trunk is produced, according to the detailed description
in the corresponding tribes of the suctorial insects.
In the suctorial or haustellated orders, properly so call¬
ed, the organs of the mouth appear at first sight to differ
entirely from those above described. The parts which are
regarded as analogous to the maxillae, and frequently even
those which represent the mandibles, are fixed and im¬
moveable, either entirely so, or towards their base, and (in
regard to the maxillae) as far as the origin of the palpi.
When the terminal portion is moveable, it is long, narrow,
linear, sometimes in the form of a thread or bristle, some¬
times resembling a dart or lancet, and fitted for piercing
given by Reaumur, by the union ot the gutters of the in¬
ternal face of the filiform or extended portions.
The sucker of the hemipterous tribes received from Fa-
bricius the name of rostrum, a term translated beak (bee)
by Olivier and other entomologists of France. A blade
more or less linear, coriaceous, divided into three or four
articulations, rolled up at the edges so as to form a conical
or cylindrical tube, always directed inferiorly while inac¬
tive, and presenting along the centre of its upper or ante¬
rior surface a kind of canal produced by the opening left
between the rolled-up margins,—a sucker composed of four
The pharynx is the central point around which these por- slender, capillary, corneous, flexible, and elastic threads,
tions arrange themselves after the tubular form. Some- disposed in pairs, but combined together, with the two in-
times the lower lip, united with the inferior portion of the ferior portions united in one at a short distance from their
maxilli*, and fixed like it, closes the cavity of the mouth, origin,—a small piece in the form of a triangular ligula, usu-
and the maxillae then constitute a kind of spiral tongue, ally toothed at the extremity, rather coriaceous or almost
In other cases it is greatly prolonged, and assumes the membranous than of a scaly texture, and covering from be-
form of an articulated tube, or of an elbowed trunk, usually hind or from the sides of the tubular body the base of the
terminated by two lips susceptible of dilatation. In either sucker, and inclosed along with it in the groove of the gene-
of the latter states it serves as a sheath to certain portions ral sheath,—another piece of the same consistence with the
of a scaly structure and piercing nature, in the form of a preceding, Corresponding by its insertion, and the position
bristle or lancet, and representing the other parts of the which it occupies, to the labrum or upper lip, covering
mouth. Sometimes this sheath (as in Pulex) is bivalvu- from above the base of the sucker, most frequently itself
 .;* ii.s: J.——Lii;—u—1' 'i! i ■/ : .-11 .J.—U-L———l’.:; -—1 1 —1 ' ,i' ,1--—«  —;  
• -‘ffi 'to aoxJqeoOT «dl iai svootfg dm efrdirixd fnoiJ!&q niii > > u
1 See Plate CCXX. Fig. 5 exhibits the structure of the mouth in Papilw Maehaon ; a the head viewed in front, exhibiting the
round eyes, one turn of the spiral proboscis, with the pilose labial palpi on each side ; b shows the tubular spiral maxillae (which by
their union form the proboscis), with the vestiges of palpi at their base; the circular apertures on each side at the bottom of the
figure indicate the insertion of the labial palpi; c represents the cleft labium and the two palpi, the left one being deprived of its
scales to show the articulations ; d is the minute labrum, with the mandibles on each side of it, ciliated on their internal edge. Fig.
8 exhibits the mouth of another lepidopterous insect, the Lyndia cannarum of Savigny ; a the eyes, scaly spiral proboscis, and the four
palpi; 6 one of the maxillae, with its palpus ; c the labium and palpus ; d the labrum and raandibulse. -
I
ENTOMOLOGY. 69
fi txternal likewise inclosed in the sheath, and of a more or less elon- The centre of the superior face of the stalk also presents External
n latomy. gated triangular form,—these are the parts which enter a groove or gutter for the reception of the sucker. The Anatomy.
^ into the composition of the beak-like mouth or rostrum of number of pieces in the sucker varies according to an
the hemipterous tribes.1 * The single superior portion which arithmetical progression of three terms, of which the dif-
Latreille regards as the analogue of the labrum, appears ference as always two—2, 4, G; but in all cases there are
to cover, at least among the Cicadae, the base of another alw ays two portions which are not paired, the one superior,
more elongated and pointed portion, which has been view- representing the labrum; the other inferior, placed behind
ed as corresponding to the epipharynx.- I he other single the' pharynx, and tire analogue of the tongue or hypopha-
and opposing portion, protecting from behind the origin of rynx. Among the Dipjera, as well as in the suctorial tribe
the sucker, and placed immediately behind the pharynx, (Puleve), the latter portion is always scaly and piercing, and
represents, according to Savigny, the tongue or hypopha- contributes, in common with the others, to the purposes of
rynx. The two superior filaments of the sucker, or those nutrition. It is otherwise with the Hemiptera, and this di$-
which are exterior, replace, or rather represent, the man- tinction forms a new character of separation between that
dibles, while the two others may be regarded as maxilke. order and the insects now under consideration. The parts
Finally, the tubular sheath assimilates to the labium or representing the maxilhe always exist, and are frequently
lower lip, even in regard to its articulations. Sometimes accompanied each by a palpus; but these maxillae are sol-
the sheath is bifid, as in Thrips ; sometimes it is divided dered to the support, and are indistinct, except m-here
into two plates, as in Pulex. The first of these genera is their apical portion becomes moveable and elongated, and
stated by Latreille to be the only one in which he has dis- presents the form of a seta or horny lancet. This always
covered palpi. He thinks that the parts taken for-such by takes place when the sucker consists of from four to six
Savigny in Nepa Neptunia (see Plate CCXX. fig. 6, as pieces. In the latter case two of them represent the man-
described in the preceding note), are more probably the dibles; in the other, or where the sucker is composed of
rudiments of an articulation of the sheath. Germar indeed only four setae, these ai;e wanting, or merely rudiment*
admits four palpi as characteristic of a new hemipterous ary. Sometimes also the labrum, almost always vaulted
genus of tlie family of Cicadariae, named Cobax; but and large, seems to offer the vestiges of another piece,
Kirby, who about the same period published an account which,, under a fuller development, might no doubt be
of another generic group under the title of Otiocerus, and regarded as the epipharynx. Sometimes the support is
which offers analogous parts, does not regard these as very short, and in this case the pieces of the sucker leave
palpi, but as simple appendages accompanying the an- the cavity of the mouth, and the maxillary palpi are in-
tennae.3 serted on the sides. The Hippoboscae, or pupiparous Dip-
In the dipterous order, such as gnats and common flies, tera, differ from all the rest in the absence of the sheath ;
the mouth exhibits a great resemblance to that of the pre- for the palpi, under the form of two coriaceous elongated
ceding tribes.4 * The union of the different parts forms blades, perform its functions, and advancing in a parallel
what is usually in that order called the trimk or proboscis, direction, cover and protect the sucker.
We can here also distinguish the component parts of sheath In accordance with the observations of Latreille, as well
and sucker. The former in dipterous insects is divisible as with those of Savigny, Leclerc de Laval, and Professor
into three principal portions; ls£, the support, distinguish- Nitzsch, regarding the structure of the mouth in such of
ed from the following by an angular elbow, and frequently tlie hexapod insects as undergo no metamorphosis (hexa-
by a small geniculated article; 'idly, the stalk; Sdly, the podes homotenes), the general plan of organization seems
summit, formed by two lips, sometimes membranous, large, in these to be the same as among the polymorphous or-
vesicular, dilatable, striated, exhibiting through the mi- ders. In Pediculus, properly so called, the only known
croscope a great number of tracheal ramifications ; some- suctorial species of that division, the trunk con-
times coriaceous, and either small and slightly distinct sists of a small inarticulate tube, inclosing a sucker, and
from the stalk, or slender, elongated, and forming a more withdrawing itself at pleasure within a muzzle-shaped ad-
obvious article, almost as long as the preceding division vancement of the anterior portion of the head. But the
(as in genus Myopa). I he support is remarkable in this, organization of these parasitical species requires a renewed
that it results from the prolongation of the cutaneous mem- and more careful examination. The genus Ricinus, ai-
biane of the anterior and superior portion of the head, or though furnished with mandibles, maxillae, and an inferior
the epistoma, united with the parts representing the la- lip, has these parts greatly concentrated, after the manner
brum, to the mandibles, the maxillae, and the inferior por- of the Suctoria; and the labrum seems to perform the of-
tion of the labium, as far as the mentum inclusive. This fice of a cupping glass, a character unique and unexampled
character particularly distinguishes, the present tribes from in this class of animals, and one which, iir combination
those of the hemipterous order. In other respects the with certain other features, indicates a peculiar type.6
sheath may be said to be constructed on the same plan. These are the principal modifications exhibited in the
to »i'o vmhoo Tidim ./'iiamizo orit.Js IxjdifxjJ /U .oustnot Jmi<p: T> bout s omiKfc no*) nodi adlixam adt ba
1 A66 CCXX. 'Fig. 4 represents the mouth of Cimex mgriconiis'; a is the articulated labiuih, with the eyes at each side, and
the first joint of each of the antennae ; this is the sheath for the other organs, and exhibits the- groove on its oral surface i b is the
sucker viewed hem above, covered at the base for one third of its length by the tubulated iubrum, and. exhibiting at the extremi¬
ty the straight united tip of the maxillae, and the recurved ends pf the mandibulae ; c, is a view of the same parts sejxirated, with the
labrqm removed to exhibit tlj.e expanded, royts of the mandibulpes and maxiilae, the small opening of the pharynx, and the pointed, lim
gua before it and between the maxillae. Fig, G represents the mouth of another hemipterous insect, the Neva Neptunia of Savigny,
the labrum and palate being* fodfbved. The mancmulth'apjieai- at thd external sides, their summits with reflected spiculae, and theif
roots near the pharynx flask-shaped. The tongue (in the interior of the figure) is trifid at the apex, underneath which the maxillae
arise, and exceed the mandibulae in length. The labium, or central anterior portion, exhibits the groove for the reception of the
other parts, and the oval raised marks towards the narrow end are the (supposed) vestiges of palpi. .00 oJof )
^ Diction. Clas&iquc d'Histmre Nutnrellc, t. ii. p. 434. 3 Linn. Trans, vol. xiii. p. 12.
See Hate CCXX. fig. 7, where we represent the parts of the mouth of Tabanns ItaUcus. At a the mouth is shown as ifopen-
ea, or the labrum and the nAndibUhe and lingua separated, to expose the pharynx; & is one of the mandibuliE viewed laterally;
c is one of the maxillae with the articulated palpus, the last joint of which is greatly enlarged • and d exhibits the labium, with its
“Why api.hiu; -sioeodorq laixqg yhsoa f«OY9 orb a ; vugivjs8‘lo mruamaa oifi ,to98a as'io d.motn <ib afididzo
Diction. Classi^ue dlHiti. JVa#. rfel&i[wi486i'ns uundni odl fc ? eaqlaq ban muidni orb ; airqkq sbi rlfiw (<sili*Br0 Wb v iqiur
70
ENTOMOLOG V.
External structure of the mouth b\ hexapod or tn* insect- Jr, the
Anatomy, opinion of Marcel de-Seires. the paru
's-r-vW antennulae of some authors f enjoy, at ieest 10 the
tera, a peculiar property, that of bemg the flraat of -he
sense of smelL Lamarck again looks «poa Ufc jfelw ^ ex¬
ercising the faculty of taste. Latreuk- regards ttaes* <m-
nions as ill-founded, so far as concerns a great osimije*' «*
insects, such as those in which tbeyalpi are «o»>eortrti
undevelojted, or extremely minute; bet he -oe«rs tbesr is
a more favourable light in retereixv to eertais -KhtT -spe¬
cies. Thus, among the Cdeopte-a of the ^ii>-iaciiy «
Xylotrogi, the. maxillary palpi of the nxf es a*v laciuaied
or pectinated like some antenna. la n&aev i-\c*rc xioas
the last article of the palpi is greatlydiksted, utru t:—
nated by a pulpy substance.
We have not hitherto attendee to the ^asmn anser
Strepsi|)tera of Kirby (Rhi^Mpter
which were first given in the L;Trvtftm TmRaopli^B®. ^ it
we regard the insects of this order as possessed erf renrise
mandibles, we must of course include tt^rn amccGr tbe
masticating tribes; but as in many af theprecKnng •erders-
iu wliich the parts of the naouA wQ feebly dereifiriL
mandibles are observed to have become «;*blkera.ee. there
is reason to suspect that the parts regwied as smA m
^trepsiptera are rather maxidaryj ip ,^|iA>dirJhp
tvire would approach that of the iepidoptenatts kimfe. - .r
n We have entered into the preceaiag caete^is i» ce«se-
quence of the great importance winch is now -adaahed to
the study of the parts of manducatkjn. Latnede mei^d
seems to'be of opinion, that whenever it is possebae to cha¬
racterize genera by more obvious organs, er.e wknuser pars
should not be had recourse to; and he Ceems th e pnnciofe-
of the Fabrician system liable to abuse, especaiiy wooe
Clairville’s example is debited Irora of easplaymg <*b
the mandibles and palpi. But the truth s. that tire use X
the compound microscope is scarcely ev er recr-anee in ir.-cse
examinations; and it cannot be aemeti that a kwkege-
of sucli essential parts is indispensabie in the iornanew «
natural generic groups. The general phy>: vgeemy - ire-
quently deceptive, and we can rectify our views only or
recurring to influential organs. Thus the
and some analogous species whidi dicer mwa thesr occge-
ners in the mode of providing lor their young, and
therefore tbrm a good natural group, are arse* cir^mcuisaea
bv an alteration in the structure at the mouth- Out oiwiwi
scarcely be separated from the primitive genus by charac¬
ters drawn from any other parts.
Besides the parts of die mouth, the bead as insects pre¬
sents some other component portions w nidi nave reed .eb
particular names. What Mr Kirby cau> die ntse ss r." .i:
upper and anterior portion to which the labrcm e arrada-
ed, and which corre^xmds to t:.e ftype&t at Fa^irk-'ns.
(See Plate CCXX. fig. 1, a, upper poition.? The ^rer
term w as origiually applied metapbi:*rkahy to the expanc-
ed or shield-like covering of the bead ef the SCiratMeaaaE.
and the expression was not inapt; but n otme to be
used as a general term in relation to the strocrane at ad
other kinds, it lost its propriety of apphoatian. Hence the
term 7iasus or nose lias been substituted, as weai; as that ef
epistowa, which signifies the /xart obant tie mttmdt. Be¬
tween die nose and the labium we find ia many speaes
the nostril piece or rhinarium of Kirby. It .s very obvi¬
ous in a New Holland beede, Artapk/gth-ac^, :.* cwviiaeu.
The postnasus may be seen under the form of a maagtatar
piece, below the antennae and above the nose, and separat¬
ed from the latter and from die front by a deeply amipress-
ed line. It is very distinct in that splendid Chk&esc beenie
titm. Samm iubmi ra The/r»»v or front of insects is the Exterr
ot the thee, bounded laterally by the eyes, an- Anator
- t ow tbe m^eor afeter-Hose and the cheeks, and pos
-eofTuT bv the vertex. The vertex is the crown of the
bead, tod wonded laterally by the hinder part of the
eve* *ui die ten Hes, and posteriorly by the occiput, when
-eat -fert ev:-ts. Tt is the ordinary region of the stemma-
-U eve-- d aowh these peculiar organs are sometimes1
—1 r .;. ^ccur kaevv-ise upon the ffons. The occiput, or
> that part which either forms an angle poste-
rv:tKy wv:h the vertex, or slopes downwards from it. It is
boMcei iaceraiiy by the temples, and posteriorly by the
:tisc« or the head, or by the neck itself. The cheeks,
«*r’. aectrdine to Kirby, usually surround the anterior
W; of the eyes. Lying between them and the mandibles,
or tiitar representatives. The temples, tempora, form a
i l■lfi■■ltinln of the cheeks to the posterior limit of the
head, eanmnt: its sides and posterior angles.1
The wdirnrT tji an insect is the lower surface or under
s-de « the head, and is composed, lit of the lora, a corne¬
ous ■-tgyniw machine, upon the intermediate angle of which
the sits, and on the lateral ones the cardines or
hBtaes <d the maxilke: it is by means of this piece that
the of the mouth (as in Hymenoptera) are pushed
hwwsrd or retracted : of the jugulum or throat, which
, ;rj- cart of the subface which lies between the temples.
The taittm, or neck, is that narrow portion of a peduncu-
Hse bead bv which it is connected with the thorax.2
The next appendages at' the head to which we have to
afreet the reader's attention are the antennae. These are
- rediig articulated organs, never exceeding two in num¬
ber in genuine insects, although their form, and the amount
or sthroiaMtt ortioos, are extremely various. Their pri-
-r.tTTv in the aitimai economy has not yet been ascer-
•rj.j.»>hrt; at teas; a great diversity of opinion is maintained
on tiie subject. In numerous tribes they seem to exercise
a toL x_-.v iW.^wni-is to that of touch, being employed in
espa?mg the depth of crevices, and in ascertaining by con-
- me nature vi anv opposing obstacle; while, on the
ocher their extreme shortness in most Hiptera, and
ia nLanv * tne neuropterous and hemipterous tribes, does
TiM acccre with that usage. Although of considerable
~1 >anncr in our sy stematic arrangement ol insects, the
deve*opment of the antennas does not seem subjected to
aav general or eerkormabie rules, and is theretore ot less
vhri~ rKm rliot ot several other parts of structure. For
example, we frecuentiy find a considerable diflerence to
exist in the form of the antennae among species in other
rtsceecs uLtunateiv allied; and even between the sexes of
the same snevi.es a great disparity in size and structure is
observable. Where a difierence exists, those of the male
at generxlv mere developed than those ot the female.
rat antennae of insects are usually composed ot small
cyartainca. anacuLarions, containing nervous threads, mus-
c.rs. tracheas, and cellular tissue. \ arious terms are in
-at to express their form, consistence, and mode ot inser-
tau. i bey are rttrttlar when the articulations follow- a
griadna. and progressive order in the modifications which
they undergo r tmgrmlar, when their forms alter suddenly;
ryvimfneua when rounded and of equal diameter through-
ofit their Length : Jihtbrm, when the cylindrical shape is
haelv attenuated. Like a thread or hair ; setaceous, when
Icikguiciied. and diminishing insensibly from the base to
the potBt: sub ifiattil or meLshaped, when slender, but short,
cykwarcal at the base, and terminated by a stiff and sharp-
essea to«nt: mamhform, when each article is rounded like
a bead, and if nearly equal thickness; prismatic, when ap-
1 Introduc. to Em. voL it. p. Vi'-i.
* Ibid. p. 36ti.
E X T O M O L O G Y.
eternal preaching the form of a geometric prism: am/rrm. wbeo
latoiuj. broad at the base, and terminated by an ang : iir point:
fusiform, when shaped like a spindle: serrated, wtu r each
article is terminated laterally by a sharp tooth directed
forwards; pectinated, when these projections are straight,
lengthened, and placed above each other, like the teeth ot
a comb; ramose or branched, when several arpendaf-es pro¬
ject from the main body of the antenna—they are regard¬
ed as simple when not in any way so adorned : perfoitatad.
when the articles are battened them the summit, to the
base, and appearing as if strung on a thread through tftc
centre (it is usually the terminal portion of the antennae
that is so characterized); imbricated, when the articles are
threaded as above mentioned, and concave at their sum¬
mit, so that each covers the base at' that which follows:
clavated or club-shaped, when thick or swollen towards the
summit. The club is solid when its parts are not separat¬
ed by any apparent space; perfoliated. when composed of*
threaded articulations; lamellnted or foiiatetL when the
parts of the club are connected laterally, and admit of be¬
ing opened and closed like the leaves ot a book ; securi¬
form or hatchet-shaped, when the last articulation assumes
the form of a compressed triangle, tree at the base- but j--
ticulated by the apex. Antenna; are ais> said to be s»-
cinuted or hooked when the extremity suddenK bends irseci
towards the base; Injid, when, divided inte two: obtuse, when
terminated by a round or blunted artientatioo ; tnmca&ti.
when apparently deprived of a portion; pkirmose, wbeo
thickly branched on either side, like a feather. Manv
other terms are in use to express the mcdincatior.s of these
important organs, most of which, however, are of a sum-
ciently familiar derivation to explain themselves.
The antennae of the coleopterous order nssuativ consist of
ten or eleven distinct articulations. The latter number
the most frequent, although several genera preser: Enoch
fewer joints, as for example Paussus. in which there are
only two. Others again have many more, such as a spe¬
cies of Prionus, of which the antennae of the weak i ave
nineteen joints, of the male twenty. In some orth cteronn
kinds these articulations amount to a hiatdred and hrtr.
The antennae are inserted on the front of the head, ante¬
rior to and rather beneath the region of the eves. Their
particular position varies, but they are always either ia the
space between the eyes, or that below diem. As then- va¬
rious forms, as characteristic of particular groups ot specie-,
will be afterwards described in the systematic part of the
present treatise, we shall not here enter into further detail
of structure. The uses ot these singular organs, are vari¬
ously viewed by naturalists, and there seems even vet to
be more hypothetical reasoning on the subject than pre¬
cise induction from facts. Some regard them as the seat
of smell, others of hearing, a greater number as the orgu's
ot the sense of touch. The indurated nature of the o^ter
covering in most insects would certamly lead us. a priori.
to expect a special provision for the reception ot the U«-
named sense. It is, however, extremely ditfic ih. in the
present state of our knowledge, to come to any general esme-
clusion on the subject. We shall statethe prevailing or*-
nions when we come to treat of the senses of insects: and
under tliat head we shall likewise explain the structure of
the eyes.
The thorax forms the second principal portion of art in¬
sect s body. It is itself divisible into three parts, and its
component segments vary greatly in their relative prot>:r-
tiops in the different tribes; the div ision which i» raerelv
rudimentary in one particular group, being sometiines high¬
ly developed in another, > These parts are named the prodo-
rax> mesothorax, and the metathorax.
prothorax ftrom before, and laga^, thorax) is
e anterior segment, aftd eoiresponds to the corselet or
71
celhr of M. Latreille: the second segment is named me- Externsd
othyrax ' rrv^n middle) ; and the thirdTs knpwn as Anatomy,
the axtathoraz ■ rrom .^enz, after.) " Each segment may
bke^ise be distinguished in reference to its interior*, its la¬
teral. and its snyerkw portions ; and the whole united cotv-
stifute the thorax, comnvn.ly so called. But although the
general came ol lf»:wax is applied to the parts just named,
yet the posterior two. that is. the mesothorax and the me-
tataorax. are tte most dependent on each other, and are
always inti-iateir united ; while the prothorax, as exemi
piirsed ia the Ce^Tptera. is often comparatively free ami
dtvungmshablei It is this last-mentioned segment which
bears the anterior pair of feet, and it considerably exceeds
the ethers in extent. In the coleopterous order,' indeed, it
is the only part that is visible on the upper surface,’ the
<xher segneente. with the exception of the scutelhnii, being
cccnecsea teneath it arid the elytra. The mesothorax and
nrrartiMU mite strictly With Vhe base of the abdomen,
ana serva *s the points ot attachment to the other pairs of
heer. Of ti e roes:<thorax or central portion, the most ob-
vio«B caaracters consist in its serving as a support to the
seccxad pair cT reef, and to the elytra' or first pair of wings.
Its : tts. s=*e. and consistence are extremely various.
Sfi-dn.y devefeped in the Coleojvtera and Orthojotera, it is
lasgor m the the Neurojttera, and moreespeei-
aflyin lie Hyncsa^poin, - a. and the Diptera.
Is excessive increase is always associated with a condifion
■sre or rudimentary of the other segments. Thiis,dh
the three cc evs last named, the prmhorax and metathurax
are rcry restricted ; while, on the cotitrary, they are large in
die C oieoptera. araong wTmh it is observable that the the*-
-i cioevux rs always com;Teased and narrow. The mpta-
th«ax serves 2* d>c rioint of attachment to the thitd pair
ot wet. and to the second or membranous pair of wing-.
have feid that each segment may be described id
rfcaticc to its irrfefior. its laterai. and its superior parts. ;A
piece Banted the sternum constitutes the whole of what is
catieu the inferior yswtion. This is not. as too often sup¬
posed. an cxxarideal prejection. merely characteristic of
certain rr.f-es. It occurs in all insects, and forms a dis¬
tract cz&racter. thretgh more or less defined and perspicu-
©as. accivraiog to the genus. It may be regarded as gene¬
rally c-Mposed of three distinct jneces, resembling in this
respect the humao- sternum, which anatomists describe as
crtBSLStasg oriritefy of three bones. Each of these pieces,
acxjortfijtg to Mr Kirby, is apt»ropriated to a pair of legs,
and each of them lias been called the sternum ; thus, in
EfcStT the pnutmTmm. in the Cetoniadae the nmostemum,
and is Hydropjii:us the mchidernunt. have alike been dis-
:ir. jT.zstrefi by the name. Each of the Ordinary lateral por¬
tions of theibtWk io’ftrfMlNrf two principal pieces, w hich,
ia c rabirtrion v ith tl>e steminn. is by some named the
petty* or breast. The anterior piece rests updn the ster-
maa. «6d is hence called tpiMirnam (from «r/, upon). The
posterior fettral portion, called the eprmera, is connected
with the preee&ag; it also adheres to the superior portion,
and rests in ceruan case* on the sternum ; but-4t- bears a
can.«smt nevadon to tf ;e haunches of the segment to which
:t belongs, nod to these it articulate? byr means of a little
pkee by the tfochantm. It
dewirex'mmmymAm «#. and thigh. Lastly, there
exists <m there SiCje Lateral pests a third piece, in general
sA^toty developed, and s-rnet ime* imperceptible.' It bears
rrtaaka* to ti e wing ar>d eyortermrm. always supports itself
ml tbe ktfter. is nometime* prolonged inferietly akkig its
anteriormeggia. or. Tiecoming free, passes in advanedbf the
srmr. er-eren pfece* itreIf t^ove it. It bears'the name1 of
pomp*.* ■a- :: m ~z^a., near to, and rsn^m, icing. Three
other portioDS of some in^crtance may likewise be consi¬
dered a.-, bekngmg to the general pectus. ‘
72
External
Anatomy.
E N T O M
ls£, Above the sternum, on its internal face, that is,
within the body of the insect, there exists a piece some¬
times remarkable for its size. It is placed on the median
line, and generally takes its rise from the posterior extre¬
mity of the sternum. It assumes various secondary forms,
and is generally divided into two branches. Cuvier named
it the Y-formed portion, on account of his having observed
it assume the shape of that letter. It is called entothorax
by M. Audouin, from *yro{, within, because it is always
placed in the interior of that organ. It occurs in each seg¬
ment of the thorax, and seems to be in some measure a de¬
pendent on the sternum. Its uses are supposed to be the
protection of the nervous system, and its isolation in many
cases from the digestive apparatus and the dorsal yesse .
The entothorax exists not only in the thorax, but m the
head, in which case it is named entocephalus; it has even
been noticed in the first ring of the abdomen in the genus
Cicada, and the portion named triangle ecailleux by Reau¬
mur may safely be regarded as its analogue. In this last
condition it is denominated entogaster.
2d, On the anterior edge of the episternum, sometimes
of the sternum, and even on the superior part of the body,
a stigmatic opening is observable, surrounded by a small
piece, of which the texture is frequently corneous. This
is the peritrema, so called from mg}, round about, and
Tpriga, a hole. It is not always perceptible, both on ac¬
count of its being sometimes too closely connected with
the neighbouring pieces, and because the stigmatic open¬
ing is itself sometimes obliterated. But when visible, it is
necessary that it should be distinguished, as its position is
of importance, and becomes a useful auxiliary in the com¬
parison of parts and in the determination of analogies.
3d, Lastly, it has been already stated in relation to the
epimera, that it is connected with the rotule by means of
a small articulation, of which the existence was first made^
known by M. Audouin. This is not an essential part of
the thorax ; but as it accompanies the epimera, and is as¬
sociated with the parts of the leg, all of which have receiv¬
ed particular denominations, its first describer has thought
proper to bestow upon it a name. He calls it trochantin,
in distinction to trochanter, or that portion of the leg which
is associated with the rotule and the thigh. The trochantin
is sometimes concealed in the interior of the thorax, and is
sometimes visible externally, according as the rotule is it¬
self more or less prolonged in its internal portion. The
ascertainment of this piece, according to M. Audouin, ad¬
mits of a direct comparison between the limbs of insects
and those of the Crustacea. Hitherto there were only five
parts in the former (the tarsi being regarded as one), while
there were six in the latter. But the trochantin completes
the number six likewise among the insect tribes.
We have now detailed the structure of the chest or pec¬
tus of insects ; so that whoever desires to view one of these
creatures anatomically, should, after dividing the thorax
into three segments, seek to ascertain, on the inferior and
middle portion of each, the existence of a sternum, and on
the flank or lateral portion, an episternum, a paraptera, and
epimera. He will also study the structure of the entotho¬
rax, of the peritrema, and of the trochantin. Sometimes,
however, the union of one or more of these parts with ano¬
ther is so intimate that they cannot be isolated or distin¬
guished ; but when we elsewhere, in such numerous cases,
perceive that the pectus is formed of a certain number of
elementary parts, it is more rational to believe that in all
instances these same elements are made use of, than to
suppose the frequent requirement of new.
We shall next discuss the superior portion of the thorax
of insects. In the coleopterous tribes the prothorax, as be-
O L O G Y.
fore mentioned, constitutes the principal portion, and its Extern,,
upper part may be called the thoracic shield. The only Anator
other part sufficiently distinguished prior to the time of
Audouin, was the scutellum or escutcheon. It is highly
developed in the Scuteller®, and rudimentary in most of
the Hymenoptera, Diptera, Lepidoptera, and some other or¬
ders. Its apparent position between the wings has occa¬
sioned its being regarded too exclusively as a kind of point
d'appui in flight. It is usually of a triangular form in the
Coleoptera, and projects backwards from the mesothorax,
with its point interposed between the elytra and the wings.
The scutellum was adopted by Geoffroy as the basis of his
arrangement of the genus ScarahcBus. It is, however, by
no means a well-chosen characteristic of the greater divi¬
sions in entomology 5 for the accurate distinction is not,
as is usually supposed, whether the scutellum does or does
not exist in a lamellicorn insect, but whether it is 01 is not
apparent.1 It occurs very obviously among many of the
coleopterous tribes, but is most conspicuously developed
in that genus of the hemipterous order called Scutellera, of
which Cimex lineatus may serve as an example. Natural¬
ists have erred in regarding this portion as characteristic
of the mesothorax alone. It is often greatly developed in
the posterior segment. Numerous and varied researches
have led M. Audouin to conclude that this superior por¬
tion of the thorax is composed of four principal pieces, fre¬
quently isolated, sometimes intimately united, usually dis¬
tinct. * He has deduced the following nomenclature from
their relative position in regard to each other. The ante¬
rior portion is named the prccscutum; it is sometimes
very large, and is usually concealed in whole or in part in
the interior of the thorax. The second piece is called the
scutum ; it is an important element, often strongly deve¬
loped, and always articulates with the wings when these
exist. To the next piece the original term scutellum is
applied ; it consists of the projecting angular point, gene¬
rally so denominated by entomologists. The fourth and
last piece is called the postscutellum ; it is almost always
entirely concealed within the thorax, sometimes united to
the internal face of the scutellum, and confounded with it,
sometimes free, and not adhering to the other portions,
except by its lateral extremities. These are the parts
which constitute the superior portion of the thorax, and to
which the general term tergum may be applied. Thus
we may speak of the tergum of the pro thorax, of the me¬
sothorax, or of the metathorax ; but when the wrord tergum
alone is used, we are then understood to signify the union
of the superior parts, that is, the entire space comprised
between the head and the first segment of the abdomen.
We come now to the abdomen itself, an important por¬
tion in the animal economy. Anatomists in general appear
to have advanced from the study of the human frame to
that of animals, or at least to have applied to the parts of
the latter the same terms which they had previously be¬
stowed upon the former. In so doing, however, they have
been guided rather by the analogy of form than of func¬
tion, and hence the vague nature of many terms, as applied
to the inferior orders, and which, however correct in their
original signification, become either obscure, or altogether
inapplicable in regard to other classes.
The abdomen, among insects, is that part of the body
which is attached to the posterior extremity of the thorax,
composed of five or six rings or segments, unprovided with
locomotive organs, and always containing within it a por¬
tion of the digestive canal. If, as many suppose, its exist¬
ence depends upon that of the thorax, then the entire class
of Annelides or red-blooded worms may be said to be de¬
prived of it, as the thorax itself does not exist in that class.
1 Houb Entomologicce, part i. p. 9.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Ex nal The term body is then made use of to designate generally
in: my. the whole of the animal. Although the abdomen cannot
-rfHT-w' weu exist without the thorax, the converse does not ap¬
pear to hold good, for the latter in many species seems to
constitute the whole body. Many of the Myriapoda, such
as lulus and Scolopendra, are examples of this ; for they
are composed of a series of segments, all furnished with
feet except the last, which has therefore by some been re¬
garded as the abdomen.
But among genuine insects, that is, the hexapod or six¬
footed kinds, the abdomen is obviously developed, and,
especially among the winged tribes, is very distinguishable
from the thorax. Among the apterous species the distinc¬
tion is less perceptible; and the same may be said of most
insects in the larva state. Among the hymenopterous kinds,
such as wasps, bees, &c. it appears as if it were pediculat-
ed or attached to the posterior part of the thorax by means
of a slender stalk; but minuter and more accurate obser¬
vation demonstrates that this neck-like restriction actually
takes place on the second segment of the abdomen, the
first of which is much more spacious, but so closely attach¬
ed to the thorax by its anterior edges as to become undis-
tinguishable. In the coleopterous order the abdomen is
usually convex, and of a harder consistence beneath, where
it is exposed ; but it is soft, and either flattish or concave
above, where it is covered by the folded wings and elytra.
On both sides of its segments there is a small roundish
opening called the stigma, which serves for the introduc¬
tion of air for the purposes of respiration, and of which we
shall treat in detail when we come to the consideration of
that function.
It has been noted that if an insect is naturally more ha¬
bituated to walking than flying, the breast or lower portion
of the thorax is expanded, and is furnished with more power¬
ful muscles than the back; whereas, if flight is the more
frequent mode of locomotion, an increase is observable in
the dorsal muscles. The locomotive organs are of course
the wings and legs, on which we shall now bestow a brief
consideration.
SECT. III.—ORGANS OF LOCOMOTION IN INSECTS.
1. The Wings.
These organs exist, effectively, in insects only in the
perfect state; for the larvae do not offer externally any
trace of them, and when apparent in the nymph or inter¬
mediate condition, they are merely rudimentary. No in¬
sect has more than four wings, many have only a single
pair, and others are entirely destitute of these parts. When
four in number they may be regarded as anterior or supe¬
rior, and as posterior or inferior ; and we likewise talk of
first or of the second pair of wings. The coleopterous
order presents some peculiarities in relation to these organs.
The anterior pair (in all cases, as already mentioned, unit¬
ed to the mesothorax) consist of a hard or horny substance
similar to the envelope of the thorax, and are called elytra.
When closed, their junction usually forms a straight cen¬
tral line called the suture, which is rather apparent than
real in certain species in which the inferior wings are
wanting, and the elytra form a single undivided piece.
They are convex above and concave below, are fixed to
the mesothorax, and cover and protect the genuine wings,
which are of a much more delicate structure. These lat¬
ter derive their origin from the metathorax, and are the
73
actual organs of flight. They are membranous and trans- External
parent, and when unemployed are transversely folded be- Anatomy,
neath their horny covering. We shall here describe the
structure of wings, and explain the terms made use of to
express the principal modifications which they undergo
in their various degrees of development in the different
orders.
The w ing of an insect consists of two thin flexible mem¬
branous transparent plates or leaves, the one superimposed
upon the other, and variously intersected by darker lines of
a horny consistence, usually known by the name of ner-
vures. These nervures, which at first sight appear like su¬
perficial threads, of which the larger follow the longitudi¬
nal direction of the wing, are interposed between its mem¬
branes, and present two faces, of which the upper, fre¬
quently rounded and very horny, adheres closely to the
corresponding leaf, and the under, of less firm consistence,
and of a flatter form, may by skilful dissection be remov¬
ed from that portion of the wing by which it- is covered.
In the opinion of M. Audouin, these threads are in fact so
many tubes, which diminish in diameter as they approach
the summit of the wing, and each of which contains,
throughout its entire extent, a spirally rolled vessel, by
some regarded as a genuine trachea. These tracheae re¬
ceive air from the interior of the body, and their forma¬
tion, according to Swammerdam, whose views have more
recently been confirmed and adopted by Jurine and Cha-
brier, is to strengthen the wing by distending it during
the action of flight. They are said to experience no sen¬
sible dilatation during their progress, whereas the corne¬
ous tubes which contain them present in that respect some
curious modifications,—for they sometimes spread out
suddenly, in such a way as to exhibit, for a short space,
a comparatively broad diameter. The colouring matter
being then disseminated over a wider surface, assumes so
pale an aspect that the nervure which leads into one of
those little expansions appears as it were interrupted.
Hence the name of hulles dair, or air-bubbles, bestowed
upon the latter by the French entomologists. They oc¬
cur most frequently in the cubital nervures of many Hy-
menoptera, and their chief use is supposed to be to facilitate
the formation of certain foldings of the wing during the
periods of repose. The largest of the nervures arise from
the base of the wing, that is, from the point of its inser¬
tion in the thorax. A most skilful observer, the late M.
Jurine of Geneva, has described the wings of hymenopte¬
rous insects with great accuracy, in a memoir to which wre
shall make more special allusion when we come to treat of
that particular order.1
The general character in respect to form and aspect of
the wings of insects has received a great variety of names.
They are sometimes equal, that is, all four of similar size ; or
unequal, when one pair prevails over the other ; lanceolate,
when they become narrow, both at the base and apex ; fal¬
cated, when curved like a scythe or reaping-hook ; linear,
when narrow, with nearly parallel edges ; clavated or club-
shaped, when linear in their general extent, but perceptibly
enlarged towards their extremity ; rounded, when they ap¬
proach a more circular form ; oblong, when more lengthen-
ened than broad, and describing an elongated ellipse, ob¬
tuse at both ends ; rhomboidal, when they are longer from
the posterior angle to the summit than from that angle to
the base ; deltoid, when they assume the triangular. form
of the Greek letter delta; exserted, when the. inferior
wings pass beyond the elytra; covered, when entirely
protected by those organs; plaited, when longitudinally
)dl
See Observations surles Aiks des Hymtncmteres, in the twenty-fourth volume of the Mem. dcTAcadJinie des Sciences de Turh
onsult also, hy the same author, 'Nduvclle Mlthodc de classer les Hymtrwptcrcs et les Dipiercs. Geneve, 1807.
VOL. IX. ‘‘ " *  
K
74
ENTOMOLOGY.
External folded, after the manner of a fan ; replicated, when, after
Anatomy, being plaited as just mentioned, they are again loidea
' y-*-' transversely upon themselves ; incumbent, when the poste¬
rior margin of one covers that ot the other ; extended, when,
in a state of repose, they are stretched on either side, leav¬
ing the abdomen visible ; erect, when, in a state ot repose,
they are raised perpendicularly to the surface of the body ;
deflexed, when the summits and outer margins form as it
were a kind of inclined plane from the base and inner
margins. These are the principal variations as to form
and attitude, or position. The following terms are ot fre¬
quent use in entomology, when the surface or superficial
structure of the wings is sought to be described. 1 hey are
striated, when certain raised lines are perceptible, forming
slight parallel and longitudinal furrows ; reticulated, when
these lines are disposed like lace or network ; veined,
when distinct longitudinal nervures are observable, rami¬
fying into more delicate branches ; squamous or scaly, when
covered with minute powdery particles, which, when ex¬
amined with a glass, are found to be small scales imbri¬
cated or imposed on each other like slates or tiles on a
house top ; farinose, when sprinkled more irregularly with
fine particles resembling flour, and easily removeable by the
finger; pilose or hairy, when the surface is more or less
covered by minute hairs ; naked, when there is no covering
of either hairs or scales. Other characters are deduced
from the markings of the wings in regard to tint and colour.
They are concolorous, when similar or unvaried in their
hue ; vitreous or windowed, when, opake over their geneial
surface, certain translucent spots are here and there obser¬
vable ; ocellated, w hen they present circular spots of different
colours, resembling an eye ; pupillated, when the eye-like
spot has a coloured point in its centre; fasciated, when
there are broad coloured fines or bands,—and these are
distinguished as transverse, longitudinal, oblique, lanceo-
lated, &c. according to their prevailing direction and cha¬
racteristic form.
The margins or edges of the wings have likewise re¬
ceived a considerable variety of designations, according to
the peculiar characters which they exhibit, d hey. are
crenated, when they present an alternation ot slight inci¬
sions and obtuse projections ; dentated or toothed, when
these incisions are deeper and narrower, and the projec¬
tions sharper and more defined; fimbriated, when the
marginal processes are lengthened, pointed, and close ;
cloven, when the incisions are few and deep ; digitated,
when the parts cut into assume the aspect of a hand;
emarginate, when the incision is slight, and seems merely
to have scooped out a small portion ot the wing ; caudated
or tailed, w hen the posterior margin presents a more length¬
ened appendage ; ciliated, when the wings are bordered
by close-set hairs resembling eye-lashes. The points ot
the wings are obtuse, when terminated by a rounded out¬
line ; truncated, when they appear as if cut; acute, when
ending in a point; acuminated, when that point is sharp
and prolonged.
These details, we doubt not, like all the other technica¬
lities of a complex branch of science, must seem irksome
to the general reader. Nevertheless, as they frequently
form important and sometimes indispensable elements of
knowledge, we must continue their enumeration. The
wings, in fact, have furnished the characters from which
the names and definitions of the orders in entomology have
been derived, and a knowledge of their forms and func¬
tions is required during almost every step of our progress.
A transcendental anatomy has no doubt thrown its ambi¬
guous fight {lucus a non lucendd) upon these and other
portions of animal economy; and the wings, which in for¬
mer times were thought sufficiently defined when merely
named as the organs of flight, are now regarded by some
as legs, and by others as lungs. We still see, however, Extm
that they carry the creatures through the air, and we shall ^
therefore rest satisfied by viewing them m accordance with
our accustomed associations.
Among the more remarkable ot the modifications expe¬
rienced by the upper wings, is that corneous condition m
which they are known under the name of elytra. Ihese
are particularly characteristic of the coleopterous order, and
derive their name from sToirgev, a sheath or covering, be¬
cause they protect the membranaceous wings, they are
attached by their base, by means of several small pieces, ,
to the mesothorax. The opposite extremities are called
the points or summits, and the margins are known as ante¬
rior or external, posterior, and interior,—the last named,
when the parts are closed, and meeting over the back,
forming what is called the dorsal suture. As to their pro-
portions, they are elongated, when they exceed the ab¬
domen ; abbreviated, when shorter than that organ ; and
various other terms of obvious application are made use of
to express their different degrees.
The elytra differ in their consistence, being sometimes
almost membranous, or scarcely firmer than the under
wings; or they are coriaceous, or ot the texture of lea¬
ther ; semi-coriaceous, when, as among many Hemiptera,
the elytra are composed of two parts of different texture ;
pergameneous, or like parchment; fiexible, when, yielding
to a slight impression, they yet return again immediately
to their original shape ; or soft, when they yield to the
same impression, but retain the alteration of form for a
longer time. As to form, many of the terms already enu¬
merated in relation to the wings in general, apply equallv
to the elytra. They are also gibbous, when greatly round¬
ed or hemispherical; dilated, when more flatly expand¬
ed ; attenuated, when they diminish in breadth from the
base to the apex. The surface of these parts presents
many characters of great importance in the discrimina¬
tion of species, and even in the formation of sections or
subdivisions of genera. They are said to be chagrined,
when covered by minute raised spots ; punctated, when
these spots are distinct and hollowed; tuberculated, when
the elevations are distinct and irregular ; scabrous, when
the elevations are distant and unequal; verrucose or warty,
when they are large, cicatrised, and resembling w arts ;
striated, when marked with regular longitudinal fines;
striato-punctate, when in each stria there are depressed
points ; punctato-striate, when the stria: are themselves
formed by a consecutive series of these impressed points;
sulcated or furrowed, when the impressed fines are deep
and broad; ribbed, when between the furrows there are
raised fines ; rugose, when the raised fines are irregular,
and divided in all directions ; reticidated, when these fines
are disposed with greater regularity, in a kind of network;
crenated, when the fines are rather regularly undulated;
glabrous, when the elytra are smooth, or destitute ot raised
points or other irregularities of surface ; tomentose or cot¬
tony, when covered by a whitish dow n ; pilose, when hairy,
—also villous ; fasciculated, when the hairs are collected
here and there in little tufts ; muricated, when the hairs
are long, raised, and almost prickly ; spinous, when the
projecting parts are hard and shai'p like spines ; squamous
or scaly, when covered by little scaly plates.
The elytra are said to be margined when their edges
are raised, or otherwise distinguished from the general and
more central surface ; sinuated, when there are sloping
notches on their outline ; serrated, when furnished with
little sharp projections like the teeth of a saw ; dentated,
when these are sharp and more distant. They are like-
wdse said to be mucronated when the apex is provided with
a sharpish point; bidentated, when there are a couple of
distinct projections ; obtuse, w hen the summits are blunt or
E N T O M
eternal rounded; truncated, when they seem as if a portion had
atomy- been severed.
We have already mentioned, that in many of the hemip¬
terous order the anterior wings are semi-elytrous, that is,
comparatively solid in one part of their extent, and mem¬
branous in the other. In fact, the order derives its
name from that character, as already mentioned in our in¬
troductory definitions. In the orthopterous order the an¬
terior wings, though much more membranaceous than those
of beetles, yet approach the nature of elytra, and serve as
a protection to the under pair, which are more delicate.
Among neuropterous insects both pairs of wings are alike
in their general character of texture and reticulation, and
the same may be said of the hymenopterous order. Those
of the Lepidoptera are also similar to each other in their
substance and covering. With a few exceptions, in
which the wings are clear or diaphanous, in the last-
named gorgeous group they are thickly coated with mi¬
nute scales of various colours, which when removed exhi¬
bit the membranous structure of the parts. They present
several other peculiarities, which we shall notice when we
treat of the generalities of the greater divisions of which
the order is composed.
The wings, regarded throughout the entire series of hex¬
apod insects, are thus extremely varied in their form, con¬
sistence, development, and efficiency. The distinctions,
both of form and texture, show themselves, as it were, by
gradation, and present no striking disparity among species
otherwise nearly allied. But the uses, and degrees of de¬
velopment, of these organs, vary greatly not only among
species of the same genus, but even between the sexes of
the same species ; for while the males of several kinds are
efficiently winged, the females are entirely apterous. When
the anterior wings, as in the Coleoptera, are elytrous (if
we may use the expression), they scarcely serve for the
purposes of flight. In the neuropterous and hymenop¬
terous orders both pairs are equally efficient, while in
the dipterous or two-winged tribes the inferior wings have
disappeared. In some cases, as among the female ants,
the wings fall off immediately after the sexual union.
The development of the wings always bears a relation
to that of the superior arc of the thorax by which they are
supported. It has been already noted, that if an insect is
more habituated to walking than flying, the breast or lower
portion of the thorax is extended, and is furnished with
more powerful muscles than the back ; whereas if flight is
the means of locomotion, an increase of power is observ¬
able in the dorsal muscles.
One of the laws laid down by M. Straus Durckheim as
regulating organic structure is the following :—that when
one organ governs another, or several others, these follow
the march of the dominating organ ; and that when the
latter disapjjears, those which were subordinate to it im¬
mediately assume their primitive form. This law may be
exemplified by the influence of the wings upon the thorax.
In proportion as the two pairs of wings change in form and
size, the two segments of the thorax which support them
follow the same progression, and become more and more
united to each other ; but no sooner do the wings disap¬
pear in the Aphaniptera (Pulex), than the two segments of
the thorax regain their primitive form, and separating from
O L O G Y.
75
one another, present the same appearance as in Lepisma. External
The wings being first introduced amongst the Coleoptera, Anatomy,
and the thorax of these as yet differing but little from that
of the Thysanura, it can easily return to the form it pos¬
sessed previously to its undergoing any modification. It
thence follows, that in such species as are deprived of wings,
the thorax returns more or less to its primitive form. This
is particularly remarkable in the females of many species
of Lampyris, which possess neither wings nor elytra; and
this return is moreover occasioned in the Coleoptera with¬
out wings by another cause, which acts in this case on
that part of the body; it is the diminution of the soli¬
dity of the integuments in those parts which are covered
by the elytra.
In the other order of insects, according to the views of
the last-named author, the two segments which bear the
wings having already experienced a very considerable
change of form, it would require a very powerful cause to
bring them back to their primitive form; for this reason
the return does not take place in Cimex cellularius, the For¬
mica, See. amongst which the imperfection (if it may be so
called) is only specific. In the Aphaniptera, on the con¬
trary, which we may in some respects consider as wingless
Diptera, the transformation of the thorax takes }>lace in
consequence of a complete absence of the wings, brought
about by the degradation which these organs have expe¬
rienced in passing through the whole of the class Insecta.
M. Straus Durckheim, in the introduction to his care¬
fully elaborated work,1 has also endeavoured to explain the
laws which regulate the different changes of structure in
passing from one group to another. The most general law in
the organization of animals which he has recognised is, that
all the systems of organs are subjected to a constant varia¬
tion of form, and even of function, while passing from one
family to another. The first more special or particular law
which he evolves from the subdivision of the former is the
following : That the organs at one extremity of the scale
always exercise a very evident function ; whilst at the other
extremity they are constantly rudimentary and without
function, and at last entirely disappear. He here distin¬
guishes two kinds of cases. In the first, the organs pre¬
sent themselves at the head of the scale developed to the
highest degree of which they are susceptible, and decrease
insensibly, until they arrive at the other extremity of the
scale. Thus, for example, the posterior wings of insects are
“ introduced suddenly” into the organization of that class
at the highest point bf perfection in the Coleoptera, where
t/iey alone serve for flight. In the Orthoptera and Hemip-
tera they already begin to divide their function with the
elytra, and go on diminishing gradually until they exist
merely as rudiments in the Diptera, where they are repre¬
sented by the halteres.2 Finally, they entirely disappear
in the Aphaniptera. In the second instances, the organs
do not appear at the head of the scale in their most perfect
state of development, and only acquire it by degrees.
Such is the case with the elytra, or first pair of wings,
which follow a course exactly contrary to that of the infe¬
rior wings. They only appear at first as organs slightly
accessory to flight, in which state they remain nearly
throughout the whole Coleoptera. In the Orthoptera and
Hemiptera they begin already to take a very active part in
Gln(?aleS™r rAnatomie Comp arte des Animaux articules, auxquelles on a joint l'Anatomic descriptive du Hanneton, 1 vol.
s’ T|f Plancl)es, Pans, 1828. An abstract of the doctrines of this work will be found in the Entomological Magazine, vol. i.
thorav in 0t HaHc'rCS' poiser? or balancers’ is bestowed on a pair of slender moveable appendages found on the hinder part of the
“haltevps *Ver°U! 011 'V0-wlnSetl insects. They are usually regarded as the rudiments of the second or posterior pair of wings,—
lieved hv :,U,"nenta,alarT Posl?carum’ as Fabricius has expressed it in his Entomologia Philosophica. This opinion, however, is bo¬
wing's than nn fi an. "e 1 lu?k "rfb reason, to be founded rather on the position which these organs bear in relation to the anterior
that the b-d-mf-nrl^T connect,on Wltb tbe metathorax and its different parts. Latreille, a great authority in such matters, maintains
posterior correspond to or represent the second pair of wings, but are rather vesicular appendages connected with two
se o e thorax, and analogous in some measure to the processes which accompany the respiratory organs of the Aphro-
76
entomology.
—sj-ax'sssissi'Sii-j
mYil in the Diptera they become the sole organs ot fhg ,
and ol course have there attained their highest degree ot
perfection. Arrived at this culminating point, they sud¬
denly diminish in Hippobosca, and entirely disappear i
1 UWe* shall next devote a few lines to those portions of the
wings called ailerons by the French naturalists, known a
under the name of winglets or ahdce.1 1 hey are chiefly
characteristic of the dipterous tribes, and ^^irTnlat
as appendages of the anterior wings, the sole pair in t a
particular ofdcr. Their attachment to ^teUu'n »d
the postscutellum of the mesothorax is ^^cient eyidenc
that thev are not the rudiments of a posterior pair , h
these, if they existed, would derive their origin from the
metathorax. ” They usually consist of two concavo-convex
pieces, intermediate as it were between the wing ari the
,raisers, and folded the one upon the other, hke the ptmts
a bivalve shell when the insect is at rest, but stretched or
extended during flight. Their special uses are not yet
^The poisers or balancers (halteres) have been sufficient¬
ly described in the preceding note. Audouin regaids
them as the rudiments of the second pair of wings, ol u Inc
the extreme tenuity in the Diptera accords in his opinion
with the evanescence of the metathorax.2 1 heir use, like
that of the last-named organs, seems not to have been
satisfactorily determined. Dr Derham and others have
thought that, like the pole of a rope-dancer, they keep the
body steady in flight; while some connect them with the
noises produced by insects, and maintain that they act
upon the membrane of the winglet, as a drumstick acts
upon its proper organ, thus producing sound, bhelver s
opinion is probably more correct, that they are connected
with the function of respiration.3 But the various senti¬
ments on the subject are as yet conjectural.
2. The Legs.
Having now endeavoured to explain the structure ol the
wings or organs ol flight, we shall next request tne reader s
attention to those other organs ol motion, the legs ot in¬
sects. With the exception of the Myriapoda {Centipedes,
&c.), which, with Latreille and Dr Leach, we shall form, as
already noted, a separate class, the number of legs in in¬
sects is precisely six. They are composed of the follow¬
ing parts : 1st, The coxa or haunch, which is the first joint,
or that which plays in the socket (see Plate CCXX. fig.
2, a); 2d, the trochanter or second joint, to the side of
which the thigh is attached, and by means ol which it
inosculates with the coxa (Ibid, h); 3c/, the femur or
thigh, which is long, and usually compressed (c); 4th, the
tibia or shank, generally the longest joint ol the leg, and
frequently notched on its edges, and terminated by spur¬
like appendages (cZ); hth, the tarsus, composed of articu¬
late portions, varying from three to five among the Cole-
optera and the majority of insects (e). The last articula-
With the i (our coxa), and the trochanter. In accor¬
dance with this view, the parts ol the leg m insects may be
2d to amount to six pieces, instead ol the five which we
have just enumerated. These terms apply strictly to the
Intermediate and hind legs. The anterior pair are by jme
writers regarded as brachia or arms. The first joint ol the
brXm answering to the coxa of the legs, is named ckt-
vicula, or the clavicle, by Mr Kirby; its second joint an¬
swering to the trochanter ol the other limbs, is called the
scapula; the third and elongated joint, corresponding to the
femur, is designated the humerus; while the articulations
of the tarsus are known as the mantis or hand. However,
the majority of authors seem not to express any distinction
between the parts of the fore legs and those ol the inter¬
mediate and hind ones. The anterior pair, we may ob¬
serve, are in some cases convertible into organs of prehen¬
sion, and their tarsi are frequently dilated in the male sex.
The number of articulations of the tarsi varies in the di -
ferent tribes, and is not always the same in the different
pairs of legs in the same insect. Their amount on each
limb has been assumed as a basis for the tormation ol the
great sectional divisions of the coleopterous order, as ori¬
ginally proposed by M. Geoffroy, and so generally adopted
by the continental naturalists. The character, though ar¬
bitrarily chosen, and not seldom artificial m its results, has
proved upon the whole more compatible with a natural ai -
rangement than usually happens on the seiection of a sin¬
gle and uninfluential organ. We shall enter into fuitl er
details in relation to this matter in our introduction to the
coleopterous order, and shall merely observe in the mean
time, that pentamerous species, or those of which all the
tarsi are furnished with five articulations, are the most
abundant,—more than one half of the coleopterous kinds
being referable to that section.
These are the principal external parts of the structure
of insects.4 Their internal conformation has been illustrat¬
ed of late years by the successful eftorts of several very
skilful and ingenious observers. W e shall here notice the
dominating or more influential organs, and give a short
view of the important vital functions which they exeicise.
CHAPTER III.
THE INTERNAL STRUCTURE AND PHYSIOLOGY OF INSECTS.
SECT. I. THE NERVOUS SYSTEM AND SENSES OF INSECTS.
The nervous system of animals in general, it has been
remarked, is one of the most wonderful and mysterious
works of the Creator. Its pulpy substance is the visible
works or tne oreator. its pmpy suusumvc -
medium by which the governing principle (To 'Hys/tiov/xov)
transmits its commands to the various organs ot the body,
which instantaneously obey the impulsive mandate ; yet this
tn Vwa Knf tlio rlnrWf'n* cnTYlP VncrllPr TiriilClolfcN
dites, or those of the aquatic larvae of Ephemerae and the genus Gyrinus. He founds his opinion chiefly on this, that the inferior
wings always take their origin from the lateral and anterior summits of the third thoracic segment, at a very short distance irom tne
superior wings, and always in advance of the two posterior stigmata of the thorax, whilst the balancers are inserted lower down at tne
internal extremity of these air-conduits, or close by them. tSee Latreille’s observations in the 7th and 8th volume of the Memoiret
du Museum d'Histoire Naturelle.) . ,
1 We have made use of the term wing-scale in the systematic exposition afterwards given of the order Diptera. Meigen uses tnc
German word schuppchen (squama) in his Zzveijlugeligen Insccten.
2 Diet. Class. (T Hut. Nat. t. ii. p. 141. 3 Wiedeir,an’s Archiv. ii. 210. ^
4 For some additional details, we beg to refer to a paper entitled “ Osteology, or External Anatomy of Insects,” by Mr New¬
man, in the Entomological Magazine, No. 1Y. We had not an opportunity of consulting it until our own abstract had been composed,
chiefly from foreign sources.
E N T O M
InL-nal more ethereal essence (language is ransacked in vain for an
Strl ure. appropriate term), which can be more immediately acted
Upon by the mind and will. But this supposed principle,
by whatever fond or fantastical name it may be known,
whether as a nervous fluid or a nervous power, has never
been detected by the most subtile physiologist, and is known
only by its effects. It is, however, undoubtedly the centre
from which all power and function flow; and during the
absence of worthier substitutes we need not challenge the
vague abstractions of some metaphysical inquirers.
The nervous system of insects consists of a homogeneous
pulp, usually disposed in twelve successive ganglions, con¬
nected by a double cord. We first observe a double or bi-
lobed mass, which, as it is placed in the head, may be call¬
ed the brain. It is surrounded by strong muscles, and
from its anterior portion nerves are distributed to the eyes,
antennae, and mouth. Posteriorly two delicate recurrent
nerves proceed towards the dorsal vessel, and inferiorly
two larger nerves, after having formed by their branching
a kind of ring, which embraces the oesophagus, unite in the
form of a ganglion beneath the last-named organ. From
the posterior part of this latter ganglion a pair of nervous
cords proceed for a space, and then by their union produce
a second inferior ganglion, from which the nervous cords
again branch off posteriorly, and so uniting and ramifying
from space to space, they extend through the different seg¬
ments of the thorax and abdomen. The number of these
ganglia varies ; sometimes they correspond to the divisions
of the body, while in many instances they are of smaller
amount. In the larva of the rhinoceros-beetle, for example,
the whole spinal cord (so called from its supposed analogy
to the part known by that name among the vertebrate
kinds) presents the appearance of a single ganglion, divid¬
ed merely by transverse furrows,—while in that of a dra¬
gon-fly, six have been observed in the thorax, and seven
in the abdomen. In the great water-beetle {Hydrous pi-
ceus) the head exhibits one ganglion, the thorax six, and
the abdomen only two. In the honey-bee there are three
ganglia in the thorax, and four in the abdomen. When
we examine these knots attentively, we may perceive that,
in addition to the double and longitudinal nervous cord by
which they are connected, they throw off laterally on either
side small nervous trunks, which divide into branches, and
finally ramify over the muscles, the intestinal canal, the
tracheae, and other parts. This nervous system differs
considerably in the larva and perfect insect. In the lat¬
ter the ganglia are usually less numerous, and the poste¬
rior appear formed by the close approximation of several
others.
The principal ganglia of the nervous system of insects
are frequently thus disposed. The position of the upper
or cervical ganglion has been already mentioned. Ihe
others rest beneath the intestines, ranging along the infe¬
rior face of the body. There are three in what may be
called the chest; that is, one in the prothorax, which sends
nerves to the anterior legs ; one in the mesothorax, which
O L O G Y. 77
supplies the elytra or the upper wings, and the middle legs ; Internal
and one in the metathorax, which distributes its filaments Structure,
to the second pair of wings and the last pair of legs. The
other ganglia belong to the abdomen. Insects are charac¬
terized by the ganglionic distribution of the nervous sys¬
tem, in common with the Crustacea and Arachnides on the
one hand, and with the Vermes or worms on the other.
But in insects the ganglia are larger and less numerous
than in the still lower tribes, which gives a more decided
character of centricity to their nervous system. Indeed
the highest manifestation of this character is usually pre-
sentedonlyas the ultimate result of several metamorphoses;
so that while the larva exhibits a closer agreement with the
nervous system of worms, that of the imago or perfect in¬
sect assumes a higher developjment. It does not however
appear that the brain or upper ganglion of insects acts in
the capacity of a se7isorium commune, as among warm¬
blooded animals, such as mammiferous quadrupeds and
birds; for many insects will live for a considerable time,
and even exercise their faculties of flight, after the loss of
parts which among the other class we justly regard as of
vital importance. The tenacity of life in horse-flies, for
example {Hippoboscce), is very remarkable. When deprived
of their heads, and replaced upon a horse, they will be per¬
ceived to run backwards and forwards and sideways, with
apparently the same ease as prior to their decapitation.1
The ganglions themselves frequently exhibit a bikbed
structure, which appears to result from the union of two
smaller masses, originally distinct. Comparative anatomy
tends to confirm this supposition. M. Marcel de Serres2
maintains that the nervous system of insects, and of all in¬
vertebrate animals, corresponds to the eccentric portion
of that system among the higher classes, that is, to the in¬
tervertebral ganglia and their radiations.3 In the primi¬
tive state of larva he deems the nervous system to consist
of two distinct portions, a right and a left; and he main¬
tains that the formation of the nervous system in all ani¬
mals proceeds from the circumference to the centre, and
not, as usually supposed, from the centre to the circumfe¬
rence. We know well, from the observations or Carus and
Tiedeman, that the organs of the inferior animals repeat,
as it were, the forms which present themselves only in the
embryo condition of the higher tribes. M. de Serres en¬
deavours to show that it is by the progress of successive
developments that the portions of the nervous cord in in¬
sects approach each other,—that they first join around the
oesophagus, then at the opposite extremity towards the in¬
ferior ganglions, and lastly in the central parts. He thus
admits three distinct embryo states in the condition of the
larvre ; first, that in which the two portions of the nervous
system are entirely isolated and distinct; secondly, that
in which the cesophagian ganglia are alone united; and,
thirdly, that in which the opposite extremities are joined
together. By means of this distinctive view', the French
physiologist connects the nervous system of insects with
that of the Mollusca, the latter presenting the embryo con-
i „ . . . . . XT ... <)A1 2 Ann. dcs Sciences Nat. t. ill. p 377-
• riSThe »f invertebrate animals bears to that of .be vertebra,e,l "X’vK te
to many conflicting opinions. “ Among the various suggestions on this point, are that ot_ A
nervous system of Articulata as corresponding to the sympathetic system ot veitebial amnia s , . , . however is that
the Mollusca to the par vagum, and in 'the Articulata to the spinal marrow ; the most generally received ^“a cerebro-
supported by the authority of Meckel, Cuvier, Hlumenbach, Gall, and Spurzhe.m, who compare ^“‘VofThis idea, by
spinal cord of vertebral animals. The latter gentlemen, in particular, have furnished a strong p intermediate contractions,—a
Urr,  a nuhmds actually consists of a series of ganglia with intermediate coma actions, a.
fact, that in Mollusca, Crustacea, Insects, &c. we find nerves ot sense arising iiom uc r Ymro’vn! i n CO 1 E W. Weber
with the character of the sympathetic system.” (See Note to Carus s Comparative Anatomy, by .^o1^’Yy'd" ^ ir^j cortl of ar_
{Anatomia Comparuta Nervi Sympathetici) appears to have been the first to suggest tha. the 10 the segments of
ticulated animals correspond to the intervertebral ganglia of the spinal nerves of the higher classes, rather than to the segments
which their spinal marrow is composed.
-8 E N T O M
Internal dition of the former, that is, being permanently distinguish-
Structure. e(J by a characteristic which is only temporary among the
articulated tribes. This may probably be regarded as an
additional argument in favour of what we shall afterwards
endeavour to maintain,—the general superiority in the scale
of organization of the annulose classes over the molluscous
kinds. We shall conclude by observing, that besides the
general protection afforded by the external envelope of in¬
sects to their nervous system, it is specially protected by
the Y-shaped portion formerly described.
As the nerves constitute the principal media of sensation
in all animals, we shall here give a short sketch of the dif¬
ferent senses of the insect class.
Of the senses in general, as they exist in man and the
higher beings, physiologists and metaphysicians alike enu¬
merate the following five, viz. touch, taste, smell, hearing,
and sight. All of these, we doubt not, exist in the class
now under consideration, although we are not in every case
acquainted with the special organ by which each particu¬
lar function is exercised.
The sense of touch is usually regarded as affording ani¬
mals, and man especially, a more intimate and assured com¬
munication with the external world than those of either
sight or hearing, in as far as no intermediate substance
comes between us and the subjects of perception. I he
perfection of the sense depends on the quality of the skin,
the extent and nature of its surface, the number of its
nerves, its freedom from insensible parts, and the delicacy
of those appendages which are more particularly destined
to the examination of bodies. As touch is the most im¬
portant of all the senses, it may naturally be inferred to be
finely developed in the human race ; and we know that, of
all the vertebrated animals, man in that respect is one of the
most highly organized. But among the invertebrate kinds
the sense of touch improves in proportion as the others de¬
generate ; and those which have no other sense possess it
so exquisitely that some of them seem even to feel the
light.1
Among insects the sense of touch varies remarkably ac¬
cording to the condition in which they happen to exist for
the time,—their exterior surface, in which the function
exists, or at least through which it must be manifested,
being itself subject to great variation, even among indivi¬
duals of the same species. When soft, as in the larva
state, the skin is extremely delicate in its perceptions, and
capable of transmitting the most lively sensations ; while in
the imago or perfect condition, more especially among the
Coleoptera, its harder consistence renders it chiefly service¬
able as a protecting covering. In this case the feet, palpi,
and, as many suppose, the antennae, seem the principal
organs of the sense of touch.
The sense of taste, which some regard as an exalted
modification of the perception of touch, is very obvious
among insects. We see many species, while searching af¬
ter food, reject or only partially consume whatever is dis¬
agreeable or unexpected, while they gloat over a more
favourite morsel. The organ in which the sense is placed
is not, however, so easily determined. Some regard the
palpi, and others the pharynx, as its principal seat. That
portion of the labium which the French naturalists name
the languette or ligula, has also been regarded as exercis¬
ing the sense of taste. It is certain that distinct nerves
are distributed to that quarter, as represented by Lyonnet
in his great work on the caterpillar of the cossus.
I he sense of smell is exquisitely developed in the insect
tribes. No sooner has an animal fallen, from age or sick¬
ness, even on the loneliest and most barren moor, where
O L O G Y.
perhaps no vestige of insect life was previously perceptible, Internal
than troops of flies and carcass-eating beetles assemble Structurti
from every quarter, led by the emanation of the tainted
It was in truth the influence of the sense of smell that
in ancient times no doubt gave rise to so many erroneous
ideas regarding the origin of insect life. Every animal
body in a state of decay being seen to present a crowd of
small larvae or worms, these were regarded as the produce
of corruption, whereas they resulted naturally, and accord¬
ing to the usual course, from eggs previously deposited by
parent flies or beetles, which had been attracted by the
putrid effluvia. It is not two hundred years since Redi
proved for the first time, by conclusive experiments, that
this was true. It is also known that bees will discover
and hover around a box containing honey, though their
prized treasure is screened from sight; and both flies and
beetles are so affected by the perceptions of this sense, that
even their peculiar and all but unerring instincts are occa¬
sionally deceived by its influence. They will deposit their
eggs on plants which are characterized by a foetid smell
(for example, on the Phallus incpudicus), misled by the
resemblance of their flesh-like odour, which the experience
of the sense of sight cannot rectify.
The scent of many flowers is cadaverous, and is thus
the means of assembling around their deceptive petals nu¬
merous insects which feed on putrid matter. It is thus
that the spathes of the Arum dracunculus, and the corolla
of the Stapelia variegata, are frequently found covered by
SilpKae, flesh-flies, and other species, which not only at¬
tempt to feed upon them, but also deposit their eggs in
what they conceive to be a fitting station. But the seat
of this indispensable faculty is likewise still involved in ob¬
scurity. On a subject so difficult of solution, and which
can only be solved by a consummate knowledge of anato¬
mical structure, viewed in relation to the uses of physio¬
logy, it would not become us to offer an opinion, or do
more than report the sentiments of those who are neces¬
sarily more experienced than ourselves. Many agree with
Dumeril in maintaining that in insects the sense of smell
is effected, as among the higher animals, through media in
very intimate connection with the process of respiration ;
in other words, that either the tracheae or stigmatic open¬
ings are the seat of its exercise. Others again suppose,
that for the exercise of so important a function, a more
special and concentrated organ is required ; and proceeding
upon the analogical relation of mere position, they regard
the antennae as its seat. These receive the first pair of
nerves, and so far correspond to the olfactory organs of
the higher animals, which are likewise connected with the
brain by means of the first pair. The question is one
which is extremely difficult of determination, especially in
reference to the singular experiments of Huber on bees,
which go far to prove that the sense of smell, at least in
these hymenopterous species, is placed in the cavity of the
mouth.
Christian maintained that insects exercised the sense of
smell in relation to distant objects through their antennae,
and in regard to near ones by means of their palpi; while
Comparetti imagines that in the different tribes of insects
different instruments are subservient to that end. Cuvier,
at least in his earlier works (and we are not aware of any
recorded change in his sentiments) favoured the opinion
already alluded to regarding the respiratory organs. “ As
the organ of smell,” he observes, “ in all animals which
respire air, is situated at the entrance of the organs of re¬
spiration, the most probable conjecture that has been pro-
1 Lcfons iV Anatomic Corn parte, sect. 14.
ENTOMOLOGY.
lilt It:
tli< Stir
xnal posed respecting its seat in insects, is that of Baster, since
i:ture. revived by several naturalists, who placed it in the mouths
0f the tracheae or air-tubes. In addition to the reasons
hitherto stated in support of this opinion, we may observe
that the internal membrane of the tracheae appears very
well calculated to perform this office, being soft and mois¬
tened, and that the insects in which the tracheae en¬
large, and form numerous or considerable vesicles, are
those which seem to possess the most perfect sense of
smell. Such are the Scarabaei, flies, bees, &c. The an¬
tennae, which other anatomists have supposed to be the
seat of smell in insects, do not appear to us to possess any
of the conditions for that organ.”1
Huber’s experiments, undertaken with a view to as¬
certain the seat of smell in bees, consisted in presenting
successively to all parts of their bodies a hair pencil dipt
in oil of turpentine, an article which they particularly
abominate. When made to approximate the head, trunk,
or abdomen, it produced no particular effect, and the odour
appeared to be equally disregarded by the antennae and
proboscis. But when he brought the point of a fine hair
pencil saturated in the oil almost into contact with the ca¬
vity of the mouth, above the insertion of the proboscis, the
bee started back in an instant, quitted its food, clapped its
wings, and would have taken immediate flight had not the
pencil been removed. A repetition of the experiment pro¬
duced the same signs of discomposure ; and similar re¬
sults, but more prompt and sure, folloUAed the use of oil of
marjoram. The indefatigable Genevese observer then
stopt up the mouths of several bees with paste, which
soon became comparatively hard and dry. In this state
they were quite insensible to those odours which had pre¬
viously produced such painful effects.2
Mr Kirby maintains an opinion different from any we
have yet alluded to, though more allied to the last than to
the others. As the nose of an insect evidently corresponds
with the part so named in the Mammalia, not only in its
situation, but frequently in its form, and as a constant con-
| nection may be observed to obtain between the senses
of smell and taste, he felt convinced in the first place
that the argument from analogy was wholly in favour of
the nose, or anterior portion of the head formerly men¬
tioned under that name. The common burying beetle
(Necrophorus vespillo) is an insect remarkable for its ex¬
treme accwacy and acuteness of smell. While examining
the nose of this insect, Mr Kirby observed in the middle of
its anterior part a subtrapezoidal space, as it were cut out
and filled with a paler piece of a softer and more membra¬
nous texture. On dividing the head horizontally, he per¬
ceived beneath the nose, and partly under the space just
mentioned, which he calls the rhinarium or nostril piece,
a pair of circular pulpy cushions, covered by a membrane
transversely striated with beautifully fine lines. These are
what our learned author regards as the organs of smell,
and he noted that they remained distinctly visible in a
specimen which he had had by him for more than fifteen
years.3
Hearing is perceptibly acute in some insects, and of
more doubtful existence in others. The frequent and va¬
rious sounds to which many species give utterance have
been adduced in proof of their being endowed with this*
perception ; for we cannot but suppose that the shrill voice
of the grasshopper, and the evening song of the cricket,
are subservient to some essential end, which they cannot Internal
well be if unheard by their blythe companions. The small Structure,
wood-devouring beetle called the death-tick (Anobium),
answers its neighbour’s call as regularly as a cock crows a
response to its pugnacious rival; and Derham, when he
kept these insects in captivity, by imitating their tiny call,
could make them click when he pleased. What is called
the voice in insects is usually produced by the friction of
certain hard and horny parts of the limbs upon some other
portion of the body of a like consistence. In others it is
effected by a rapid vibration of the wings; and a few
beetles seem to give utterance to a shrill and sometimes
plaintive cry by rubbing the terminal segments of the ab¬
domen against the curved points of the elytra. This
power of voice, as w e call it for want of a better name, is
often possessed by the males alone; and as it is used as
a call of love in spring and summer (most obviously so
among the Cicada;), we infer the sense of hearing in the
females of that family, and consequently in the class of in¬
sects.
Brunelli kept some large green grasshoppers (Acrida vi-
ridissima) in confinement. They used to sing all day in
a closet, but ceased when any one gave a rap upon the
door. He learned by degrees to imitate their chirping
call. At first a few of the boldest would answer him, and
then gradually the whole band would strike in and sing
with all their might. On one occasion he inclosed a male
in his garden, and gave the female her liberty; but no
sooner did the husband begin to solace his captivity with
a song than his quondam partner recognised the accus¬
tomed voice, and flew towards him without delay.4 In re¬
lation to this subject Dr Wollaston makes the following cu¬
rious observation. “ Since there is nothing in the consti¬
tution of the atmosphere to prevent vibrations much more
frequent than any of which we are conscious, we may ima¬
gine that animals like the Grylli, whose powers appear to
commence nearly where ours terminate, may have the fa¬
culty of hearing still sharper sounds, which at present we
do not know to exist; and that there may be other insects,
hearing nothing in common with us, but endued with a
power of exciting, and a sense that perceives, vibrations
indeed of the same nature as those which constitute our
ordinary sounds, but so remote that the animals who per¬
ceive them may be said to possess another sense, agreeing
w ith ours solely in the medium by which it is excited, and
possibly wholly unaffected by those slower vibrations of
which we are sensible.”5
The precise position, however, of the organ of hearing
in insects has not been determined with precision. In the
Crustacea it is found at the base of the large antennae;
and Latreille has satisfied himself of its existence in a
similar situation in an orthopterous insect called Gryllus
lineola. Mr Kirby is of opinion that the primary use of
the antenna; is to exercise a function analogous to that
of hearing, and Mr Rennie entertains a similar sentiment.
The sense of sight is too obvious in this class to require
demonstration. The eyes of insects are, however, of a
very different nature and construction from the exquisite¬
ly formed visual organs of the higher tribes. They con¬
sist of two kinds, the composite and the simple. The lat¬
ter, known under a certain form likewise by the name of
ocelli or stemmatic eyes (stemmatd), are sometimes wanting,
sometimes co-existent with the others.0
1 Comparative Anatomy, vol. ii. p. G87. 1 Nouvclks Observations sur let Abeillcs, t. ii. p. 375.
3 Introduction to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 254.
* Lehmann, De Sensibns Extcniis Animnliitm Exsangnium, 22. s Phil. Trans. 1820, p. 314.
6 What Messrs Kirby and Spence name conglomerate eyes do not essentially differ from simple eyes, collected together in a com-
pact bundle. They occur in Lqnsma, and many Myriapoda.
80
Internal The composite eyes generally form, as it ,
Structure, portions of the head. They are either entire, notched, or
^ >   even occasionally so completely divided by a little corneous
stalk, as to exhibit (for example in the genus Gynnus) the
appearance of a pair on either side. In other respects their
entomology.
, the lateral
(or upper ganglion), is either encompassed by a little eir-^ct^,
cular trachea, or traverses the fibres of the abductor mus- ^
This branch soon augments in
forms are extremely variable—their surfaces more or less
cle of the mandibles,
volume, and forms a kind of cone more or less extended,
of which the base is towards the transparent cornea. Nu-
convex. These compound eyes are com
of a hard and transparent membrane (softer in the dipte- ! ‘ ‘ r)C11etrate the lining of the cornea, and finally
rous tribes), which presents an infinity of sma lexag-ona on a facette 0f the transparent cornea, so
noil externallv merous nerves proceed from that base, mingle with the
W i the dinte- tracheee of the choroid, traverse both that membrane and
surfaces, disposed with the most exquisite regularity. This
peculiar structure prevails equally on the concave or intei -
nal, as on the convex or external surface. The structure and
composition of the eyes of insects have been caiefu ly stu¬
died and explained by Leeuwenhoeck, Swammerdam, Cu¬
vier, and more lately and laboriously by Marcel de Senes.
We shall here avail ourselves of the resume given by M.
Victor Audouin.1 In the eye of an insect we obseive,
\si, a cornea (convex in proportion to the carnivoious
habits of the species), transparent, hard, thickish, gene-
that the nervous filaments are thus immediately in contact
with the light, which reaches them after having traversed
only the last-named organ. This disposition of the ner¬
vous threads, which thus constitute as many small retinae as
there are facettes in the cornea of the eye, is very distin¬
guishable in Libellula, Truxalis, and Gryllus. The eyes
of insects, then, contain no humours properly so called,—
neither vitreous nor crystalline,—and vision is consequent¬
ly much more simple with them than with the vertebrated
Srencased i„‘a groove of the head, and exhibiting many tribes, in which the nerves are placed deeper in the eye.
thousmi^reguiarlf'dispi^ed, hexagonal each of and do not receive the rays of light till these have passed
ICh is i„ itself a neifect eve. These are sometimes so through media of different densities    
which is in itself a perfect eye
numerous that not fewer than 34,650 lenses have been
counted in the head of a butterfly, and the coleopteious ge¬
nus Dynastes of Macleay is supposed to be still more won¬
derfully and exuberantly supplied. 2d, An opaque, slight¬
ly liquid matter, variously coloured, frequently deep violet
or black, but sometimes red or green, tenaciously adhe¬
rent to the inner face of the cornea, and distinct from the
deep-black varnish of the choroid. _ It is by no means rare
to observe various colours united in the same eye, which
The simple or stemmatic eyes of insects are usually three
in number, and are placed on the crown of the head, be¬
tween the genuine organs of sight, from which their struc¬
ture differs. In spite of their extreme minuteness, Mar¬
cel de Serres has succeeded in detecting the following
component parts. 1st, A transparent cornea, formed by an
external membrane, hard, convex externally, and smooth,
that is, exhibiting no appearance of facettes. 2d, Of a va¬
riously-coloured matter, which lines the internal face of
then appears beautifully mottled, as in many species of the the cornea, but which is perhaps not essentially distinct
orthopterous, neuropterous, and dipterous orders. These from the varnish of the choroid. It varies in colour, be-
tints, however brilliant in the living state, speedily vanish ing almost always black in Hymenoptera, usually whitish
after death. They are always owing to this peculiar coat- in Orthoptera, and, in many caterpillars, yellow, red, oi
ing of the cornea, od, A true choroid, covered by a dark green, 'id, A kind of choroid, rather thick, more extend-
varnish, which may be regarded as a pigmentum nigrum, ed on the surface than the cornea itself, sometimes oi a
The lynx-eyed Swammerdam failed to distinguish this black colour, more frequently red, and occasionally of a
coating from that of the cornea; but, in the opinion of peculiar whitish hue. 4/A, Tracheae, which do not derive
Marcel de Serres, it is really different. The choroid and their origin from a circular air vessel, and do not, as it
its pigment do not always exist in insects. They are want¬
ing in the Blattce, and in all the lucifugous or light shun¬
ning species, such as those of the genera Blaps, Tencbrio,
and Pedinus. In these cases, it has been remarked that
the covering of the cornea is much deeper than usual. The
choroid membrane is fixed by its circumference to all the
margin of the cornea, of which it follows the contour, and
is intimately connected with the tracheae, which are there
so numerous. 4/A, Air vessels which play an important
part. They take their rise from larger trunks which are
situated in the head, and form around the eye a circular
trachea, which sends forth an infinity of branches, produ¬
cing by bifurcation a number of isosceles triangles. These
triangles, of which the base is outwards, are placed around
the optic cone, and receive, in each angular interval which
separates their summits, a nervous filament, which traver¬
ses the choroid, and reaches the external surface of the
covering of the cornea. The assemblage of tracheae and
nervous threads forms at the circumference of the eye a
were, constitute the choroid, but appear to be distributed
over its surface. 5/A, Nerves proceeding either directly
from the brain or upper ganglion, or from another more
considerable nerve or common trunk, according as these
simple eyes are separate from each other, as in perfect in¬
sects, or closely approached, as among larvae. In their pas¬
sage towards the eyes they are attached to the neighbour¬
ing parts by tracheae or air vesicles, and do not appear to
present any swelling ; they pass between the motive mus¬
cles of the different parts of the head, traverse the choroid
and its varnish, and expand upon the internal face of the
cornea, where they are surrounded by the layer of pig¬
ment belonging to that membrane. Thus, on examining
the simple or stemmatic eyes of insects, and proceeding
from the circumference to the centre, we meet with a
transparent cornea,—a pigment, which lines its inner face,—
the termination of the optic nerves,—the pigment of the
choroid, when distinct from that of the cornea,—and the
choroid itself, which frequently rests upon a large trachea.
peculiar kind of network, of which the aspect is beautiful The principal character of these simple eyes consists in
to look upon. The tracheae themselves are so abundant
on the choroid, that that membrane appears to be compos¬
ed of them ; and it may also be noted, that in those genera
in which the choroid is wanting, the circular trachea is
likewise absent.2 5/A, Nerves arise from a principal
this, that each is a single organ, whereas the composite
eyes, as the name implies, are formed by the union of
many. The one kind is most characteristic of the larva
state, the other of the perfect insect; but several orders,
even in the last-mentioned condition, possess both organs.
1 Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat. t. viii. p. 554.
’ Muller and others appear to entertain a different view from that given above. The subject is one of considerable complexity,
and our present limits prevent our entering into its .various and sometimes contradictory details. We refer the curious reader to a
series of papers on the visual organs of insects and Crustacea in the fourth volume of the Naturalist's Magazine.
£
ENTOMOLOGY. 81
- In' nal Thus, with few exceptions, the Orthoptera, Hemiptera,
•Stn jure. Hymenoptera, Neuroptera, and Diptera, possess both sim-
pie and compound eyes. Dr Carus however states that
the stemmata do not exist either in beetles or butterflies ;
a most erroneous opinion in regard to the latter, in which
they exist universally, although not always detected; and
incorrect as to the former, in several of which they have
been distinctly seen. They are visible in Gravenhorst’s
genus Omalium, or at least in some of the species d and Mr
Kirby found them very conspicuous in A. Caraboides, and
other Anthophagi. They are wanting in Strepsiptera, Derm-
aptera, and Aptera.
Although neither Linnaeus nor Fabricius, those great
masters in the science, gave any explanation of the uses of
the stemmata, there can be no doubt that Swammerdam
and Reaumur were correct in regarding them as genuine
eyes.1 2 The French wu-iter supposes that the compound
organs have the power of magnifying, and are used for sur¬
veying more distant objects, wrhile the simple ones possess
little of that power, and are employed on objects close at
hand. Blumenbach is also of opinion that the polyhedral
eyes are for viewing distant objects, and the simple ones
for such as are near.3 This is in some measure confirmed
by the fact, that while most insects in the perfect state
have large compound eyes, caterpillars and other larvae
have usually small myopic ones. On the other hand, the
Mole cricket (Gi'yllotalpa), a truly subterranean species,
is furnished with both kinds. Reaumur’s experiments on
the visual organs of bees are extremely important in rela¬
tion to our present subject. He smeared the compound
eyes with paint, when the insects, instead of directing their
flight towards the hive, ascended in the air till they were
lost to sight. He then treated the stemmatic eyes in the
1 same manner, and placing his patients near their hive,
they winged their way on all sides among the surrounding
flowers, but neither ascended into the air, nor flew far from
i home. From these experiments it has been supposed that
i the compound eyes are for horizontal sight, and the stem¬
matic for vertical.4 Spix imagines that what we call sim¬
ple eyes in insects are in fact olfactory organs.5 Nothing
i can be adduced in support of a theory so fantastical.
We shall conclude this branch of our subject by observ-
:j ing that some insects are supposed to be entirely destitute
of eyes. This is the case, according to Rudolphi,6 with
the coleopterous genus Claviger, in which there are cer¬
tainly no apparent eyes; and Marcel de Serres observes,
“ un assez grand nombre de larves a metamorphose com-
D plete n’ont point d’yeux du tout.”7
SECT. II.—THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM IN INSECTS.
Though insects respire air, they do not receive it, like the
] majority of vertebrated animals, through nostrils or other ori-
y flees in the head, but by means of numerous small openings
a along the sides of the body, and which lead not to lungs, but
- to a system of air vessels ramified ad ivjinitum through
e every part of the body. The respiratory organs of this
e class are composed of stigmata, trachea, and bronchia. The
i, first, called also spiracles or breathing pores, consist of
a small perforations of various forms, placed along the lateral
e portions of the body, and generally incased externally in a
f small corneous ring, though sometimes pierced in the mem-
3 brane which separates the dorsal from the ventral surface.
These stigmatic openings occur both on the thorax and
abdomen, and lead inwards to the tracheae. Their num-
1 Magazin der Entomologie,\v. 410.
2 See Biblia Naturce, i. 214; and Memoires, iv. 245.
3 Vertjl. Anatomic, p. 425.
4 Introduction to Entomology, iii. 505.
VOL. IX.
ber varies according to the species, and even in the same Internal
species according to the temporary condition of the indivi- Structure,
dual. They are wanting on the second and third segments v—
of the body of the larva; and as it is from these segments
that the wings are developed, M. de Blainville has been
induced, probably by that circumstance, to regard the or¬
gans of flight as reversed and expanded trachem. The
existence, however, of stigmatic openings on the thorax of
the perfect insect simultaneously with the wings, militates
against this theory ; for if these parts were convertible,
would they not be likewise each exclusive of the other ?
Parallel with the sides of the body of most insects, and
extending its whole length, run two cylindrical tubes, which
communicate with the spiracles, and give issue, at points
opposite to those organs, to other tubes, the ramifications
of which are distributed over all the membranes, penetrate
the muscles, and pervade even the legs and wings. They
also envelope the dorsal vessel and digestive organs, and
demonstrate that the ultimate aim of respiration is assimi¬
lation, or the increase and reproduction of organic mole¬
cules, by the decomposition of food. The first of these
tubes are called the tracheae, the latter the bronchiae.
This structure, however, cannot be regarded as universal,
as in many of the lamellicorn beetles the bronchiae spring
directly from the spiracles, the interior mouth of w hich is
lined by a membrane from which they proceed.8 But a
volume would scarcely suffice to describe the beautifully
varied features of the respiratory system in insects. Among
those tribes especially w hich pass their early stages under
water, the changes in form and position in these organs
cannot be sufficiently admired. Several common species
of gnat, the larvae of which abound during the summer
season in all our ponds and marshes, will afford a familiar
illustration. When one of these is examined, a singular
tunnel-shaped organ, terminating in a radiated point like a
star, will be perceived, forming an angle with the penulti¬
mate segment of the body. In the interior of this organ
is a tube, wdiich conveys the air to the tracheae, and com¬
municates with the atmosphere by means of several perfo¬
rations in the centre of the star. The diverging rays of
the star suspend the animal at the surface of the water,
with its head downwards, till it wishes to descend. It has
no sooner assumed the pupa state, than the respiratory
tail disappears, and the insect (still an inhabitant of the
water) then breathes through twro projecting horns, each
resembling a little cornucopia, which proceed from the
upper part of the trunk. Ere long the skin of the pupa
bursts asunder, and the perfect gnat, or winged insect,
makes its appearance, with neither caudal nor thoracic ap¬
pendages, but breathing by means of numerous lateral
pores (the stigmata above mentioned), after the usual man¬
ner. The rat-tailed worm in this respect is still more ex¬
traordinary. In the larva state it breathes through a tail
formed of retractile tubes, like a telescope, and capable of
being extended many times the length of the body. This
also terminates in a star-like process, which, when viewed
in a strong light, forms a perceptible dimple on the surface
of the water ; and as the body of the insect lies in the mud
below, the tail is contracted or extended according to the
varying depth of its stagnant habitation. On assuming
the pupa state, in which it is no longer an aquatic animal,
the respiratory tail is cast off*, and its function performed
by four horns, which spring from the upper part of the
thorax. It afterwards becomes one of those bee-like flies
so remarkable for the rapid vibratory movement of their
* Cephalogenesis, p. 57.
6 Physiologic, ii. 154.
7 Mem. sur les 'Yetix composes etles Yeux litses
8 Introd. to Ent. vol. iv. p. 61.
L
82
entomology.
Internal wines, by which, during calm sunshine, they are often seen
Structure, suspemded in the air like hawks, without any perceptibk
  —' motion. In this last stage respiration is carried on h> s\
racles or breathing-pores.
SECT. III.—THE DORSAL VESSEL, OR SUPPOSED CIRCULATING
SYSTEM, OF INSECTS.
We shall next endeavour to explain the construction
and physiological uses of the organ known by the name of
dUThe]ZtLry use of the heart of animals is the elabora¬
tion of the nutritive fluid by which the general system i
strengthened and sustained; its secondary use is to effect
the circulation of that fluid, a process by which important
changes are produced in its nature or attributes. Ihe
dorsal vessel, which corresponds to the heart in insects,
certainly effects the primary purpose; its performance of
the secondary one is, as we shall see, a matter of grea
When an insect is dissected with due precaution from
its inferior surface, and we remove the nervous system,
which first presents itself, and then the intestines and other
viscera, we shall observe running along the back, a pecu¬
liar vessel, of which the most obvious powers are those of
contraction and dilatation. It is of a cylindrical form,
narrowed at either end, and extends from the head to the
anal extremity. This constitutes the heart, frequently so
called, of the class of insects. A closer examination shows
that it is composed of two membranes, one internal ant
muscular, the other external and cellular, and pervaded
by a close interlacement of trachea; or air-vessels. When
opened, its interior presents a transparent coagulable li¬
quid, which dries rapidly, and then exhibits the aspect of
oum, of a colour seldom deeply defined, but sometimes
greenish, orange yellow, or sombre brown. Masses of fat
frequently surround this vessel, and partake of the tint by
which it is pervaded. If, as Marcel de Serres has noted,
the dorsal vessel (for so this organ is often named) were a
genuine heart, or centre of a circulating system, it would
be necessarily open at one or other of its extremities, and
would present vascular ramifications in certain points of its
extent. But, according to the minute and laborious inves¬
tigations of the last-named author, no such openings are
observable. The same view was taken by Swammerdam ;
and Lyonnet, so unrivalled in his examination of the struc¬
ture of insects, was foiled in his attempts to demonstrate
the ramifications of the dorsal vessel. Comparetti no doubt
took another view of the subject; and if the assurance of
his readers was equal to his own, less suspicion would exist
of the possibility of his having mistaken biliary for san-
-guineous vessels.
Anatomists, however, are greatly divided in opinion re¬
garding the essential nature of this organ. It has been
dissected and injected by Marcel de Serres in a variety of
species ; but in none could he discover its divisions or ra¬
mifications. Even when he removed it entirely from the
insect, no drop of the liquid which it contained was ob¬
served to escape, which he thinks it must have done on
the cutting away of open vessels during dissection, had
these existed. The heating of this dorsal vessel was not
explicable, otherwise than by the contraction of its tissue,
or the movement of the fluid which it contained; and such
movement was not itself conceivable except in the case of
circulation, which the alleged closure and non-division of
the organ forbade us to suppose. Its contractions also
appeared irregular, and scarcely ever isochronic; that is,
the same number of pulsatiotis, if they may be so called,
did not take place in an equal time. They varied singu¬
larly in different species. Thirty-six per minute were
counted in the caterpillar of the/Wts Major eighty- Intend
two at least in grasshoppers, and a hundred and forty in htrurtwe
one of the ground bees. While endeavouring to discover
the cause of these contractions, Marcel de Serres came to
the conclusion that they bore a relation, 1st, to the quan¬
tity of adipose tissue by which they were surrounded;
2dly, to the energy of the muscular fibres which were in¬
serted on the vessel, and were the means of fixing it to the
rings of the abdomen; 3dly, to the number of tracheae or
air conduits by which it was supplied. He was not of opi¬
nion that the nerves exercised any strongly marked influ¬
ence on these contractions, although we know that special
nerves are directed to the dorsal vessel. The fact, how¬
ever, which he deemed the most clearly established, was
the influential action of the muscles. When any of these
were removed, the pulsations became less frequent, on
a farther removal they still diminished; and when the
muscles were almost all withdrawn, the pulsations ceased.
The appropriate function of this disputed organ, according
to the last-named author, is the secretion of fat. Baron
Cuvier also denies to it the character of a genuine heart.
Meckel and Herold, on the other hand, regard the dorsal
vessel as a heart, and they conceive that the use of its^
movement is to agitate the fluid contained in the cavity of
the insect’s body ; but they do not admit the existence of
posterior or anterior openings for the reception or rejec¬
tion of that fluid. It is long since Lyonnet informed us
that it contained a gummy matter of an orange colour; and
some recent observations have led Latreille to admit the
existence of certain very minute accessory vessels. In ad¬
dition, however, to the fact that this circulation must be
extremely partial, insects would still greatly differ in that
respect from the Crustacea, inasmuch as the blood does not
return to the heart. Herold is of opinion that the trian¬
gular muscles of the dorsal vessel serve for its dilatation,
while the systole movements are effected by the muscular
fibres, which form the proper tunic. Straus is also of opi¬
nion that the dorsal vessel is the true heart in the class of
insects, and that it serves, as in the higher animals, as the
motive organ of the blood, which, however, instead of
being contained in vessels, permeates in the general cavity
of the body. According to his views, it terminates ante¬
riorly by a single unramified artery, which conveys the
blood to the head, where it pours it out, and from whence
it returns again to the abdomen, to re-enter the dorsal ves¬
sel. He thus limits the circulating system of insects to a
single artery without branches (there are not any veins);
and he combats the sentiments of Herold regarding the
muscular nature of the wings of the heart, which, he main¬
tains, are only simple fibrous ligaments, by which it is main¬
tained in its proper place. The heart itself, that is, the ab¬
dominal portion of the vessel, he describes as divided inte¬
riorly into eight successive chambers (as in the common
cockchafer, Melolontha vulgaris), separated from each other
by two convergent valvules, which permit the transmission
of the blood or circulating fluid from behind forwards, and
from one chamber to another, up to the artery which con¬
ducts it to the head, but prevent its retrograde motion.
Towards the lateral and anterior portion of each chamber
are two transverse fissures, which communicate with the
abdominal cavity, and through which the blood contained
in the latter enters the heart. Each of these apertures is
provided internally with a little semicircular valve, which
presses on it during the systole of the organ. When the
posterior chamber dilates, the fluid contained in the abdo¬
minal cavity penetrates into it by the transverse fissures,
called auriculo-ventriculaires by M. Straus. When the
chamber contracts, the blood, unable to return into the
abdominal cavity, forces the *«fer-ventricular valve, and
passes into the second chamber, which dilates to receive it,
E N T O M
L,
> Int fial along with an additional quantity which enters by the true
^Stru are. auriculo-ventricular openings. The second chamber then
contracts in a similar manner, and forces the fluid into the
third, which at the same time also receives a supply from
the lateral openings; and thus the blood is forced from
one chamber to another by successive contractions, till it
reaches the artery. These are said to constitute the move¬
ments so distinctly perceptible through the dorsal skin of
many caterpillars.
Mr Bowerbank has recently published some observations
on the circulation of the blood in insects.1 The instance
detailed was that of the larva of an Ephemera {E. margi-
natd). In fixing the insect for examination (under water),
especial care must be taken not to compress the body, which
impedes or interrupts the circulation of the lateral vessels,
and that of the tail, legs, and antennae. When the larva
is fixed, with its dorsal aspect towards the observer, a
truly beautiful sight is said to present itself. The blood,
abounding in flattened oat-shaped particles, will be seen
circulating in every part of the body, not in a continuous
stream, but at regular points, in accordance with the pul¬
sations of the great dorsal vessel. The latter, which is of
great comparative magnitude, extends nearly the whole
length of the body, and is furnished at regular intervals
' with double valves, nearly equal in amount to the segments
of the body. Both above and below each of these sets of
valves there is a pair of irregular-looking appendages, which
are probably nervous ganglions, auxiliary to the motions of
the vessel, but so extremely translucent as to be scarcely
definable in their form, even through the medium of the
highest power which we can apply. The action of the
valves is singularly interesting. While in their greatest
state of collapse, the point of the lower valve is seen close¬
ly compressed within the \ipper one. At the commence¬
ment of the expansion of the artery, the blood is seen
flowing in from the lateral aperture, and at the same time
j. I the stream in the artery commences its ascent. When it
has nearly attained its greatest state of expansion, the sides
j. ; of the lower valve are forced upwards by the increased flow
of the blood from the section below the valve, the lateral
openings are closed, and the main current of the blood is
projected through the two valves. The structure of the
upper valve appears to consist of a duplication inwards and
upwards of the inner coat of the artery ; that of the under,
of a contraction and projection of the like parts of a por¬
tion of the artery beneath, so as to come within the grasp
of the lower part of the valve above it. The exterior por¬
tion or continuation of the artery is perceptible in the form
of an exceedingly fine and transparent membrane. The
so-called blood does not appear to be confined within any
specific vessels prior to its entering the lateral openings
just mentioned, because, as soon as they expand, the par¬
ticles are seen converging towards them. The whole of
r l the fluid received throughout the course of the dorsal ves¬
sel is conveyed to the extremity of the anterior part of the
body, where the vessel makes a curve inwards, and is lost
to view. To all appearance the main current of the blood
is now discharged into the cavity of the body, as it is seen
pursuing its course downwards in a wide-spreading stream
on each side, and beneath the dorsal vessel. As it de¬
scends, portions are again absorbed by the valves of the
l,s large vessel, while at the same time smaller vessels pass
down each side of the body, and convey another portion
of blood to the lower extremity. These lesser vessels have
perceptible boundaries, and are certainly not portions of
the great abdominal cavity. They communicate at each
junction of the segments of the body with that cavity, as a
O L O G Y. ' 83
part of the fluid they convey is discharged at those points, Internal
to supply the place of what is absorbed by the valves of Structure,
the dorsal vessel, into the lower end of which they empty
their contents. In the caudal extremity the ascending and
descending vessels ai’e seen, like vein and artery, to accom¬
pany each other, and at the same moment that the fluid
passes up the one with the usual pulsatory motion, it de¬
scends the other. There is, however, no perceptible pul¬
sation of these minuter vessels themselves, and the motion
of their fluids therefore results from the action of the
great dorsal heart.
“ Next to the larvae of the Ephemera marginata,” Mr
Bowerbank observes, “ the larvae of Agrion afford the best
view of the blood and its circulation. In all the species of
these larvae I have yet examined, I have found it as near¬
ly similar as possible in appearance to that which we ob¬
serve in the Ephemera, and in some instances it has afford¬
ed even more satisfactory results. The head of this larva is
much more transparent than that of the larva of the Ephe¬
mera ; we therefore have a better view of the circulation of
the blood in the head of this insect than can possibly be ob¬
tained in the other. In this object the blood is seen rushing
like a beautiful intermittent fountain towards the mouth,
and dividing right and left into two jets, a portion of each of
which flows within a given boundary past the back of the eye,
whilst the remainder winds its way through other channels,
deep in the side of the head, and returns again into the body.
The antennae of this insect also afford another beautiful
instance of the circulation being carried forward within
well-defined vessels. They are each composed of six
joints, up four of which the blood is seen to take its course ;
and turning round the extremity of the fourth joint, it re¬
turns by a distinct vessel into the head. In the leg, like¬
wise, the circulating fluid and its vessels are clearly and
distinctly to be traced, even to the very extremity of the
tarsus, where, as in the antennae, the particles of the blood
are seen to descend on the one side of the leg, and, turn¬
ing the extreme point, to return up the contrary side to
the one by which they come down. I regret much that I
have not yet had an opportunity of examining the Ephe¬
mera in its perfect state ; but in two species of Culex, one
of which was first observed and brought to me by my friend
Mr Tulley, I have seen the great dorsal vessel performing
its functions in a manner similar in every respect to its ap¬
pearance in the larvae of Ephemera, Agrion, &c. &c.; but,
from the body of the fly being more opaque than that of
the larvae, and nearly covered with its striated scales, neither
the valves nor the particles of the blood could be detect¬
ed. On another occasion, after having carefully cleared
the wings of Phlogophora meticulosa of their coloured
scales, both Mr Samouelle and myself clearly saw a fluid
pass down the side of one of the principal ribs of the wing.
We may therefore, I think, fairly conclude, that the circu¬
lation is carried forward in the perfect insect as well as in
the larva, although, perhaps, not with so much vigour as
when young and growing.”2
The writer whose observations we have just quoted, in¬
clines to the opinion that a much greater portion of the
circulation than we can clearly define is carried on within
special vessels, as the blood may be frequently seen flow¬
ing in curved and other lines, as if confined within very
narrow limits. These streams, however, are generally so
deeply seated amidst the muscles and intestines as totally
to prevent their boundaries from being clearly seen. The
blood itself is in fact a perfectly colourless and transparent
fluid, rendered visible only by its containing a number of
oat-shaped particles; and even the great dorsal vessel can-
id
it,
1 Entomological Magazine, No. III. p. 239.
2 Ibid. p. 242.
84 entomology.
^“sSSSsSraS feria&a-^JSKr-B^
5
plates in that of man, namely, that the former, in common
with the latter, assume a globular form immediately on com¬
ing into contact with water.1
The reader will be able to judge, from the preceding
notices, of the diversified opinions still entertained regard¬
ing the circulation of the blood in insects. We shall con¬
clude with a short account of Dr Carus’s observations,
which many consider as the first of a satisfactory and con¬
clusive nature on the subject. Mr Spence, the accomplish
duction or development of the newly acquired organs,
is rendered the more probable when we consider that, dur¬
ing the intermediate or nympha state, the insect abstains
from food, and is therefore necessarily dependent on some
internal reservoir. It is analogous, in fact, to the store ot
fat which is known to pervade the system of hybernating
animals before they consign themselves to their winter
sleep.
In regard to the nutrition of insects, our opinions must
be in a measure regulated by the sentiments which we may
the advantage^ at a adopt „ to the functional uses of the dorsal vessel
eu cuaujutui x jj . »    * nHcprvp. that, in all the burner amma
We
pretty" recent period^ of witnessing some of the most strik- need scarcely observe, that in all the higher animals, and
ing facts on which the Dresden physician rests his views,
transmitted an account of them to an English periodical.
“ The first insect,” he observes, “ to which Dr Carus di¬
rected my attention was the larva of Ephemera vulgata (or
an allied species), in which, near to the branchiae, and pa¬
rallel with each side of the body, was very distinctly visible
in most of the invertebrated tribes, nutrition is effected
through the medium of the blood, which, propelled by the
heart, circulates through the entire system, and reaches
every organ, after having been submitted to the action ot
the air in lungs or gills. Cuvier thinks it is carried on
among insects by imbibition. The alimentary canal ela-
a constant current, towards the tail, of oblong globules, borates a fluid which transudes through its coats, and flows
swimming in a transparent fluid, propelled with a regular into the cavity of the body. Ihere the various organs
v .. ^ 4-V*^ KrvrUr rv{* flvo Iqwq ftiirh ns thp miisplps. the ner
nulsatino- motion ; and in cutting the body of the larva such as the muscles, the nerves, and many secreting ves-
1 & .v  Sels, absorb from that fluid nutriment, whatever molecules
across, near the tail, these globules were most plainly seen , , . ^ ,
pushed out of the divided vessels in a distinct mass, which are best adapted to their purposes. 1 hose who look upon
increased at each pulsation. I cannot express the plea- the dorsal vessel as a true heart, which dispenses a circu-
sure which it gave me to see thus clearly this ocular de- kiting fluid to the remotest ramifications of the wings and
monstration of one of the most important physiological dis- tarsi, will place less confidence in this particular view,
coveries of modern times ; and my gratification was height- However, it is certain that the secreting vessels are cha¬
ined by the next object which Dr Carus placed before his racterized by a structure entirely appropriate to the func-
microscope, viz. a specimen of Semblis viridis, in which tions which we have just assigned them, their surface
precisely the same phenomena, but if possible more clear- being obviously furnished with numerous pores or small
lv, were seen in the nervures of the wings, and in the an- absorbent mouths.
• 1 .1 !• 1. vl-   . 4.  ™4-
SECT. V THE DIGESTIVE SYSTEM OF INSECTS.
tennse, in both which the constant current of globules
was most apparent; and in the former, the sudden turning
of these globules at the apex of the wing, out of the exte¬
rior nervure, into a central one, with which it joins and The digestive system in insects naturally forms the next
forms an acute angle, was equally curious and striking, subject of consideration. The earliest, most general, and
On cutting off the end of the antennae, precisely the same perhaps the only indispensable function of animal life, is
emission of globules (which soon assume a greenish tint) that of nutrition. But its materials are so different, and
took place as in the former case, forming a mass which
was increased with a sudden gush at each pulsation.”2 The
chief point to be attended to in the manipulation of these
microscopic experiments, is to place the specimens on the
their modes of reception so various, that the exercise of
this function by no means necessitates the existence of a
mouth, a stomach, or an alimentary canal; for an increase
of parts may be effected even through the medium of im-
slip of glass, in a drop of pretty thick gum water, which ponderable or elastic fluids, and by imperceptible and super¬
confines their too agile movements, without affecting the
transparency of the medium
SECT. IV OF THE ADIPOSE TISSUE OF INSECTS.
Insects are abundantly supplied with an adipose sub¬
stance or fatty matter, which may be mentioned in this
place with the more propriety, as many consider it a secretion
ficial pores.3 The digestive organs of insects are however
in general rather complicated, and a great variety of parts
are brought into action. The more external portions, or
those of the mouth, have been already described. We
shall therefore at present confine our observations to the
different portions of the intestinal canal, and the biliary and
salivary vessels,.
It is natural to suppose that, in a class so extensive and
from the dorsal vessel. It is spread over the viscera and varied as that with w hich we are now engaged, a correspond-
in the splanchnic cavities ; and although its aspect varies, it ing diversity must exist in the form, development, and
seems to consist essentially of membranous woofs, in some number of the parts which constitute the intestinal canal,
cases divided in shreds, in others spread over the intes- It is alw’ays, however, so far tubular, and open at either
tines and against the sides of the abdomen, and containing end \ but in some it is straight and of the length of the
pouches filled with a homogeneous pulpy matter, sometimes body ; in others it is bent and longer than the bo^y; while
in an oily condition, and offering all the characters of in many it is tortuous, or twisted on itself in numerous con-
grease. Much more of it is observable among larvae than volutions, and consequently of great extent. In general,
in perfect insects, and this observation leads us to a know- its length corresponds in a certain measure with the nature
1 EntomologicafMagazine, p. 244.
2 Magazine of Natural History, vol. iii. p. 4G. See also the German memoir by Dr Carus on the circulation of the larva; of neu-
ropterous insects (Leipsig, ltJ27). I he English reader may consult Mr Gore’s translation of Carus’s Introduction to Comparative Ana¬
tomy, appendix to vol. ii. p. 392. * y0l. m. 0f this work, p. 183. *
ENTOMOLOGY.
Ii! rnal of the aliments; such insects as feed on vegetable matters
Sta ture, having a longer, and such as feed on animal substances a
w' shorter canal. In some it is of equal diameter throughout;
in others the breadth of special portions varies; and there
are many dilatations and restrictions, known by various
names. It even differs greatly in the same species, accord¬
ing as the individual exists in the larva or imago state.
The texture of the intestinal canal in insects is not the
same in all parts of its extent; but on a careful examina¬
tion it is found to exhibit throughout three tunics, more or
less distinctly marked. Of these, the first is external, with
a membranous aspect; the second is of course intermediate
and muscular, with its fibres diversely directed; the third
is internal and mucous. In its more complicated state it
exhibits the following parts: Is#, a pharynx ; 2d, an oeso¬
phagus ; 3rf, a crop ; 4#/«, a gizzard; bth, a chylijic ventri¬
cle; Qth, intestines, which may be considered in subdivi¬
sion as the small intestines, the great intestine or caecum,
and the rectum. The following may be regarded as the
usual process of transmission. The mouth, having seized
and chewed the food, transmits it to the pharynx, into
which salivary vessels sometimes open. It then passes into
the oesophagus (of which the muscular nature occasionally
produces by its action a peculiar impression), and is next
transmitted to the crop, which converts it into a homoge¬
neous pulp. This is introduced into the gizzard, of which
the sides, being armed with teeth, complete its trituration.
In the form of a kind of paste it is now received by the
chylific ventricle, where it undergoes the action of the bile,
is converted into chyle, and thus supplies the nutritive
fluid, which, passing through the coats of the ventricle,
spreads over the splanchnic cavity, and pervades the whole
of the organs. The residue is received by the small intes¬
tine, then by the great intestine, in which it remains for
some time, and finally by the rectum.
The pharynx, which is sometimes rather difficult to dis¬
tinguish as a distinct feature, is placed at the bottom of
the mouth, and may be regarded as an anterior dilatation
of the oesophagus. Two pieces, very apparent in certain
Hymenoptera, called the epipharynx and the hypopharynx,
seem to restrict and protect its entrance.
The oesophagus is a conduit varying in length, which
traverses the prothorax, and sometimes extends beyond it;
but it is occasionally so short as scarcely to pass beyond
the region of the head. Its structure is musculo-membra-
nous, and it opens into the crop, or, if that part is wanting,
into the gizzard, or, if the latter is also absent, into the
chylific ventricle. It is around the origin of the oesopha¬
gus that the nervous system, as formerly described, con¬
stitutes a ring, by sending forth two branches which unite
on the inferior face of the body.
The crop, which is by some called the stomach, is essen¬
tially nothing more than a dilatation of the oesophagus. It
I is often difficult to detect, is sometimes entirely wanting,
and may be observed to vary greatly even in two indivi¬
duals of the same species. Exteriorly it does not differ
much from the gizzard, but its interior never presents those
corneous pieces which in the latter serve the purposes of
trituration. Its position bears some analogy to that of the
crop of birds, from which circumstance it has probably
derived its name. Its texture is simply membranous, or
slightly muscular when its development is considerable,
and in that case it is not rare to observe certain folds or
fleshy columns and deeper lines, which give it something
of a ribbed appearance. These folds, prolonged in the in¬
terior, frequently constitute a kind of valve. It is in this
crop that bees contain their honey prior to their disgorg¬
ing it, and it likewise serves as the reservoir of that black
and often fetid fluid which many insects allow to flow from
their mouths when they are seized. The form of the crop
85
differs in the various species; and even in individuals of Internal
the same species, according to its state of repletion or va- Structure,
cuity, it assumes an ovoid, rounded, or pear-shaped appear-
ance. In some orders of insects it is greatly developed,
and very muscular; and in certain cases, instead of lying in
the same direction with the intestinal canal, it forms with
it an angle more or less acute, thus constituting a lateral
pouch varying in extent and form.
The gizzard follows the crop. Its existence is not con¬
stant, and its essential character consists in its singular in¬
ternal structure, which is furnished with moveable portions
of a horny texture, provided with ridges or bristles point¬
ed in all directions, in the form of combs or brushes. The
principal portions are more or less numerous, and form by
their union a kind of valvule at the orifice of the chylific
ventricle, into which they permit nothing to enter but what
has been previously reduced to a state of tenuity. This very
singular triturating machine, as we may call it, exists among
both the herbivorous and carnivorous kinds. It recalls to
mind the aspect of the stomach among the crustaceous
tribes. Externally it greatly resembles the crop, and in¬
deed can scarcely be distinguished from it otherwise than
by its internal structure.
The chylific ventricle, which corresponds to the part
named duodenum by Marcel de Serres, and stomach by
Ramdhor, is a very constant organ among insects, although
its form and character are extremely various. It is here
that the pulpy food, mixed with specially elaborated fluids,
is converted into chyle. One of its most constant charac¬
ters is the insertion on a kind of circular pad more or less
developed, of at least one extremity of the biliary vessels.
Its texture is soft and delicate, and capable of varying its
capacity by extension. Its form is generally cylindrical,
although it sometimes undergoes dilatations and restric¬
tions in its course. In some rare instances, detailed by
M. Dufour, it is bilobed or bifurcated at its commence¬
ment, the preceding part of the alimentary canal being in¬
serted in the angle of the furcation. It presents several »
other occasional and very curious characters, but it is in
general straight, and but rarely exhibits a limited number
of convolutions. It is not garnished interiorly with tritu¬
rating organs, either muscular or corneous; but it is fur¬
nished with a valvule at the point of union with the intes¬
tine. One of its most curious characters consists in its
being sometimes villous on the surface, that is, covered by
a quantity of little tubes, named villosities by Cuvier, and
papillce by Dufour. These are a species of tubes or purses,
somewhat resembling the fingers of a glove, and opening
into the ventricle. Their functional uses are differently
construed by physiologists. Cuvier inclines to think that
they draw from the abdominal cavity a gastric fluid, which
they pour into the ventricle to aid digestion. Marcel de
Serres partakes of the same opinion, and regards these pa¬
pillae as the superior hepatic vessels. Dufour, however,
does not consider them as analogous to the biliary vessels,
but as culs-de-sac, which receive the alimentary fluid, and,
after its conversion into chyle, transmit it to the abdominal
cavity. That able anatomist has recognised in their inte¬
rior a brownish matter, quite analogous to what is contain¬
ed in the ventricle itself. They do not differ greatly as
to form, but a great variation occurs in regard to number
and disposition. Sometimes they exist in great numbers
throughout the whole extent of the ventricle, sometimes
they are fewer in number, and confined to a limited por¬
tion. Insects belonging to the orthopterous order have
but few of these papillae, but they are greatly developed,
and inserted on the anterior part. In other instances the
papillae are entirely absent; and the ventricle is then smooth,
or occasionally exhibits depressed lines, which divide it
transversely into so many little bands. The presence of
86
entomology
Internal these papillae cannot be regarded as a constant character i
Structure. anY group, for we find them absent or present in diltere
insects of the same family, without any known or assign¬
able cause. They occur indiscriminately among carnivo¬
rous and herbivorous species ; but it is among the coleopte¬
rous tribes that they show themselves most frequently, ana
under the most characteristic forms.
The intestines constitute an extended portion, of the ca¬
nal. They receive the alimentary matters after they have
been digested in the chylific ventricle, and extract by their
action whatever nutriment remains. Their absorbent pow¬
ers, however, as alimentary organs, are probably confined
chiefly to their upper portion. They consist of a small in¬
testine, a great intestine, and a rectum. The small intestine
of course proceeds from the ventricle, and is in general
narrow, with an equal diameter throughout, although it is
sometimes swollen or pursed in the course of its extent.
It is of various length, and makes numerous circumvolu¬
tions in the interior of the abdomen, after which it borders
with the great intestine. The latter, called also the cmcum,
consists of a swelling or enlargement, usually ovoid and
smooth, but not unfrequently also covered by plaits and
little muscular rib-like bands, more or less projecting. It
is dilatable, and in some cases is swollen beyond measure,
especially among certain aquatic tribes, such as the Dytisci.
In these, as detected by the skilful eye of M. Dufour, the
caecum is no longer placed in the direction of the intestinal
canal, but is thrown to one side, and furnished with a ver¬
micular appendix, spirally twisted. It becomes inflated
with air at the will of the insect, and thus seems to act the
part of a swimming bladder. Other modifications of this
organ have likewise been observed, into the detail of which
we shall not here enter. The rectum is a muscular tube,
in general of no great extent.
We shall next devote a few lines to the biliary vessels.
That peculiar fluid called bile seems equally indispensable
to the digestion of insects as to that of the higher animals,
but the organ which secretes it is very different. In the
former class it has no longer the appearance of a gland,
but consists of more or less numerous vessels, of variable
length, fixed for the most part by a single extremity, but
not unfrequently by both ends, to the intestinal canal, and
floating as it were in the abdominal cavity. These vessels
are often rolled on themselves, and interlaced by numerous
tracheae and slender nervous filaments. They are never
wanting in insects, and they exist equally in the larva state
as in the perfect condition. They are delicate tubes, com¬
posed of a thin and pellucid membrane, on which certain
transverse foldings produce a somewhat varicose appear¬
ance. They contain a liquid, sometimes limpid and colour¬
less, but usually varying from yellow to brown. It is bit¬
ter, and exhibits all the characteristics of bile. The ves¬
sels themselves vary in amount from two, four, six, to an
almost countless number. Their mode of insertion exhi¬
bits some remarkable variations, which however may be re¬
duced to two great divisions : Isf, where the insertion takes
place upon the ventricle alone; 2c?, where it takes place
upon the caecum likewise. The first of these divisions of¬
fers two classes; sometimes the vessels are inserted only
by one extremity, while the other is free or floating ; some¬
times they are fixed by both ends, and form so many arch¬
es. In the latter case they are few in number, and each
arch may be regarded either as a vessel strongly curved
towards the two points of insertion, or may be looked upon
as composed of two vessels exactly anastomosed at their Metamot.
extremities. A coleopterous insect belonging to the genus ph<m
Donacia, described by M. Dufour, was observed to possess
a ventricle provided at once with arched vessels and with
such as were free at their extremity. Such a combination
connects, as it were, the characters which principally dis¬
tinguish the first great division.. The second great divi¬
sion above alluded to never presents us with any vessels
that are free or unattached at one extremity. They form a
complete arch from the ventricle to the caecum, and scarce¬
ly present any particular character, except that theii num¬
ber is always restricted. The insertions on the ventricle
are always more distinct than those on the caecum; the lat¬
ter being rarely isolated, but usually uniting into a smaller
number of common branches, and sometimes into one.
q'})^ salivary vessels consist of floating tubes, which open
about the pharynx, and furnish a liquid to assist in deglu¬
tition. They are sometimes wanting or imperceptible, and
are more general, as well as more highly developed, among
the suctorial than the masticating tribes. The receptacles
which supply the silk used by spinning caterpillars, are by
many regarded as analogous to salivary glands, as are like¬
wise the organs which furnish the venomous fluid in the
mouths of Scolopendrae.1
CHAPTER IV.
THE METAMORPHOSES OF INSECTS.
As frequent reference is made, in the course of this trea¬
tise, to the metamorphoses of insects, we shall here endea¬
vour to explain in what these essentially consist. “ Were
a naturalist,” observe Messrs Kirby and Spence, “ to an¬
nounce to the world the discovery of an animal, which for
the first five years of its life existed in the form of a ser¬
pent ; which then penetrating into the earth, and weaving
a shroud of pure silk of the finest texture, contracted itself
within this covering into a body without external mouth or
limbs, and resembling more than any thing else an Egyp¬
tian mummy; and which, lastly, after remaining in this
state without food and without motion for three years
longer, should at the end of that period burst its silken case¬
ments, struggle through its earthy covering, and start into
day a winged bird,—what think you would be the sensa¬
tion excited by this strange piece of intelligence ?” Yet
the difference which exists between the sometimes repul¬
sive aspect of a creeping caterpillar, and the consummate
beauty of the gorgeous butterfly to which it gives exist¬
ence, is as remarkable as any supposable change from one
form of animal life to another.
Although the ancients appear to have been aware that
many insects, such as butterflies, bees, and beetles, pro¬
ceeded from eggs, and underwent those changes which we
name metamorphosis; yet, very shortly before the time of
Redi, Swammerdam, Malpighi, and Leeuwenhoeck, to whom
we owe so much of our present knowledge, Mouffet, who
has been called the father of entomology, mistook the aqua¬
tic larvae of Libellulae for creatures entirely distinct from
the perfect insects, and named them Water Locusts ! The
error was excusable, and has no doubt often been repeated
in corresponding cases ; for how many are ignorant, even
at the present day, that the slender red-coloured wriggling
worm, which is so often seen in collections of rain water,
1 Whoever inclines to enter fully into these subjects, will find in Messrs Kirby and Spence’s Introduction to Entomology, not only a
very ample and able account of the structure and functions of the various organs of insects, but also such references to the best in¬
formed writers, as will unfold a wide field for further study and reflection. See also Entomologia Edinemis (Introduction); the
article Inscctes in the Diet. Classiquc d'Histoire Naturelle, t. viii.; and M. Dufour’s papers on Insect Anatomy, in the Annules det
Sciences Nat.
E N T O M
t Mef_nor-is the larva state of a clear-winged and elegantly formed
pb. -'s. fly, furnished with feathered antennae and long slender
, iimbs, the Chironomus plumosus ? How entirely dissimilar
is the hairy caterpillar, which we frequently observe cross¬
ing our foot-path in country lanes, from the richly attired
tiger-moth which it eventually becomes ? Many examples
of a similar nature will probably occur even to the least
.instructed reader.
The word metamorphosis seems to have passed origi¬
nally from a mythological meaning to a term in natural
science. We had deemed it an ancient phrase, till we were
informed by Mr Kirby that /asto/m^ow, and its derivative
(Mra/AogtpciKiis, are not extant in any Greek-writer before the
date of the New Testament. They are used to express
any external change of form or colour, and metaphorically
any inward change and progressive improvement of the
mind. The word metamorphosis, as applied to insects, is
in fact synonymous with the more familiar term transfor¬
mation, although, speaking strictly in relation to physiology,
the changes indicated by these expressions should rather
be regarded as a series of developments.
All insects proceed from eggs either previously depo¬
sited by the female parent, or, as in the case of the so-
called viviporous (strictly ovo-viviporous) kinds, hatched
within the body of the mother. Their first active condi¬
tion is that of larva, which, according to the views of
Swammerdam, contains within itself the germ of the future
perfect insect, and those various envelopes, each of which,
successively developed, becomes external and apparent by
the casting olf of that by which it was preceded.
Thus a caterpillar may be viewed, not as a simple, but a
compound creature, containing within it the germ of the
future butterfly, inclosed in what will become the case of
the pupa, which is itself included in several more enve¬
lopes or skins,* each of which becomes external in its turn.
As the larva (so called from the very circumstance of its
containing the imago, or perfect insect, shut up as it were
in a mask) increases in dimensions, the various parts ex¬
pand, and are thrown off, until at length the completed and
more beautiful form is displayed in all its lustre. Swam¬
merdam, in fact, discovered, by careful dissection, not only
the skins of the larva and pupa incased within each other,
but within these again the very butterfly itself, with its
organs all complete, though nearly in a fluid state.1
Of the same fact, Mr Kirby states, any one may convince
himself, without the skill of the great Dutch observer,
merely by plunging into vinegar or spirit of wine a cater¬
pillar about to assume the pupa state, and allowing it to
remain there for a few days till it gains consistency of
parts ; or by boiling it for a few minutes in water. A very
rough dissection will then enable the student to detect the
future butterfly,—the wings being rolled up into a sort of
cord, and lodged between the first and second segments,
the antennae and trunk coiled up in front of the head, and
the legs, though very dissimilar in form, actually sheathed
in those of the caterpillar. Malpighi, moreover, discovered
1 the eggs of the future moth in the chrysalis of a silk¬
worm only a few days old ;2 and Reaumur those of Bombyx
dispar, even in the caterpillar, seven or eight days prior to
1 its change into the pupa state.3
According, however, to the more recent doctrines pro¬
mulgated by Dr Heroic!, the successive skins of the cater-
1 pillar, the case of the pupa, and the members of the per-
? feet insect (except the sexual distinctions, which he per-
i ceived even in the newly excluded larvae), do not pre-
• exist as germs, but are formed successively from the rete
e 1 Hill’s Swammerdam, ii. 24.
i * De Bombyce, 29.
O L O G Y. 87
mucosum, which itself is formed anew upon every change Metamor-
of skin, from what he denominates the blood, or the chyle phoses.
after it has passed through the pores of the intestinal canal
into the general cavity of the body, where being oxygen¬
ated by the air-vessels, it performs the nutritive functions
of blood.4 These proceedings, as usual, are attributed to
a vis formatrix, a term of most convenient application
where the mysterious workings of nature are but dimly
seen or vaguely understood. But whatever may be the
mode or principle of development, we know that insects
exist in the four following states,—the egg, the larva, the
pupa, and the imago or perfect condition.
The first stage of life, properly so called, is that of larva,
in which existence is usually more prolonged than in any
other, and in which the insect does nothing but eat vora¬
ciously, and increase rapidly, with intervals of repose occa¬
sioned by repletion. In this state it is entirely sterile. In
the course, and towards the termination, of the larva state,
that peculiar internal secretion the caul, epiploon, or fatty
matter, formerly mentioned, is observed to increase, and
the insect then assumes the pupa state, which is usually
one of inaction and apparent torpidity. Ere long the skin
of the pupa bursts asunder, or the wings and members
become sufficiently developed for active exercise, and the
insect assumes the perfect state, as exemplified in bees,
beetles, and butterflies, all of which proceed from a worm¬
like larva. In this condition they are usually less vora¬
cious, their principal object and occupation being the pre¬
servation or continuance of their kind.
All insects, however, do not pass through these transfor¬
mations. Most of the apterous kinds issue from the egg in
a form very similar to that which they maintain through¬
out their after lives; from which circumstance Linnams
and others have bestowed the name of complete pujxe on
their intermediate state, when such is recognisable. Even
those that are subjected to the signal changes above de-
serjbed, differ considerably in the nature and degree of
metamorphosis to which they are subjected. Many of the
winged kinds experience no other change than the acces¬
sion of the organs of flight. Their larvae resemble the
perfect insect, with the exception of the want of wings.
Their pupae, known as semi-complete, merely differ from
the larvae by exhibiting the rudiments of those organs
the eventual development of which produces the comple¬
tion of the perfect insect. Such are the grasshopper ami
locust tribes, in which the pupae continue to exercise their
locomotive powers and ordinary vital functions. Those
insects which undergo a more entire metamorphosis are
changed from larvae into motionless and inert pupae, and
this mode of transformation presents different gradations.
The pupae, or nymphs as they are often called, of the
Coleoptera and several other orders, exhibit their external
members in close approximation to the body, but free or
uncovered by any general envelope ; we name them incom¬
plete. But among the Lepidoptera, such as butterflies and
moths, an elastic but firm and sufficiently solid skin or in¬
tegument is moulded over the entire body and its various
members, and only shows the form and outline of the lat¬
ter visibly impressed upon its surface. These were called
pupae obtectce by Linnaeus. Dipterous flies, again, are co¬
vered in the pupa state by small simple cases, or egg-like
shells, usually regarded as the skin of the larva, through
which the form and proportions of the parts are in no way
discernible. These were termed pupae coarctatae by the
great Swedish naturalist.
When, however, we make use of the term metamor-
3 Metnoires, i. 359.
4 Entwictdimgsgesehichte der Schmetterlingc.
ENTOMOLOGY.
88
Metamor- phosis, in relation to the different states of insects, another
phoses. meaning is apt to result from the application of the words
complete, semi-complete, and other adjective phrases,—for
the less complete the pupa, the more complete the meta¬
morphosis. Some confusion, we think, has arisen fiom
this circumstance,—at least we have ourselves been occa¬
sionally puzzled by the contrariety of opinion expressed
upon the subject even by the “ master spirits” of entomo¬
logy. Thus, Latreille observes, “ Les Coleopteres subissent
une metamorphose complete,”1 while Mr Kirby has it “ Me¬
tamorphosis incomplete”1 and the same form of expression
is used by Mr Macleay.3
However this may be, our entire range of natural know¬
ledge presents us with nothing comparable in singularity
or beauty with the phenomena of metamorphosis. No
wonder that the mystical sages of Egypt, and the refined
philosophers of Greece, were so entranced or delighted
with what they saw and fancied, as to found upon these
changes many of the fondest fables which now pervade
our classical literature. “ Psyche,” says Dr Nares, “ means
in Greek the human soul; and it means also a butterfly,
of which apparently strange double sense the undoubted
reason is, that a butterfly was a very ancient symbol of the
soul. From the prevalence of this symbol, and the conse¬
quent coincidence of the names, it happened that the Greek
sculptors frequently represented Psyche as subject to Cu¬
pid in the shape of a butterfly; and that even when she
appears in their works under the human form, we find her
decorated with the light and filmy wings of that gay in¬
sect.”4 Swammerdam himself, although his observations
tended to prove that the analogy between the metamor¬
phosis of a butterfly and the resurrection of the body, or
second life of the human soul, was not so close as had been
imagined, is yet of opinion that the process is so remark¬
able as to paint and exemplify that resurrection before
our eyes.5 “To see, indeed, a caterpillar crawling upon
the earth, sustained by the most ordinary kinds of food,
which, when it has existed a few weeks or months under
this humble form, its appointed work being finished, passes
into an intermediate state of seeming death, when it is
wound up in a kind of shroud and incased in a coffin, and
is most commonly buried under the earth (though some¬
times its sepulchre is in the water, and at others in various
substances in the air); and, after this creature and others
of its tribe have remained their destined time in this death¬
like state, to behold earth, air, and water, give up their se¬
veral prisoners; to survey them, when, called by the warmth
of the solar beam, they burst from their sepulchres, cast
off their cerements, from this state of torpid inactivity
come forth as a bride out of her chamber,—to survey
them, I say, arrayed in their nuptial glory, prepared to
enjoy a new and more exalted condition of life, in which
all their powers are developed, and they are arrived at the
perfection of their nature ; when, no longer confined to the
earth, they can traverse the fields of air, their food is the
nectar ot flowers, and love begins his blissful reign ;—who
that witnesses this interesting scene can help seeing in it
a lively representation of man in his threefold state of ex- Metau, in
istence, and more especially of that happy day, when, at pho» pi
the call of the great sun of righteousness, all that are in ^
their graves shall come forth, the sea shall give up her
dead, and death being swallowed up of life, the nations of
the blessed shall live and love to the ages of eternity ?
“ But although the analogy between the different states
of insects and those of the body of man is only general,
yet it is much more complete with respect to his soul. He
first appears in this frail body—a child of earth, a crawl¬
ing worm, his soul being in a course of training and
preparation for a more perfect and glorious existence.
When it has finished this course it casts off this vile body,
and goes into a hidden state of being in Hades, where it
rests from its works, and is prepared for its final consum¬
mation. The time for this being arrived, it comes forth
clothed with a glorious body, not like its former though
germinating from it, for though ‘ it was sown an animal
body, it shall be raised a spiritual body,’ endowed with
augmented powers, faculties, and privileges, commensurate
to its newT and happy state. And here the parallel holds
perfectly between the insect and the man. The butterfly,
the representative of the soul, is prepared in the larva for
its future state of glory ; and if it be not destroyed by the
ichneumons and other enemies to which it is exposed, sym¬
bolical of the vices that destroy the spiritual life of the
soul, it will come to its state of repose in the pupa, which
is its Hades; and at length, when it assumes the imago,
break forth with new powers and beauty to its final glory
and the reign of love.”6
Swammerdam, to w horn we owe the earliest philosophi¬
cal examination of the subject, divides the phenomena of
metamorphosis into four classes. In the first, in which
the changes are the least varied or remarkable, he includes
apterous insects commonly so called, most of which we
now name Myriapoda, and the metamorphosis of which
consists in gaining additional segments and pairs of feet;
also Arachnides and Crustacea, which are for the most
part characterized by simple renewals of their envelope.
In the second class he places such insects as are born with
six feet, but have their wings concealed or inclosed in a
sheath during a rudimentary period, such as Orthoptera,
Hemiptera, and many Neuroptera. In the third class are
included those insects which exhibit three distinct condi¬
tions ; they compose two subdivisions. The first comprises
those insects of which the second state, called nymph or
semi-nymph, exhibits either the appearance of feet and
wings, or the reality of these organs. They are not re¬
duced to that state of utter lethargy or apparent death
which some present, and they include the remainder of the
Neuroptera, the Hymenoptera, and the Coleoptera. The
other subdivision contains the Lepidoptera, of which the
larvae, commonly called caterpillars, are subject to several
preparatory changes of their coat, and are finally convert¬
ed into chrysalids, through the coriaceous skin of which
the interior parts are perceptible, but which externally
exhibit neither wings nor legs, nor any. other members.
* JTor/r Fut I't ' f . , c ., " ^^oduction to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 369.
annlied indifFp'rlntlv mthpr ^011 uslon a °Je referred to may perhaps have arisen from certain adjective phrases having been at times
terms In Orthnntprn nf1 h' wiS a e 0 ,PuPa .or A16 phenomena of transformation, which in most cases causes a contradiction in
s; .hlndXTppLl^e„FX . *»<, -
both Now ?,£T,r 1,"l1 “ Uipterua’ .coarctate ; and «»"«quentl, tie metamorphosis most be rompfett
St“ o relation to tie ktmr or™. 1, I P T ,rtan”rI,hosis "‘’.‘“ted” in regard to the former, and - metamorphosis coarc-
general transformations. The same admirable Ken Lhe Practlce °f applying to the pupa state of these orders, but not to the
would rather sav that thev undero-n ho n t 6 ^ ■0r,,inn^e^1I?in^ aPterous insectsf states the metamorphosis to he We
• h 101. . fcu-. Translation ■/”Sc”f. S “oh ITT"
ENTOMOLOGY.
’ Mwiior- Finally, in the fourth class are included all those insects
pises, which on their exclusion from the egg exist as vermiform
wr-w apodal larvae, are provided at most with six feet, and are
converted into nymphs without a change of envelope, so that
their skin merely hardens over the intermediate state of the
insect, which ere long issues w inged. Such are the dip¬
terous tribes.
These views and combinations have been somewhat
modified in later years, by Reaumur, Linnaeus, Fabricius,
Huber, Dutrochet, Savigny, Marcel de Serres, Latreille,
and others who have devoted themselves to the investiga¬
tion of metamorphoses. Those phenomena have conse¬
quently been classed as incomplete or partial by which
the aspect of the insect is merely modified, and as com¬
plete or total by which it is entirely changed. In all, the
interior changes may be said to command the exterior,
that is, the latter are consequent on the former. In nu¬
merous species, not less than three of the principal organic
systems, viz. the nervous, the nutritive, and the respira¬
tory, undergo important modifications, and w'e may easily
conceive how strongly the instinctive habits of the indivi¬
dual must be thereby affected. The alterations in the ner¬
vous system especially, are singular in their nature and
effects. The number of ganglia of the spinal cord is usu¬
ally greater in the larva than the perfect insect, although
the great single ganglion of the rhinoceros-beetle ( Oryctes
1 nasicornis'), in its early state, compared with the four gan-
> glia of its subsequent condition, offers an exception to the
> general rule. But in the larva of the stag-beetle {Luca-
nus cervus) we observe eight ganglia, besides a recurrent
nerve, while the perfect insect possesses only four; and
* among caterpillars in general the same restriction takes
1 place in the number of their ganglionic knots as they attain
8 the perfect state.
Among beings in which the parts representing the brain
1 and other organs of sensation of the higher tribes undergo
I i so many variations even in the same individual, we may
t ! well suppose that whatever ideas they are capable of con-
ceiving at one period of their existence, may differ essen-
h | tiaily from those w-ith which they are impressed at another,
a We shall not here involve ourselves in the discussion of
I the difficult and dissimilar theories of instinct, nor enter
e into any exposition of the mechanical, the intellectual, or
i- the supernatural character of that surprising manifestation,
;s j which, under whatever aspect it may be viewed, whether
,r | as differing in kind or only in degree from reason, cannot
he otherwise regarded than as a most beautiful illustration
of divine benevolence. But we may ask, by what peculiar
h memory or mode of recollection does the brilliant butter-
ie i fly, which seeks its sustenance in the nectarous juices of
ie flowers, rifling their sweets with its tubular proboscis,—by
ie what means does it remember that its progeny, while in
&1 the larva state, must be sustained by a far different diet,
t* an(l that they exercise their jaws on cabbage-leaves, and
h other vegetation of the coarser kind ? M. Virey, who
ly denies all intellect to insects, and views their various ac-
s. I tions as resulting mechanically from the peculiar disposi¬
tion or character of their nervous system, has endeavoured
to illustrate the subject by the following parallel. He com¬
pares an insect to one of those portable organs, of which
es the cylinder has different airs noted on its surface, and
which performs one or another tune in proportion as the
e[ cylinder is made to recede or advance. So likewise the
nervous system, or series of ganglia along the double me-
M dullary cord, of the creatures nowr under consideration, be-
c- lng differently constituted in the larva and the perfect in-
he sect, ought to produce different actions in the two cases,
fe
he ' '   — 
89
though respectively appropriate to the nature of each. Art Metamor-
in the one instance, and nature in the other, has impressed phoses.
certain dispositions, or notes of action, fixed in a deter-
minate series, equally in the musical organ, and the gangli¬
onic system of caterpillars. Hence the one gives utterance
to a certain air, while the other acts according to a certain
sequence of operations. Pull out a notch of the barrel or¬
gan, and you have another tune ; await the transformation
of the caterpillar to a butterfly, and you have (with a change
in the notching of its nervous system) another series of in¬
stinctive operations. In both, the relations of cause and
effect are the same, and each is merely the mechanical
playing of an instrument I1 Now, to prove this position, as
has been elsewhere remarked, M. Virey ought at least to
have shown, that whenever a change takes place in the in¬
stincts of insects in their different states of larva and ima-
ago, a corresponding change also takes place in the struc¬
ture of the nervous cord.2 But this is by no means the
case. In three entire orders, namely, Orthoptera, Hemip-
tera, and Neuroptera, the structure of that cord remains
unchanged, and yet we know that thousands of the species
which compose these orders acquire instinctive habits in
their perfect state, altogether dissimilar to those by which
they were characterized in their earlier condition. Even
were it otherwise, our query would still require to be an¬
swered, by what mechanical impulsion is the completed
butterfly, a gay and gorgeous honey-sucker, induced to
play a tune (we speak in harmony with M. Virey’s views)
so completely in accordance, not with its own refined tastes,
but with the future welfare of the crawling caterpillars of
which it is the parent ? Why does it deposit its eggs, not on
the odorous blossoms and bright consummate flowers in
which it takes so much delight, and amid the varied petals
of which it rejoices to expand to the sunshine its own still
more brilliant wings, but on the rank leaves of the cabbage
and cauliflower, or the dingy foliage of the nettle ? These
questions, and many others of a similar nature, are perhaps
more easily proponed than answered. When we consider,
indeed, how frequently inaccurate is our knowledge even
of our own individual feelings, and how much more in¬
competent we are to judge of what passes in the minds of
others of our own species, need we wonder that the sen¬
tient principles of the lower animals should, in relation to
human intelligence, be still shrouded in dim eclipse, if not
in total darkness.. It is far more probable, however, that
the alterations in the nervous cord have no necessary con¬
nection with the changes of instinct, but are more closely
concerned w ith those other not less remarkable mutations
in the organs of sense and motion, which occur between
the larva and imago states of several orders. “ In a com¬
mon caterpillar, the form of the body, the legs, the eyes,
and other organs of the senses, all strikingly differ from
those of the imago; whereas, with the exception of the
acquisition of new wings, a perfect locust differs little
from its larva; so that we may reasonably expect a corre¬
sponding change, such as we find it in the structure of the
nervous cord of the lepidopterous insect, not called for in
that of the neuropterous (orthopterous ?) species, in which
accordingly it does not take place.”3
Metamorphosis frequently induces no less remarkable
changes in the system of nutrition of insects, followed of
course by corresponding alterations in their instinctive ap¬
petites and modes of life. In such as undergo an incom¬
plete metamorphosis, the parts of the mouth, and the form
of the alimentary canal, experience no essential alteration ;
but among those tribes in which the change of external
aspect is complete in each successive stage, these import-
1 Nouv, Diet. tTHist. Nat. xvi. 313.
VOL. IX.
* Ibid. vol. iv. p. 28.
M
2 Introd. to Ent. iv. 27*
entomology.
90
Metamor. ant parts assume another character, and admirably illus-
phoses. trate the multitude of means employed by nature to vay
' her innumerable products, even although the general laws
by which these are regulated, and from which, under tiie
great and never-slumbering eye of Omnipotence, they more
immediately result, are themselves so few in number. 1 he
shorter the alimentary canal becomes, the more carnivo¬
rous are the tendencies ot the individual. This finally
exemplifies the great physiological truth previously de¬
duced from the difference between the structure of the ali¬
mentary system in herbivorous and carnivorous animals o
the higher classes,—between the short canal of the blood¬
thirsty tiger, and the lengthened convolutions of the gentler
ruminating tribes. Here, however, the disparity exists, not
as among animals of entirely different attributes, but m the
same individual at different periods of its existence, i he
young of many aquatic beetles of the family of Helophondce
are carnivorous in their larva state, and become herbivorous
on assuming their final transformation. A like singularity
is manifested by many dipterous flies, which, born and me
amid the putrid moisture of animal remains, no sooner be¬
come winged insects, than they seek a purer diet in the
nectarous juices of fruits and flowers.1 Analogous changes
take place even in those species which do not entirely al¬
ter the nature of their diet. A voracious caterpillar, which,
by means of its robust maxillse, rapidly gnaws and con¬
sumes a quantity of the most coriaceous leaves, to the
amount sometimes of triple its own weight in a single day,
and presents the beau-ideal of an eating machine, has its
intestine greatly dilated, and pursed like a colon. The
larvae both of wasps and bees have a stomach so vast, that
it occupies almost the entire of their interior, although in
the perfect state of each it becomes greatly restricted.
Thus in the bee that great laboratory consists of little more
than two unequal honey pouches ; and among butterflies,
of which the trunk or sucker corresponds to the previous
jaws, the stomach is much less than in caterpillars. 1 his,
we may observe, reverses the rule which applies to the
great ruminating animals among the vertebrated tribes,
where we find a single stomach in the foetus state, and
which in the adult is multiplied to four. It is the opinion
of some naturalists that larvae in general, having larger
intestines, tend more towards a herbivorous diet than per¬
fect insects, in which these organs are shorter, and which
are consequently supposed to assume a more carnivorous
habit;—“ so rare, is it,” observes M. Bory St Vincent,
“ to perceive the manners of living creatures not tending
to mutual destruction as their powers are developed.” An
enlightened mind, however, naturally delights in the per¬
ception and extrication of general rules; and these, we
fear, are not seldom fancied without being either perceived
or deduced. In opposition to the presumed law, we have
already mentioned the Helophoridce, which reverse the
rule; and to these we could add many more. The glow¬
worm in its larva state is greedy of animal juices, and feeds
chiefly on minute testacea, while, in its completed state, it
is entirely herbivorous. A large aquatic beetle, the Hy¬
drous piceus, is so ferocious and blood-thirsty in the form
of larva, as to bear in France the name of ver-assassin ;
but in its after condition, through the medium of meta¬
morphosis, the intestine becomes elongated, and the dispo¬
sition of the insect is softened and subdued, so that it then
prefers a vegetable to an animal diet. In fact the great
aim and object of an insect in the perfect condition is ra¬
ther the continuance of its kind than the sustenance of it¬
self ; although, as the one process cannot be well accom¬
plished without the other, it no doubt, even in its most
hieh and palmy state, casts, like its betters, an occasional Metaot
eye on the “ flesh-pots of Egypt.” .
' The changes in the respiratory system of insects pro-
duced by metamorphosis, are not less extraordinary than
those to which we have just alluded. But as we have al¬
ready mentioned some of the more remarkable of these in
our observations on the organs of respiration, we shall not
further dilate upon that portion of the subject.
Metamorphosis in insects has been described as the
maximum state of a general law of nature, by which the
whole organization of the animal being is gradually deve¬
loped and made fit for reproduction. Without the study
of this phenomenon, we cannot acquire a knowledge ot the
most important circumstances in the lives of such animals
as are guided entirely by instinct; and just as an acquaint¬
ance with the whole life of an insect necessarily induces a
truer knowledge of its actual nature, than a mere descrip¬
tion of one of its forms,—so, in the same proportion, it has
been said, ought metamorphosis to outweigh every other
principle of arrangement. W hen we trace the natural his¬
tory of a dragon-fly {LibeUida) from the time that the egg
is first dropped into the bosom of the uncertain w aters, till,
on some bright sunny morning in “ the leafy month ot
June,” the gauzy-winged insect in the perfect state is seen
to rise from its moist abode, and, hawking for flies, to hover
like a bird of prey along the placid shores of some familiar
pool, we can scarcely conceive a clear idea of the truth,
except by supposing one animal to have been so inclosed
within another, that the imago is in a great measure distinct
from the repulsive larva, and is only opened to our view by
its desiccation or death. Hence, as Mr Macleay observes, a
system unconnected with metamorphosis may be regarded
as taking no more notice of half the number ot true in¬
sects than if they did not exist. “ It is the defect both
of the artificial system in Entomology, and of the sexual
system in Botany, that they become useless, except when
the objects of the respective sciences are before us in one
particular state, which is often the most transitory of their
life. Unless this condition be fulfilled, such systems lose
their sole and peculiar merit of being dictionaries by w hich
natural objects may be named. There are thousands of
organized beings, to the history and knowledge ot which
the disciple of Linnaeus and Fabricius has no clue what¬
ever, although perhaps they are in that state of their ex¬
istence wdiich most directly affects the interests ot man.
Plants not in flower, and insects not in their declared state,
constitute an ocean of difficulties, in which the most skilled
in the Linnaean nomenclature will founder, unless he have
other beacons than such momentary considerations as are
afforded by the number of stamina, or the form ot the
antennae.”2
We shall conclude our observations on the singular sub¬
ject of metamorphosis, by another quotation from the last-
named author, which, with what has been already stated,
will, it is hoped, suffice to instruct the reader regarding
what we consider the most extraordinary phenomena ob¬
servable within the range of the animal kingdom. “ It was
perfectly in unison with the innate propensity of the hu¬
man mind towards the marvellous, that, the change of a
caterpillar into a butterfly, when first noticed, should have
been considered by the ancients as a true transformation,
irreconcilable with the ordinary course of nature. Even
on the mystery being in a great degree cleared up by the
discoveries of Libavius, Redi, Malpighi, and Swammer¬
dam, the phenomenon continued to be termed metamor¬
phosis ; and perhaps it is even still a little owing to such
circumstances that a natural process, neglected in other
Entomologia Edinensis, p. 207.
2 JIur. Ent. p. 449.
E N T O M
Me ior-branches of zoology, has always excited so much curiosity
ph among entomologists. Metamorphosis, however, has been
taken of late in a very general point of view, and rendered
synonymous with that species of organic decomposition
which, by means of continual shedding of the external en¬
velopes, or even of the various integuments which may
compose those envelopes, occasions that extraordinary cha¬
racteristic of a living body, namely, that it never remains
in a constant state, or identically the same, but is continu¬
ally assimilating new particles of matter, as it throws off
the old. And since no metamorphosis can take place ex-
cepf in consequence of these integuments being shed, per¬
haps it may not be altogether improper to survey the sub¬
ject in this light. What I mean is, that we ought to regard
the metamorphosis or change of form which certain ani¬
mals undergo at various periods of their life, as an attend¬
ant upon, if not a variety of, the ecdysis, or moulting, to
which all organized beings are subject. There is, how¬
ever, a great distinction to be made between the ecdt/sis of
the Vertebrata and Annulosa, for in the former we observe
little more than that the animal has quitted a sheath in
which it was inclosed; whereas in the latter the change is
nothing else than if the skeleton were shed; for this name
is surely deserved by those hard and solid parts which in
so many cases afford support to the muscles. It is clear
that such a process must occasion a crisis in the life of an
annulose animal, incomparably more decisive in its effects
than what can be produced among the Vertebrata, by
merely being set free from an integument. All the marvel¬
lous, however, of ecdysis, was with the earlier naturalists
comprehended in the change of form; and consequently
the shedding of the envelope only excited attention where
it regarded a few of the Annulosa. Hence it was a great
discovery of Linnaeus, that every annulose animal ought
to be considered as subject to metamorphosis. It may in¬
deed have led to his more artificial notion of every exter¬
nally articulated being having a nympha state ; but even
this helped Fabricius to give, although with a faulty no¬
menclature, a much more convenient division of metamor¬
phosis than he could otherwise have devised.
“ Ecdysis, by which term is signified generally every
change in the identity of the envelope of a living body,
may either be complete or incomplete. If it be incom¬
plete, or, which is the same, if the integuments scale off
piece by piece, we have that mode of change which is pe¬
culiar to the most perfect of the Vertebrata, and to the least
perfect of the Annulosa.
“ Complete ecdysis is the shedding of the whole exter¬
nal envelope at once, of which we have examples among
the vertebrated as well as annulose animals. It is of three
sorts; first, where the external envelope is shed without
producing any essential change of form, except in as much
as may relate to the increased size. In those larvae of in¬
sects which become inactive in their pupa state, such a
process may always be distinguished from the true meta¬
morphosis ; but in apterous Hexapods having active nym-
phae, they are necessarily confounded. It is also visible in
reptiles and spiders, where such appendages of the trunk
as have been lost may be reproduced by continued moult¬
ing. When the various envelopes are all cast as it were
in one mould, it is to be expected that the proper form of
the animal should re-appear as these continue to be thrown
off. The return therefore of a spider or crab, after having
lost a limb, to its original form, may be in some measure
understood as depending on the manner in which such ani¬
mals shed their envelope; but that the limbs thus shot
forth should be furnished with muscles and nerves, is, I
conceive, what cannot be accounted for, except by refer¬
ring to that polype nature of the cellular substance, which
is perhaps, in the opinion of some persons, the foundation
O L O G Y. , 91
of all ecdysis. If perfect hexapod insects cannot repro- Metamor-
duce their members, this inability may probably proceed phoses.
from a cause which appears to have produced the same ef-
feet among Mammalia and birds, to wit, that these animals
in their perfect and final form are all subject, if to any, at
least to a very imperfect ecdysis.
“ The second sort of complete ecdysis is that where the
under envelope has been cast in a somewhat different
mould from the upper, so that in the course of the moult¬
ing certain new parts become gradually developed without
the general form being in any material degree altered.
This is observable in every annulose class, as well as in
Humboldt’s Axotl among the Vertebrata, and is the first
species of change which merits the name of metamorpho¬
sis. It includes the Metamorphosis inchoata and Metamor¬
phosis dimidiata of Latreille, and is the same with the Me¬
tamorphose partielle of Lamarck.
“ The third sort of complete ecdysis is that wherein, by
some two or three moultings, generally the last which the
animal has to undergo, the form is entirely changed, as
well as the number of appendages more or less increased.
This is clearly a true metamorphosis, and includes the
other two sorts of complete ecdysis; for we have here
combined a total casting of the integuments, a development
of additional appendages, such as feet or wings, and final¬
ly an entire change of form. Such a combinat ion may be
witnessed, among the Vertebrata, in frogs, and, among the
Annulosa, in certain hexapod insects. Hence, in confining
ourselves to plain and open ecdysis, there will be no great
error in stating that the most imperfect takes place in the
highest Vertebrata and the lowest Annulosa; while the
most complete ecdysis is that which is seen to prevail in
the highest Annulosa and some of the lowest Vertebrata.
“ In strict accuracy, however, it appears that we ought
to acknowledge the existence of complete ecdysis through¬
out the circle of Vertebrata. Nay, some physiologists
have attributed insect metamorphosis itself to a shed¬
ding of an envelope analogous to that which contains
the foetus of the more perfect Vertebrata. As every em¬
bryo, whether animal or vegetable, is enclosed in a tunic
more or less solid, which is its chorion, so, proceeding
with the analogy, they conceive that there must be some
condition for every animal, similar to tire state of the
feetus of the more perfect animals when surrounded by
the amnios; and this state in batrachian reptiles and
hexapod insects they hold to be the larva. The only dan¬
ger of this reasoning is, that while we find the birth of
an animal to be attended with complete ecdysis, we may
be apt to imagine that every complete ecdysis betokens
a true birth. " It would, however, be truly absurd to
consider the casting of their shell by Crustacea, or the
periodical moulting of the serpent, in this light; yet no
one can doubt the fact of both these being cases of com¬
plete ecdysis, only differing from that of Lepidoptera, be¬
cause in the former animals the external envelope is al¬
ways of the same form as that of which it is to take the
place. The truth perhaps is, that we ought only to allow
two states to every animal, a perfect and an imperfect
state. Then, by the reflection that no animal out of the
circle of Acrita can ever arrive at its perfect state except
by means of metamorphosis, and that when perfect it can
never again be subject to this change of form, though it
may still moult or . shed its external envelope, we may be
able, if not to comprehend the cause, at least to know the
effect, of some of the most puzzling phenomena in nature.
The true criterion of animal as well as vegetable perfec¬
tion is the ability to continue the species; hence some of
the Vertebrata, as well as Annulosa, gaining this faculty
before they have arrived at their proper type of form, me¬
tamorphosis ceases, and they preserve the shape of larvae.
92
Relative
Position
in the
Animal
Kingdom.
ENTOMOLOGY.
, , . 0 n earth’s surface which still remain to be explored. Hence Relatm
“But if a complete ecdysis may sometimes create a ^rt".s s“ fL;nna!US_natura saltus non facit. “When ^
total change m the externa appearance of the amma], the ® d'ct^ Creatok » says Mr Kirby, “willed to
fact, however astonishing ts noth,ng m companson of he ^ y ^ ^ ^
internal metamorphosis which accompanies it, and of which brm into ex s lan> wifh all its parts beau. ^
as yet no philosopher has been able to give^ ®ny 1 tifully linked together and mutually corresponding. All
tory explanation. The genera iza ,,inf y d t| thino^ were ordered in measure, and number, and weight?
we have reduced the moult,ng ot a bu d s feathers and the things »"en“tbin[r deficienb nothing superfluous; but the
metamorphosis of a butterfly to one principle, ma, pppea ; ,1,^ strictest sense ‘ was very eood,'3 and calcu-
,o be strained beyond its proper limits ; yet if we contem- .^^'Ve liXst de^
plate the regular gradation from one to the «r how lateen ^h^st ^ P,.^ com.
fpond, with Sawile nymp'haof Tajum, how this ec- bine to prove that there is a regular approximation to each
tb'sisin’an apterous ollL corresponds with the slough- other in the works ot God, and that they are related to
ini of a snider and this again with the annual renovation each other in a variety ot ways both naturally and analog,-
ofthe serpent, we must be sensible that, however dissimi- cally; but it need not be supposed that, in the magnificent
hr the exfremes may be, all these changes are modifica- plan of the creation, there ,s no disparity in the relative
tions of one principi. But what particularly deserves position of the most nearly related kinds, and no greater
remark is, that these extremes should often be visible in interval in one place than another. 1 here is in truth a
neighbouring groups; nay, in the same order; that, in great variation m the combinations of living beings, hough
short, metamorphosis should differ so much in degree even no violent break or sudden interval; m other words, some
where the animals are near in affinity. An orthopterous continuous species or groups have more characters in
insect may preserve the same form and habits from the common than others. but in considenng the various
instant it quits the egg up to the period of its death, the groups of living creatures, we must ever beai in mind our
only qualities obtained by ecdysis being an augmentation own ignorance ot their actual amount, and the thousands
of size and an aptitude to continue the species. But if of unknown forms which in all the pride ot life may be
we turn to the order of Coleoptera, which is contiguous in daily unfolding their exquisite forms and gorgeous colours
affinity, it is truly wonderful that, by metamorphosis, not amid those far deserts where man has never trod, and
only the form, but the nervous and digestive systems, may which ior that very reason he regards as solitudes, though
be altered, and the organs connected with these primary assuredly teeming with all the inexplicable wonders ot
functions may all be of a construction different from that creation. Let not therefore a hiatus be confounded with
which they originally possessed.”1 a saltus, the former being merely one of the many blanks
The reader has now been made acquainted in a general in the superficial map of knowledge drawn by man, the
way (and as precisely as the limits of our present article latter an absent link in that resplendent chain, to us too
may admit) with the most characteristic features in the often “ dark with excessive light, which in one way or
structure of the insect tribes, from which he may form other connects together in divinest harmony the beautiful
some opinion of their real nature. Their relative position works of the Creator. That the series of beings, however,
was not only continuous, but undeviating, and ascended
in a direct line from the lowest to the highest, was main¬
tained, among many others, by the excellent and ingeni¬
ous Bonnet, and has generally prevailed till very recent
times.
Now the principle which mainly characterizes the views
so mildly advocated by Mr Macleay, and entertained, we
believe, about the same period, although without commu¬
nication, by Agardh, Fries, and other continental natural¬
ists, is this,—that although the natural arrangement of
objects is indeed in a continuous series, that series in its
progression forms various convolutions, each of which may
be represented by a circle or series returning into itself.
Fie maintains that absolute divisions do not exist in na¬
ture, and that a single plan pervades the universe, a plan
founded on the principle of series of affinities returning
in the magnificent range of created things is a subject de¬
serving of a deeper and more extended examination than
we can here bestow upon it; but as we are unwilling to
leave such an interesting matter of philbsophical conside¬
ration entirely unregarded, we shall here enter into it in
the only way compatible with our prescribed limits.
CHAPTER V.
OF THE RELATIVE POSITION OF THE CLASS OF INSECTS
IN THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
A great diversity of opinion has existed from the earli¬
est ages regarding the natural affinities of the different
kinds and classes of animated beings to each other, and a
consequent contrariety has prevailed in our systems of into themselves, and forming circles; hence there is no
classification, which are of course indications of the rela- such thing among natural objects as a simple progression
tion of groups, unless where, for mere convenience, a pro- of species.5
fessedly artificial basis of arrangement, deduced from one or If it were true that the descending scale, as so long
two obvious though unimportant characters, may have been supposed, in the perfection of organization, was regular
adopted. I he majority of naturalists, both ancient and mo- from man to the infusorial tribes, then the lowest of one
t etn, have proceeded upon the idea that all natural objects form of life would naturally lead to the highest of the
wei e concatenated, or formed a continuous chain or linear next ensuing, and the most simply organized of the verte-
senes, and that whatever hiatus might seem to exist arose brated classes would connect most nearly with the most
eit ier 10m some great convulsion which had swallowed or complex of the invertebrated kinds. But this, as we shall
swept away the desired links, or from these links being afterwards see, is not the case.
leciscovcu c m one oi othei of those regions of the Although naturalists, if we may judge from their sj's-
! ^r' ^nt' P‘ “ Wisdom, xi. 20. 3 Genes i ‘U 4 t t 1 ■ vrr
»c.,?he Sjsas Sr e"tertal"f 0? In hi, hue, year,. Wrilingt^il coie»p,e?on, in-
biques grandinalpes. piusieurs sections dp cpWp 't^)0'1||S avec ,es ^Jchrus, et paraissent Her les Cicindeletes avec la section des Cara-
part des autres families d’insectes sont dans le meme cas Tu foment depones ITw derameaux’/aux Cicindeles. La plu-
dans la nature. (Note to Regne Animal, t. iv. p I73 ) lment <let’ fronts ramifies. En un mot, des series continues n existent pas
ENTOMOLOGY.
93
ieliis
®ositi
®!n th :
ingd ifi-
terns of classification, are accustomed to consider the in¬
sect tribes as inferior in the great range of organization
to the molluscous animals which inhabit shells, there can
be no doubt that they are superior in many of their vital
functions. Their powers of locomotion, whether as wing¬
ed, aquatic, or terrestrial creatures, are finely developed,
and their perceptive faculties are much more acute. The
symmetrical perfection of their forms, and the articula¬
tion of the limbs, in the insect class, seem also in some
measure to connect them with the vertebrated tribes.
Indeed, even of the latter, many seem far inferior to insects,
not only, as Mr Macleay has observed, in the possession
of those faculties by which we are accustomed to estimate
the rank of the Vertebrata among themselves, but also in the
complication of their general structure. These and other
considerations afford powerful arguments in favour of the
circular system; for it appears necessary, first, that cer¬
tain affinities of the Mollusca to the Vertebrata, and which
are obvious in the Cephalopoda or cuttle-fish, should not
be disturbed by any intervening division; and, secondly,
that the annulose animals themselves, such as insects,
Crustacea, and Arachnides, should not be far separated
from Gastrobranchus and other genera of cyclostomous
fishes; above all, that they should not be made subordi¬
nate in rank to such simply organized creatures as com¬
pose the greatest part of the Mollusca. “ Nov/ these
conditions will all be fulfilled if the chain of nature be
viewed as returning into itself; whereas they will be com¬
pletely violated if we account it to be a regular line or
ladder, commencing with the Infusoria, and terminating
in man ; or indeed if we adopt any opinion that has hither¬
to been advanced on the subject by naturalists.”1 It seems
to have been chiefly owing to the perfection of the circu¬
lating system in molluscous animals that they have obtain¬
ed their present rank; for, in regard to the nervous sys¬
tem, which would have been a truer test, although such
tribes as possess a distinct head, and are furnished with
tentacula and other organs of sense, have undoubtedly
a true brain, yet oysters and many more acephalous
kinds can lay no other claim to the possession of that or¬
gan than what is derived from the analogy which its posi¬
tion in these Testacea is supposed to bear to that of the
brain in the gasteropoda. It is a strong fact, however, that
so skilful an interpreter of nature as Baron Cuvier should
have been determined by that analogy, and should have
acceded to the acephalous Mollusca the possession of a
brain, and a general construction, which, upon the whole,
he regards as making a nearer approach to that of the
Vertebrata than is effected by any annulose animal. Yet
in spite of this it would be difficult to contend that an
Ascidia is in any respect superior to a bee, as no one who
has ever seen the two, and observed their respective func¬
tions, would venture to bring the sluggish mollusc into
competition, either as respects intelligence or complica¬
tion of mechanism, with the delightful emblem of industry.
When we call in the aid of anatomy to determine the
relative importance which different material beings bear in
the scale of the creation, we must consider the beauty of the
general mechanism and (speaking humanly) the difficulty
of the workmanship, and not any “ fancied and often forced
resemblance to the human structure.”2 It is in truth a
great error to regard the works of the creation as referable
to the human structure, as a standard of perfection ; for
although the frame of man, when taken as a whole, ought
doubtless to be regarded with wonder and admiration as Relative
a most complicated yet complete machine, there is at the Position
same time as little doubt that we scarcely possess a single 111 ,t^e
sense or bodily power in which we are not excelled by
some irrational beings. Different animals have in fact been
constructed on different plans, and man may without im¬
propriety be regarded as upon the whole the most admi¬
rably constructed creature of all those which have been
organized upon the same general plan with himself, but
with the others he cannot be compared.
In the article Animal Kingdom of this work we have
already shown the importance of the nervous system in
the formation of the greater divisions of living creatures,
and we there exhibited the relative positions occupied by
the different classes of animals in the works of the most
distinguished systematic writers. Lamarck divides the
animal kingdom into two great branches,—the one con¬
taining all those living beings of which the skeleton is in-
ternal, and constructed upon a bony and articulated co¬
lumn, hence called Vertebrata,—the other consisting of
those innumerous kinds of which the skeleton is either
wanting, or its supposed analogue is for the most part
external, and includes the muscles; these are the In-
vertebrata. This grand distinction is strongly marked
throughout the great mass of each division, but it begins
to disappear wherever the provinces approach each other.
Thus among the turtles or chelonian reptiles, the vertebral
column is converted to a row of square osseous plates,
which run along the back, and unite with eight pair of
expanded ribs, which are anchylosed together by real su¬
tures, and combine to form in fact the external carapace
or shell. In like manner the vertebral column almost dis¬
appears among the cyclostomous fishes, while, on the other
hand, the Cephalopoda, or cuttle-fish, though belonging
to the invertebrate division, exhibit the commencement
of an internal skeleton. M. Virey, as we have shown in
the article above referred to, divided the animal kingdom
into three great branches, according to the different cha¬
racter of their nervous system. Baron Cuvier, proceeding
upon the consideration of the same important basis, in¬
cludes all animals within four primary divisions; while
Mr Macleay, according to his peculiar views, perceiving
five great sub-kingdoms in the magnificent circle of living
things, has assumed that number of divisions. We shall
here present a sketch of his system, so far as relates to the
primary forms, the majority of which agree with those of
his predecessors, although their relative position, and cir¬
cular sequence, if we may so call it, differ.3
ls£, There is a great tribe of beings which possess one
principal centre to their nervous system, the great trunk
of which, with the said centre, is contained in a bony ar¬
ticulated case, which forms the axis of the whole body,
and constitutes the vertebrae and skull of these creatures,
which are therefore named Vertebrata.
2d, In another form of animals the skeleton is as it were
external, so as to envelope the whole body, and is divided
by transverse folds into a certain number of rings, to the
internal surface of which the muscles are always attached.
Their nervous system consists of two long strings of me¬
dullary matter, passing through the whole of the body,
and united to each other, at small distances, into several
knots or ganglia. These ganglia may be said to perform
for the parts which surround them the function of so many
brains, and for a certain period are even sufficient for ner-
1 Horae Entomologies, vol. i. p. 206. 2 p. 405. .
* As the book entitled Hors Entomologies has been long out of print (the author has never brought out a second edition, and the
first was almost totally consumed by fire), our occasional exposition of its peculiar and prevailing doctrines cannot prove otherwise
than interesting to the considerate reader.
94
entomology.
Relative vous sensibility after the animal has been cut in pieces.
Position All the beings so constructed are named Annolosa.
in the jn a third prevailing form there is no articulated
Am™1 kele’ton either external or internal, the muscles being at-
tached solely to the skin, which is itself in general soft,
^ though often protected by a calcareous or stony crust,
termed the shell. These animals, remarkable, like plants,
for the variety of modes in which the sexes are combined,
have their nervous system composed of several masses or
ganglions united together by nervous threads. lhe co“"
stituents of this group are almost all aquatic, and ai
named Mollusca.
Mh, A fourth form of animal life exhibits to our view
the organs of locomotion and sensation arranged in a cir¬
cular disposition round a centre, so as to give a sort ot
radiated aspect to the whole body. I hey are composed
of a more or less gelatinous substance, of which the fibies
are indistinct. The nervous system of these imperfect
beings is but little known. M. Tiedemann, in a work
crowned by the French Institute (Memoire sur l Anatomie
des Asteries), conceives that the whitish threads which
proceed in a radiant direction from around the mout i,
and which extend themselves through the entire length
of the arms of these animals, form a kind of nervous sys¬
tem, which, from the pulpy nature of the medullary mat¬
ter, seems to correspond with the gelatinous composition
of the animals themselves. They are all aquatic, and are
named Radiata. _ .
bth, Thus far these groups agree in number and consti¬
tution with the four primary divisions established by Ba¬
ron Cuvier,—the Annulose division corresponding with
the Animulia, Articulata of the French naturalist, except
that it excludes the Annelides, or red-blooded worms, and
includes certain radiated species (commonly so called),
such as the intestinal group denominated Intestinaux Ca-
vitaires by the French, or Entozoa Nematoidea ot Iludol-
phi. But, according to Mr Macleay’s views, there still
remains a fifth form of animal life to be considered,—a
group of beings which cannot in the present state of
knowledge be better described than as masses of a trans¬
parent, homogeneous, mobile, and sensible pulp. I here
may, however, be observed in this translucent mass innu¬
merable minute granulations, which may be regarded as
the nervous molecules dispersed over, or as it were con¬
founded with, the substance of these animals, so as to en¬
dow the whole with sensibility, or something which the
author calls such, probably for want of a better name.
This final division is named Acrita.1 Its constituents
form a portion of the Anbnalia Radiata, or fourth pri¬
mary division of the Cuvierian system, and include the in-
fusory animals, many of the intestinal worms, and the po¬
lypi. Their distinctive character is principally negative
in reference to animals, and positive in regard to plants.
The simple texture of their cellular tissue is common to
them and to the Algos. Their gemmiparous generation is
allied only to the very simplest mode of the reproduc¬
tive system among other animal tribes, but is by no means
unfrequent among plants. The method by which they
are more or less sustained by the absorption of their ex¬
ternal pores, and the attractive influence exercised on
them by light, are likewise features only elsewhere to be
observed among the vegetable tribes. When a polype is
cut in pieces, each of these continues to live, and in time
assumes the original form, so that every point of such an
animal body may be regarded as possessing an indepen¬
dent life, like that of the lower plants. Lamarck accounts
for this peculiarity by regarding their alimentary canal Relaii,
as constituting a second absorbing surface, in no way dlf- Poaj
ferent from the absorbent external surface of the Agas- " k
tria, or infusorial tribes, so that any portion separated^
from their bodies may live for a time, like the Infusoria,
until they have obtained the second or internal absorbent ^
SU1“On considering,” says Mr Macleay, “ the gelatinous
composition of these animals, the dispersion of the ner¬
vous molecules through their substance, and the absolute
certainty that they are devoid of every sense, except per¬
haps those of taste and touch, we are led to connect them
with the Mollusca, whose substance is always mucous, and
often even gelatinous,—whose nervous system, though col¬
lected into several ganglions, or centres of sensibility, has
nevertheless these ganglions dispersed, with little if any
arrangement, throughout the whole mass of their body,—
and whose senses, so far at least as we are certain of their
existence, seem to be confined to those of taste and touch,
with the exception of a few animals of the division which
possess the organs of sight, and still fewer which possess
those of hearing. #
“ Nevertheless, on comparing the Acrita with the mol¬
lusca, we find that the organization of these last has be¬
come much more complicated, and that a distinct system
of circulation, and peculiar organs for respiration, diges¬
tion, and secretion, are even visible in these, animals,
which connect them in a remarkable manner with a still
more perfectly organized family—the Vertebrata.
“ These, however, by their red blood, their muscular
heart, their jaws acting vertically, their distinct organs for
sight, hearing, smell, and taste, their sexes constantly dis¬
tinct, their vertebral column, and extreme concentration
of the nervous system, are sufficiently insulated from the
Mollusca, as well as from all other material beings. The
group is therefore perfectly distinct and natural; yet if
we attempt to define it by any of the above-mentioned
various properties, little examination is requisite to con¬
vince us that the characteristic thus chosen either disap¬
pears in the least perfect of the V ertebrata, or passes im¬
perceptibly into the neighbouring groups.
“ Thus in the fishes which compose the genera Ammo-
ceetus, Dum. and Gastrobranchus, Bl. all those parts which
ought to have constituted their skeleton as vertebrated
animals become so soft and membranaceous that they
may be considered as having no bones. The organs of
respiration and of manducation, the absolute want of the
sense of sight, the general habits and external form of
these singular fishes, all prove to us that they are con¬
nected with the Annelides, and that by them nature
passes to the structure of the Annulosa. On the other
hand, on examining some of the Echinoderma ot Cuvier,
such as those composing the genus Comatula, we may
trace the articulated texture of the Annulosa into the di¬
vision of Radiata, many of whose external forms are also
exactly imitated by the sessile Cirrhipedes. Of the Ra¬
diata, again, the stellate form and the gelatinous semi¬
transparent substance are observable among the Acrita.
So that the chain whose links we have endeavoured to
unfold returns into itself, and we find that all animals
form a circle composed of the following great divisions,
viz. Acrita,
Mollusca,
Vertebrata,
Annulosa,
Radiata.
Animalia gelatinosa polymorpha, interaneis nullis medullaque indistinctS. Os interdum indistinctum, sed nutritio absorptione
externa vel interna semper sistit. Anus nullus. Reproductio fissipara vel gemmipara, gem mis mode externis modo internis,
interdura acervatis. I leraque ex mdividuis pluribus semper cohserentibus animalia composita sistunt.” (//or. Ent. p. 224.)
E N T O M
Relatb “ This arrangement of animals is, it is true, quite dis-
PosiiJi tinct from that generally adopted ; but it will be seen that
in tbi jj ;s not; on]y conformable to nature, but that it removes
r4ni” many of the discrepancies which shock the naturalist in
the common systems. For instance, there is an acepha¬
lous animal of the division Mollusca (Ascidia mammillaris,
Linn.) which exists without any visible organs of sense
except that of taste, whose substance is little better than
a homogeneous gelatinous pulp, whose inert nature seems
to deprive it of any power like that of voluntary motion ;
a being which is consequently reduced to fix itself to
solid bodies, or to be the sport of winds and waves, whose
principal sign of life consists in the absorption and spout¬
ing forth of water, and whose animal properties, in short,
are all comprised in its irritability, its circulation, and
respiration. Yet because these two last qualities appear
in this animal, whose existence is little better than vege¬
tative, to bear some resemblance to the circulation and
respiration in some of the Vertebrata, we find it placed in
the common systems before the bee, which astonishes us
by its industry and social qualities ; before the ant, which
excites our admiration by its frugality and courage; and
before the other numberless insects, which by their man¬
ners and stratagems have often made the naturalist hesi¬
tate as to the point where he would draw the line, and
separate instinct from reason.’1
Mr Kirby seems equally inclined to accord a step of
precedence to the insect and other annulose or articulated
tribes over the Mollusca, or at least to maintain that the
latter should not be interposed between the former and
the vertebrated tribes. “ If you inquire,” says he, “ into
the rank of each of these sub-kingdoms, of course you will
assign the principal station to the Vertebrates., which are
1 the most perfectly organized, to which man belongs, and
over which he immediately presides. If we form the scale
according to the nervous system of each province, that in
which the organ of sensation and intellect is most concen-
1 trated will stand first; and in proportion as this organ is
I multiplied and dispersed, will be the station of the rest,
' which will place them in the order in which I have men-
! tioned them ; and the Annulosa, to which insects belong,
will precede the Mollusca, which Cuvier and Lamarck had
placed before them on account of their system of circula¬
tion. But when we reflect that a heart and circulation oc¬
cur in some of the conglomerate Polypi? animals that ap¬
proach the vegetable kingdom ; that some of the acepha-
' lous Mollusca have no visible organs of sense except that
of taste, whose substance is little better than a homoge¬
neous gelatinous pulp, and who seem from their inert na¬
ture to have very slight powers of voluntary motion ;3 we
shall be convinced that a heart and circulation alone, un¬
accompanied by a more concentrated nervous system and
more perfect structure, cannot place an animal above those
which in every other respect so obviously excel them.
[ With regard to insects particularly, we may further ask—
who that considers how man employs his powers and or¬
gans even in his most degraded state, or that contemplates
the wonderful works that he is enabled to accomplish when
1 his faculties receive their due cultivation and direction,
can avoid regarding him as superior to the rest of the ani¬
mal creation ? And what unsophisticated mind, not en-
si tangled in the trammels of system, when it surveys the
industry, the various proceedings, and almost miraculous
works that have been laid before you,—the waxen palaces
of the bee,—the paper cottages of the wasp and hornet,
O L O G Y. 95
—the crowded metropolis of the white ants,—the arts, Relative
the manufactures, and stratagems of other insects,—the Position
associations and labours for the common good of those
that are gregarious ;—will not at once conclude that they Kingdom,
must be a superior race to the slug, the snail, and others,
which live only to eat and propagate their kind ? Or
who, that considers the wonderful structure of the ani¬
mals whose cause I advocate,—the analogy that exists
between their organs of manducation, of motion, and of
sensation, and between various other parts of it, with
those of the higher animals,—the acuteness of their senses,
their wonderful strength of muscle, and powers of loco¬
motion,—but will think them superior to the headless
and almost inanimate oyster or muscle, or the conglome¬
rate Alcyonia, though they have a heart and circulation.
Who, again, that observes, that in proportion as pedate
animals approach to the human type, their motions are
accomplished by fewer organs,—that man walks, ore sub-
limi, upon tivo legs; the majority of quadrupeds upon
four; insects upon six; the Arachnida apparently upon
eight; most Crustacea upon ten; and the Myriapods and
others upon matiy,—but will thence conclude that insects
must precede the Arachnida and Crustacea ? Who, once
more, that reflects, that if any of the superior animals
are deprived of a limb, it can never be reproduced, and
that in insects the same circumstance occurs; while spi¬
ders and Crustacea, if they lose a leg, have the power
of reproducing it; and the Mollusca, if they are decapi¬
tated, can gain a new head,—will consent to their being
placed after any of these animals r4 Lastly, who that re¬
collects that the Mollusca are hermaphrodites, like most
plants, bearing both male and female organs in the same
body, but will allow that insects, in which the sexes are
separate, as in the Vertebrates, must be more perfect, and
of a higher grade ?”5
Whoever regards the different classes of the animal
kingdom with an observant and discriminating eye, will
not fail to perceive that the knowledge of any organ in
one particular division of nature is insufficient to enable
us to judge of its importance ; for such are the changes in
the organization of animals, that a system of organs which
performs the most important functions in the first divi¬
sion, may either not exist in the next, or be found in a
secondary condition, and subordinate to some other sys¬
tem which has acquired the preponderance. In truth,
the anatomy of the higher classes having been first pro¬
foundly, or at least laboriously studied, before the requi¬
site attention had been bestowed on the structure of Inver¬
tebrates, all those organs and functional actions which were
invariably more or less sustained and apparent in these
first divisions, have been regarded as fundamental, and for
this reason alone an equal importance in our systems of
classification has been attributed to them throughout the
whole animal kingdom. From this course of proceeding,
as noticed by M. Straus, approximations have resulted
which break the natural relationship of many divisions.
For example, in the first great division of animals, respi¬
ration and circulation being in fact two functions to which
all the rest are more or less subordinate, it has been ima¬
gined that we ought to regard them as essential in the
whole series of animals, and employ them as the sole ba¬
sis of classification. Among the Vertebrata these functions
indeed afford the firmest foundation for a natural distribu¬
tion ; but amongst other classes, on the contrary, in which
they are only secondary, their adoption has led to the
1 Ilor. Ent. p. 202. 2 Savigny, Mem. sur les Anim. sans Vertebr. ii. 1, 3.
4 In this respect insects excel many reptiles, which can reproduce some of their patts.
1 See Macleay, Hor. Entomulog. 203, 200, 203.
3 Ilor. Eut. 204.
entomology.
96
Relative gravest errors and most palpable contradictions, foi it
Position not unfrequently happens that one family of Invertebrata
in the which reSpires by branchial, cannot be separated (keep-
^Anirfl ing numerous natural affinities in view) from another fa-
mily in which the respiration is pulmonary or tracheal.
One m-eat principle of creation being to combine variety
in the means with uniformity in the effect, we find that
among molluscous animals the circulation of the blood
varies in its manner ad infinitum, and has thus led to the
most artificial arrangements. Yet few animals in exist¬
ence have the organs of circulation more complicated than
some of the Cephalopoda. Among the annulose animals,
also, in which the nature of the nervous system is so uni¬
formly accordant, circulation varies from an extremely
perfect to an evanescent state. A mode of nutrition and
respiration takes place so entirely different from that ex¬
hibited by the vertebrated and molluscous tribes, that
they never can be regarded as modifications of the same
system. As, then, the general plan of construction of these
animals is so different, Mr Macleay regards it as necessary
to suppose that the new and dissimilar system of respira¬
tion is that which more peculiarly characterizes the annu¬
lose group, or, in the author’s words, “ is that to which the
structure of the animals forming the group tends.” And
what makes this supposition the more probable is, that the
Annelides, or red-blooded worms, which, of all the aiticu-
lated tribes, are placed by Cuvier the nearest to the ver¬
tebrated classes, are nevertheless imperfectly organized,
and of as dull perceptions as any of the annulose division.
This could hardly be the case were the Annulosa to be
considered with propriety as modifications of the verte¬
brated structure, while, on the other hand, those annulose
classes which respire by tracheae, and coincide in nothing
with a vertebrated animal, are, nevertheless, the most ac¬
tive and industrious of their group, although their activity
and industry are of a nature entirely different from what
is observable among the vertebrated tribes. Now it is
difficult, if not impossible, to account for all this, unless we
regard every vertebrated creature to have been construct¬
ed by the great Creator with reference to one type, and
every annulose with reference to another; and as the for¬
mer is more imperfect in proportion as it approaches the
annulose structure, so the latter also becomes more im¬
perfect in proportion as it obtains a distinct system of cir¬
culation and other characteristics of the vertebrated tribes.
It thus follows that the animals which connect them ought
to be extremely imperfect in their organization ; and this
conclusion is well supported by the sluggish Annelides,
in which organs of sense are barely perceptible, and or¬
gans of motion by no means so perfect as among the larvae
of insects.2 M. Straus also maintains the opinion that it
is the less perfect species of any one great group which
approach most closely to the group which precedes or fol¬
lows them, and that it hence results, that in any division,
the species which offer the most elevated organization may
be more perfect than such as are placed at the lower con¬
fines of a higher division. He admits that a more natu¬
ral passage exists from the Vertebrata to the Annulosa,
than from the former to the Mollusca ; but this connec¬
tion he considers is by the lowest in the scale of organi¬
zation of each of these groups. As soon as the Verte¬
brata reach the most simple form compatible with their
mode of organic life, the great Author of nature commences
from that point a new group, that named Annulosa, by suc¬
cessively introducing a new series of organs altogether
ffdai,
fositi
intii
different from those he has abandoned, and by consider¬
ably modifying those he has retained. The genus Ammo-
ccetes (and perhaps also that of Myxine) form this point
among the Vertebrata, while Gordius anti Hirudo compose
the corresponding link among the annulose tribes. On ^
either side these animals find then place at the lowest
point of the descending scale, formed by each of these
two series ; and, compared with each other, the two ge¬
nera of fishes just named, and the abranchial Annelides,
present some remarkable resemblances in the few organs
which they possess.
The opinion that insects and other annulose animals are
more nearly connected with the Vertebrata than are the
Mollusca, is regarded as true by M. Straus Durckheim,
both in regard to the modes of organization according to
which these three divisions are formed, and in relation to
the degree in which their faculties are developed. The
Vertebrata, he observes, are characterized by an articulat¬
ed body, of which the two lateral halves are symmetrical,
and are sustained by an internal skeleton, the central por¬
tion of which is composed of a series of parts, to which the
other osseous parts are attached. In the Annulosa the
symmetry of the two sides of the body is still greater than
in the Vertebrata; the body is likewise articulated, and
formed by a series of central parts, to which the others are
attached, although they have no internal skeleton. The
nervous system "in both consists principally of a spinal
marrow, from which arise most of the nerves of the body ;
but there is this difference in the Vertebrata,—the spinal
marrow is dorsal, whereas it is ventral among the annulose
tribes. The muscular system is also as fully developed in
the one as in the other, and offers nearly the same distinct
forms. The Mollusca, on the contrary, exhibit characters
totally at variance with those now mentioned ; for, on the
one hand, their body no longer exhibits a perfect parity of
parts, nor is it in any degree articulated ; on the other, the
nervous system is not longitudinal, nor its situation con¬
stant, while its mass is greatly decreased. The muscu¬
lar system is also in general much less perfect, and, con¬
sidered in detail, the muscles are less distinct, and only
form, throughout the greater part of the body, a mass of
fibres so interlaced as to be incapable of separation, thus
conducting us to Entozoa, of which the body is only a con¬
tinuous parenchyma without distinct muscles. According
to the author last named, the character which eminently
distinguishes the Mollusca from the two other divisions is,
that in these the organs of animal, in the Mollusca those
of vegetable life, are the most predominant; from whence
it follows that the latter are totally devoid of industry,
and of that higher mode of perception approaching to in¬
telligence, which insects possess in a degree surpassing all
other invertebrated tribes.
Having entered into the preceding investigation with
the view of illustrating the true position of the annulose
division in relation to the other sub-kingdoms of animal
life, we shall now, in more direct reference to the proper
subjects of our present dissertation, that is, the hexapod
or six-footed insects, exhibit, by means of the following
diagram, the views entertained by Mr Macleay regarding
the natural affinities observable among the annulose tribes
themselves. The reader will perceive that the circles of
Mandibulata and Haustellata, with those portions of Ame-
tabola named Thysanura and Anaplura, constitute the
true Insecta, such as we have defined them at the com¬
mencement of this article.
* sHiraleS mr rAnatomie compare dcs Animaux Artkules, &c. par M. Straus Durckheim.
E N T O M
Our next subject of consideration is one which has not
previously formed a part of any of our encyclopaedias of
knowledge.
CHAPTER VI.
THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION OF INSECTS.
This topic has indeed been much less attended to as
a matter of philosophical investigation than it deserves.
When we take an extended view of the general distribu¬
tion of animals and plants, we find that they are usually
disposed over the earth’s surface in bands or parallel zones,
corresponding in a great measure with the peculiarities of
temperature and climate which are appropriate to the na¬
ture of each. When the temperature of a particular lati¬
tude becomes colder, as on mountains or highly elevated
plains,—or warmer, as on plains by the sea shore, or in low
lying sheltered valleys,—we find, in the former case, that
the species approximate in their nature and characters
to those of a more northern, in the latter to those of a
more southern parallel. Of course the zones of vege¬
table and of animal life do not correspond at all strictly
with the latitudinal lines of our geographical system.
Humboldt has indeed shown, that within 15° or 20° from
the equator, the mean annual temperature is nearly the
same in all longitudes of equal elevation, or is at least but
slightly varied by local circumstances. In other words,
the isothermal lines are more regularly parallel with those
of the equator. But in temperate and northern countries
the same uniformity of temperature in each portion of the
same parallel is not observable ; all western coasts, and dis¬
tricts of continents and of considerable islands, being of
a higher temperature than those of the same latitudes
along the eastern shores. The mean temperature of the
North Cape, under the seventy-first degree of north lati¬
tude, does not exceed, indeed corresponds with, that of
Labrador, which is 14° further south ; and that of the west
ot Ireland, in the fifty-fourth degree, agrees with the forty-
third parallel in the United States.
O L O G Y. 97
In relation to zoological geography, 'indeed, there are Geogra-
several other minor circumstances which tend to change phjcal IMs-
or counterbalance the more usual results, and consequent- tributl°n-
ly to derange such calculations as might very reasonably
be formed upon a knowledge of latitudinal and longitudi¬
nal position, and of the height of a country above the level
of the sea. The nature of the soil and surface, the diffe¬
rent degrees of dryness and humidity, and the consequent
character of the climate and vegetation, the comparative
extent of land and water, the extent and continuity of
forests, marshes, and sandy deserts, the direction of moun¬
tain ranges, and the form and position of lakes;—these
and several other circumstances must be taken into con¬
sideration, and will be found materially to affect the dis¬
tribution of animal life over the surface of the earth.
It does not appear that the climates of insects, or those
peculiarities of temperature and other physical attributes
under which certain groups or species appear to predo¬
minate, have been as yet studied in connection with our
imperfect knowledge of isothermal lines. Humboldt, in¬
deed, has remarked, that the geographical stations of the
gnats and some other insects of South America did not
appear to depend solely on the heat of the climate, the
excess of humidity, or the thickness of the forests, but on
local and unappreciable circumstances.1 2 It is evident,
however, that the characteristic stations of insects are
mainly dependent on the degree of temperature, so influ¬
ential on the development and distribution of all the other
varied forms of animal life. An increase of caloric seldom
fails to produce a corresponding increase and alteration in
the number and character of entomological forms; and when
we travel from the hyperborean regions towards the sunny
south, we find that the tiny multitudes accumulate in all
the warmer portions of the temperate zone, till they swarm
between the tropics. Otho Fabricius resided six years in
Greenland, and during that period he collected only six¬
ty-three species of the insect class, properly so called. In
the still higher latitude of Winter Harbour, where Sir
Edward Parry sojourned, only six species were collected
from the beginning of September till the August follow¬
ing. Mr Kirby has stated that in Greenland every order
of insect has its representatives, except Orthoptera and
Hemiptera; but in Melville Island, besides these deficien¬
cies, neither coleopterous nor neuropterous species exist,
or at least were observable; and even the mosquito, that
shrill tyrant of the Lapland plains, appeared to have ceased
from troubling along those hyperborean shores. The most
northern locality of any insect yet ascertained is that of
the Aphis borealis, taken in latitude 82° 26' 44", about one
hundred miles from the nearest known landA It is pro¬
bable, however, that the distribution of many northern
species is still unknown. It was formerly supposed that
in Iceland there were none, and that even in Norway
there were very few, their absence from those countries
being attributed to excess of cold. This opinion, however,
was contradicted by Horrebow, so far as Iceland was con¬
cerned ; and Olafsen and Povalsen, during their sojourn
there, collected 200 different species in one small valley.
It must indeed be borne in mind, that insects can escape
the extreme of cold, not only, as Mr Macleay observes,
by passing certain periods in the pupa or torpid state,
but also by being while in that condition usually buried
in the earth, where they are greatly protected from the
rigours of the winter season. “ What they chiefly re-
1 Personal Narrative, vol. v. p. 88.
2 This species was found in the boat during the last day of Sir E. Parry’s attempt to reach the north pole over the ice. There
was no vestige of vegetation around the adventurous party*; and we think it more probable that the forlorn insect had been carried,
nolens volens, from a somewhat more southern quarter.
VOL. IX.
N
98
Geogra¬
phical Dis¬
tribution.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Mr Macleay admits, that although in his opinion the Geogra.,
tne insect tribes suffer less in cold climates than plants, forPhicall),
On the reasons which we have already stated, it does not
^ insect in cold cliniates than plants,
the coarse of the year are, as is well known, inconopara- in relation to the destruction, or rather we should say
In truth the diminution
bly greater than in ofVeTumbeToflpecTes becomes very conspicuous as we
E adrsaaasswKB, s—ais ~
We see also how in- of the Hora Entomologies supposes to be owing rather to
former country than in the ;v ^ “as ib^short continuance^ the summer warmth than to the
_ r* • . * _ ± 1   ,1 ^ T *-» /-»n r\ r* c\ v*71 f rv t 111G
fC1„^aLTsritZbe™enTheirthrshor7iummei'can lowness of its existing degree. In accordance with this
Lapland and bpitzbergen, w e ,. , se view we certainly find that many insects, such as gnats,
^energy rfdie'S principle in such animals’ is, with- mosquitoes,&c.which pass their larva state in water,-thus
rtain* limits^ pr’oportiona'te” to the degree of warmth avoiding the external cold, and whose existence in the
* 1 . .1 .1 l ^ 1-1 r~l n 1' r'l/OVf c
Mr MaSeay accounts for what certainly at first seems an more troublesome than among the moors and marshes of
J . •  u— wC .wc-Qrvft!. north. * *n tn
among
—---V —r  • , rrpnirranhv of insects • the north. On the other hand, the number of coleopterous
extraordinary circumstance m the geog«iphy ot insects, tne^no ^ naturally longer lived, require a
namplv that their tropical structure extends much far- species, . „
namely, tnac uit y]  . T?  a mnn. o-reater continuance of warmth, is sensibly diminished
ther north in America than in Europe; that is, in a man
ner directly the reverse of that which has been noted by
botanists to occur in the vegetable kingdom.
gr<
amid those dreary wastes.
For exam- It is natural to suppose that if certain plants are pecu-
familv, C. palmetto, does not advance beyond the 34°. But must in like manner he characteristic of special localities,
if we examine Copris carnifex, Cetonia nitida, Rutela 6 Whether this restriction in diet holds good in relation to
punctata, and other coleopterous insects from the neigh- the carnivorous kinds, that is, whether one kind of carcass
hourhood of New York, and compare them with species of is not as good as another, is a point which has not yet
the same families from Brazil, we shall find their difference attracted the consideration of the naturalist. _ Such as
of structure infinitely less than that which would result feed on living animals (the thaleroplmgousCarnivora) are
from a comparison of the entomological productions of the probably more restricted in their parasitical attachments,
environs of Madrid with those of the hanks of the Congo.2 But the coprophagous or dung beetles, and such as prey
A slio-ht consideration of the subject suffices to show on dead animals (the saprophagous Carnivora),_ may be
at certain differences in the relative intensities of sum- supposed to be less regular in the limits of their locali-
that
mer and ofwinter must exercise a strongly modifying pow- ties, occurring wherever their favourite food happens
er on the influence of mean annual temperature, even in (not seldom accidentally) to have been deposited. In
countries where that temperature is one and the same, such cases, of course, less advantage results to the ento-
“ Several fruits, as the olive and grape, as well as the mologist from local references, as the appearance of an
different kinds of corn and other annuals, depend more insect in the place cited may have been entirely acciden-
on the heat of summer than of the whole year; while tal, and incapable of affording any great probability of its
others, impatient of cold, and not requiring great heat, recurrence; yet even the saprophagous beetles are no
have their range more influenced by the temperature of doubt regulated by temperature and elevation, and it is
winter. Now,° it is almost an universal rule, that of two likely that a dead body by the sea shore will exhibit dis¬
places whose mean temperature is the same, that nearest ferent species from a similar nidus exposed on a mountain
the sea, and more particularly a western sea, has a tem- summit.
perate summer and a milder winter. Hence the inland
situation is better adapted to the growth of corn and
fruits, the maritime one to the preservation of tender
plants. In Europe, the northern boundary of the vine
and olive rises as we go eastward, though in so doing we
encounter a lower mean annual temperature. The Arbu¬
tus Unedo, Sibthorpia Europsa, Erica ciliaris, &c. rise in
a westerly direction.’ 3 Whatever vegetation requires the
absence of extreme cold rather than the presence of ex¬
treme heat, wall probably extend itself in a tropical form
The geographical distribution of insects in general is,
in truth, a subject of too difficult and complex a nature to
admit of being worthily treated within our present limits.
We shall, however, notice a few facts which, though pre¬
sented in a somewhat desultory manner, we trust will
not be found entirely devoid of interest.
We may observe, in the first place, that there are
two aspects under which the subject of zoological geo¬
graphy may be viewed. We may either proceed upon
the consideration of the divisions laid down by politico-
more towards the poles on a dry continent than on a moist geographical writers,—-divisions which are no doubt suff¬
er marshy one. Tropical plants, therefore^ will thrive ciently arbitrary in relation to the physical qualities of
better in Thibet and other inland parts of northern Asia, countries,—and describe or indicate the species and genera
than they would do if transported to positions of the same which we have ascertained to characterize such divisions,
latitude in America; for in the latter country the ex- •—or we may take into view the systematic arrangements
tremes of heat and cold are too distant from each other, of naturalists, and by tracing and pointing out the differ-
Thus the vegetation of Canada does not correspond either ent localities of the various tribes, genera, and species
iff its general character or its amount of species, with which we find there arranged, thus arrive by another
that of the corresponding latitudes of France.4 route at the conclusions sought for. We shall here, even
IIor. Ent. p. 45. ■ ' „
Watson’s Outlines of the Geographical Distribution of British Plants.
Hor, Ent. p. 44.
  » Ibid.
(Printed for private circulation.)
Edinburgh, 1832.
ENTOMOLOGY.
99
!» ft;' gra¬
ph: ' Dis-
» jtriition.
at the risk of appearing immethodical, combine, in some
measure, both these processes; and while we indicate
the varied localities of certain species, we shall also give
an occasional sketch of the equally varied entomological
productions of particular portions of the earth’s surface.
We formerly remarked that no coleopterous insect was
noticed in Melville Island. Dytiscus marginalis, however, an
aquatic beetle well known throughout Great Britain, inha¬
bits the waters of Greenland, and extends over the whole
of Europe. Another species of the same genus, D. griseus,
is not only spread over the south of Europe, and most of
the countries adjacent to the Mediterranean, but is. also
found in Bengal. The genus Calasoma is very widely
spread. Captain Frankland took C. calidum during his
arctic journey. C. laterale and curvipes inhabit tropical
America; while C. Chinense, as its name imports, is
found in China. Mr Macleay possesses a specimen from
New Holland; and C. retusum was captured in Terra del
Fuego. The Coccinellce occur in almost all countries
from pole to pole.1 The Silphuhe and Dermestida prey
on carcasses wherever the solar influence is of sufficient
power to produce putrescence; but the brachelytrous
beetles (genus Staphylinus, &c.) have undoubtedly their
metropolis or centre of dominion in the temperate zone,
and more especially within the British islands; loi while
Dejean, in the last edition of his Catalogue (1833), gives
only 789 species as his total amount both of European
and exotic kinds, Mr Stephens enumerates above 750 as
indigenous to Britain. This apparent excess may, how¬
ever’partly arise from the great attention which has been
paid in this country to the collection of the minuter sorts,
which are frequently neglected in foreign lands ior the
sake of the more showy and imposing species. The genus
Onthophagus is native both to the old world and the new,
to the temperate as well as the torrid zone ; while Copris, its
near ally, is more abhorrent of cold,— C. lunaris, which ex¬
tends northward into Sweden, being the only recorded spe¬
cies found in Europe out of Spain.- Latreille, howevei, la¬
boured under a misconception when he supposed that all
the large species of the latter genus were of equinoctial,
origin; for C. Tmolus of Fischer occurs in the vicinity of
Orenburg in Asia, under the 50th degree of north lati¬
tude.2 3 Of the magnificent Dynastidce, termed by Mr
Kirby the “ giants and princes of the insect race, the
metropolis is strictly tropical, although a kind of advanced
piquet is observable in Oryctes nasicornis, common in the
south of Sweden. The reason why the last-named insect,
and several others which occur in Scandinavia, are un¬
known in Britain, may be inferred from some of our pre¬
ceding observations: in a torpid state, or under the.form
of larvae, they are capable of enduring the utmost ligoui
of a Swedish winter; but when revived by the returning
spring, the cool and variable summers of our “ sea-girt
isle” would prove insufficient for the full development of
their vital functions.
The genus Meloe seems almost peculiar to Europe ; and
Britain, which possesses nine species, has been regarded as
one of its most characteristic countries. The entomolo¬
gical characters of the southern shores of Europe strong y
exhibit their geographical approach to the African con¬
tinent. The Ateuckus sacer (the renowned species sculp¬
tured of old by the Egyptians on their sacred monuments),
and various species of Scaurus and AMs, may be regarc e
in the southern countries of Europe, as the avant couriers
among the coleopterous tribes of those more exclusive y
African forms which have their centre of dominion in the
burning deserts. Along the Mediterranean shores the
entomological traveller may study the habits of many cu- Geogra-
rious insects of the genera Onitis, Cebrio, Pimelia, Bra- phical i)is-
chycerus, Brentus, and Scariles, and may also enrich his tribution.
collection by the capture of many beautiful butterflies,'
and other lepidopterous insects, which are more truly
characteristic of Northern Africa. Spain especially exhi¬
bits many features of African zoology. We shall not here
talk of the cameleons, the scorpions, and other species be¬
longing to the separate classes of reptiles and Arachnides;
but the European entomologist will there discover for the
first time several species of the genera Erodius, Sepidium,
Brachinus, and Pimelia. It is however only after cross¬
ing the Mediterranean, and traversing the African shores,
whether north of the Atlas, or eastward towards the
coasts of the Red Sea, that our eyes are delighted with the
hitherto unknown forms of Anthia, Graphipterus, Siagona,
and numerous other species unknown to the colder and
moister shores of Europe.
But no sooner do we leave the Mediterranean coasts of
Africa, and enter upon the more weary and disastrous
pilgrimage of the great deserts, the apparently limitless
expanse of which so soon greets the eye of the yet un¬
daunted traveller, than almost all vestiges of European
life, whether human or brute, disappear; and Nubia,
Ethiopia, Senegal, and a great part of Guinea, exhibit en¬
tomological forms, cognate in character when compared
among themselves, but separated in every sense ot the
words “ longo intervalld' from those of Europe. As we
proceed farther southwards, where the chariot of the
“ Great Apollo” rolls on with a still fiercer and more
fiery lustre, and the beams of a vertical sun induce even
the tawny Moor and the woolly-headed negro to avoid his
scorching and sometimes fatal rays, we discover many
extraordinary forms of insect life, called into existence
through the instrumentality of that bright effulgence
which the pale-faced European has so often sought to
withstand in vain. From the burning regions of Guinea,
and the parched shores of the Congo, we derive the finest
of those magnificent coleopterous insects named generi-
cally Goliathus by Lamarck. The western and equinoc¬
tial parts of Africa also yield us the species of Petalocliei-
rus and Enceladus, while the Cape of Good Hope is re_
markable for the genera Anthia and Brachycerus. The
last-named district is almost the exclusive domain of
Manticora and Pneumora; and the southern paits of
Africa present us with the Scigvu^ Diopsisy and Pctussusy dl-
though it may be observed that some of these also occur
in the East Indies.4
Both Madagascar and St Helena present a few insects
which, to a certain extent, demonstrate the African com¬
plexion of those islands; but the latter especially is also
allied, by its entomological features, to some of the south¬
western countries ot Asia. According to Latreihe, Afiica
furnishes no species of the genus Passadus, although it is
elsewhere widely distributed over America and the East
Indies. The genera Graphypterus, Eurichora, and Pneu¬
mora, are probably peculiar to Africa. Among the he¬
mipterous insects of Africa may be mentioned, the Man¬
tis precaria, an object of superstitious veneration among
the Hottentots, who hold in the highest respect the pei-
son on whom the insect happens to alight. Locusts are
of common occurrence in many parts of Africa, where, as
“ a great people and a strong,” they still produce then-
days of “ darkness and of gloominess,” their days “ of
clouds and of thick darkness,” so magnificently described
by the Prophet Joel. One of the most formidable of the
insect tribes of this continent is the Termes bellicosus, or
1 Inirod. to Ent. vol. iv. p. 48y.
2 Ibid. p. 490.
Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ii. p. 93.
* Entomographia Itussica, tab- 13, fig. 1-
100 E N T O M
Geogra- white ant. It dwells in congregated troops, consisting of
phkal Dis-iabourers> soldiers, and sovereigns. The habitations are
tnbution. a conicai f0rm, built of mud and clay, from ten to
twelve feet high, and divided in the interior by thin par¬
titions into a variety of cells. Indeed, Jobson, in his His¬
tory of Guinea, alleges that they are often twenty feet high ;
and he adds, that he frequently found them extremely
serviceable in screening himself and his companions while
engaged in the pursuit of antelopes and other game. The
queen-mother of this species becomes of so enormous a
size in the pregnant state, that her abdomen exceeds,
by two thousand times, the bulk of the rest of her body;
and when the ova are fully formed, she obtrudes them at
the rate of sixty in a minute, or 72,000 in twenty-four
hours. Madeira and the Canary Islands are decidedly
African in their productions,—the insects, especially, ex¬
hibiting a strong relationship to those of Barbary and the
adjacent districts.
Latreille, while considering the geographical distribu¬
tion of insects, has well observed, that where the empire
of Flora terminates, there the domain of zoology like¬
wise comes to an end. Animals which feed on vege¬
tables cannot support themselves in a region entirely ste¬
rile, and such as are carnivorous are thus themselves in¬
directly deprived of sustenance in consequence of the
want of vegetation. Those countries of which the vege¬
table productions are the most gorgeous and abundant, are
likewise the most productive of insect life. Both effects
spring from a temperature high and continuously sustain¬
ed, from moderate moisture, and a varied soil. The more
closely, on the contrary, we approach the other extreme,
where clouds and darkness obscure the sky, and the ground
is so often covered with a pure but unproductive garment
of snow, and tbe lifeless solitude of the mountain valleys
is defended by the icy battlements of the enduring gla¬
ciers,—the more we shall perceive a diminution in the
amount of organic, and more especially of insect life. If,
instead of travelling northwards to the polar plains, we
ascend some majestic mountain even of a tropical range,
the same phenomena are observable. Although its base
should be laved by the glittering waters of an equatorial
sea, and its sloping sides should bear the arborescent ferns
and plumy palm trees of the warmest climes,—still, should
the mountain belong to the highest class, like those of
Cayambe or Chimborazo, long before the traveller has
approached its barren summit, he will perceive the most
striking symptoms of that sterility which we are apt to
associate only with the polar regions. The “ bright con¬
summate flowers” of the lower plains have disappeared,—
the parrots in their gay attire no longer adorn the stunted
trees,—and the insect tribes, so fantastic in their forms,
and of such surpassing lustre, have gradually decreased in
size and number, and at last present, in common with the
vegetable kingdom, an aspect and character much more
allied to those of northern climes. Finally, unless it may be
that some giant condor, or other bird of loftiest flight, is
seen floating in the thin air of those extremest heights,
there is nothing to remind the adventurous traveller°that
he is actually within the burning tropics; for all his per¬
ceptions and sensations might be identical were he sud¬
denly transported to the summit of Mount Hecla,
An earthquake-rifted mountain of bright snow.
It is thus that, on the Central Alps of Europe, we meet with
many species characteristic of, though not peculiar to, the
plains of northern countries. The Prionus depsarius, long
O L O G Y.
regarded as exclusively confined to Sweden, has in later
times been taken on the mountains of Switzerland ; and M.
Latreille has captured at Cantal the Lycus minutus, formerly
received only from the most northern provinces of Europe.
The beautiful Apollo butter fry (Parnassius Apollo), so com¬
mon in the plains and flower-gardens in the vicinity of Upsal,
never occurs in France, except on mountains of consider¬
able elevation, and re-appears again in the snow-surround¬
ed valleys of Switzerland. Many other butterflies which,
in the northern provinces of France, occur not far from
warm and low-lying sheltered stations, are found in the
southern departments and in Italy on alpine or sub-alpine
situations. The same may be said of Carabus auratus
and Acridium grossum. Even in Great Britain, the limit¬
ed extent of which might be supposed to preclude any
great disparity in the entomological productions of its
geographical divisions, there is an obvious difference be¬
tween its southern and northern quarters. The colder and
more cloudy clime of Scotland is poor in Lepidoptera of
the finer kinds. Here no purple emperor, “ proud of ceru¬
lean dyes,” floats over the far-stretching branches of our
oaks and beeches,—no swallow-tailed butterfly (Papilio
Machaon), with its elegantly lengthened wings, reminds us
of the exquisite Brazilian tribes,—no “ Camberwell beauty”
( Vanessa Antiopa) expands to the sun its richly margin¬
ed wings ; but these and many more, denied to bleak Ca¬
ledonia, are found in the southern counties of England.1
It is interesting, however, to observe the analogy which
exists between the insects, more especially the Coleoptera
of Scotland and of Sweden. Several of the rarest species
lately discovered in the northern quarters of the island,
such as Clivina Arctica, Harpalus micropterus, Elaphrus
Laponicus,Byrrhusceneus, Salpingusfoveolatus, and others,
are better known in the Scandinavian peninsula than else¬
where, and are indeed characteristic of the north-western
division of the continent of Europe.
From these and similar observations, those who have
viewed the science of entomology with a philosophic eye
have endeavoured, in common with geographers, to divide
the surface of the earth into different climatic regions.
But while the latter have assumed as a basis the progres¬
sive differences in the longest continuance of the natural
day, the former proceed upon a knowledge of the mean
temperature of countries. Fabricius, in his Philosophia
Entomologica, divides climate in general into eight sub¬
climates, or restricted stations, viz. the Indian, the South¬
ern, the Mediterranean, the Northern, the Eastern, the
Western, and the Alpine. But it is easy, as M. Latreille
has remarked, to perceive, by the enumeration of the par¬
ticular countries which are referred to each of these divi-
Georr
pineal
sions, that the divisions themselves are by no means esta¬
blished on a fixed foundation ; and that the suppression of
several would be necessary were the principle on which
they are established followed out with rigour. The sub¬
climate which he names Mediterranean comprises the
countries adjacent to the Mediterranean Sea, with Media
and Armenia. The Northern extends from Paris to Lap-
land. The Eastern consists of the north of Asia, of Sibe¬
ria, and of the cold or mountainous portion of Syria. The
Western contains Canada, the United States, Japan, and
China, from these it will be seen that this arrangement
is in many respects extremely arbitrary; for several of
the above-named districts, although placed under sepa¬
rate climates, have a mean temperature identically the
same. Moreover, many countries in which the mean tem¬
perature is the same, are characterized and distinguished
butterflies, occur very plentifully
4
by a great disparity in the nature of their animal produc-
i1S- tions.
I10, M. Latreille has taken another view of this interesting
subject, more in conformity with the dictum of Linnaeus,
regarding the characters of genera, the spirit of which
may be also here applied. “ Let the insects point out the
climate, and not the climate the insects.” He takes into
consideration all those genera which seem to be appropri¬
ated exclusively to certain determinate spaces on the sur¬
face of our earth. It is true that the groundwork of this
method is much more restricted than that from which
Humboldt and other writers on botanical geography have
deduced their observations on the distribution of plants ;
for our knowledge of the precise localities of foreign in¬
sects is by no means ample.1 The great French entomo¬
logist rather upbraids the majority of scientific travellers
with their negligence in these particulars; for it is not
the locality alone, but the physical character of the cli¬
mate, the mineralogical qualities of the soil, the vicinity
of wood and water, and the height above the level of the
sea, which ought to be noted in connection with the oc¬
currence of particular species. We have already noticed
the fondness of Papilio Cleopatra and other insects for a
calcareous soil. The Pimelia bicaudata, so common in
the neighbourhood of Marseilles, scarcely ever occurs at
a distance from the sea. If the interior parts of Barbary,
Syria, and Egypt, present us with species of the same
genus, this entomological relation no doubt results from
the soil of these countries being impregnated with saline
particles, and abounding in plants of the genus Salsola.
The insects which occur in the countries which border
the Mediterranean, the Black, and the Caspian Seas, ex¬
hibit many analogies.
The following propositions result from M. Latreille’s
researches in Entomology..
ls£, The totality or a great proportion of the insects
! which' occur in countries of which the qualities of the soil
| and temperature are analogous, are nevertheless of dilfer-
| ent species, if these countries, though placed under the
same parallel, are widely distant from each other. All
j the insects brought from the most eastern parts of Asia,
j for example China, are distinct from those of Europe and
of Africa, whatever may be the latitude, elevation, or
' mean temperature of these Asiatic countries.
2d, The generality of insects still differ specifically in
i countries agreeing in the characters of their soil and tem¬
perature, but separated, independently of mere latitudinal
difference, by great natural barriers, such as chains of
lofty mountains, vast sandy deserts, or the waters of an
intervening ocean. Thus the species of New Holland or
of America are easily recognised among those of the va¬
rious countries of the ancient world; and even the insects
of Grenada and Peru, though at no great distance from
! those of Guiana, are in a great measure different, owing
I no doubt to the interposition of the vast chain of the Cor¬
dilleras. When we pass from Piedmont into France by
the Col de Tende, we perceive a marked difference of
species, even in that short journey. These rules, how¬
ever, like most others, however general, are subject to se¬
veral individual exceptions. Several species of insect are
distributed over such a vast extent of territory as entitles
them to be regarded as genuine cosmopolites. Thus the
painted lady-butterfly ( Vanessa Cardui) is found over great Geogra-
portions of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America, and is asphical Dis-
familiarly known in the central islands of the vast Pacific tribution.
Ocean, as in the flower-gardens of England.2 That beau-
tiful sphinx-moth (N. nerid), well known near Genoa, and
so remarkable for the richness of its green, a rare colour
among lepidopterous species, although it seldom occurs
farther north than France, is found in the Mauritius, and
probably in many intermediate countries. The deaths’
head moth (Sphynx Atropos), which occurs occasionally
in most parts of Scotland, is well known in India and the
Isle of trance. We have already mentioned the great
extent of territory occupied by several aquatic beetles;
and these and other examples which might be adduced
remind us of M. Latreille’s next proposition.
3d, Many genera of insects, and particularly such as
feed on vegetables, are spread over numerous points of the
principal divisions of our globe.
\th. Other genera are exclusively proper to a certain
extent of country, whether of the ancient continents or
the new. According to Latreille, no species of the ge¬
nera Anthia, Graphipterus, Erodius, Pimelia, Scaurus,
Cossyphus, Mylabris, Brachycerus, Nemoptera, Apis, or
Anthophora, occur in America; and many genera of the
family Scarabeidce are likewise there unknown. But the
western world, on the other hand, produces several ge¬
nera which we do not meet with elsewhere,—such as
Agra, Galerita, Nilio, Tetraonyx, Rutela, Doryphora,
Alurnus, Erotylus, Cupes, Corydalis, Labidus, Pelicinus,
Centris, Euglossa, Heliconia, Erycina, Castnia, &c. Our
bees are there replaced by Melipona and Trigona. We
have already mentioned several genera peculiar to Africa.
Colliuris is characteristic of the East Indies ; Lamprima,
Helans, Paropsis (Notoclea of Marsham), and Panops, are
confined to New Holland.
bth. Many species in their natal countries effect parti¬
cular localities. Several alpine butterflies are never ob¬
served at any considerable distance from the region of
perpetual snow, while other species prefer the warmer air
of low-lying sheltered meads at no great height above the
level of the sea.
Both the ancient continent and the new may be
divided into zones, successively extending in the direction
of the meridians, and the breadth of which is measurable
by a portion of a circle parallel to the equator. The
species proper to one of these zones disappear gradually,
and give place in the same manner to those of the zone
following; so that from space to space the dominating
species, or even the totality, have undergone a change.3
Latreille compares these changes to that series of hori¬
zons which the traveller discovers in proportion as he re¬
moves from his first point of departure.
Sweden presents us with many insects peculiar to that
country, some of which are confined to its more northern
provinces, such as Lapland. But its southern portions,
for example Scania, produce, though still in limited num¬
bers, many German insects. France, as far as the 45th or
44th degree, supplies the entomologist with many of the
species which occur in the last-named countries; but the
Rhine and its eastern mountains form a kind of frontier
line, which many others do not appear to pass. The first
of the species characteristic of the warmer regions of
The second edition of Comte Dejean’s Catalogue de Coltopteres now exhibits a very interesting picture of the distribution of that
order. We shall refer to it more particularly when we come to treat of the coleopterous tribes.
3 Edinburgh Review, vol. liii. p. 339.
, Introduction d la Geographic Gentrale des Arachnides ct des Insectes, ou des Climats proprcs d ces Animaux. This memoir was read to
ie Academy of Sciences in 1815, and forms part of the 3d volume of the Mtmoire* du Museum d' Hist. Nat. It was afterwards
republished, with corrections and additions, along with some other essays, in a separate volume, entitled Memoires sur divers Sujets
l His loir e Naturelle des Insectes, &c. Paris, 1819.
102
Geogra¬
phical Dis
tribution.
entomology.
. „ . . J , tinned into several different departments.1 Geogs
Western Europe show themselves towards the mfer.or b ^ or most northern portion, in consequence ofPfell
course of the Seine, in pretty close accordance with tne^ ine o ^ r spnsnn. nossesses, even in its ,lnb»l«
  .5rett^cl0S.eaCr''aanCeJrt'!,uiee**e se've'rity'of its winterseas6n, possesses, even in itsfH
point where the vine is vigorous .n the open a r mde- t dfstricts, many attributes ol the arct.c reg.ons;
nendent of any succour derived from merely local circum inland valleys, and the upper basins of its numer-
stances. Ateuchus flagellatus, Mylabns chiconi, Mantis wh far-flowing rivers, are enriched, during a brilliant
rcligiosa. Cicada hmmatodes.Ascalaphmthough short-livecl summer, with many of the more gorge-
announce this change,—which becomes st 11 mo'e obvraus g of insect life. Another vast and imperfectly
at Fontainebleau and the environs of k reKion 0f Asia is bounded to the north by Siberia,
and to the south by those highly elevated table-lands
which terminate among the Himalaya Mountains. _ I his
division still presents several features which prove its as¬
similation in some respects to the characters which dis¬
tinguish animal life in Europe ; for although it isunuoubt-
addition to the above-named species, we may perceive
Phasma Possii, Mantis pagana, and Sphinx cele1™’ 1
these are but the forerunners of such as are native to
southern countries properly so ca|led- th JhA rbuLT ^
the olive, the spontaneous growth of the Arbutus, tl e  
pomegranate, and of lavender, .re boW«cagrmg«oms ‘ai^characterized by numerous peculim- forms of exis-
which cherish m the mind of an instiuctert entorr " P te,/ce ,et many 0f its genera and species are either the
the hopes of a rich increase. J Marseilles, we genuine types “of groups which occur in countries with
in France, when, journeying from P^istyMarse^^ fvhjch weJare fa„nliar, or pertain to groups which are
reach the territory of Montehmart. The easte P themselves well exemplified by European insects. But
of Spain, those sunny regions where the orange ancUhe ^e^elves we ^ rela/n t0 {he higher animals
palm-tree are luxuriant without the aid of n a ’ P in_ than the iasect tribes; for, in truth, of the Entomology of
more abundantly the rarer southern inse^ts o E ’ Central Asia we have as yet a most inadequate idea,
termingled with species hitherto unperceived in P • A u Himalaya Mountains, and other southern por-
Our knowledge of the insects of the sf0^-east of Eu- Amon, the ^ begin t0 discover many genera of
rope is by no means amp.e. Latiei c in o i d the birt[s wiflch occur in the lower lands of Hindustan and the
Popilio chrysippus of Linnaeus, comm®“gJPEu an peninsular projection of Malacca; and if the entomologi-
East Indies, makes lts firs^T ^^The greater propor- cal kingdom L at all regulated by corresponding rules,
species m the kingdom of Eaples. g P I we mav infer that some of the southern insects also make
tion, however, of the Egyptian species are entirely un- lousvalieys. The same circrnn-
known in Europe, although they pertain, 111 "u™er Tj stance, indeed occurs, we mean the like transition of species,
stances, to the same natural families as om own. 1 ^
southern parts of that land of Pyrarni s P J mal flfe. Each extensive division is characterized by
a^Tothe in ec“ ScSt warm ^eril peculiar forms, and yet at the same time nouns es
plialns, Antcnoi, and other n p . snecies which are common alike to it and to other
ssssssas.tr:
nf Fmrland The northerly departments of France, situated vances on his journej, a few species are continua y p
on the bimlts of UieRhlne, have in many respects a commu- ceived to decrease in number, and then to disappear
nitv of species with the neighbouring provinces of Germany; while their places are supplied by otheis, wine ), a ■
while a fain several snecies of the Levant, such as CnM(/ia- but thinly scattered, gradually acquire an accession
ri» orientalis, Mylabrl emmeomh, a beautiful variety of numbers, till they too
Mehlontha occidentalis brought home by Olivier, and cer- centre of dominion , but the c a g T P
tain diurnal Lepidoptera, appear to have journeyed far west- from place to place, the differenc e is no more suddei }
ward'from tlieir anc^^ral ^liomes, and'fixed'their abode perceptible than that in the ^rizon by vdiich the trav^
in the Austrian territory. The collections formed by ler is surrounded, and a portion of which in his onwa
Olivier in Asia Minor, Syria, and Persia, prove that the progress becomes insensibly, from the circumference the
insects of those countries, though nearly related to those very centre of the held of vision. but no sooner do we
of the south of Europe, are not specifically the same ; and enter upon the zoo ogy o India Proper, than tlieur°
a like judgment, with some exceptions, may be entertained pean forms of animal hie almost entirely disappear, and are
of the species of Southern Russia and the Crimea. The succeeded by others of a richer and more varied charac-
entomological productions of the coast of Coromandel, of ter of form and aspect, some of which, however, extena
Bengal, of the south of China, and even of Thibet, possess to the parallel latitudes of the African continent. LM
many characters in common ; but they are entirely dis- Asiatic Islands again present us with another picture, ana
tinct from those of Europe. In the regions just named this latter change may be said to commence at the soutn-
we discover no species of the genera Graphipterus, AMs, ern extremity of the Isthmus of Malacca. Java and &u-
Scaurus, Pimelia, Sepidium, or Erodia, for of these na- matra, in Mr Swainson s opinion, will probably be foun o
ture appears to have granted the exclusive possession to be the metropolis or central region of this range, w uc
the south-western regions of the ancient continent, Al- still produces several of the forms of Northern India;
though Fabricius assigns the East Indies as the native while in New Guinea and New' Ireland, the Asiatic forms
country of certain species of Erachycerus, Latreille has properly so called begin to disappear, and are replaced y
been unable to identify any from such locality. The genus many singular and interesting species, which exhibit the
Anthia is said to occur in Bengal, but not farther east- commencement of what may be termed the Australian
ward. kingdom. Papilio bolina occurs both in Java and New
The great Asiatic division of our globe, when consider- Holland,
ed in its entomological and other zoological relations., may Madagascar, as might be supposed, exhibits in its natu-
1 Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. viii. p. 1.
3 Ibid. p. 2.
Jeogs-
ical i-s-
ibutit’i-
t
f
I
J
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i
If
t
}
't
ll |
II I
II
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ji
If
ENTOMOLOGY.
103
ral families a resemblance to Africa. Nevertheless the
species are distinct, and many of them present no analogy
whatever to those of the continent. The Isles of France
and Bourbon likewise manifest traces of the same family
resemblance; but, on a general view, they show a closer
connection with the East Indian species. Their ascertain¬
ed number is, however, extremely limited.1
Although the Entomology of New Holland may be said,
like that of all other vast tracts of country, to exhibit a
special type, it is yet composed, in some of its principal
portions, of species analogous to those of the Moluccas
and the south-east of India. This great fifth continent,
as it has been called, is, however, less rich in insects than
many other foreign countries, its soil being drier, and not
so well wooded. The genus Mylabris, so abundant in
the south of Europe, in Africa, and Asia, does not appear
to pass beyond Timor. In that respect, then, New Hol¬
land agrees with America, as well as in the possession of
Passalus, a genus of which the species have been more
particularly noted as inhabitants of the new world. Seve¬
ral generic groups of the latter region present a closer re¬
semblance to those of the east of Asia, than to such as are
characteristic of the ancient world. The insects of New
Zealand, of New Caledonia, and the circumjacent isles,
show an obvious relation to those of New Holland; and
the same may be said of such as occur in the archipelagos
of the Great Southern Ocean. These islands, composed
in great measure of aggregations of polypiferous rocks,
form a chain which unites them in a westerly direction to
the preceding regions, and from which many of their na¬
tural productions may have been received in the long
course of ages. This natural communication could not
have taken place with the new world, and thus many of
these islands, although rather American than otherwise,
according to their geographical position, may be regarded
as Asiatic in regard to their animal and vegetable pro¬
ducts.
The new world has also been observed to present pro¬
gressive changes in the succession of its species, in con¬
nection with every considerable difference in the latitude
and longitude. M. Bose collected in Carolina many species
which were unknown in Pennsylvania, and were still more
foreign to New York ; and the researches of Abbot in il¬
lustration of the Lepidoptera of Georgia demonstrate the
existence in that province of certain species which have
their central station in the Antilles. The banks of the
far-stretching Missouri, about twenty degrees to the wmst
of Philadelphia, produce many peculiar species. The En¬
tomology of the Antilles presents a strong contrast to that
of the United States. Trinidad, under the tenth degree
of north latitude, presents us with truly equatorial species,
such as the splendid butterflies called Teucer and Mene-
laus, which do not occur in St Domingo. Brazil, so gorge¬
ous in its insect tribes, possesses species in common with
Cayenne, but it also produces many others peculiar to it¬
self. Latreille differs from Mr Macleay in his opinion re¬
garding the comparative extension, in a northerly direc¬
tion, of the southern species in the new and old world.
He states that the southern species of the western hemi¬
sphere do not attain to so high a latitude as they do on
the ancient continents. Here, he thinks, they begin to
appear between the forty-eighth and forty-ninth degrees
of north latitude ; there, not until we gain the forty-third
degree.2 In relation to this subject Mr Kirby has remark¬
ed, that although the winters in Canada, within the same
parallel as France, are longer and more severe than those Geogra-
even of Great Britain or of Germany, yet the summers are phicaf Dis-
intensely hot; so that though tropical species do not range tribution.
so high, those of a tropical structure, in conformity with
Mr Macleay’s views, may be found in a higher latitude in
the new world than in Europe.3 When we take into
consideration certain peculiarities in the physical consti¬
tution of America,—its well watered surface, its lofty
mountains, its majestic forests, and humid atmosphere,—
we shall easily understand how many genera of the an¬
cient continent, dwelling by preference in dry, warm, and
sandy situations, for example Anthia, Pimdia, Erodius,
and Brachycervs, should not occur in the comparatively
rich, moist, and shaded soils of the new world. Thus
also the carnivorous Coleoptera in America are propor¬
tionally of smaller amount than in the old continent, al¬
though no quarter of the globe is more productive of
large and splendid species among the phytophagous or
vegetable-eating tribes of insects. However, the south
of China and the Moluccas still maintain a certain supe¬
riority in the production of such splendid examples of the
lepidopterous order as Papilio Priamus and Bombyx Adas,
of which the dimensions surpass those of the American
species. A fact noted by Latreille is worthy of remem¬
brance, viz. that Europe, Africa, and Western Asia, are
extremely unproductive of the genus P/iasma, or the
spectre insect, and that such of the species as do occur
are extremely small, while the Moluccas and South Ame¬
rica produce many of remarkable size. The atmospheric
humidity of the new world, its narrow and elongated
form, the nature of its soil, and the vast extent of ocean
by which it is environed, are sufficient reasons for the dis¬
agreement observable between its productions and those
of corresponding latitudes in our own hemisphere. The
new world, in fact, bears in many respects the same
relation to the old that Britain does to a great portion of
Europe.4
We have already alluded to the classification of climate
given by Fabricius, and to certain circumstances which
have been supposed to render the adoption of that classi¬
fication unadvisable. Latreille has viewed the same sub¬
ject under a better aspect. He considers the northern
extremities of Greenland and of Spitzbergen, under the
eighty-first degree of northern latitude, as the points
where vegetation terminates. But to obviate all difficulty,
and with a view to establish a duodecimal division, which
is not only convenient in itself, but also in frequent accord¬
ance wdth the actual observation of geographical groups,
he raises this supposed limit of vegetation three degrees
higher, that is, to the eighty-fourth degree. If we then
divide into successive spaces of twelve degrees, a meridian
commencing from the western parts of Spitzbergen, or
those nearest to Greenland, we shall have a suite of lati¬
tudes corresponding successively to the limits of the coun¬
tries already alluded to in relation to their zoological
productions. He continues these sections duodecimally
or by twelve degrees, beyond the equator, and towards
the antarctic pole, and stops about the sixtieth degree of
southern latitude, under the parallel of Sandwich Land,
regarded in that direction as the 7ie plus ultra of geogra¬
phical discovery.
It appears that a difference in latitude of twelve de¬
grees always produces a very sensible change in the mass
of insect species; and that if that space is doubled, the
alteration is almost total; as, for example, between the
1 See an interesting memoir (which we did not receive till the present pages were in types, and which we consequently have not
had time to analyse) entitled “ Sur les Lepidopteres de Madagascar, Bourbon, et Maurice,” by Dr Boisduval, in the Nouvdks An-
tuiles du Museum, t. ii. p. 149.
* Mtrnoircs, p. 182. 3 Introd. to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 492. 4 Memoires, p. 184.
104 E N T O M
Geogra- north of Sweden and the north of Spain. An analogous
phical Dis- change takes place in relation to the longitude, but more
tribution. g]^]^ anci after a traverse of a greater distance; since
the mean temperature, but for causes of a particular and
local nature, is not widely different under the same paral¬
lel. In proportion as we approach the pole, the extent
occupied by particular races embraces a greater number
of geographical divisions.
The insects of America, even those of its northern pro¬
vinces, at least as far as Canada, maybe said to differ
specifically from those of Europe; but the species of
Greenland may rather be regarded as European. The
last-named country, so far as the entomological geography
of the ancient continent is concerned, is assumed by La-
treille as the point of departure for his first meridian. In
any view it may be regarded as intermediate between
the two hemispheres. The Canaries, the Cape de Yerd
Islands, and Madeira, are African, judging from their en¬
tomological productions. The meridian above named will
thus follow a middle line between these islands and the
most eastern cape of South America, that of St Roque,
near Rio Grande, in Brazil. It will pass by the western
isles, or archipelago of the Azores, and by the island of
Ascension, and wdll abut to the westward of Sandwich
Land. Its longitude will be thirty-four degrees to the
west of the meridian of Paris. According to Latreille’s
observations on the insects collected by Olivier in Persia,
their general relationship to those of the south of Europe
and the north of Africa, and the essential differences
which they present when compared with the entomologi¬
cal productions of the East Indies, it may be inferred
that the most signal changes in the species take place in
a southerly direction towards the frontier lines of Persia
and Hindustan, and in a northerly direction at a short
distance from the eastern slopes of the Uralian Moun¬
tains and Lake Aral, a little beyond the sixtieth meridian
east of Paris. We may fix this limit approximately at
sixty-two degrees, somewhat to the west of the Obi, and
of Balk and Candahar, for the sake of affording the means
of continuing a duodecimal division; for if we add 62 to
34, the difference between the first meridian and that of
Paris, we have the number 96, a quantity susceptible of
being divided, without fractions, into eight parts, each
equal to the thirtieth portion of the circle. We thus se¬
parate the ancient continent into two great bands, of which
one is western and the other eastern; and if we assign to
the latter the same extent in longitude as the former,
that is, ninety-six degrees, it will terminate 158 degrees
of eastern longitude from the meridian of Paris. Depart¬
ing from Kamtchatka, it will pass by the Carolinas, and
from thence between New Holland and New Zealand.
If augmented by one fourth, or by twenty-four degrees,
this eastern band would be bounded by the 182d meridian
east of Paris, and passing at a short distance from East
Cape, over Behring’s Straits, would stretch beyond the
friendly Islands, and form, without any material error in
relation to our entomological views, a line of demarcation
between Asia and America. The remaining 144 degrees
complete the equatorial circle, and compose the extent in
longitude of that great zone proper to the insects of Ame¬
rica. It may also be divided, and under the same deno¬
minations of eastern and western, into two equal portions,
each of seventy-two degrees. Thus the entire circle of
the equator may be regarded as divisible into four arcs,
of which the values are, 72, 72, 96, and 120, or in the
proportion of six thirtieths, eight thirtieths, and ten thir¬
tieths. I he extent in longitude of the ancient continent
will comprise 216 degrees, and that of the new 144.
The lesser zones or climates are denominated arctic or
antarctic by M. Latreille, according to their position on
O L O G Y.
this or the other side of the equator. The climate in- Geijfj)
eluded between the 84th and 72d degrees of north lati-phicMio]
tude is named the polar climate. Then follow as far as
the equator, and always in divisions of twelve degrees,
the following climates, viz. the sub-polar, the superior, the
intermediate, the super-tropical, the tropical, and the equa¬
torial; and as each hemisphere is partitioned into two
great divisions, the climates of each are distinguished by
the name of western and eastern. The antarctic climates
consist of only three in number, as we know little of what
exists amid those chilly regions beyond the 60th degree
of south latitude, and thus in that direction both the polar
and sub-polar climates may be suppressed. We shall il¬
lustrate these views by a few applications to the northern
and western kingdoms of Europe, the best known portions
of the old world.
The polar climate presents us with the insects of the
greater part of Greenland, and with those of Iceland and
of Spitzbergen. In the sub-polar climate we shall find those
of Norway, of the north of Sweden, and of Russia in Eu¬
rope. These two of ctfurse contain the insects of the
coldest climates of the earth. We may regard as belong¬
ing to the superior climate the species of Great Britain,
of the south of Sweden, of the north of France as far as
the inferior course of the Loire, of Prussia, of Germany
Proper, and of the south of Russia as far as the Crimea
exclusive. The intermediate climate, at equal distances
from those of the equator and the pole, will comprehend
all the species of the south of Europe, and of a portion of
the west of Asia. Those of the north of Africa, and as
far as the equator, may be classed under the climates
called super-tropical, tropical, and equatorial. These west¬
ern climates may be divided into two equal parts, each
consisting of forty-eight degrees, by a meridian which, pass¬
ing fourteen degrees to the east of Paris, in the vicinity of
Vienna, would leave to the east the most southern part of
Italy, Turkey in Europe, Egypt, &c. Now it has been
already remarked, that many of the insects of the envi¬
rons of Vienna are also known to occur in the Levant,
and that those of the kingdom of Naples, of Egypt, and
of the south-east of Europe, appear to differ in many re¬
spects from the southern and western species of that divi¬
sion of the globe. We can here, then, effect the forma¬
tion of sub-climates. If we divide the eastern portion, of
which the extent in longitude is 120 degrees, into four
equal sections of thirty degrees, by meridians, we shall
have sub-climates, of which the boundaries seem very ac¬
cordant with nature. Thus the first would comprehend
Hindustan, Thibet, Little Bucharia, &c. while the second
would detach almost all the Philippine Islands, China
Proper, and the regions of the north as far as a short way
beyond the river Lena. Corea, Japan, and the countries
of the Manchous and Tongouses, &c. would form the
third subdivision. The fourth would present Kamt¬
chatka, and the other countries which terminate the
north-east of Asia. America may likewise be subdivided
after a similar manner.
It must, however, be borne in mind that nature, in her
distribution of the localities proper to the various races of
animals, often swerves from her more regular and accus¬
tomed courses, and that the lines of habitation form nu¬
merous curves and sinuosities, not unfrequently crossed
or interrupted by others of a somewhat different nature.
We must, therefore, in considering such views as the pre¬
ceding, make abstraction of particular modifications which
alter or derange our theoretical views. Latreille’s is but
an unfinished sketch of a highly interesting geographical
map of Entomology, in which he has endeavoured, as well
as he could, to mark out various boundaries, and to divide
them according to certain principles in harmony with his
ENTOMOLOGY. 105
actual observations, so far as these have been hitherto itwasimaginedthatthewholeof Africa and of America re- Geogra-
-carried. The geographical distribution of living beings sembled the deserts of Egypt and the marshes of Cayenne, phjcal Dis-
presents a wide field for speculation, although the modes At present, when men judge of the state of things, not tribud°n.
by which that distribution has been effected will proba- from one type arbitrarily chosen, but from positive know-
bly in many cases remain for ever concealed from hu- ledge, it is ascertained that the two continents, in their
man knowledge. Their gradual extension by natural immense extent, contain countries that are altogether ana-
means, from a single centre of creation, scarcely falls logous, and that there are regions of America as barren
within the sphere of credibility ; and thus the creation of and burning as the interior of Africa.”2 It is indeed true
various groups of species over different points of the earth’s that the migration and distribution of organized bodies can
surface, and in accordance with the climate and physical no more be solved as a problem in physical science than
character of different countries,—or the removal and dis- the mystery of their original creation ; and that “ the task
persion, by supernatural agency, of the greater proportion of the philosopher is fulfilled when he has indicated the
of existing species from an original centre,—seem the two laws in accordance with which nature has distributed the
points, one or other of which remains to be illustrated by forms of animal and vegetable life.”3
whoever is curious in such bewildering speculations. “ A In regard to those exquisite tribes which form the more
glance at the innumerable and far-spread legions which immediate subjects of our present observations, it is known
compose the busy world of insect life renders the subject that the increasing intensity and continuance of heat ex¬
still more complex and confounding. A discovery ship, ert a powerful influence on the size, structure, and external
under the guidance of brave men, surmounts with diffi- adornment of the species. The nearer, in general, that we
culty the terrors of the ocean ; and, after being months on advance towards equinoctial countries, the more remark-
the trackless main, and some thousand miles from any of able do we find these creatures, for their largeness of di-
the great continents of the earth, she arrives at last and mension, their singularity of form, and their depth as well
accidentally at some hitherto unknown island of small di- as splendour of colour. An accurate knowledge of the
mensions, a mere speck in the vast world of waters by distribution of insects is of the highest interest to the
which it is surrounded. She probably finds the ‘ Lord of geologist and geographer as well as to the entomologist,
the Creation’ there unknown ; but though untrod by hu- and may be the means of determining, in doubtful or dis-
man footsteps, how busy is that lonely spot with all the puted cases, the natural and what may be called the ori-
other forms of active life ! Even man himself is repre- ginal limits of countries; as, for example, in the case of
sented not unaptly by the sagacious and imitative mon- islands situated at nearly equal distances between two
keys, which eagerly employ so many vain expedients to distant continents. But we cannot here pursue the sub¬
drive from their shores what they no doubt regard as ject under a more extended form.4
merely a stronger species of their race. ‘ Birds of gayest Having thus cursorily considered the geographical dis ¬
plume’ stand fearlessly before the unsympathizing natura- tribution of insects, we may now devote a brief space to
list; and at every step of the botanical collector the most their local distribution, or favourite haunts, according to
gorgeous butterflies are wafted from the blossoms of un- their kind, in any given district. The surface of a coun¬
known flowers, and beautify the ‘ living air’ with their try, it has been observed, consists either of mountains,
many splendid hues. Yet how frail are such gaudy wings, hills, and valleys, or of plains. In either case it may be
and how vainly would they now serve as the means of bare and exposed, or diversified by forests, groves, or
transport from that solitary spot, where all the present copses; and it may also be dry and sandy, or rich and
generations have had their birth ! In what manner, then, well watered by lakes and rivers. Such parts as are un¬
did they become its denizens, or by what means were they covered are greatly varied by the hand both of art and
transported to a point almost imperceptible in comparison nature, and present heaths or grassy downs, marshes,
with the immeasurable extent of the circumjacent ocean?”1 meadows, or tillage land, each of which is characterized by
In the opinion of Humboldt, the causes of the distribu- a difference of soil as well as of vegetable surface. In each
tion of species, whether in the vegetable or in the animal the careful entomologist will discover peculiar kinds of
kingdom, are among the number of mysteries to which insects. “ As mountains and hills have usually their own
natural science cannot attain. This science, or at least flora, the insects appropriated to alpine plants can only
that branch of it which takes cognizance of zoological geo- be met with where their pabulum is found. Here also
graphy, is not occupied in the investigation of the origin those northern insects that are impatient of a waim cli-
of beings, but of the laws in accordance with which they mate will take their station it they migrate to the south-
are now distributed over the surface of the earth. It en- ward. The predacious beetles likewise sometimes frequent
ters into the examination of things as they are, the co-ex- a mountainous district. Carabus glabratus was first taken^
istence of vegetable and animal forms in each latitude, at by Professor Hooker on Ingleborough ; and probably, if
different heights, and at different degrees of temperature ; the Welsh and Scotch mountains were duly investigated
it studies the relations under which particular organizations by an entomologist, many novelties would reward his
are more vigorously developed, multiplied, or modified; toils. Ihe valleys and plains, especially those of a sunny
but it approaches not problems the solution of which is im- exposition, abound in insects. VV hen the heat of the
possible, since they touch the origin or first existence of atmosphere indisposes you for motion, you will find it no
the germs of life. “ We may add,” says that enlightened unprofitable or unpleasant employment, lying on the grass,
naturalist, “ that the attempts which have been made to to search for minute beetles, which you will
explain the distribution of various species over the globe, coursing about amongst the tufts and roots of the
by the sole influence of climate, date at a period when age. Thus you may procure many of the Pselaphida,
physical geography was still in its infancy; when, recurring which you would not otherwise meet with. Even w en
incessantly to pretended contrasts between the two worlds, the grass is grown up, insects are fond of alighting upon
2 Personal Narrative, vol. v. p. 180.
s Ibid. vol. iii. p. 490.
1 Edinburgh Review, vol. liii. p. 334. - v.™..—   , — r . , „
* In addition to the works already mentioned, the reader may consult an excellent Essai sur les Coleopitres de la Gayane
par M. Th. Lacordaire, in the Nouv. Annales du Museum, t. ii. p. 35 ; and Thoughts on the Geographical Distribution of Insects, in the
6th No. of the Entomological Magazine.
VOL. IX.
entomology.
106
Geogra- its spikes, and thence drop or run to the g^und. Should
phicalDis-circumstances ever carry you abroad to the stePPe® 0
tribution. erassy plains of Tartary, or to Hungary, you w*11 hn
there two or three species of the singular genus Let/ims,
which burrows in the soil. Every hole is inhabited by a
male and female from it they issue to attack the plants
or vines; and having cut out the heart of a plant, go
backwards like a crab with the prize to their burrow. At
the time of pairing, sometimes violent battles, encourage
by the female, take place between the male and a stran¬
ger of that sex desirous of admission, which cease on y
with the death or flight of the stranger. The vicinity and
borders of woods generally abound in insects of every or¬
der, and, if you proceed as hereafter directed, will fur¬
nish you with numerous prizes, especially of Lepidop-
tera. Here alone you can meet with the purple empe¬
ror butterfly (Apatura Iris)-, and if properly equipped
you may readily secure him. 1
The aquatic beetles of the genera Dytiscus, Cohjm-
betes, &c. of course occur in the water. During the even¬
ing twilight, however, they frequently leave their moist
abodes, and wing their way over the adjacent country.
When surprised, after their nocturnal adventures, by the
rising sun, they will plunge into whatever water is nearest
at hand, and thus rain barrels and washing tubs are some¬
times not looked into in vain. Chance often throws into
the hands of an entomologist what he has long sedulously
sought for without success; and an open window and a
lighted candle will sometimes procure what a traverse
through the forest, worthy of a North American Indian,
would not have obtained. By collecting aquatic plants,
duckweed, and <{ the green mantle of the stagnant pool,
* and afterwards examining these productions at leisuie in a
basin of water, many valuable insects of the minuter kinds
may be procured. Although the Gyrinus \iolci aquatica
is said to inhabit salt water, that element may be regard¬
ed as decidedly adverse to insect life. Brackish water,
however, produces several peculiar species, such as Hy~
drcena marina, and the large-eyed Cimicidse. According
to Latreille, the genus Pimelia occurs only in soils impreg¬
nated with saline particles, or where the genus Salsola
abounds. .
Heaths, though in a general view unproductive of in¬
sect life, yield some very beautiful species, such as Cara-
bus nitens and arvensis, and Cicindela sylvatica. In regard
to soils, such as are light, according to Mr Kirby, are most
prolific in insects. Warm sandy banks are frequented by
Cicindela carnpestris, Opatrum sabidosum, Helops quis-
quilius, &c.; and chalk is extremely attractive. The Li-
cini, Papilio Cleopatra, several species of Dasytes, and
Lamice, seem to delight in the latter substance. Many
others are found in chalk-pits, which Mr Kirby does not
think should be regarded actually as chalk insects; but
rather that they simply fall into the pits, and then become
more discernible in consequence of the stronger contrast of
colour. By watching in one of these pits during a warm
day, vast numbers of insects may be taken. Of all soils
clay offers the fewest inducements to the entomologist.2
Old trees, felled timber, and planks which have lain
long upon the ground, should be carefully examined by
the collector, as on the under sides of the latter, as well
as beneath stones, many species seek repose and shelter.
Thorn and other fences, whether dead or living, are very
productive; and gates,posts, and wooden rails, ought in no¬
wise to be neglected. Although the sea itself, according
to the authority last quoted, produces no true insects, yet Gi
many and varied tribes are known to haunt its shores, pto
On the sand hills of the Norfolk coast Mr Kirby found
AEqialia globosa and Cicindela hybrida. Ryncluemis hor- ^
ridus likewise inhabits thistles growing near the sea. Fuci
and other marine rejectamenta, which bordei the mar¬
gins of friths and estuaries, produce peculiar species of
Cercyon, some Aphodii, and many Staphylinidai. That
singular insect Oxytelus tricornis has been captured in
a situation like that now indicated, fhe inundations of
rivers in spring, summer, and autumn, sweep innume¬
rable insects from their hiding places; and when the
waters begin to subside, the examination of the floating
grasses, broken twigs, and various debris which line the
indented shores, will afford an ample field for the investiga¬
tions of the entomologist. To him indeed the most barren
scene, whether of dreary moor or desolate mountain, can
never be devoid of interest,—for the more untrodden the
path the stronger and more rational are his hopes of be¬
coming possessed of some of those treasures which are
everywhere scattered over the wilderness of nature,—
hitherto unperceived perhaps by human eye, but never¬
theless performing an essential part in the great and so¬
lemn mystery of creation.
The geological relations of insects do not appear to have
attracted the notice of naturalists,—we mean their more
direct connection with rocks, independent of that inter¬
mediate relationship which results from the dependence
of particular plants on certain soils, and the known al¬
liance of many tribes of insects with peculiar forms of
vegetable life. Mr Wailes always found the larvae of Enico-
ceri on rough slimy stones, and he found it as great a waste
of time to look for them on a smooth limestone, as to turn
up a fragment of basaltic rock (whinstone) in search of
geodephagous insects. The repugnance of beetles to
basalt he had previously noticed. The subjacent rock of
the wild district of Teesdale is almost exclusively com¬
posed of the basalt of the great whin-sill, the formation
of which is regarded as a knotty point by geologists. Of
course the loose and superficial stones of the country are
its fragments, and among these scarcely a beetle is to be
found, except a few which are superlatively common else¬
where, though inter rariores in the district referred to.
“ So far,” says Mr Wailes, “ as my observations, whether
confined to single stones, or extended over a whole dis¬
trict, go, any place having limestone, particularly the
magnesian, for its subjacent stratum, will afford abun¬
dance of the Geodephaga, as well as most other Coleop-
tera, whilst they will be found very thinly scattered over
a basaltic region. It is strange to notice the almost uni¬
form absence of these insects on turning up a whin which
has accidentally found its way into a heap of other stones,
though every one of the latter may have one or more te¬
nants under it. Must we not look to the comparative
dryness of the limestone and humidity of the whin for an
explanation ? We can readily account for the great predo¬
minance of the land testacea on a limestone district; but
lime does not enter into the composition of beetles.”3
Insects may also be viewed in relation to their seasons
of appearance, or the most appropriate periods for the
collection of the different kinds. Such as gather honey
and the pollen of plants are among the first to proclaim
the approach of spring; and their appearance may be
dated from the blossoming of certain trees and flowers of
common occurrence. Other plants, likewise accompanied
1 Iniroduc. to Ent. iv. 499. 2 p. 304.
* Entomological Magazine, iii. 257. For a correct chemical analysis of the constitution of insects see page 03 of this volume of the
Encyclopaedia.
era.
ENTOMOLOGY.
107
by peculiar insects, blossom later ; and thus we may trace
a mutual relationship between the two kingdoms through¬
out the sparkling spring, the leafy summer, and the me¬
lancholy autumn,—till relentless winter sets his seal upon
insect life, and either renders it entirely torpid, or sheds
occasionally a feeble ray on some forlorn company of
gnats, whose dances, now no longer “ choral,” exhibit but
a sad representative of that more genial season when
the “ living air” was filled with their not unjoyful mur¬
murs. With these and a few other exceptions, the ear¬
liest insect season commences with the flowering of the
sallow (Salix caprea of Linnaeus, Saugh of the Scot¬
tish schoolboy), which is accompanied: by the golden
flowers of the crocus, and the beautiful green of the ex¬
panding gooseberries. “ Then is your time,” says Mr
Kirby, “ to collect many species of wild bees and Diptera,
not afterwards to be met with ; and various other insects
now begin to emerge from the pupa. Another and later
season is marked by the general blossoming of the butter¬
cup (Ranunculus bulbosus), accompanied by the marsh-
marygold ( Caltha palustris), and ladies’ smock ( Cardamine
pratensis), when you may hunt the pastures, meadows,
and marshes with success, and take some insects that do
not show themselves later. The coprophagous insects
are now abundant. Amongst others, Aphodius testudina-
rius, a perfectly vernal species, is now only to be taken,
and usually flying. A third insect season indicated by
Flora, and a very prolific one, commences with the blos¬
soming of the hawthorn, when you must desert the meads
for the inclosures. At this time all nature begins to put
on her gayest attire, and all her insect tribes are now on
the alert, and fill the air. They are almost universally
attracted by the sweet and lovely blossoms of the plant
just named; so that, by examining them, you may entrap
some of every order, and many that during the year will
appear no more. Even many of the saprophagous insects
will sip nectar from the flowers. The umbelliferous
plants proclaim the fourth season of insects, particularly
the wild carrot and parsnip. You will scarcely ever fail
to find, if the weather is genial, hymenopterous and dip¬
terous insects of various genera, especially such as have a
short tongue, engaged in collecting the honey from those
plants. Here you may take some of the rarer Chrysidee,
Crabronidoe, Cercerides, &c. and occasionally even Coleop-
tera. The last insect season may be dated from the gene¬
ral flowering of the thistle tribe. When these are in blos¬
som is the best time of all to collect the humble-bees
(Bombus), the leaf-cutter bees (Megachile), and many
other Apiariee, Lat. which alone, by their long tongues,
can imbibe the honey and collect the pollen of these flow¬
ers. The male humble-bees frequent them to the last,
and often seem as if they were intoxicated with their
sweets.”1
The preceding chapters contain whatever we have to
say of a general nature regarding the Class of insects.
We shall now proceed to the particular history of those
primary divisions called Orders, the name and nature of
each of which have been already briefly expounded at
the commencement of this article.
Order L—COLEOPTERA.2
Coleopterous insects have usually four wings, the two
superior of which, called elytra, resemble horizontal,
somewhat convex scales, which meet in a straight lineColeoptera.
along their inner margins, where they form what is called
the dorsal suture. The inferior wings, which are the true
organs of flight, are membranaceous, transparent, trans¬
versely folded, and covered and protected by the elytra
or wing-cases. They are all masticating insects, provided
with mandibles and maxillae.
Of all the insect tribes these are the most numerous,
the best known, and the most generally interesting. Their
singular and varied forms, their brilliant colouring, the
great size of many species, and that solid consistence
which renders their collection and preservation compara¬
tively easy, have long secured for them the devoted at¬
tention of the entomologist. Some advantages also result
to their study and classification from the clearly defined
and articulate forms of their external organs. The name
and principal characters of the order were bestowed and
defined by Aristotle, and have been adopted by almost
all succeeding writers on the subject. Other characters
have no doubt been added to his ancient definition of
wings in a sheath,—such as the transverse folding of these
organs, and the straightness of the suture by which the
elytra are united ; and several exceptions to the supposed
universal attributes of the order have been discovered,—
such as the female glow-worm, which has neither wings
nor sheaths, and the genus Meloe, and many Carabi, which,
though furnished with sheaths or elytra, are entirely des¬
titute of true or membranaceous wings. So also, in the
genera Buprestis, Molorchus, and others, we may discover
exceptions to the transverse folding of the last-named
organs; and the exact fitting or junction of the elytra,
forming the dorsal suture, ceases to hold in the genus
Meloe,—so that none of these characters can be regarded
as universal; but as they are very generally prevalent,
and a few exceptions do not invalidate a rule, it is ad¬
visable that they should be retained for the purposes of
definition.
Coleopterous insects, like others, are composed of three
principal portions, head, thorax, and abdomen. The head
varies greatly both in size and form, according to the dif¬
ferent tribes. In the great section of the Geodephaga, or
ground-beetles, it is usually of a somewhat triangular
form ; in many of the short elytra’d tribes (Brachelytra)
it is orbicular; while among the weevils (Curculionides)
it is prolonged into a pointed rostrum or beak. The hin¬
der part is frequently contracted into a short neck, and is
inserted into a cavity of the thorax, in which it moves as
in a socket. The head bears two antenna;, of which the
form and structure differ not only in the different genera,
but even in the sexes of the same species. They usually,
however, consist of ten or eleven distinct articulations,
the latter number being the more frequent. They are in¬
serted in the front of the head, anterior to, and rather
beneath, the region of the eyes. Their various forms, as
characteristic of particular groups, will be afterwards de¬
scribed. Ihe eyes of Coleoptera, in the perfect state,
are two in number, and composite. In certain Staphyli-
nidm, two small yellowish points have been observed, vyhich
some naturalists have regarded as analogous to the simple
or stemmatic eyes ; but the sentiments of Latreille are ad¬
verse to that opinion. The actual eyes are either entire,
notched, or even occasionally so completely intersected
by a little corneous stalk, as to exhibit (as in the genus
Gyrinus) the appearance of a pair on either side. The
mouth consists of a labrum, two mandibles, two maxilla,
each furnished with one or two articulated palpi, and a
3 or°etymo{ogy8of the different orders has already been given in our introductory observations,—see pages 59
and 60 of this volume. Our present order corresponds to the Eleutherata ot Fabncius.
108 E N T O M
Coleoptera. labium composed of two parts, the mentum ligula, and
' ^ accompanied by a pair of palpi. The mandibles are usual¬
ly of a corneous consistence, but they are membranaceous
and of small size, in such as take little apparent nourish¬
ment, or feed on the juices of flowers, or on excrementi-
tial or putrescent animal fluids. 1 he maxillae are of a soft¬
er texture than the mandibles. When there are a pan or
palpi on each maxilla, the exterior ones never consist of
more than four joints ; those of the labium have usually
three articulations.
The thorax of the Coleoptera, like that of other hexa¬
pod insects, is likewise divisible into three principal por¬
tions, each of which is characterized by a particular de¬
gree of development. The mesothorax is very narrow,
whilst the corselet or prothorax, and the metathorax, exhi¬
bit a considerable bulk. rIhis is an important feature in
the structure of the skeleton or tegument of the coleop¬
terous order. The prothorax is always free in its move¬
ments, while the two other portions are united together,
and nearly immoveable. The component parts of the me¬
sothorax are in fact rudimentary, and those of the scutel-
lum are soldered together. But the elements of the lat¬
ter portion, that is, the prcescutum, the scutum, the scutel-
lum, commonly so called, and the postscutellum, still exist,
and their joinings are quite perceptible in certain genera.
The prothorax supports only the first pair of legs, while
the mesothorax bears the second pair and the elytra.
The second pair of wings and the third pair of legs are
attached to the metathorax.
The elytra and wings take their origin from the lateral
and superior margins of that portion of the body to which
they are attached. The elytra are usually of a very firm
or almost crustaceous consistence, opake, and without re¬
ticulations. The true wings are large, veined, and con¬
cealed beneath the elytra. The latter always exist (with
the exception of the females of a few species), but many
species are apterous, so far as concerns the existence of
the membranaceous wings. In general the elytra equal
the body in length, but they are sometimes, as among the
Staphylinidae, much shorter. They are usually free, and
extended during the act of flight; but among several ca-
rabideous insects they seem united by the dorsal suture,
and are consequently incapable of extension. In these in¬
stances the true wings are wanting.
The abdomen of the Coleoptera is sessile, that is, at¬
tached to the metathorax by its largest transverse diame¬
ter. Its inferior or ventral part is less extended longitudi¬
nally than the superior, and this restriction is chiefly ow¬
ing to the development of the sternum of the metatho¬
rax, which is prolonged backwards, and thus, as it were,
usurps the place of the abdomen. This may be very dis¬
tinctly observed in the genus Copris, in which the seg¬
ments of the abdomen seem crowded together. In some
species the first segment appears divided into two parts
by the sternum, which projects along their line of union.
Interiorly, the abdomen is always of a firm or horny con¬
sistence ; but the upper part is generally soft, being cover¬
ed by the elytra and wings. When these are wanting or
abbreviated, the abdomen is equally hard above as below,
as in the genus Meloe, and the Staphylinidte, or brachely-
trous tribes.
The legs vary in their structure and development.
The anterior pair, or those of the prothorax, are frequent¬
ly more strongly formed in the male than in the female;
and in the former sex the tarsi are often broader than ip
the latter. The legs are usually described as composed
O L O G Y.
of five pieces, the haunch, the trochanter, the thigh, theCoWlW181
tibia, and the tarsus. M. Audouin has shown the exis- v>r^r
tence of a sixth portion, moveable, constantly concealed
within the interior of the body, and serving to articulate
the haunch with the epimera. We have already men¬
tioned it under the name of trochantin.
The internal structure of the Coleoptera has recently
been illustrated by several ingenious observers, such as
Kamdhor, Audouin, and Dufour.
The apparatus for the purposes of nutrition in coleop¬
terous insects may be summed up as follows i1 1st, Organs
of manducation ; 2d, salivary glands ; 3d, a digestive tube;
4th, biliary vessels. The entire order Coleoptera is com¬
posed of masticating species, which are consequently pro¬
vided with instruments of a more or less resistant nature,
adapted for seizing, cutting, and triturating the food pre¬
vious to its being swallowed. For this purpose the mouth
is furnished with a pair of corneous mandibles, sometimes
simply incisive, sometimes dentated or toothed. Their
motion is transverse and horizontal. There is also a pair
of maxillae, usually of a more membranaceous consistence
than the mandibles, an upper lip or labrum, an under lip
or labium, and from four to six palpi. The salivary glands,
which in orthopterous and hemipterous insects present
all the characters common to such organs, are rudimen¬
tary in size, and few in number, among the coleopterous
tribes. They contain a colourless saliva, and their exis¬
tence hitherto has been ascertained chiefly in genera of
the families of Melasoma, Taxicornes, Stenelytra, Trache-
lides, Rhincophora, and Aphidiphaga. The digestive tube
possesses an extent which varies singularly in relation to
the habits of life of each particular tribe. In a few it
scarcely exceeds the length of the body; while in others,
and these are the greater number, it greatly surpasses
that extent. The oesophagus is generally short; the crop
more or less obvious ; the gizzard is in some families gar¬
nished interiorly with triturating pieces ; the chylific ven¬
tricle is of variable size, and either smooth or beset by
papillae ; the small intestine likewise varies in length; the
large intestine consists most frequently of a dilatable cae¬
cum ; the rectum is sometimes greatly elongated in the
female sex.
The texture of the digestive tube is musculo-membra-
nous, and is composed of three tunics of varying thickness.
The biliary or hepatic vessels are always inserted at the
posterior extremity of the chylific ventricle. They are of
great extent, extremely slender, singularly folded, and of
a cellular-membranous texture. Their number and the
mode of their connection vary in the different tribes and
genera, but they are always of an equal number, or in pairs.
There are never less than a single pair,.nor more than
three. Sometimes their insertion is limited to the chylx-
fic ventricle, in which case they are either free and float¬
ing by one extremity, or they form an arch variously twist¬
ed, of which the two extremities are implanted on the
same circle. Sometimes the insertion is double, and ob¬
tains at one end on the chylific ventricle, and at the other
on the caecum. The bile contained in these vessels varies
from a deep violet and brown colour, to yellow and white.
It is sometimes even diaphanous.
The generative system among the Coleoptera is thus
described by M. Dufour. “ Les Coleopteres ont, ainsi
que les autres insectes, deux sexes separes, et facte de la
reproduction est un veritable accouplement. L’organe
generateur male se compose, 1°. de deux testicules for¬
mes, soit par les replis agglomeres d’un seul vaisseau sper-
Nat ^vUL pU36 Characth'es a™tormq;ues propres aux Colioptiret en general et aux Carahiques en partieulkr. Ann. des Sciences
ENTOMOLOGY. 109
)Ieo]ffa.matique, soit par un ou plusieurs sachets, soit enfin par des Coleopterous insects enjoy a considerable length of life, Coleoptera.
utricules dont le nombre, la configuration, et la grandeur at least in the larva state. The period of endurance, how- 'w-v~w
varient suivant les families ; 2°. de deux canaux deferens ever, of that early condition, is extremely various in the
variables pour leur longeur, quelquefois reployes en epide- different genera of this most numerous order. Indeed,
dyme; 3°. de vtisicules seminales plus ou moins nombreu- even among individuals of the same species, the continu-
ses, et de formes diverses suivant les genres de Coleop- ance of the different stages of growth varies in accord-
teres ; 4°. d’un conduit ejaculateur tantot fort long, tantot ance with the temperature of particular seasons, or the
tres-court; 5°. d’une verge retractile renfermee dans une more or less abundant supply of food. Many species
armure copulatrice dont la conformation se modifie a Tin- pass the winter in a listless state, abstaining almost en-
fini. On distingue dans 1’organe generateur femelle de tirely from eating, and consequently, even after the lapse
tous les Coleopteres, 6°. deux ovaires dont chacun se of several months, present scarcely any apparent increase
compose d’un calice plus ou moins marque, et d’un nombre of their dimensions. No sooner, however, are they awaken-
variable suivant les genres, de gaines ovigeres unilocu- ed from their temporary trance by the enlivening beams
laires ou multiloculaires, terminees le plus souvent par 0f the returning sun, than they greedily attack their fa-
une piece charnue ou se fixe un ligament suspenseur; 7°. vourite food, and their growth is almost instantaneous,
un glande sebacee d’une structure diversement compli- It has been remarked that the larvae which feed on leaves,
quee, inseree a 1’origine de 1’oviducte, et destinee a furnir such as those of Crioceris, Altica, and Chrysomela, re-
une humeur propre a lubrefier ou a enduire les ceufs a 1’e- main but a brief period in the larva state ; while the sub-
poque de la ponte ; 8°. un oviducte plus ou moins long qui terranean and root-devouring species, on the contrary, not
se continue en un vagin ; 9°. enfin, dans quelques cas rares unfrequently continue for two or three years in their dark
un appareil secreteur particulier propre a former une en- abodes. Attentive observation has also ascertained that
veloppe commune ou une coque aux ceufs.”1 those Coleoptera which pass the winter in the egg state
Besides the ordinary secreting organs, certain coleopte- are the shortest lived in the form of larvae;—they are
rous species are provided with a kind of excrementary se- hatched, nourished, developed, reproduce, and perish, all
creting apparatus, which is binary, and common to both in the course of the summer first ensuing,—while such as
sexes. Its function is the formation of an acrid humour, pass the winter in the larva state, or that of nymph, are the
liquid or gaseous, which the insect expels as a means of longest lived in both of those conditions. It is chiefly in
defence when menaced or attacked. the form of larva that the Coleoptera produce such injury
The respiratory organs of the Coleoptera consist in stig- to agriculture, and other branches of rural industry. The
mata placed along the lateral portions of the body, and of ravages of species belonging to the genera Bruchus, Cur-
trachese, sometimes tubular, sometimes utricular, which culio, Calandra, Melolontha, Crioceris, Altica, Anthrenus,
disseminate the air through all parts of the system. Dermestes, and numerous others, are unfortunately better
The nervous system is composed of a brain or upper known than any counteracting remedies of easy appli-
ganglion,—of ganglia placed in the median line, variable cation.
in their number, and communicating with each other and The larvae of the coleopterous tribes usually change
with the brain by means of a double cord,—and of nerves, their skins three times, and many of those which live in
properly so called, which emanate from the ganglia. the earth construct a kind of cocoon, in which they un-
The abdominal cavity of these insects always encloses dergo their transformations. These are of the kind for-
| a splanchnic adipose tissue, of which the abundance and merly mentioned under the name of complete metamor-
colour vary according to the genera, and which appears phoses.
to be connected with the purposes of nutrition.2 Linnaeus, Geoffroy, Fabricius, Olivier, Latreille, and
In addition to the usual differences, the sexes frequently others, have established many divisions, more or less na-
present external distinctive characters in the antennae and tural, in the coleopterous order. The number of the ar-
( other parts. The male is supposed to perish soon after ticulations of the tarsi varies from three to five, and their
the sexual union, and the female does not long survive the amount in each limb has been assumed as the basis of
deposition of her eggs. These eggs, which of course vary the great sectional divisions of the coleopterous order, so
in size, form, colour, and consistence, are deposited in generally adopted by the continental naturalists. As
various localities, and among very different substances, in these divisions pervade all foreign works of importance on
accordance with the instincts and economy of the spe- the Coleoptera, we shall here explain their nature. Geof-
cies, and the habits of the larvae about to be produced, froy having observed that all the species of a genus or of
These larvae are also very dissimilar to each other in this & family were characterized by the same numbei of aiti-
varied order; but they may be generally described as soft culations of the tarsi, and that the differences presented by
bodied, with the exception of the head and the upper por- these parts always bore a relation to other differences in
tion of the three first segments of the body, which are of the general organization, he conceived the idea of ground-
a firmer or more scaly consistence. They are furnished ing his primary divisions on their particular structure,
with six feet; and the eyes, which in the perfect state are Many extensive families of coleopterous insects are
composite, are in this early condition small granuliform distinguished by five articulations to the tarsi; that is, by
bodies, sometimes amounting to six on each side. Ihe five joints on each foot. (See Plate CCXX. fig. ^ e-)
parts of the mouth bear a relation, both to their imme- All of these fall under the first general section called
diate mode of life,, and their future development in the Pentamera, from owa, five, and pegof, part or article.
perfect insect. The mandibles are very strong and cor- Another extensive division is characterized by>vearticu-
neous in such species as feed on ligneous substances; lations to the tarsi of the two anterior pair of feet, while
they are coriaceous in such as feed on leaves, and almost the posterior or third pair possesses only four articu a
membranaceous in those which prefer carcasses, or other tions. All the species so formed belong to the section
matters in a state of putrescence. The antennae of these Heteromera, so called from srego;, different, the tarsi being
larvae are usually very short, cylindrical or conical, and dissimilar to each other. Numerous Coleoptera exhibit
composed of a small number of articulations. the tarsi composed throughout of four articulations. 1 hese
1 Ann. det Sciences Nat. t. viii. p. 38.
2 Ibid. p. 40.
no
entomology.
Coleoptera. are ranged under the general section Tetramera, from
rerpu, four. Lastly, many species have no more than
three, and some no more than two joints, to the tarsi, and
these belong respectively to the sections Tnmera an
Dimera. It has even been supposed that an insect exists,
the tarsi of which are furnished with only a single joint;
and for its reception the section Monomera (from [mvoq,
alone) has been established. Later and more conside¬
rate observation, however, has led to the belief that both
of the last-named sections are resolvable among the tri-
merous species, and that the supposed absence of the se¬
cond and third joints arises from their extreme minute-
ness*
“ Nihil notatu dignius videtur,” observes Mr hischer,
« constant! tarsorum insectorum imprimis coleopterorum
formatione, quae, quidquid etiam naturae scrutatores, qm-
dam contra earn in medium protulerint, methodum 01 di¬
nes insectorum in sectiones vel series minores dinmendi
offert tutissimam.”1 The extreme simplicity, and conse¬
quent ease of application, of the sectional rules deduced
from the structure of the tarsi, has probably induced the
continental naturalists to adopt them more readily than
they would have done had they foreseen the occasional
contradictions to which they lead. I he fact cannot be
disguised that the system is in many instances artificial,—
for'several insects differ in the number of their tarsi, which
are yet nearly allied by their general structure and atti i-
butes,—while it would be easy to show that the mere
agreement in the number of those parts by no means car¬
ries along with it a corresponding relationship in the form
of the other more important organs.2 The truth is, that
the articulations of the tarsi differ in some instances even
in the sexes of the same species, as may be seen in Cryp-
tophagus fumatus and C. pallens; and the consequence,
as Mr Macleay has pointed out, of forming the primary
divisions in accordance with their amount, has been, that
many genera are separated, and thrown to a great dis¬
tance from the place which nature has assigned them.3
While, therefore, the British naturalists have availed
themselves of whatever aid these sectional divisions have
legitimately afforded, they do not trammel themselves by
a uniform adherence to the system, independent of its ac¬
cordance with nature.4
We have already endeavoured, in the preceding intro¬
duction, to illustrate the geographical distribution of in¬
sects in general. WTe shall here add a fewr observations
more especially applicable to the coleopterous tribes.
The coleopterous insects of Europe in general, accord¬
ing to M. Latreille, bear a strong affinity to those of Wes¬
tern Asia and Northern Africa. These traits of resem¬
blance become more obvious, when, the qualities of the
soil and the temperature being analogous, we approach
towards the northern tropic. It is under the forty-fourth
degree of north latitude that we begin to perceive certain
species of carnivorous Coleoptera, of the Lamellicornes, of
the heteromerous section, and of the Curculionides, cha¬
racteristic of the warmer regions of the earth. There
also may be observed species of a larger size, and of an
aspect more imposing, than characterize their congeners Cokifc#3
of the north. The dominion of the Carabi, properly so W'T'
called, so notable over all the northern and temperate
countries of Europe, and in the more western regions of
Asia, ceases towards the thirty-fifth degree of north lati¬
tude. These predaceous insects are succeeded by the ge¬
nera Anthia and Graphipterus. Viewed in relation to ento¬
mological characters, Europe may be said to extend fur¬
ther eastward than it does in accordance with our actual
political divisions, as the insects of the Levant, and even
of Persia, exhibit a very European aspect. Austria and
Hungary, from their central situation and other local cir¬
cumstances, are numerically richer in species than the
western countries of Europe. These latter, however, pos¬
sess, in consequence probably of their littoral position,
and the influence of the oceanic waters,^ several peculiar
species, ■which, though unknown in the East, nevertheless
extend their localities in a lengthened line from north to
south. However gorgeous may be the productions of tro¬
pical regions, the European continent presents to the en¬
tomologist a rich and varied assemblage both of carni¬
vorous and herbivorous Coleoptera. Many of these it
possesses in common with other countries, while of some
it has to boast a more exclusive possession. The great
tribe of the Carnivora, and especially the Carabi or larger
predaceous beetles—the Staphylinidce or brachelytrous
kinds—the Clavicornes—the genera Aphodius, Meloe^ Cal-
lidium, Leptura, Chrysomelaf Lixas, &c.—are there pro¬
portionally more numerous than in any other quarter of
the world. Latreille has observed that the herbivorous
Coleoptera seem to prevail in South America. Many
species of the northern countries of the new world great¬
ly resemble those of the northern and temperate parts of
Europe, while others are identical. Of these some may
be regarded as naturally distributed alike over Scandi¬
navia, Greenland, the adjacent islands, and North Ame¬
rica,—while the greater proportion, which are xylopha-
gous or timber-eating insects, have very probably been
transported by artificial means, that is, in cargoes of wood,
and in the timbers of our vessels. Notwithstanding many
examples which might be adduced to illustrate a certain
agreement which exists between the species of Europe
and North America, the more general as well as precise
truth is, that the entomology of North America is con¬
nected by a stronger affinity with that of the southern di¬
vision of the new world than with that of our own con¬
tinent and islands. We cannot, for instance, exhibit a
single example of that division of Cetonia of which the
thorax presents a posterior lobe, nor of Galerita, Tetra-
onyx, or Parandra, genera which are distributed through¬
out the whole of America. One strong feature of con¬
formity has indeed been observed, that North America
and Europe both possess many carnivorous Coleoptera en¬
tirely unknown in the equatorial regions either of the old
world or the new.6
The coleopterous order is extremely numerous in spe¬
cies. Comte Dejean’s collection, probably the most ex¬
tensive hitherto made, is said to contain above twenty
1 Genera Insectorum, Praef. p. 5.
* “ Ce n’est pas assez,” says Clairville, “ pour pallier les frequentes anomalies qui se rencontrent, de dire que tel insecte a cinq
articles aux tarses quoiqu on n en decouvre que quatre. II devroit en effet en avoir cinq d’apres la regie qu’on a dtablie. Cepen-
dant ces explications, toutes ingenieuses qu’elles sent, ne peuvent me convaincre, et je ne puis me determiner a suppose' plus (Par¬
ticles aux tarses qu’on ne peut rdellement en decouvrir, en y mettant toute 1’attention possible. Le nombre des articles doit etre
clair, positif, et uniforme, sans quoi le charactere est vacillant. Au reste, je ne disconviendrai pas que sans etre rigoureusement
piopres a diviser les ordies, ils ne puissent tres-bien servir pour un tableau dans lequel les genres seroient ordonnes selon le nombre
des articles des tarses.” (Entomologie Helvetique, p. 30.)
* Ent0fl0l°^ I)art i- P- «• - Entomologia Edinensis, Introduc. p. 23.
M. Pacordaire, however, has recently shown that the Chrysomelidae are very numerous in the tropical regions of South America.
See i\ouveUes Annales des Mus. t. li. p. 94.
Introduction a la Geographic generate des Arachnides ct des Insectes, ou des climats propres d ces Animaux. Par Latreille.
^ ;op a*
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ENTOMOLO
thousand different kinds ; and Mr Stephens’ Nomenclature
of British Insects (second edition) presents us with the
names of 3614 indigenous Coleoptera.
In relation to the economical uses of the order, we may
observe that coleopterous insects are scarcely if at all ap¬
plied in the arts. Those employed in medicine are chief¬
ly the Cantharis vesicatoria, commonly called the Spa¬
nish Fly, and the Mylahris Cichorii, which in China and
the Levant is likewise used as a blistering application.
The Romans are supposed to have made use of certain
coleopterous larvae for dietetical purposes; and some of
the South American tribes are known to devour with de¬
light the fattened larvae of the Curculio palmarum. We
shall conclude these introductory observations by a few
remarks
On the collecting and preserving of Coleopterous Insects.
This is a very simple matter to those who are zealous
in the cause. By far the best method is for the collector
to provide himself with a few stout phials half filled with
whisky, or any other ardent spirit which he may happen
to prefer. When the insects are caught, which they can
only be in any considerable number or variety by a sedu¬
lous search under stones, and in the other localities after¬
wards indicated in our notices of the different genera,
they may be popped into the phial, where in most instan¬
ces they die almost instantaneously. This is not only the
most humane process, but it is also the best mode of pre¬
serving their more delicate portions uninjured. It like¬
wise puts an end to all contention among themselves,
which is by no means the effect of the ordinary method of
collecting in small boxes,—for in the latter case the larger
and more voracious invariably devour the smaller or least
assuming; and thus many captures, regarded with plea¬
sure in the morning, are found to have disappeared in the
afternoon. If time and opportunity are wanting for the
immediate purpose of setting the specimens, that is, pla¬
cing them in their most appropriate positions, they may be
allowed to remain in the phials for days or weeks with¬
out being injured, although in that case greater care is
afterwards necessary, especially with the smaller speci¬
mens, in consequence of a certain softness in the articu¬
lations, induced by maceration in the spirits. When an
entomologist (in search of Coleoptera) is employed in
what we may call the home circuit, he requires during his
excursions nothing more than a couple of glass phials, as
we must suppose him possessed of all other appliances
within his dwelling. But during a more distant and pro¬
longed journey, he must provide himself with a few small
boxes made either of wood or tin (the last is lighter and
thinner, and therefore more commodious), lined with cork
at top and bottom, and deep enough to contain an upper
and an under range of pins. In these the insects caught
during the day may be transfixed in the course of the
evening, so that the phials may be left empty for the cap¬
tures of the ensuing morn. Notes ought to be taken of
the places of capture, and the insects should be so ar¬
ranged in the boxes that, by means of numerals or other
marks, any individual may be afterwards recognised in
relation to its own particular locality.
- The setting of an insect consists merely in placing its
limbs and antennae in a natural position, and fixing them
GY. ill
in the same for a time by means of pins, on a small board Coleoptera
on which there is a layer of cork. (See Plate CCXX.Pentamera-
figs. 10 and 12.) They stiffen in a few days, and may
then be transferred to their proper places in the cabinet.
If not set when either moist or recent, they may be sof¬
tened by being placed for a night in any small vessel con¬
taining a layer of wet sand, and covered with a damp
cloth to prevent evaporation. The same process, con¬
tinued for a somewhat longer time, is equally efficient in
regard to foreign species. Each specimen, if not stuck,
should, previous to setting, be transfixed by passing a pin
through the elytra and abdomen, at right angles with the
plane of its position,—enough of the pin being made to
project beyond the feet as will suffice to fix its point firm¬
ly in the cork.
When mould appears upon coleopterous specimens, they
ought to be exposed for some hours at the distance of two
or three feet from a brisk fire, and then delicately brushed
with a hair pencil. When mites or aCari make their ap¬
pearance among them, they ought either to be exposed for
a few minutes to a high temperature, which kills the liv¬
ing parasites without injuring the dead insects, or each
specimen ought to be carefully washed by means of a hair
pencil dipped in spirit of turpentine. A piece of sponge
constantly saturated with that fluid, or a supply of cam¬
phor, should be kept in each drawer. With a view to
maintain a collection in good order, it is very advisable
that all specimens obtained from correspondents by pur¬
chase or exchange should, previous to their being placed
in the cabinet, be submitted to the ordeal of a bath either
in spirit of turpentine or camphorated spirit of wine. If
mites or acari are once introduced into a cabinet of con¬
siderable extent, their eradication is extremely trouble¬
some. As many collectors are careless of their duplicate
specimens, and as it is of course with these that they sup¬
ply their friends, much injury is frequently inflicted by
the introduction even of a single insect in bad condition
into a cabinet previously in a proper state.1 We must now
proceed to a more detailed exposition of the coleopterous
tribes. They are grouped together under four great sec¬
tions, according to the number of joints in the tarsi.
PENTAMERA.
All the Tarsi composed of Five Joints?
FAMILY I CARNIVORA, Cuv. ADEPHAGA,3
Clairv.
The first primary division of the coleopterous order con¬
tains a numerous and varied assemblage, all of which, how¬
ever, agree in being, as the name imports, of a voracious
disposition. Each maxilla is furnished with two palpi, so
that there are six in all, including those of the labium.
In the larva state, these insects are elongated, cylin¬
drical, composed of twelve rings or segments, exclusive of
the head, which is large, of a scaly texture, and provid¬
ed with two strong mandibles curved at their extremities.
The mouth is also furnished with a pair of maxillae divid¬
ed into two branches, one of which is formed by a pal¬
pus. The ligula bears two palpi, which are shorter than
those of the maxillae. The head is moreover provided
with a pair of short conical antennae, and six small simple
onal division, and in our Entomologia Edinensis we have, with our coadjutor, the e\.. am » ’ are inciU(led we think that
mgement. But in presenting a general view of the subject, and one in which numerous foreign genera are mcl^
reater clearness will result from an adherence to the system of the continental entomo ogis
3 So named from ochfocyosy voracious.
112
entomology.
Coleoptera eyes 0n each side.1 The first segment of the body is co-
Pentamera.vered by a squamous shield,—the others are solt. Ilie
first three segments are each furnished with a pair of legs,
of which the extremity is curved forwards.
Of course many modifications occur m the form and
aspect of adephagous larvm. For example, those of the
Cicindelge have the upper portion of the head hollowed
out in the centre, while the inferior portion is bulged.
Two of the eyes on each side are much larger than the
others, and the shield of the first segment of the body is
also large, and of a semicircular shape. The eighth seg¬
ment bears two small hooked processes in its upper sur¬
face. Among the generality, however, of these larvae, the
head is weaker and more regular, and the eyes are of equal
size. The shield is square, and does not project over the
sides; the eighth segment wants the processes ; but the
terminal segment is furnished with two conical appenda¬
ges, besides a membranous tube formed by the prolonga¬
tion of the anal portion of the body. These appendages
are toothed and horny in the larvae of Calasoma and Gara-
bus. In Harpalus and Licinus they are more elongated,
fleshy, and articulated. In these and other genera, the
form of the mandibles in the larvae approaches that of the
same species in the perfect state.
The adephagous Coleoptera have always a first stomach,
which is short and fleshy,—a second, which is more elon¬
gated, and shaggy on the surface, by reason of the nume¬
rous small vessels with which it is furnished, and a short
and slender intestine. The hepatic vessels, four in num¬
ber, are inserted near the pylorus. These insects may
be regarded as terrestrial (Geodephagd) and aquatic (Hy-
grodephaga), according to their mode of life.
The genera of the former subdivision of the order dwell
and take their food upon the surface of the earth. They
are hence known under the name of ground-beetles, dhe
feet of these terrestrial species are formed for tolerably
rapid motion, and the two posterior pair are inserted at
equal distances. The mandibles are obvious and disco¬
vered, the terminal portion of the maxillae is straight in-
feriorly, and curved only at its extremity. The body is
generally oblong,—the eyes projecting. The tracheae are
tubular or elastic, and the intestine is terminated by an
expanded cloaca, provided with two small sacs which pro¬
duce an acrid humour.2
Tribe 1st, Cicindeletje, Lat.
This tribe corresponds to the genus Cicindela of Lin¬
naeus. Its genera are distinguished by a hook or nail,
which is articulated by its base to the tip of the maxillae.
All the species have a strong head, with large eyes, pro¬
jecting toothed mandibles, and a short ligula concealed
behind the mentum. The labial palpi are composed of
four distinct articulations, and, in common with the max¬
illary palpi, are generally shaggy, or somewhat clothed.
The precedence is usually assigned to these insects in
our systematic arrangements, from motives probably simi¬
lar to those which have induced ornithologists to place
the accipitrine order at the head of the class of birds.
The greater proportion of the species are exotic.
Genus Manticora,3 * Fab. Tarsi alike in both sexes,
and composed of cylindrical articulations. Mandibles
large and arched. Head very large. Eyes small, and not
greatly projecting. Back of the thorax forming a kind of
semicircular lobe, prolonged as far as the posterior mar-*
gin. Abdomen pediculated, almost entirely enveloped by ^
the elytra, which are nearly heart-shaped, soldered, and ^
laterally carinated.
M. maxillosa, Fab. (Plate CCXXI. fig. 1.) Entirely
black, and covered with scattered hairs. The mandibles
have four interior teeth, of which the third is the least.
The antennae are slender and filiform, their third articu¬
lation angular and elongated. The thorax appears as if
divided into two by a transverse groove near the anterior
margin, which is prolonged laterally, and beneath, as far
as the origin of the fore-legs. There is no scutellum vi¬
sible. The legs are large, and covered with stiff hairs.
This formidable-looking insect, which measures more
than an inch and a half in length, presents the aspect of
a large spider. It inhabits sandy soil in the southern parts
of Africa, and is the only known species of the genus, unless
the M. pallida of Fab. referred by Mr Macleay to his ge¬
nus Platychiles? is still to be regarded as a Manticora.
Genus Megacephala,5 Lat. The first three joints of
the anterior tarsi of the males dilated, short, almost in the
form of a reversed triangle, more strongly ciliated inwards
than externally. Labial palpi longer than the maxillary,
—their first articulation elongated, projecting beyond the
mentum, the second very short, the third very long and
cylindrical, the last securiform. Labrum short and trans¬
versal, leaving the mandibles exposed.
This genus was constituted by Latreille by the removal
of certain species of Cicindelce of Fabricius. It occurs
both in Africa and America. Those from the former
country are apterous, from the latter winged. We know
littlfe more of their habits than that they are extremely
active. We are acquainted with fifteen species, none of
which occur in Europe.
M. megalocephala, Lat. Of a bronzed black colour;
the mouth, antennse, and feet pale yellow. Elytra with
rows of hollow spots. From Senegal.
In the genus Oxycheila of Dejean (Species Gen. t. i. p.
15) the labrum is very large, with a projecting point, and
covers the mandibles. It is formed from the Cicindela
tristis of Fab., and is named from pointed, and %s/Xoj,
lip.
Genus Cicindela, Lin. (Plate CCXXI. figs. 2 and 5.)
The first three joints of the anterior tarsi of the males di¬
lated, elongated, nearly cylindrical, and more strongly cili¬
ated inwards than externally. Labial palpi not surpassing
the length of the maxillary; their first two joints very
short, the first not passing beyond the extremity of the
mentum, the third cylindrical, the last slightly enlarged
at its extremity.
The name by which our present genus is distinguished
is used by Pliny as synonymous with Lampyris, to desig¬
nate a kind of luminous insect, a frequenter of corn fields.6
It likewise appears to have been applied by ancient wri¬
ters to various destructive insects which it would now be
difficult to identify, although they are no doubt known to
naturalists. In modern times it was originally bestowed
by M. Geoffroy on the species at present classed under
the genera Malachius and Telephones, and was afterwards
transferred by Linnaeus to the insects above defined, as
well as to other species not now included in Cicindela.
Their larvae inhabit holes in the earth, the entrance to
which, while the occupant lies in ambuscade, is closed
by the upper portion of its head. They are exceedingly
1 So says Latreille. Some authors state the number of these eyes as only three on each side.
'2 Regnc Animal, tom. iv. p. 358. An abstract of the anatomical characters of the insects of this division, by M. Dufour, will be
found in the Annales des Sciences Nat. tom. viii. p. 36.
s is the name of a fabulous animal mentioned by Aristotle, vElian, and Pliny.
* Annulosa Javanica, vol. i. p. y. s From giyas, great, and r.'.QaXn, head. 8 PJin. viii. c. 26.
ENTOMOLOGY.
113
i-ra
ra-
voracious, and seize with their maxillae whatever insect
prey approaches within their tyrannous grasp. The bodies
of these larvse are long, cylindrical, whitish, and furnished
with six scaly feet. When approached by human foot¬
steps, or otherwise threatened by danger, -they rapidly
descend into their subterranean retreats. When two of
these larvae happen to form their domiciles in the imme¬
diate neighbourhood of each other, the stronger devours
the weaker, with a view to obviate any interference with
his own pursuits. They seal up the entrance to their
dwellings when about to change their skins or assume the
state of nymph.
The perfect insects are extremely beautiful, of light and
active forms, exceedingly swift in their motions, and adorn¬
ed by brilliant metallic colours. The prevailing hues are
different shades of golden green, spotted with white or
pale yellow. They frequent dry and sandy soils, where
they seem to enjoy the prevalence of bright sunshine.
The species are extensively distributed over all the regions
of the earth. Their organs of locomotion, and those more
immediately subservient to the preservation and nutrition
of the individual, are very fully developed, and present in
the most perfect form all the attributes which distinguish
the entomophagous or insect-eating Coleoptera. They
were named by Linnaeus the tigers of the insect tribes.
“ Though decorated with brilliant colours, they prey upon
the whole insect race ; their formidable jaws, which cross
each other, are armed with fearful fangs, showing to what
use they are applicable; and the extreme velocity with
which they can either run or fly renders hopeless any at¬
tempt to elude their pursuit. Their larvae are also equally
tremendous with the imago, having six ejes, three on
each side, seated on a lateral elevation of the head, which
look like those of spiders; and, besides their threatening
jaws, armed with a strong internal tooth, being furnished
with a pair of spines resembling somewhat the sting of a
scorpion, which stand erect upon the back of the abdomen,
and give them a most ferocious aspect.”1 It is this last
apparatus which, according to Clairville, serves the pur¬
pose of an anchor in retaining these larvas at any desir¬
ed height in their sandy cells.
Dejean’s catalogue (2d edition) contains 201 species of
the genus Cicindela as now restricted.
C. campestris. Green, with five whitish spots on the
margin of each elytron, and another in the centre. The
spots on the elytra vary in shape and disposition, and some
of them are occasionally obliterated. The female has two
fuscous spots towards the base of the elytra, and is dis¬
tinguished, in addition to the more slender tarsi, by having
the abdomen divided into six segments ; that of the oppo¬
site sex consisting of seven, with the penultimate one more
or less emarginate. This sexual distinction, first observed
by Gyllenhal, exists in most genera of the tribe.
This beautiful insect frequents dry sandy places expos¬
ed to the sun, most commonly in the neighbourhood of
heaths, and is distributed more or less abundantly over all Coleoptera
parts of Britain. We have traced it through most of thePentamera.
Highlands of Scotland, as far as the south of Sutherland,
and we doubt not that it extends to the most northern
extremity of the island. It is an inhabitant of most Eu¬
ropean countries, ranging from the shores of the Mediter¬
ranean to Siberia. This is the most abundant of the Bri¬
tish species, and the only one yet found in Scotland. The
supposed species C. Maroccana, Fab. which occurs in
Spain and along the coast of Barbary, is now regarded as
one of its varieties.
Besides the preceding, five or six other species are de¬
scribed as British. C. germanica, an English insect, com¬
mon in France and Germany, differs in its habits from the
rest of the genus. When we attempt to seize it, it does
not fly off like the others (although it is winged), but en¬
deavours to escape by running rapidly among the herbage
by which it may be surrounded.
The genus Euprosopus of La treble and Dejean, of which
the tarsi are equally ciliated on both sides, was establish¬
ed on Cicindela quadrinotata of Fab. The species are
said to dwell on trees. In the genus Therates, Lat. the
tarsi are nearly alike in both sexes. The internal maxil¬
lary palpi are very small, indistinct, and apparently uni-
articulate. The species are confined to the eastern parts
of Asia, such as Java, the isles of Sunda, and those to the
north of New Holland. C. labiata of Fab. belongs to the
genus last named, which is synonymous with Eurychiles
of Bonelli.2 C. Aptera of Olivier forms the genus Tricon-
dyla of Latreille.
Genus Colliuris, Lat. Fourth articulation of all the
tarsi prolonged obliquely inwards in both sexes. Body
narrow and elongated. Thorax almost cylindrical, nar¬
rowed anteriorly. Antennae short, thickening more or
less towards the extremity. Last article of the labial
palpi dilated.
The title of Colliuris was bestowed originally by Degeer,
upon an insect belonging to the genus Casnonia of Lat.
It was established according to its present character by
Fabricius under the name of Collyris, which has been
altered as above by the majority of authors. These in¬
sects appear to be all provided with wings. All the spe¬
cies yet met with have been found in the most southern
countries of Asia, and in the islands lying north of New
Holland.
C. longicollis, Dej. Blue, sometimes tinged with violet.
Thighs and hind tarsi ferruginous red. Elytra deeply
punctured. This species was taken in Java by the excel¬
lent Westermann of Copenhagen, who presented it to Comte
Dejean as the true C. longicollis of Lat. The insect so
named by Latreille (Gen. Crust, et Insect, i. p. 174)) is the
C. emarginata of the Species General, t. i. p. 165.
We shall conclude our sketch of this tribe by present¬
ing a synoptical view of its most recent constitution, ac-
cording to the system of Dejean.
1 Introd. to Entomology, vol. ii. p. 263.
s Mem. della R. Acad, di Torino, xxiii. part 1st, p. 248.
VOL. IX.
P
entomology.
114
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
CICINDELETjE.
<D <U
E a
C C3
not dilated in the males.
1. Manticora.
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r-J Oi
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b£) o
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45
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c3
bc-
r—' G
44 „
r/3 jh .
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^ £ ,—4
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4-4 Civ CC    
C« 0^
<D ^
bJjrO
.£ ^5
not extending beyond the notch of the mentum.... 2. Platychile.
extending beyond the notch of the mentum  3. Megacepltala.
triangi
   4. Oxycheila.
li-oval.
slightly elongate, not exceeding the maxillary pair; last joint not se-
J3 G cG
o '■g
curiform
r
5. Iresia.
G. Cicindela.
bG
t-?
beH .<
elongate and nearly cylindrical  7- Dromica.
somewhat elongate and flat  ^ Eprosopus.
.produced obliquely on the inner side   Ctenostoma.
Third and fourth joints of the tarsi much shorter than the first 10* Thercites.
r Three first joints of the anterior tarsi of the males dilated ; the third produced obliquely
on the inter side U- Tncmdyla.
G Gb
I t
qj
m o3
0J
,S ^
O
Fourth joint of all the tarsi produced obliquely on the inner side in both sexes 12. Colliims.
Tribe 2d, Carabici, Lat.
with admiration, for the physicians of olden times held
it as equal in virtue to Cantharides. Linnaeus, however,
This important tribe corresponds to the old and un- transferred the name of Buprestis to the genus Cucitjus
restricted genus Carabus of Linnaeus. The maxillae are of Geoftroy, although noneot the latter genus in any way
terminated simply by a point or hook, which is not articu- corresponded to the of the Greeks. The change
lated, as in the preceding genera. The head does not proposed by the great reformer has been universally adopt-
exceed the breadth of the thorax, and is more frequently ed, and the word Carabus is now most familiar to Lie eai
somewhat narrower. The mandibles, with few exceptions,
are but sparingly toothed. The ligula is usually pro¬
jecting, and the labial palpi exhibit only three free arti¬
culations.1 Many species are apterous, that is, have no
of the entomologist.
As the larvae of the Carabici dwell in subterranean re¬
treats, a knowledge of their habits and history is difficult
to acquire. The body is of an elongated form ; the legs
membranous wings beneath the elytra. Their odour is are six in number, and of a scaly texture ; and the maxil-
often fetid, and their bodies exude an acrid fluid. The lae are strong and pincer-like. With these they seize
habits and economy both of the larvae and perfect insects upon the larva; of other insects, which constitute their
are exceedingly various. Some conceal themselves under favourite food. They are extremely voracious,
the earth, others beneath stones, or the bark of trees. In relation to the economical purposes of the human
They are active in their movements, and are very gene- race, the tribes now under consideration are of no great
rally distributed, being, however, more characteristic of utility. It is mentioned, however, by the younger Geof-
temperate than equatorial regions. M. GeofFroy bestow- froy, that while he was collecting insects on the coast of
ed the generic name of Buprestis upon carabideous insects, Senegal, a negro brought him a jar containing many thou-
on account of the injury which he supposed them capable sand specimens of a small carabideous species, which had
of inflicting on cattle ; and it is possible that the caustic evidently been previously collected by design. On inquiry
humour with which many of them are imbued might be
productive of bad effects in the event of their being swal¬
lowed along with better and more accustomed pasture.
To whatever species this evil tendency was attributed,
the ancients appear to have regarded its other characters
he found that they were used for making soap, some of which,
of a black colour, he afterwards examined, and found it to
possess all the qualities of the European article. Olivier
asks whether we could not extract from our indigenous
species an alkaline matter subservient to the same ends ?2
In the genus Cicindela the radical joint is free, on which account the palpi are said to consist of four articulations; but among
the Carabici it is adherent, and, forming only a support to the others, is not itself regarded as an articulation.
2 Hist, des Insectes, vol. Hi. No. 35, p. 11.
ENTOMOLOGY.
115
leHra
atar: a. Exterior palpi not subulate or awl-shaped at their extre-
niity; the last articulation not united with the preced¬
ing so as to form an oval body with a sharp point, or a
conical one with a slender and acicular termination.
*
Two anterior tibiae with a deep emargination in the in¬
ternal side separating the two spines, which are usually
placed near each other, at the extremity of that side.
Section 1st, Truncatipennes.
This group derives its name from the aspect of the ely¬
tra, which appear as if cut at their extremity, or more or
less truncated. This is the prevailing character, although
Odocantha dorsalis and Dejean’s new genus Stenodactyla
present a rounded termination ; but in seeking a natural
system, it is the totality of organization or assemblage of
characters by which we must be guided, and not by a sin¬
gle feature, although by its wide prevalence that feature
may have been assumed, as in the present instance, for a
general basis in the naming of the entire group. The two
following genera present rather a sinuation than a trun¬
cation of the extremities of the elytra.
Genus Anthia,1 Weber, Fab. Terminal joint of the
palpi almost cylindrical, or slightly enlarged at the extre¬
mity. Antennae filiform. Labrum rounded, advanced,
and almost entirely covering the mandibles. No tooth
in the centre of the emargination of the mentum. Ante¬
rior tarsi slightly dilated in the males. Body thick, more
or less elongated. Thorax more or less heart-shaped.
Elytra convex, not much truncated, or nearly round at
their extremity.
The insects of this genus are of considerable size.
Their usual colours are black spotted with white. They
inhabit the African deserts, and are not altogether un-
j known in those parts of Asia which extend from the Red
Sea to Bengal. According to Leschenhault de Latour,
they emit a caustic fluid when handled. In the males of
some species the thorax is dilated and bilobed posterior¬
ly. Both sexes are destitute of wings. Dejean’s Cata¬
logue contains seventeen species, all of which, except one,
j are African.
A. maxillosa, Lat. Black and smooth. Mandibles very
long. Thorax bilobed posteriorly. This is a large insect
from the Cape of Good Hope. It measures nearly two
| inches in length.
A. decemguttata, Dej. (Plate CCXXI. fig. 8.) Usual¬
ly black above, the eyes brownish, a small white spot on
each side of the anterior portion of the thorax. The ely-
i tra have each four deep grooves, with another in the cen¬
tre common to both. These grooves are garnished with
an ash-coloured or brownish down, which sometimes en-
r tirely disappears, and then each groove exhibits two rows
of small excavated spots, with a longitudinal and slightly
] i elevated line in the centre. Each elytron has also five
spots formed of whitish down,—the first near the base of
the exterior margin ; the second a little in advance of the
f 1 ! middle, in the second groove ; the third and fourth rather
behind the middle, and on the same line, in the first and
^ third grooves; the fifth near the exterior margin, at the ex-
, tremity between the second and third grooves. The under
parts of the body and feet are of a more shining black.
0 The thighs are sometimes reddish brown.
,r I ; This species is extremely common at the Cape of Good
Hope. It is subject to great variation in its markings, Coleoptera
and has been described under various names in its differ-^entameia"
ent conditions. According to Dejean, t\\e Anthia quadri-
guttata, Fab. which we have figured in this work (Plate
CCXXI. fig. 3), is nothing more than a variety of the
above, with three of the spots effaced from each elytron.
Genus Gr aphipterus,2 Lat. Last article of the palpi
cylindrical. Antennae filiform, much shorter than the
body. Labrum projecting, rounded, and nearly covering
the mandibles. No tooth in the centre of the emargina¬
tion of the mentum. Anterior tarsi not sensibly dilated
in the males. Body large and flattened. Thorax heart-
shaped. Elytra plane, broad, of a slightly elongated oval,
more or less suborbicular.
We owe to Latreille the dismemberment of these in¬
sects from the Anthire, with which they were combined
by Fabricius. However, they are equally apterous, inha¬
bit the same parts of the world, and exhibit analogous
colours. Although several insects of the north of Africa
have been discovered in Italy and the south of Spain, the
warmer countries of Europe have as yet been sought in
vain for any species of either of the genera just named.
G. multiguttatus, Dej. (Plate CCXXI. fig. 7.) Dull
black above, of a brighter black below. Thorax margin¬
ed with white. The elytra with a sinuous margin of white,
and eight spots on each of the same colour.
This species was brought by Olivier from Egypt, and
given to his friends and correspondents under the above
name, although it certainly does not agree with the de¬
scription of the insect so named by the author in his En-
tonwlogie and the Encyclopedic Methodique.
Genus Aptinus, Bonelli. Terminal article of the palpi
rather larger than the preceding, and slightly enlarged
towards the extremity. Antennae filiform. Labrum
short, and leaving the mandibles exposed. No tooth, or
a very small one in the centre of the emargination of the
mentum. The first three articles of the anterior tarsi
sensibly dilated in the males. Thorax heart-shaped.
Elytra oval, increasing in breadth towards their extre-
mity.
This genus greatly resembles Brachinus, with which it
was combined by Fabricius, and with which it is still fre¬
quently confounded.3 All the species belong to Africa
(chiefly the Cape district) and the southern parts of Eu¬
rope. Like the Brachini, they occur in groups under
stones, and affect mountainous situations. They are si¬
milarly characterized by their power of emitting a pene¬
trating vapour. The larger species inhabit tropical cli¬
mates. The A. balista, Dej. measures from five to eight
lines in length. It is black, with a fulvous throat and
truncated elytra. It occurs in Navarre, and various parts
of Spain and Portugal. A smaller species, of a deep
black, with sulcated elytra, the antennae and palpi fulvous,
the feet russet yellow, was discovered by Dejean among
the eastern Pyrenees. It is extremely common under
stones on the mountains in the vicinity of Pratz de Mollo,
and is named A. pyrenceus.
Genus Brachinus,4 Weber, Fab. This genus scarce¬
ly differs from the preceding. It is, however, characte¬
rized by the possession of wings, the anterior tarsi are not
usually dilated in the males, the truncation of the elytra
is rather square than oblique, and these parts are usually
more parallel, or less enlarged at their extremities, than
among the Aptini.
[S |     ———  — 
1 The name Ailhus is bestowed by Aristotle on a fish.
2 The name probably refers to what may be construed into an occasional resemblance of written characters upon
and ornpov.
» All the foreign species of the above genus in the Comte Dejean’s printed Catalogue (1st edition) are Brachini.
* Probably from I shorten, in allusion to the truncated form of the elytra.
the wings,—.
116
entomology.
, i with n cnnt of blackish blue at the extremities. The ends Coleom attcr
Ooleoptera The Brachini, as far as yet known, have no representa- with a spot ot blacusn P J; J
Pentamera. tive in Scotland. But as the southern parts o ^ Dejean^retains only two species in this genus, as above
dom produce five species, we are not without hopeftat retains^^ whichi8 the soIe Bri-
tisb species, and O. Dorsalis. The former insect occurs
some of these may ere long be discovered on
ern side of the Tweed. It is, however, evidently a south¬
ern genus, for of the nineteen species ot the first division
of Dejean, only one, the B. Hispanus of Kollar, is found
in Europe. It was taken at the southern extremity ot
Spain, by an Austrian naturalist, who happened to disem¬
bark in the bay of Algesiras in the course of his voyage
to Brazil. Of the twenty-one species which constitute
the second division of the genus, eight occur in Europe;
and of these five are English.1 The character by which
the generality of these insects are so remarkably distin¬
guished is, that the abdomen contains peculiar organs
which secrete a caustic liquor of an extremely penetrat¬
ing odour. When this is propelled by the insect on any
threatened danger, it produces a detonating sound, and
evaporates. M. Dumeril has remarked, that when this
reservoir is opened by dissection, the liquid effervesces,
and evaporates instantaneously. Paper imbued with a
blue vegetable dye is changed by its action, first into a
reddish hue, and then into yellow. When the vesicle
which contains it is placed upon the tongue, and com¬
pressed, a peculiar and rather agreeable savour is felt in
the mouth. A sharp pain, however, soon follows on the
spot affected, where a yellow colour becomes perceptible,
similar to that produced by a drop of nitric acid. Leon
Dufour has made us acquainted with the apparatus em¬
ployed in the production of this fluid.2
It is stated by Rowlander that the Brachini are capable
of producing eighteen or twenty discharges at a time.
Mr Stephens has invariably found them ready to discharge
their ammunition at all times, especially when roughly
handled; and Mr Cooper informed him that a specimen
he met with at Cobham in the spring, performed the ope¬
ration no less than thirteen times in rapid succession.3
B. Jurinei, Dej. (Plate CCXXI. fig. 6.) Testaceous.
The elytra black, grooved, with the lateral margins and a
central spot testaceous. From Senegal.
Genus Casnonia, Eat. Terminal article of the palpi
of an oval form, almost pointed at the end. Antennse
much shorter than the body, their articulations of nearly
equal length,—the first being shorter than the head.
Tarsi filiform; the last article at most bifid. Thorax in
the form of an elongated neck, cylindrical, and very nar¬
row anteriorly. Head nearly lozenge-shaped, prolonged
and narrowed posteriorly.
The Casnonise are insects of singular forms, reminding
the observer of the aspect of Raphidia and Apoderus.
They composed the original genus Colliuris of Degeer;
Linnaeus placed them among his Attelabi, while Fabricius
and Herbst ranged them in the genus Odocantha. La-
treille formed the genus in which we now place them.
It is synonymous with Ophionea of Klug.4 Most of the
species come from America. C. cyanocephala occurs in
Bengal.
Genus Odocantha, Fab. Characters nearly the same
as the preceding. Thorax elongate oval, nearly cylindri¬
cal. Head oval, narrowed behind, but not posteriorly
prolonged.
O. melanura, Fab. Greenish blue, the base of the an¬
tennae, chest, and feet testaceous. The elytra testaceous,
in the temperate and colder countries of Europe, in moist
and marshy places; the latter is from North America.
We pass over the genus Zuphium, of which one spe¬
cies, Z. olens, is remarkable for occurring in France, Spain,
Italy, the southern provinces of Russia, and the East In-
{i;eSj the genus Polistichus, of which P. fasciolatus is
found in Britain,—the genus Helluo of Bonelli, of which
all the species are foreign to Europe,—the genus Drypta,
which has representatives in Africa, New Holland, and
the East Indies, and of which D. emarginata is British
(for a representation of D. ruficollis, see Plate CCXXI.
fig. g),—the genera Galerita, Ctenodactyla, Agra, Cymin-
dis. Eat. ( Tarns, Clairville, of which T. basalis, Gyll. oc¬
curs in the south of Scotland), and Calleida.
Genus Demetrias, Bon. Hooks of the tarsi dentated
beneath. Terminal article of the palpi cylindrical. The
first three articles of the tarsi almost triangular, the last
strongly bilobed. Body elongated. Head oval, slightly
narrowed posteriorly.
These little insects, as far as we know, are all Euro¬
pean. They are frequent in spring, on briars and hedges.
We have four British species, one of which, D. obscurus,
we owe to the recent researches of Mr Newman.
Genus Dromius,5 Bon. Resembles the preceding;
but the articles of the tarsi are entire, and nearly cylin¬
drical. The species are apterous.
The Dromii formed part of the genus Lebia of Latreille,
till their separation by Bonelli. They are almost all Eu¬
ropean, and are commonly found under stones, and be¬
neath the bark of trees. Britain produces about twenty
species.
Genus Lebia. Hooks of the tarsi dentated beneath.
Terminal article of the palpi nearly cylindrical and oral,
and truncated at the end, but never securiform. Antenna;
filiform. Articles of the tarsi nearly triangular or heart-
shaped, the penultimate bifid or bilobed. Body short and
flat. Thorax short, transversal, broader than the head,
prolonged posteriorly in the middle. Elytra broad, and
nearly square.
This genus, which is comparatively numerous in Euro¬
pean species, and is likewise known in America, and more
sparingly in Africa, has been divided by Bonelli into two.
The type of the first division (genus Lamprias) is Leb.
chlorocephala, a beautiful little insect, of a brilliant bluish
green, with the base of the antennae, legs, breast, and
thorax red, the tarsi black. It occurs occasionally near
Edinburgh, and has been taken as far north as Lairig, in
Sutherland. The type of Lebia proper is L. crux minor,
and this second division is characterized by the penul¬
timate joint of the tarsi being bilobed, while in the first
it is said to be simple. However, as far as we are able
to perceive from an inspection of our north-country spe¬
cimens, there is a bilobation in that part also in Lam¬
prias. But other distinctive characters will be found de¬
tailed in the works of Messrs Curtis and Stephens, both
of whom follow Bonelli in regarding the two divisions
as distinct genera. Dejean’s Catalogue contains sixty-four
species.
1 The Catalogue des Col. 2d ed. contains seventy-seven in all.
* Mem. sur le Brachine Tirailleur, Ann. du Mas. t. xvii. p. 70, and Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. vi. p. 320.
3 Stephens’ Illustrations, vol. i. p. 35. 4 Entomologies Braziliunce Specimen. s From 'inopivs, a runner.
ENTOMOLOGY.
117
Synoptical Table of the preceding Section^ according to the system of Dejean.
Coleopterad
Pentamera.
TRUNCATIPENNES.
First Sub-Tribe.
a
aS
'■d
§ 2
O) CS
rtD
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rS ^
V CD
3 '+H
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'-s
J3 '
bio
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H
^ a
•e ^
?? ^
^ c
^ 03
0)
S3
^2 ^3
S3
' in the form of a lengthened neck, often cylindrical and contracted in
front    1. Casnonia.
covered with hairs  2. Lasiocera.
rCJ
S3
S3
O
a
S3
S3
0> OJ
S 5
simple  3. Odacantha.
J 2
a s3
^ d
QJ £
T3 &. =3
S3
=3^-2
OJ +j
T3 ^ .2
C3 >- O
o o
strongly bilobed  Leptotrachelus.
much shorter than the head  5. Trigonodactyla.
_ nearly as long as the head,
l with teeth beneath 
>,o
' strongly bilobed.
m
-c
"very much dilated.
6. Cordistes.
7. Ctenodactyla.
8. Drypta.
9. Galerita,
o «
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c
OJ
Ph
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O -rs O)
T3
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^ *3 ^
-Q o £
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■2 =3
^3 S3h
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+-> 1 1
cs a>
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C3 C3
^ lJ
cy ^
s
G P4
as long as the head,
,10. Zuphium.
shorter than the head.
nearly cylindrical.
.with teeth beneath.
11. Polistichus.
. 12. Diaphorus.
, 13. Agra.
ENTOMOLOGY.
118 '
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
-a
rG
O f"C>
o
c3
O
Ei
C3
O
££1.3
3
S?,
JJ o
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CD
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Second Sub-Tribe.
not bilobed.
bilobed.
'with very large teeth.
3 g
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d) r n
W
^ o b
S -3 ^
^ S 3
33 2 ^
i |'o
+2 CL G
bilobed.
.14i. Cymindis.
.15. Calleida.
.16. Onypterygia.
.17. Demetrius.
not bilobed iS- Dromius.
rs
m ^
■t: ^
c3 •-»
3 'w
c o
03
u .s
>-.0
w
C/3
c3
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3 S
S 2
>>.2
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C3 4->
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£ O
S .2
.2 »- cs
fc. c o
O t.
2 P oj
CL
forming a right angle with the sides 19. Plochionus.
produced in the middle 20. Aspasza.
bD .
P 02
C3 CD
SC 1
0>
■g 3
2 a>
•rt rP
cS "S
sc
c1 .
2'g a
c2 CL
not bilobed 21. Lebia.
bilobed 22. Coptodera.
"moniliform, or thickening towards the apex 24. Helluo.
'p i
as q
.T- £ 2^
£ o
p P3 P
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cc a
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i§ ^<1
£
S .2 s V’
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C3 -P C3
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CO Q
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p 'p
CD.
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SC o
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wings wanting,
winged 
gW [scarcely elongate, nearly orbicular,
strongly securiform 
<D
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8 II
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t 1
^3
H
r p
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2 .2*
a.
S'
s ^sg
T3 Sc-w C
•g a <3
pop
more or less triangular or heart-shaped.
nearly cylindrical.
p c *2 2 ( rather short and wide, more or less square or ovate.
fcr' ^ g ^ h
-Q W ( more or less elongate and parallel 
SC P
e p:
• >+h a,
c)0 3
.2 si a
C3
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rather strongly securiform,
<2 £
2 W
scarcely elongate, nearly orbicular,
more or less elongate 
.25. Aptinus.
.26. Brachinus.
.27. Corsyra.
.28. Drepanus.
.29. Dyscolus.
.30. Promecoptera.
,.31. Thyreopterus.
.32. Catascopus.
.33. Eucheyla.
.34. Graphipterus.
.35. Anthia.
E N T O M
^leo ra Section 2d, Bipartiti, Lat. Scaritides, Dej.
ntarr'a.
Almost all the genera of this group (seventeen in num¬
ber in the system of Dejean) were constituent portions
of the old genus Scarites of Fabricius and Olivier. They
possess several characters in common. The exterior pal¬
pi are not subulate or awl-shaped at their extremity.
The elytra are not terminated by a truncation, but are
either entire or slightly sinuated. The abdomen is sepa¬
rated from the thorax by an obvious intermediate neck¬
shaped portion.1 The first article of the antennse is al¬
ways the largest. The anterior legs are often broad and
palmated, and strongly notched interiorly.- The anterior
tarsi present no marked disparity in the sexes, and are
unprovided with brushes beneath; but simply ciliated.2
In the Coleopteres d'Europe of MM. Latreille and
Dejean, the Scaritides seem to be regarded as not carni¬
vorous. But in opposition to this opinion, so contrary to
analogy, we have the authority, as Mr Macleay has noted,
of two accurate observers, MM. Olivier and Lefebre tie
Cerisy. The latter, who resides at Toulon, possesses pe¬
culiar facilities for acquiring a knowledge of their natural
habits. He states them to be nocturnal insects of prey,
which, during the day, lurk motionless in holes of the
earth, and sally out at night to attack Melolonthidm and
other insects.3
The insects included in this division are rather strong¬
ly distinguished from the conterminous groups. As they
are destined to live chiefly beneath the surface of the
earth, their structure is more peculiarly adapted than
that of the other Coleoptera to a subterranean mode of
life. The body is narrow, the anterior thighs thickened,
the tibiae dilated, and furnished with strong spines, pre¬
senting a broad surface, well fitted to remove the soil;—
the head and thorax are strong, and the latter is at¬
tached to the abdomen by a short peduncle or footstalk.
In the last-mentioned particular they differ from most
other pentamerous beetles, which usually have the thorax
| closely applied to the abdomen, and the hinder angles
rectangular or even salient, which necessarily prevents any
considerable degree of lateral motion. But in insects
j which excavate holes scarcely exceeding their body in
width, some provision is necessary to enable them to turn
| their anterior portion in different directions, otherwise
their progress would be nearly in a straight line. This
object, which is analogous to that which is provided for in
! moles and other burrowing quadrupeds, by the flexibility
of the vertebral column, is attained by the interposition of
a narrow cylindrical piece between the abdomen and tho¬
rax, on which the latter moves as on a pivot, its hinder
angles being rounded off that its motions may be perform¬
ed with greater facility. The form of the antennae is like¬
wise in beautiful accordance with the habits of the insects.
They are composed of nearly globular articulations attach¬
ed to each other by a slender filament, bearing some re¬
semblance to a series of beads rather loosely strung. By
a structure of this kind, they are rendered greatly more
! pliant and flexile than in the other Pentamera (the joints
| ot the antennas in which are generally conical), and there-
1 fore present no obstacle to the insect’s progress through
a resisting medium.4
These insects are usually of a uniform black colour.
Ihe larva of Ditomus bucepltalus, the only one that has
1 The foreign genus Ozcena, in which the peduncle is scarcely
character.
a Species General, t. i. p. 355.
1 Annulosa Javanica, No. i p. 24.
4 Entomologia Edinensis, p. 77-
O L O G Y. 119
been attended to, presents, according to Latreille, the Coleoptera
same form and habits of life as those of Cicindelce. They Pentamera.
are more particularly characteristic of torrid countries,
although Great Britain and the rest of Europe produce
several genera.
Genus Enceladus, Bon. Scarites, Oliv. Mentum in¬
articulate, soldered, covering almost all the under part of
the head, strongly notched, with a bifid tooth in the cen¬
tre. Terminal article of the labial palpi distinctly securi¬
form. Antennas filiform; the first article a little longer
than the others.
The species of this genus differ from most of their
section in having their anterior tibiae unemarginate, which
allies them to the Simplicimanes of Dejean, or Grandipal-
pi of Lat. The example figured, E. gigas (see Plate
CCXXI. fig. 4), is a large insect of which the locality
seems doubtful. Latreille believed it to come from Ma¬
dagascar and equinoctial Africa, while Dejean regards it *
as South American.
Genus Acanthosceuis, Lat. Scarites, Fab. Men¬
tum articulated, almost plane, strongly trilobed. Labrum
very short, tridentated. Mandibles large, advanced,
strongly toothed interiorly. Terminal article of the labial
palpi almost cylindrical. Antennae moniliform ; the first
article very large; the others much less, but enlarging
insensibly towards the extremitjr. Body short and con¬
vex. Thorax convex, transverse, almost square. Elytra
short, and very convex. Anterior tibiae strongly palmat¬
ed ; posterior short, broad, arched, and spinous. Trochan¬
ters almost as large as the posterior thighs.
This genus is formed upon Scarites ruficornis of Fab.
(Plate CCXXI. fig. 17), an insect above eight lines in
length, black, with the palpi and antennae ferruginous.
It is native to the Cape of Good Hope.
Genus Scarites,5 Fab. Mentum articulated, concave,
strongly trilobed. Labrum, mandibles, and terminal arti¬
cle of the palpi as in the preceding genus. Body rather
elongated, cylindrical, or slightly flattened. Thorax con¬
vex, almost crescent-shaped, notched anteriorly, rounded
posteriorly, and frequently somewhat prolonged in the
middle. Anterior tibiae strongly palmated, posterior
simple. Trochanters much shorter than the posterior
thighs.
The insects of our present genus are of considerable
size, of a black colour, usually shining, and are character¬
istic of sandy countries near the sea coast, or of districts
impregnated with saline particles. They occur in the
warmer countries of Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.
Dejean enumerates fifty-eight species. Three are said
to occur in Britain, S. Beckwithii of Stephens, S. subter-
raneus, and S. Icevigatus, Fab. The two latter are, however,
doubtful natives. The second is in fact an American in¬
sect (see Plate CCXXI. fig, 10),—the third is frequent
in the south of France, and along the Mediterranean
shores.
Genus Clivina,6 Lat. Scarites, Fab. Mentum articu¬
late, concave, and trilobed. Labium slightly advanced,
and cut almost square. Mandibles slightly projecting,
not toothed interiorly. Terminal article of the labial pal¬
pi almost cylindrical. Antennae moniliform ; the first ar¬
ticle as long as the two succeeding united. Body more or
less elongated. Thorax square or globular. Anterior ti¬
bia; almost always palmated.
perceptible, may be regarded as an exception to the last-named
5 From I run swiftly.
e Clivina is the name of an augurial bird mentioned by Pliny.
] 2o E N T O M
Coleoptera These small insects are usually found under stones, by
Pentamera. the banks of rivers, and elsewhere, ihey are common al
over Europe, more especially in its southern parts. ^ ieTy
also occur in Africa, America, and the East Indies. We
have two British species, C. fossor, Gyllenhal, which is
brownish black, with the mouth, antennae, and legs rufous,
the elytra punctate striate, of the same colour as the
thorax,—and C. collctris of Herbst, of which the head and
thorax are brownish black, and the elytra chesnut colour.
Dejean regards the one as a variety of the other. They
are described as distinct by English entomologists. We
lately found a rare and interesting species, C. arctica, on
the mountain range on the north side of the valley of
Clova, in Forfarshire. It is known to occur, though rare¬
ly, in Lapland, the north of Sweden, 1'inland, and some¬
times as far to the east as the environs of St Petersburg.
It forms the genus Leiochiton of Curtis,1 so named from
• Xs/oc, smooth, and yjrov, a covering, the upper surface and
other parts being remarkable for glossiness.
The genus Dyschirius, Bonelli (named from dug, two,
and a division of the foot or leg), which some au-
O L O G Y.
thors do not admit as distinct from Clivina, contains those
species of which the thorax is globular, and the anterior
tibia; palmated only at the extremity, and simple exte¬
riorly. Sixteen species are found in Britain.2
Genus Ditomus, Bon. Mentum articulated, con¬
cave, and trilobed. Labrum slightly notched. Labial
palpi slightly elongated, the terminal article almost cylin¬
drical. Antennae filiform, the articles elongated and near¬
ly filiform. Thorax cordiform or crescent-shaped. An¬
terior tibiae not palmated.
This genus was established by Bonelli on the Scaurus
sulcatus, and certain Carahi of Fabricius, which Rossi and
Olivier had placed in Scarites. The species are of middle
size, dark or blackish in their colouring, and frequently
deeply punctured. They inhabit the southern parts of
Europe, the north of Africa, and the west of Asia. We
have figured D. violaceus on the plate last referred to,
fig. 16. D.fulvipes of Lat. a common insect in the south
of France, and occurring, though rarely, as far north as
Paris, has some claims to be regarded as a British species.
We are acquainted with eighteen species in all.
1 British Entomology, vol. viii. p. 340. Of the genus Clivina, including Dischirius, &c. Dejean’s Catalogue enumerates forty-four
^ 2 We take our indications of the amount of indigenous species from Mr Stephens’ Nomenclature of British Insects. Second edi¬
tion. 1833.
ENTOMOLOGY.
eopip
itanlp-
yrV1
Synoptical Table of the preceding Section (Scari tides), according to the system of Dejean.
121
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
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without a notch  1. Enceladus.
strongly notched   2. Siagona.
broad, very short, and without a perceptible tooth in the centre of its notch  3. Coscinia.
rather narrow, short, and trilobed  4. Meleenus.
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short, broad, bent, and covered with spines.
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distinct, and scarcely thickening towards the apex.
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. 6. Acanthoscelis.
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. 8. Pasimachus.
. 9. Oxystomus.
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much elongate.
,17. Apotomus.
VOL. IX.
122 E N T O M
Coleoptera Section 3d, Quadrimani, Lat. Harpalici, Bon.
Pentamera.
In tins division Latreille includes those groups of Ca-
rabici which, resembling the preceding in the pointed ter¬
mination of the elytra, have the four anterior tarsi dilat¬
ed in the males ; the first three or four articulations are in
the form of a reversed heart or triangle, and are nearly all
terminated by acute angles; their under part is usually
furnished (excepting the Aphoni) with two ranges of pa¬
pilla; or scales, with an intermediate linear space. The
body is always winged, generally oval and arched, or con¬
vex above, with the thorax broader than long, or at most
nearly isometrical, square, or trapezoidal. I he head is
never suddenly contracted posteriorly. The antenna; are
of equal thickness throughout, or are slightly and_ insensi¬
bly enlarged towards the extremity. The mandibles are
never remarkably strong. The external palpi are termi¬
nated by an oval or fusiform joint of greater length than
that which precedes it. The tooth of the notch or emar-
o'ination of the mentum is always entire,—in some want-
fng.i The legs are robust, the tibia; spiny, and the hooks
of the tarsi simple. The intermediate tarsi, even in the
females, are short, and, with the exception of the dilata¬
tion, are formed nearly like the anterior. The species
prefer warm and sandy situations exposed to the sun.
Genus Harpalus, Lat. Dej. (Prate CCXXI. fig.
11.) The first four articles of the four anterior tarsi strong¬
ly dilated in the males, broader than long, and very de¬
cidedly triangular, or cordiform. Terminal article of the
palpi somewhat elongated, slightly oval, or almost cylin¬
drical and truncated at the extremity. Antennae filiform.
Labrum in the form of a transverse square. Mandibles
slightly advanced, arcuated, and not very sharp. A sim¬
ple tooth, more or less developed, in the middle of the
emargination of the mentum. Body oblong, more or less
elongated. Head more or less rounded, narrowed poste¬
riorly. Thorax more or less square, cordiform, or trapezoi¬
dal. Elytra more or less elongated, and almost parallel.
The genus Harpalus of Latreille, as conceived in his
Genera Crustaceorum et Insectorum, comprised all those
insects which Dejean has united in the tribes Harpaliens
and Feroniens, and the genera Callistus, Oodes, Chlcenius,
Epomis, and Dinodes, of the Patellimanes of the latter au¬
thor. Bonelli, in his Observatiotis Entomologiques, reduced
the genus to the insects which now constitute the tribe
Harpaliens of Dejean, itself consisting of twenty-eight
genera. The Harpalidce of the British writers include.
O L O G Y.
besides our present genus, many genera of the sections af- Coleopie
terwards mentioned under the names of Simplicimani andEwi
Patellimanu . i*
The genus Harpalus, even as now restricted and above
defined, is very extensive, and probably contains nearly
one half of the species of the section. The larvae of these
insects, as far as we are acquainted with them, dwell be¬
neath the ground. Their form is conico-cylindrical; their
head large, armed with strong mandibles, resembling those
of the perfect insect; the posterior part of their body ex¬
hibits a membranous tube, terminated by a prolongation
of the anal region, and two fleshy articulated appendages.
Their metamorphoses are likewise subterranean. The
Harpali are distributed over all the earth. They are,
however, obviously more abundant in the temperate and
even boreal regions of the northern hemisphere, than in
equinoctial or southern countries. Comte Dejean’s col¬
lection contains 179 species, while Mr Stephens enume¬
rates (including the doubtful kinds) 58 species as indi¬
genous to Britain, besides 15 Ophoni, which Dejean com¬
bines with Harpalus.
We may name as one of the most abundant of the ge¬
nus H. rujicornis, of a pitchy-blackholour, the antennse and
legs rufous, the elytra pubescent striated, the interstices
punctured. This insect is spread over all Europe. We
took it at Cape Wrath. It occurs in Siberia. M. Gou-
dot brought it from Northern Africa.
H. ceneus is distinguished by various shades of green
above, with a brassy or coppery lustre; the under side
black; external margin of the elytra punctulated, the an¬
tennae and legs rufous. This species is extremely varia¬
ble. It is generally of a rich bronzed green ; the males
highly polished, the females more obscure, sometimes
brownish black. Mr Kirby once took a specimen of this
insect, which he immersed in hot water, and was sur¬
prised to observe what he at first supposed an intestine
thrust itself forth; on a nearer inspection he found it
was an intestinal worm, thicker than a horse-hair, and of
a brown colour.1 2
This group (the Quadrimani), in the system of Dejean
(where it is named Harpaliens), includes many minor ge¬
nera not recognised in the Regne Animal, and contains
the genera Tetragonoderus and Pelecium, which in La-
treille’s arrangement belong to other sections. As we
cannot enter into a detailed exposition of the characters
of those genera, we shall here exhibit Dejean’s latest
views by means of a synoptical table.
HARP ALICE
Antennae
■:{
filiform 
moniliform
First Sub-Tribe.
Mentum trilobed.
.1. Pelicium.
,2. Eripus.
Second Sub-Tribe.
Mentum deeply notched.
This sub-tribe may be separated into two divisions.
First Division.
Antennae moniliform.
The tooth in the notch ( s™P^e' Last joint of the la- f ovate 3. Cratocerus.
of the mentum 1 bial palpi \cylindric, and truncated at the extremity...4. Somoplatus.
(.wanting   Daptus.
1 T1iiei.iigul v °r anterior portion of the mentum is always, according to Latreille, in this as well as in the two following genera,
remarkably salient, obtuse or truncated at the end, and is accompanied by two distinct membranous paraglossae in the form of auri¬
cles (oreillettes). c &
2 For the other British species we must refer the reader to the works of Messrs Stephens and Curtis. We have described such
as occur near Edinburgh in our Entomologla Edinensu. The characters of the foreign kinds are detailed in Dejean’s Speeitt General.
ENTOMOLOGY.
oleoi-'ra
entaura.
Second Division.
Antenna filiform.
May be divided into two subdivisions.
123
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
First Subdivision.
Notch of the mention with a bifid tooth in the middle.
flat and rounded 
elongate 
6. Cyclosomus.
.7. Promecoderus.
Second Subdivision.
Tooth in the notch of the mentum simple or wanting.
Last joint of the palpi securiform 8
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Selenophorus.
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as long as wide, and slightly triangular..22. Hypolithus.
[_ cylindric,or very slightly ovate 18
_smaller than the following..... .......19,
_ very slightly dilated 20
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dilated 23. Gynandromorphus.
not dilated 24. Harpalus.
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deeply bilobed   ^
terminating in a point 
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27.
28.
Geobcenus.
Stenolophus.
Acupalpus.
Tetragonoderus.
124
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
Section 4th, Simplicimani.
This section resembles the preceding so far as regards
the termination of the elytra;1 but the two anterior tarsi
only are dilated in the males, without however forming a
square or orbicular pallet; sometimes the first three ar¬
ticles are obviously broader, and the succeeding one is in
that case always much less than its antecedent; sometimes
the latter and the two preceding ones are larger, almost
equal, and in the form of a reversed or triangular heart.
The joints of the four following tarsi are more slender and
elongated, almost cylindrical, or in the form of a length¬
ened and reversed cone. .
The Simplicimani of Latreille consist of genera be ong-
ing to the tribe Carabiques Feroniens of Dejean, with the
addition of Tetragonoderus, Dejean (Harpalici), Catasco-
pus, Kirby (Truncatipennes), and a few others.
Genus Zabrus, Clairville. The first three articles of
the anterior tarsi dilated in the males, broader than long,
strongly cordiform. Terminal article of the palpi almost
cylindrical, and truncated at the extremity. Antennae
filiform, and but slightly lengthened. Labrum of a square
form, broader than long, slightly notched anteriorly.
Mandibles little advanced, rather strongly arcuated, al¬
most obtuse. A simple tooth in the middle of the emai-
gination of the mentum. Body thick and convex. Iho-
rax transverse, square, trapezoidal, or rounded on the sides.
Elytra convex, rarely elongated, frequently very short, al¬
most parallel, and rounded at the extremity.
These insects are usually found under stones, or march¬
ing about the fields, occasionally on the stalks ot grass or
other herbage. We are acquainted with about twenty
species, of which not more than two are British. The
majority of the others occur in the southern parts of Eu¬
rope. There is one from Teneriffe.
Genus Feronia, Eat. Dej. The first three articles of
the anterior tarsi dilated in the males, broader than long,
and strongly triangular or cordiform. Terminal article of
the palpi more or less elongated, cylindrical, or slightly
securiform. Antennae filiform, more or less lengthened.
Labrum square, broader than long, sometimes almost trans¬
versal, quadrate anteriorly, or slightly notched. Man¬
dibles more or less advanced, and more or less arcuated
and pointed. A bifid tooth in the middle of the emargi-
nation of the mentum. Thorax more or less cordiform,
rounded, square, or trapezoidal, never transverse. Ely¬
tra more or less elongated, oval, or parallel. Intermediate
tibiae always straight.
A great variety of opinion is maintained by entomolo¬
gists regarding the distribution of the component parts of
this extensive genus. Bonelli, in the synoptical table
annexed to the first part of his Observations Entomolo-
giqnes (in 1809), published the generic characters of
tysma, Pcecilus, Abax, Molops, Percus, Melanius, and Pter-
ostichus. At an after period MM. Megerle and Ziegler
established Argutor, Steropus, Cophosus, and Omaseus,
the latter genus, it is believed, corresponding to Melanius
of Bonelli. All these were admitted provisionally into the
first edition of Comte Dejean’s Catalogue, published in
1821. In the third volume, however, of Xhe. Species Ge-
   — ~      ~ ^ , V- » ! 5 ^
neral of that great collector, he observes as follows : “ Ma
collection depuis cette epoque s’etant considerablement
augmentee, je me suis trouve souvent tres-embarasse pour
placer dans ces differents genres les especes qui je rece-
1 As usual, there are exceptions to the rule:—“ Plusieurs Carabiques simplicimanes,” says Latreille, “ ont 1’extremite de leurs
e'lytres fortement sinude au bout, et se distinguant a peine, sous ce rapport, des Troncatipennes." (Note to Regne Animal, t. iv.
p. 399.)
2 For a further exposition of Latreille’s views, see Regne Animal, tom. iv. p. 395.
8 For the arrangement of the indigenous species, see Mr Stephens’ Nomenclature of
vais, surtout les exotiques, et quelquefois plusieurs d’en-Cole,
treelles me paraissaient intermediaires entre deux genres, Pent
et appartenir autant a 1 un qu a 1 autie. 1 lus je recevais
d’insectes, plus je me trouvais embarasse, et lorsque je
voulus classer definitivement toutes mes especes dans
chaque genre^ et etabhr les caracteres de chacun de ces
o-enres, apres plusieurs essais infructueux, je finis par ctre
convaincu que cela etait reellement impossible.” Dejean
then thought of following the example of Sturm, who re¬
duces (in his Deutschlands Fauna) all the genera above
named to those of Abax, Molops, Pterostichus, and Pla-
tysma; but after a deliberate re-examination, even these
did not appear sufficiently marked; and he finally deter¬
mined to combine them all in one under the name of
Feronia, a term previously used in a comprehensive sense
by Latreille in the first edition of the Pegne Animal.
The genus Feronia, then, of Dejean is one of the most
extensive in the coleopterous order, containing above 230
species. It is subdivided by the last-named author into
ten sections, corresponding to the same number of genera
as established by Bonelli, Megerle, Ziegler, and Sturm.
According to Latreille’s views, the genus is divisible
into three groups as follows: ls£, The species, generally
winged, of which the body, more or less oval, is a little
convex or arcuated above, with the antennae more filiform,
the head proportionally narrower, and the mandibles some¬
what less projecting. In their habits these insects ap¬
proach the genera Harpalus and Zabrus. Such are the
Amarce, of which the thorax is transverse (and which
Dejean admits as a distinct genus); the Pcecili, w here it
is almost as long as broad, and where the rather short an¬
tennae have the third article compressed and angular ; and
the Argutores, which resemble the Paecili, but have pro¬
portionally shorter antennae, with the third joint not an¬
gular.
2d, The species usually furnished with wings, but of
which the body is straight, plane, or horizontal above,
with the head nearly as wide as the body. Such is the
genus Platysma of Bonelli, to which Latreille unites Oma¬
seus of Ziegler and Dejean, and Catadromus of Macleay.
3c?, This division contains Feroniae, analogous to those
of the preceding one in their general characters, but dis¬
tinguished by the wrant of wings.2
We shall conclude by observing that our English en¬
tomologists have adopted all those minor genera, in so far
as they are applicable to the British species, and have
even proposed several others of still more limited applica¬
tion. We regret that our necessarily narrow limits pre¬
vent our entering into minute details.3 We shall merely
indicate a few of the species. F. madida is shining black,
the elytra ovate, rather convex, subpunctate-striate, with
a puncture on the third interstice a little behind the mid¬
dle. This is the F. concinna of Sturm and Dejean. A
variety occurs with the thighs and sometimes the tibiae
rufous; it constitutes the F. madida of the latter author.
They are not distinct. Both varieties are in this country
among the most common of coleopterous insects, occur¬
ring beneath stones, at the roots of trees, &c. both on low
grounds and on mountains. They seem less common in
Germany than in any other country in Europe. F. ni-
grita is also of frequent occurrence in all parts of Britain.
It is of a shining black, the thorax subquadrate, narrowed
behind, the elytra with obsoletely punctured striae, and
three impressed dots on the disk. F. orinomum is like-
vf British Insects, 2d edition.
ENTOMOLOGY.
125
aptea wise shining black, often faintly tinged with brassy; elytra
iiaeistriated, with more than four impressed dots on the disk
H»i0f each. By the comparison of an extensive series of
ispecimens of this insect which we have collected in va¬
rious parts of Scotland, we are satisfied that F. ( Omaseus)
Buhverii of Stephens is not specifically distinct. A spe¬
cies frequent under stones in woods and fields, and the
last which we shall here mention, is F. melanaria. It is
black, apterous, moderately convex, the thorax with a bi-
j striated fovea in each of its posterior angles, the elytra
with striae nearly impunctate.
Genus Broscus, Panzer. Cephalotes, Bon. First three
articles of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males, broader
than long, and decidedly cordiform. Terminal article of
the labial palpi elongated and slightly securiform. An¬
tennae filiform, and but slightly lengthened. Labrum of a
square form, broader than long, almost transverse. Man¬
dibles slightly arcuated, and rather sharp. A simple tooth
in the middle of the emargination of the mentum. Tho¬
rax cordiform, convex, and much contracted posteriorly.
Elytra rather long, slightly oval, or parallel.
This genus was established by Bonelli on the Carabus
cephalotes of Fabricius, and was also distinguished about
the same period by Panzer under the name of Broscus.
We adopt the latter term as more familiar to the English
collectors. Of the five species with which we are acquaint¬
ed, two belong to Europe, one to the north of Africa, one
to Mount Sinai, and the fifth to Asia Minor. They are all
■ of considerable size, and bear a resemblance to the genus
Steropus of Megerle.
The only British species is B. cephalotes, which is of an
elongated form, black, with the head thinly punctured,
and the elytra very finely punctate-striate. It occurs in
sandy places over many parts of Britain; and in the vici-
nity of Edinburgh is plentiful under stones, and marine re¬
jectamenta, on the shore between Portobello and Mussel¬
burgh. We found it as far north as Keoldale, near Cape
Wrath. The attitude this insect assumes when disturbed
is rather peculiar. The two anterior pair of legs are
brought close together, and extended straight outwards
at right angles with the under surface of the body. The
hind legs are bent upwards, and project in a similar way
from the opposite surface. The antennas are drawn close
to the sides of the thorax, and the mandibles extended to
their utmost stretch, while a considerable degree of rigi¬
dity is imparted to the whole. It takes this posture most
readily in cold weather; at other times, when more ac¬
tive, it prefers seeking safety by flight, or by burrowing in
the sand.1
“ The habit of these insects,” it is elsewhere observed,
“ is very curious. They are found only in the sand on
the sea shore, and live in dens about three inches deep
and half an inch wide, which are made in a diagonal posi¬
tion in the sand, where it is mixed with decomposed stalks
of Elymus arenarius. They appear to rove during the
day occasionally; but upon any alarm they run swiftly to
their dens, projecting from the mouths of which their
heads may be seen watching for prey. On holding ano¬
ther beetle to the hole, the one within would immediately
seize hold of it with its jaws, and continue so tightly fixed
as to suffer itself to be drawn out without quitting its hold,
dhey appear to be very ferocious insects; and, from the
number of elytra and other parts strewed about the sand,
it may be supposed that they prey on each other.’2 The
latter observation, we may remark, applies to many in¬
sects ; although the human race (certainly in that respect
the most noted) have been supposed to present the only Coleoptera
instances of identical species waging war upon each other. Pentamera.
Even tiger fell and sullen bear,
Their likeness and their lineage spare.
Man only mars kind nature’s plan,
And turns the fierce pursuit on man.3
The natural position of the genus Broscus seems to be
that assigned it by Mr Curtis, between the Scaritides and
the species which in the Entomologia Edinensis is placed
at the head of the genus Feronia, viz. F. madida {Stero¬
pus madidus, Meger.). In common with the former, Bros¬
cus possesses an elongated form, rather short stout legs,
and a pedunculated thorax, which adapt it to a subterra¬
neous mode of life. In the latter the thorax is also pe¬
dunculated, and the legs thick and strong, while the more
rigid structure of the antennae, admitting less easily of
being applied to the sides of the thorax to facilitate pro¬
gression in a cylindrical hole, together with the general
configuration of most of the other parts, assimilate it
more decidedly to the other Feronise, to which its habits
perfectly correspond.
Genus Mormolyce, Hagenbach.4 Exterior palpi very
short; the terminal article cylindrical, and almost rounded
at the extremity. Antennae setaceous, almost as long as
the body; the third article as long as the two following.
Labrum almost square, notched anteriorly. Mandibles
short, arcuated, rather sharp, and toothed interiorly. A
simple tooth in the middle of the emargination of the
mentum. Body remarkably depressed. Head narrow,
elongated, much prolonged posteriorly. Thorax almost
lozenge-shaped. Elytra flat, thin, greatly dilated, much
wider and longer than the abdomen.
The aspect of this genus is one of the most remarkable
with which we ai’e acquainted. We place it among the
Simplicimani {Feromens') in accordance with the exam¬
ple of Latreille and Dejean, the latter of whom observes,
“ J’ai place cet insecte pres des Sphodrus, mais ce n’est
qui provisiorement, car j’ignore de quelle maniere les
tarses sont dilates dans les males, et meme s’ils ne sont
pas semblables dans les deux sexes.” In regard to its
locality he further observes, “ D’apres M. Hagenbach,
elie se trouve dans la partie occidentale de Java; d’autres
personnes croient qu’elle vient de la Cochin-Chine.”5 Our
recent acquisition of an extensive series of specimens of
the only known species enables us to determine both of
those doubtful points. The tarsi are alike in both sexes,
and our collection was brought from Java. •
The insect above alluded to (Mormolyce phyllodes, Plate
CCXXI. fig. 136) measures nearly three inches in length
and an inch and a half across the dilated portion of the
elytra. It is entirely of a blackish-brown colour, some¬
what paler on the edges of the abdomen. It is furnished
with wings, and the elytra have the appearance of being
reticulated. The figure just referred to will convey an
accurate idea of its form. We have supplied the princi¬
pal collections of Europe with this rare and singular in¬
sect, of which, says Dejean, to whom we had the pleasure
to transmit a pair, “ il est presque impossible de se faire
la moindre idee par la description.” He also terms it “ un
insecte extraordinaire, qui parait appartenir au premier
aspect a la famille des Mantis, mais qui est cependant un
Coleoptere, et meme un veritable Carabique, ainsi qu’il
est facile de s’en convaincre par ses caracteres generiques.”
Passing over the genus Sphodrus, of which S. leucoph-
thalmus is the only British species, we come to
Genus Calathus, Bon. First three articles of the
1 Entomologia Edinensis, p. 82. 2 Entomological Magazine, No. 1, p. 92-
* Mwmolyee Novum Coleopterorum Genus, Nuremberg, 1825. 8 Sped
0 I he parts of the mouth are represented on the same plate, fig. 12, a, l, c, d.
3 Hokeby, canto ill.
Species General, t. v. part 2, p. 714.
126
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera anterior tarsi dilatetl in the males. Hooks of the tarsi
Pentamera. toothed beneath. Terminal article of the palpi elongated,
almost cylindrical, and truncated at the extremity. An-
tennce rather elongated, filiform, and slightly compres¬
sed. Labrum of a square form, broader than long, very
slightly notched anteriorly. Mandibles not much ad¬
vanced, slightly arcuated, and rather sharp. A bifid tooth
in the middle of the emargination of the mentum. 1 borax
trapezoidal, or almost square, little, if at all, contracted pos¬
teriorly. Elytra rather elongated, slightly oval, little con¬
tracted anteriorly, and rounded at the extremity.
This genus, as Mr Stephens observes, presents a pecu¬
liar outline from the shape of the head, trapeziform tho¬
rax, and elliptic elytra, by which it is readily distinguish¬
ed from the neighbouring genera. The species usual y
reside among short herbage on banks, and are fiequently
observed upon quick-hedges.1 dhey are generally of a
black or brown colour, rarely metallic. I hey aie ex¬
tremely active in their movements. The only species we Co{ #
shall here notice is the C. microcephalus of Dejean,2 which ^ &
we discovered in the summer of 1832 in the highlands of
Forfarshire, Perthshire, and Aberdeenshire. It forms an
addition to our British species, and is distinguishable
from the others by the following charactersShining
black ; antennae, palpi, legs, and margin of the thorax tes-
taceous; the thorax rather long, somewhat narrowed be¬
hind, with the hinder angles obtuse; elytra not much
elongate, with slender impunctate striae, the second and
third from the suture with two impressed points. In size
it nearly agrees with the very common C. melanocephalus.
On the"7 continent it occurs in Sweden, France, Switzer¬
land, and Germany, chiefly in woods and on mountains.
Here follows the synoptical table of the preceding sec¬
tion, according to the system of Dejean, and including
many genera of which we cannot give the detailed cha¬
racters.
FERONIENS, Dej. (Chiefly) Simplicimani, Lab
Division First.
First joint of the anterior tarsi dilated, at least in the males.
This division contains only one genus * 
1. Stenomorphus.
Division Second.
The two first joints of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males.
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wanting,
simple...
2. Omphreus.
3. Melanotus.
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flat, nearly square, slightly or not at all contracted behind.
4. Pogonus.
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convex, heart-shaped, considerably contracted behind  Cardiaderus.
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convex, nearly ovate    d. Baripus.
tg S
flat, contracted behind, more or less heart-shaped.
Division Third.
7. Patrobus.
Three first joints of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males.
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First Subdivision.
Claws dentate beneath.
simple  8. Dolichus.
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contracted behind, and more or less heart-shaped  9. Pristonychus.
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oval, rounded behind 11. Pristodactyla.
, securiform 12. Taphria.
1 Ulus, of Brit. Ent. vol. i. p. 98.
9 Species General, t. iii. p. 78.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Second Subdivision.
127
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
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Claws without teeth.
much wider than the abdomen 13. Mormolyce.
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slightly convex, ovate or elongate-quadrate ; the anterior
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rounded ; without distinct posterior angles 17.
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128
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
entomology
Section 5th, Patellimani, Lat.
This section is chiefly distinguished from the preced¬
ing by the mode in which the two anterior tarsi are dilat¬
ed in the males; the first joints (usually the first three,
then the fourth, in others only the first two) sometimes
square, sometimes partly of that form, and the others
heart-shaped or reversed triangular, but always rounded
at their extremity, and not terminated, as in the pre¬
ceding sections, by acute angles,—form an orbicular pal¬
let or lengthened square, of which the under surface is
usually furnished with brushes or close set papillae, with¬
out any intermediate [vacancy. The legs are generally
long and slender. The thorax is frequently narrower
throughout its whole extent than the abdomen. The spe¬
cies frequent, for the most part, moist places on the banks
of rivers. ... j ^
In the Regne Animal this .section is composed 01 the
Patellimani of Dejean, of a portion of his Feroniens (Gen.
Dolichus, Platynus, Agonum, Anchomenus, Patrobus), and
of the genus Pelicium of Kirby, referred to the Harpahens
in the Species General. It is subdivided by Latieille into
two principal groups.
a. Head insensibly contracted behind.
Genus Agonum, Bon. First three articles of the an¬
terior tarsi dilated in the males, longer than broad, and
slightly triangular or cordiform. Terminal article of the
pafpi lengthened, cylindrical, more or less oval, and trun¬
cated at the extremity. Antennae filiform, rather elon¬
gated. Labrum slightly convex, of a square form, broad¬
er than long, almost transversal. Mandibles not much ad¬
vanced, slightly arcuated, rather sharp. A simple tooth in
the middle of the emargination of the mentum. Thorax
more or less rounded, without obvious posterior angles.
Elytra oval, more or less elongated.
Of this genus A. sexpunctatum is a beautiful species,
of which the head and thorax are golden green, the ely¬
tra copper-red, finely striated, and impressed with six
large punctures. There is only one recorded instance of
its being taken in Scotland,—on the banks of the water
of Leith, a little to the west of Edinburgh.1 Several
other species are, however, common in Scotland. There
are about thirty kinds in Britain; and Dejean's collectionCoi
contains fifty-six. . .
The genus Anchomenus is nearly allied to the preced¬
ing, buf the labrum is plane, the thorax more or less cor-
diform, with obvious posterior angles. Ihe body is not
so flat. We are acquainted with above forty kinds, of
which not more than five inhabit Britain. We consider
Platynus angusticollis as belonging to this genus.
In the genus Chl^nius of Bonelli, the tooth of the
emargination of the mentum is bifid, the external maxil¬
lary palpi are terminated by an almost cylindrical article,
slightly restricted at the base, that of the labial being in
the form of a reversed and lengthened cone. There
are 115 species of this extensive genus, of which about
eight are as yet recognised as British. They are orna¬
mental insects, being frequently adorned with green, and
burnished with a metallic lustre. They are spread over
almost all the earth,—Europe, Asia, Africa, and America.
They seem, however, rare in the southern division of the
new world, and, as far as we know, have not yet been
found in New Holland.2 3 Carabus saponarius of Oli¬
vier,*1 which is used in Africa instead of soap, belongs to
the genus Chlcenius. It was brought from Senegal by M.
Geoffroy, fils.
In the genus Licinus the first two articles of the an¬
terior tarsi are dilated in the males. The terminal article
of the palpi is broad and securiform, and there is no tooth
in the middle of the emargination of the mentum. The
species are confined to Europe and the north of Africa.
In the genus Badister the first three articles of anterior
tarsi are dilated in the males, and the terminal article of
the palpi is oval. The species are confined to Europe.
b. Head suddenly contracted behind the eyes.
This division of the Patellimani contains the genera
Pelicium of Kirby and Cynthia of Lat., both from South
America, and three other genera, viz. Panag^sus (see
Plate CCXXI. fig. 15), of which the head is very small
compared to the size of the body,—Loricera (Ibid. fig.
14), of which the first joint of the antennae is robust, al¬
most as long as the three following united, the second and
fourth short, with strong hairs, the third longer than the
second, likewise furnished with hairs,—and Patrobus.
Ent. Ed. p. 99.
2 For the sectional division of this genus, see Dejean’s Species General, t. ii. p. 297-
3 Coleopteres, t. iii. p. 35, PI. 3. fig. 26.
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ENTOMOLOGY.
Synoptical Table of the preceding Section, according to the System of Dejean.
129
Coleoptera
Pentaniera.
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PATELLIMANI.
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simple.
bifid.
1. Eurysoma.
2. Panagceus.
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rather elongate, ovate, and terminating nearly in a point,
elongate, and truncated at the tip 
strongly securiform.
C3
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truncated at the apex...
strongly securiform 
short and slightly securiform.
. 4. Loricera.
. 5. Callistus.
.10. Oodes.
. 6. Vertagus.
7. Chlcenius.
. 8. Epomis.
. 9. Dinodes.
a
i-3
not securiform  11. Rhembus.
rather strongly securiform 12. Diccdus.
3 S
in the two first joints 13. Licinus.
in the three first joints 14. Badister.
VOL. IX.
130
entomology.
* *
Coleoptera - - . . , . i
Pentamera- Anterior tibiae without an emargination on the interna
side, or presenting one that begins close to their extie-
mity, or that does not extend on their anterior face, and
forms merely an oblique and linear canal.
Section 6th, Grandipalpi, Lat. Simplicipedes, Dej.
In this section of the CWfo'c* the ligula is often ex¬
tremely short, terminated in a point in the centre or its
summit, and accompanied by pointed paraglossas. t he
mandibles are robust. The terminal joint of the exterior
palpi is usually larger, compressed into the form of a re¬
versed triangle, or hatchet-shaped in some,—almost spoon¬
shaped in others.1 The eyes are prominent. rI he elytra
are entire, or simply sinuated at their posterior extiemity.
The abdomen is usually bulky when compared to the
other parts of the body. These Carabici are for the most
part of great size, often richly coloured, or ornamented
with metallic splendour. They are active in their move¬
ments, and voracious in their dispositions. They are di¬
visible into three groups.
Isif, Body always thick, without wings; labrum always
bilobed; terminal article of the external palpi al¬
ways very large ^ emargination of the mentum tooth¬
less ; internal side of the mandibles entirely dentat-
ed (or nearly so) throughout their length.
Genus Pamborus, Lat. Tarsi similar in both sexes.
Terminal article of the palpi securiform. Antennae fili¬
form. Labrum bilobed. Mandibles hut slightly project¬
ing, greatly curved, strongly toothed interiorly. Men¬
tum almost plane, slightly notched anteriorly. Thorax
almost cordiform. Elytra elongate oval.
This genus is formed upon a large insect from New
Holland, the P. alternans, which we have represented in
Plate CCXXII. fig. 1. It is the only one yet known. In
a collection received some time ago from New Holland
(transmitted to the Edinburgh Museum by Colonel Lind¬
say), and submitted to our examination by Professor
Jameson, there is either a distinct species, or a strongly
marked variety,—the third and fourth striae of the elytra
being much more regular than usual. Comte Dejean,
with whom we communicated on the subject, regards it
as a species.
Genus Cychrus, Fab. Tarsi similar in the two sexes.
Terminal article of the palpi very strongly securiform,
almost spoon-shaped, and more dilated, in the males. An¬
tennae setaceous. Labrum bifid. Mandibles narrow, and
toothed interiorly. Mentum strongly notched. Thorax
cordiform, little, if at all, raised at the edges, and not pro¬
longed posteriorly. Elytra fixed, carinated laterally, and
embracing the sides of the abdomen.
C. rostratus is common all over Britain, and is some¬
times taken at a great height upon the mountains. C.
elongatus and attenuatus are said to occur in England.
We have represented that discovered by Professor Bo-
nelli among the mountains of the north of Italy, Plate
CCXXI. fig. 22. Eleven species are known in all. They
are found in Europe, Asiatic Russia, and North America.
The genus Spha;roderus of Dejean is formed by dis¬
memberment of the preceding. It is a sub-genus peculiar
to America. We have represented S. nitidicollis, Plate
CCXXI. fig. 19.
2c?, Body thick, and mostly apterous, as in the preced¬
ing genera, but the emargination of the mentum pro¬
vided with an entire or bifid tooth, and the mandibles
armed at most with one or two teeth situated at their Colec
Pentaii
base. _ . • . . . t Tl
Genus Procerus, Megerle. Tarsi similar in both
sexes. Terminal article of the palpi very strongly secu¬
riform, and more dilated in the males. Antennae filiform.
Labrum bilobed. Mandibles slightly curved, very sharp,
smooth, with only a single tooth at their base. A very
strong tooth in the middle of the emargination of the men¬
tum. ^ Thorax almost cordiform. Elytra elongate oval.
The Proceri are large and remarkable insects, the giants
of the European Carabici. In regard to their colours,
they are either entirely black, or black beneath, with a
tinge of blue or green above. The elytra are extremely
rouMi. They appear to inhabit exclusively the mountains
amf forests of Carniola, Illyria, Turkey in Europe, parts
of Hungary, the south of Russia, the Caucasus, and Asia
Minor.& P. Duponchelii, Dej. was lately taken in the en¬
virons of Athens. M. Fischer is of opinion (Entomogra-
phie de la Russie), that P. tauricus (Plate CCXXI. fig.
21) and Caucasians are, the former the male, the latter
the female, of the same species ; but Dejean now possesses
both sexes of each, and regards them as distinct. The
synonymes of the species, however, are still confused and
conti’adictory.
Genus Carabus, Lin. Fischer, Dej. The first four
articles of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males, the first
three very strongly, the fourth often more slightly. Ter¬
minal article of the palpi more or less securiform, and
more dilated in the males. Antennae filiform; the third
article cylindrical, and scarcely longer than the others.
Labrum bilobed. Mandibles slightly curved, more or less
sharp, smooth, with only a single tooth at their base. A
very strong tooth in the middle of the emargination of
the mentum. Thorax more or less cordiform. Elytra
more or less elongate oval. Wings not fitted for flight.
The great genus Carabus of Linnaeus originally con¬
tained the whole of those extensive natural groups which
now constitute the family of Carabici, with which we are
still engaged. Even as now restricted, it is one of the
most numerous with which the entomologist is concerned,
and is rendered highly interesting from the size and
beauty of many species. The genera with which the
Carabi, as above defined, bear the most direct relations,
are Procerus, Procrustes, Calosoma ; but, as Dejean ob¬
serves, they differ from the first by the anterior tarsi, di¬
lated in the males,—from the second by the form of the
lahrum and mentum,—and from the third by several cha¬
racters easily perceived on comparison.
The greater proportion of the true Carabi, which form
a very interesting and well-observed genus, occur in the
comparatively temperate countries of Europe, the Cauca¬
sus, Siberia, Asia Minor, Syria, and the north of Africa,
as far south as the 30th degree. A few are also found
towards the two extremities of America, and it is not im¬
probable that others may be ascertained to inhabit the
intermediate countries.2 A very fine species (C. cribel-
latus, Adams) is native to the polar regions of Siberia ;3
and Sir Joseph Banks captured another as far south as
Terra del Fuego ;4 of the latter circumstance, Dejean,
who has done so much to illustrate the family, does not
appear to be aware. “ Depuis long temps je supposais
neanmoins qu’on devait les retrouver a fextremite de
I’Amerique Meridionale ; M. Eschscholtz, qui fait pour
la seconde fois le tour du monde avec le Capitaine Kotze¬
bue, vient de confirmer cette supposition, et dans une
lettre ecrite a M. le Comte de Mannerheim il lui annonce
pan
1 It is often more dilated in the males than in the other sex, particularly in Procerus.
* Regne Animal, t. iv. p. 412. 3 Entomographic de la Rnssie, tab. 8, fig. 13. 4 Introduc. to Ent. vol. iv. p. 493.
E N T O M
i qu’il a trouve au Chili un veritable Carabe.”1 None of
L,the genus, however, has as yet been found either in
' Southern Africa or New Holland. Count Dejean pos¬
sesses 163 species, which he has arranged in sixteen di¬
visions. In the first thirteen are comprised all those of
which the elytra are arched or convex, in the three last
those in which they are plane. The nature of the sur¬
face of the elytra furnishes the other secondary charac¬
ters, in pretty close accordance with the methods of Bo-
nelli and Clairville.2 Among the continental species, the
C. rutilans (Plate CCXXI. fig. 20), hispanus, &c. ex¬
hibit perhaps the most ornamental examples within the
range of the European Coleoptera; and our own Carabus
nitens, an inhabitant of the heathy wastes, yields to few,
even of the exotic species, in its lustrous and metallic
splendour.
The name of Carabus (Kaeufiog), applied generically by
Linnaeus to so vast a group, occurs in Aristotle’s history
of animals, and denotes sometimes a winged coleopterous
insect, at other times a species of crustaceous animal.
Latreille supposes it to be a contracted form of Scara-
baeus. In addition to the characters already given, we
may mention that the species of the genus, as now re¬
stricted, are all of considerable dimensions. Their colours
are usually black with a tinge of purple, or greenish with
a golden hue. The form of the body is elongated; the
head, always narrower than the thorax, is generally of
greater extent forwards than transversely, and is borne
almost in a horizontal position. The eyes are globular,
and behind them the head assumes a narrow neck-like
form. The mandibles, which are strong and pointed, are
usually destitute of dentation, and may be observed to
cross each other when the insect is in a state of repose.
The thorax is narrower than the abdomen, is bordered
with a slightly recurved margin, and is almost always
emarginate in its basal line ; its superior portion (strictly
speaking the prothorax) is more extended than the infe¬
rior parts, and covers posteriorly the scutellum of the
mesothorax, which, naturally but slightly developed, pre¬
sents to view its summit only. The elytra are also mar¬
gined after the manner of the thorax, and their upper
surface, rarely smooth, is variously characterized, accord¬
ing to the species, by striae, furrows, depressed points, or
rows of bead-like elevations. The true or membranaceous
wings are either wanting or exist in a very rudimentary
condition. The species therefore are incapable of flight;
but, to make amends for this deficiency, their legs are
strong and lengthened, the trochanter is greatly deve¬
loped, and the tarsi of the anterior pair (in the males) are
dilated, with their first four articulations spongy on their
inferior face.
All the species are eminently voracious and carnivo^-
rous. They not only prey upon the soft bodied and de¬
fenceless caterpillars, and on all other insects weaker than
themselves, but they even seize upon and devour their
own species. They usually avoid strong light, are partial
to a certain degree of moisture, and conceal themselves
during the heat of the day beneath stones, among mossy
herbage, in garden rubbish, or under the stems or within
the hollows of fallen trees. We have noted the usual
habits of each of the species in the descriptions which
follow; and, in regard to their general distribution, we
may observe, that their principal seat appears to be the
north temperate zone, that they are extremely rare in the
warmer regions of the earth, and probably disappear alto¬
gether within the tropics. Their larvae and metamor¬
phoses are but slightly known. Many of the perfect in-
O L O G Y. 131
sects exhale a penetrating and fetid ododr, and when Coleoptera
touched exude a dark-coloured caustic humour. Pentamera.
Mr Stephens enumerates nineteen species of British v,—’■‘V’""’'
Carabi. The claims, however, of three or four of these
(such as C. purpurascens, convexus, anronitens) to be re¬
garded as truly indigenous, are extremely doubtful. The
occurrence of an insect on our island shores is sometimes
accidental, and results from the fortuitous impulsion of
winds or waves. It is well that the visits of these erratic
strangers should be recorded, as they afford an interesting
illustration of the extreme extent in one direction of their
geographical range; but they cannot on that account be
considered as “ children of the soil.” We shall here give
a few brief notices of the Scottish species.
C. catenalatus, Fab. Oblong-ovate, black, the margins
of the thorax and of the elytra violaceous; elytra with
interrupted crenated striae, and three rows of impressed
dots, the spaces between the dots slightly elevated. Com¬
mon throughout Scotland, both on mountains and in plains.
C. monilis, Fab. Oblong-ovate, thorax coppery, elytra,
brassy-green or violaceous, with three series of oblong
tubercles, and three equal elevated lines between them.
The colour of this species is very variable. It is rare in
Scotland, and we have not yet observed it during our ex¬
cursions to the northern counties.
C. arvensis, Fab. Ovate, greenish coppery, or brassy
above, elytra with three series of oblong tubercles, and
three crenulated lines between them, the central line ra¬
ther elevated. Not as yet known to be generally spread
over Scotland, but collected at several distant points.
Pentland Hills, Island of Arran, vicinity of Jedburgh.
C. cancellatus, Fab. C. morbillosm, Leach. Oblong,
metallic green or brassy, elytra with three rows of oblong
tubercles, and a single smooth elevated line between them.
Not unfrequent in decayed wood and under stones.
Neighbourhood of Edinburgh ; parish of Durness, Suther¬
land.
C. hortensis, Fab. Ovate, thorax black, margined with
purple, elytra brassy brown, with three rows of excavat¬
ed dots. Common near Edinburgh, occurring in gardens,
pathways, &c., during spring and summer, and pretty wide¬
ly spread over Scotland, but much rarer in the northern
counties than C. catenalatus, and not partaking with that
species in the height of its occasional localities. Only one
specimen found in Sutherland among many scores of other
species of the genus.
C. violaceus, Linn. Elongate, black, the margins of
the thorax and of the elytra violaceous; elytra dull black,
granulated. An elegantly shaped species, not unfrequent
in Scotland, in woods and fields, and among garden rub¬
bish. It also occurs among the mountains, and has been
taken at Cape Wrath.
C. glabratus, Fab. Oblong, entirely black, the elytra
very finely granulated, so as to appear smooth and shin¬
ing. Inhabits the Pentland Hills, but is very scarce in
our southern districts. Not unfrequent among the Gram¬
pians and other mountain ranges in the north, where it
occurs on the summits of the highest hills. Taken at
Cape Wrath, and in other parts of Sutherland.
C. nitens, Linn. Ovate, head and thorax golden cop¬
pery, elytra brilliant green, margined with coppery-red,
and having three blackish ribs on each. Under side of
the body, and legs, shining black. This, though one of
the smallest, is the most richly adorned of the British
Carabi, and is one of the most beautiful of coleopterous
insects. It is pretty generally spread over the upland
and moorish districts of Scotland. We did not find it in
Species General, t. ii. p. 33.
Regne Animal, t. iv. p. 412.
132
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera Sutherland, but we have specimens from the shires of
Pentamera. Mid-Lothian, Lanark, Dumbarton, Argyll, 1 erth, and or-
far. It is always regarded as a valuable acquisition, on
account of its extreme beauty. ,
C. clathratus. Oblong-ovate, of a dark brassy hue,
thorax rather square, the posterior angles not much pro¬
duced, the elytra with three elevated lines, and a triple
series of deep golden excavations. This is one of the larg¬
est and finest of the British Coleoptera. It has hitherto
been regarded as a very rare insect, but a closer examina¬
tion of the wilder districts will probably bring it into more
frequent view. We were the first to take it in Scotland,
which we did many years ago, and in considerable numbers
(nine or ten specimens in a few days), in the Jsland or
Colonsay, the hospitable habitation of John Macneill, Bsq.
It has been since taken by Mr Macleay in Caithness. Capt.
Graham, R. N. and others, also captured several specimens
in different parts of Sutherland (near Invershin, on the
point of Tongue, and the vicinity of Lairig), in the month
of August 1833 ; and Mr George Little has collected it for
some seasons at Ormsary, on the mainland of Argyllshire.
On the continent this beautiful insect is found in Siberia,
Sweden, Hungary, Italy, and the south of France, espe¬
cially in the environs of Montpellier. It varies singular¬
ly in regard to the development of the true or membra¬
naceous wings. Those which occur in the south of Eu¬
rope are large, and furnished with wings ; those of Swe¬
den and Siberia are apterous, and of smaller size.
Genus Calosoma,1 Weber, Fab. First four articles
of the anterior tarsi dilated in the males ; the first three
very strongly, the fourth often more slightly. Terminal
article of the palpi very slightly securiform. Antennae
filiform; the third article slightly compressed, sharp on
the outer edge, and sensibly longer than the others. La-
brum bilobed. Mandibles broad, very slightly curved,
more or less sharp, transversely striated, without obvious
teeth on their interior. A strong tooth on the middle of
the emargination of the mentum. Thorax short, almost
transversal, more or less rounded. Elytra usually of a
square form, more or less elongated, rarely oval or round¬
ed. Wings most frequently fit for flight.
This genus is very widely distributed. There are about
thirty species in all, spread in different proportions over
Europe, Asia, Africa, and America. C. sycophanta (Plate
CCXXII. fig. 2) and inquisitor have occurred in Britain.
The genus is as yet unknown in Scotland.
3e?, The third and last division of the Grandipalpi of
Latreille presents an assemblage of characters which
clearly distinguish its component parts from those of
the two preceding. Most of the species are winged.
The anterior tarsi of the males are always dilated.
The labrum is entire. The exterior palpi are merely
somewhat dilated or thicker at the extremity, the
last joint being in the form of a reversed and elon¬
gated cone. The internal side of the mandibles pre¬
sents no tooth deserving of notice; the one in the
middle of the emargination of the mentum is bifid. Coleoptes
The centre of the superior margin of the ligqla isFentane,.
elevated to a point. On the internal side of the ante- ^Yv
rior tibiae of several there is a short emargination, or
one of the two spurs is inserted higher than the other,
so that in this respect these Carabici are somewhat
ambiguous, and might be placed, as well as those of
the ensuing section, immediately after the Patelli-
mani. They usually inhabit moist situations. A few,
such as Omophron, seem to connect their tribe with
that which follows,—the aquatic Carnivoia.
In some in which the body is flattened, or convex and
suborbicular, the eyes are of ordinary size ; the antennae
linear, and generally consisting of elongated and almost
cylindrical joints; the external sides of the maxillae are
bearded, and the two internal spines of the two anterior ti¬
biae are on a level at their origin * these tibiae have merely a
simple longitudinal canal. In Lejstus, Frcehlich (Pogo-
nophorus, Lat.), the exterior palpi are much elongated,
the mandibles are dilated at their base, the head is sud¬
denly narrowed behind the eyes, and the antennae are long
and slender. All the species belong to Europe, and the
greater proportion are found to occur in Britain. Nebria,
Lat. resembles Leistus, but the palpi are much shorter,
the mandibles not dilated, the head not restricted, and
the antennae proportionally thicker, and composed of short¬
er articulations. Several of the species, such as N. Gyl-
lenhalii, brevicollis, &c., are classed by English entomolo-
gists in the genus Helobia of Leach. In Omophron of
Lat* (see Plate CCXXI. fig. 18), the first joint only of the
two anterior tarsi is dilated in the males.
In other genera the body is tolerably thick, and the
eyes large and prominent; the antennae are slightly en¬
larged near the extremity, and composed of short joints,
mostly in the form of a top or reversed cone ; one of the
two spines of the internal extremity of the two anterior
tibiae is inserted higher than the other, with a notch be¬
tween them. The four or first three joints of the anterior
tarsi of the males are in general but slightly dilated. I he
palpi are more elongated. They occur chiefly by the sides
of rivers in Europe and in Siberia. We may here place
the genus Elaphrus,2 in which the thorax is convex,
rounded, narrowed posteriorly, and nearly of the same
length as the head. The elytra are convex and almost
parallel. This genus was separated with great propriety
by Fabricius from Cicindela of Linn. It is constituted
by a few small species, generally distinguished by metal¬
lic lustre, and of which one of the most beautiful, E. lap-
ponicus, was lately presented to us by Professor Lyell, the
learned author of the Principles of Geology. It has been
hitherto only known as a native of Lapland, and was dis¬
covered by Mr Lyell on the north-west side of Catlaw, a
mountain in Forfarshire, on a spot nearly 2000 feet above
the level of the sea. Several of the smaller species which
formerly belonged to Elaphrus now form the genus JVo-
tiophilus of Dumeril. Such are N. aquations, biguttatus, &c.
fP1
1 KaXof, beautiful, and Jody.
* Fabricius derives the name from EXo;,
marsh.
We think it may be more plausibly traced to light, active.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Cola'tera
Penlpiera.
<U M a 2i
•S.S s-s
-S CC
Co 0)
a) M
=3 T-! ’T3
'•n £
<U 0)
.s q,
ai
h cs
o
•N ■*->
bJ3
-C
E "
« s-
!/!
^ O
u c
Eh
E Eh
3D
w
133
Synoptical Table of the preceding Section, according to the System of Dejean.
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
C3 rH
C3 ^
SIMPLICIPEDES.
o „ w
^ T3 CJ
^ S
° « 3
o 5
OJ
C3 X
^
CS E g - w
E3 Eh CS rC.
Xl’cc rt H-) HJ
O C3
G <!
alike in both sexes.
1. Cychrus.
dilated in the males.
I
much elevated, and produced behind.
2. Sphceroderus.
3. Scaphinotus.
E E
Eh e:
o
0) o
wanting  4. Pamborus.
not dilated in the males  5 procerus%
trilobed   <7> Procrustes.
~ G
e: —
‘If
o
E
E3
H
i 5
rcL >
f-s-5
cc E
Eh
Eh
D
"S E
QJ EE
3? <1
cylindric, and scarcely longer than the others  8. Carabus.
o
•H-a
Ti
compressed, sharp exteriorly, and sensibly longer than the
others  9. Calosoma.
"wanting.
QJ o
•-C o
G G
.11. Pteroloma.
simple.
5. Tefflus.
T3 Eh
qE o
3 «
rt G
*h G
•e e
03 E
“I
3 E3
E .
r f
G
O
xn
EE Sm
^ O
s
o '£
sl
0) J
E ^
Ih
rG
E
nearly in a square form, more or less elongate 10. Leistus.
triangular or heart-shaped 12. Nebna.
.in the first joint only.
EX Oh
CS o
TJ G
3 3a
O 03
rn
3 3
§3
" in the three first joints.
3^
o
.13. Omophron.
.14. Pelophila.
tG
o3 Jh
£ G
<1
E
3 . x
J “ 2
^ G o
-5
quadrate, and wider than the head 15. Blethisa.
rounded, and of the same width as
head... 
the
.16. Elaphrus.
. short, and somewhat inflated 17. Notiophilus.
.rather strongly securiform 18. Metrius.
134
Coleoptera
Pentamera.
B.
Section 7th, Subulipalpi, Lat. Dejean
These form of themselves the second general division
of the Carabici, and are distinguished from the preceding
sections by the form of the exterior paipi, of which the
penultimate obconical joint is united to the following,
forming with it a common oval or fusiform body, termma -
ed either gradually or suddenly in a point, or in the manner
of an awl. The two anterior tibiae have always an emar-
gination on the inner side. The first two articles of the
anterior tarsi are alone dilated in the males
sion contains only three genera, as follows :
0)
1:3 C *3
oj o>. a.
*.a.y b
<o 53 =5
'-2 o ” -rj
c3 a) o S
r
as large as the last....l. Tvechus,
O J-
c5
cs a
s G
smaller than the last..2. Laclmophorus.
^ much shorter than the preceding..3. Bembidium.
^ Of the two great tribes, viz. CiciNDEtETiE and Cara¬
bici, with the principal genera of which we have just been
entomology.
stiumata, which are placed on the sides of the abdomen, Coleopt,
just beneath the outer margins of the elytra. Being spe-Pm,^
cificallv lighter than water, when they feel the necessity ——ry
of respiration they have nothing to do but to allow them¬
selves to float to the surface, where, by a peculiar action
of the tips of the elytra and the terminal segment of the
body, a portion of air is brought into contact with the
stigmatic openings. The bodies of the larvae of these in¬
sects (Plate CCXXII. fig. 6) consist of eleven well-defined
segments. The head is large, flattish, covered above by
a scale or shield marked down the centre by a longitudi¬
nal furrow. On each side there are five or six black tu¬
bercles which are regarded as eyes, and anterior to the
eyes are placed the antennae, consisting of three articula¬
tions. The mouth is armed with a pair of strong, horny,
curved, sharp-pointed mandibles, which serve to seize and
transfix the prey. According to Swammerdam and De-
geer, these organs are pierced so as to act as suckers, by
means of which the animal juices are absorbed. Near the
extremity of the abdomen two delicate appendices may
be perceived, pointing obliquely downwards. By means
of these the larva appears to suspend itself occasionally
from the. surface of the water when it wishes to respire.
The principal stigmatic openings are at the end of the ab¬
domen, and consist of two small cylindrical bodies, which,
when the creature floats, come in contact with the air,
me
✓r
This divi-
edition of the Catalogue of Comte Dejean,
now to
Tribe 3d, Hydrocanthari, Lat.
This tribe is composed of the undivided genera Dytis-
cus and Gyvinus of the old writers, iheir feet are adapt¬
ed for swimming; the last four being compressed, ciliat¬
ed or laminiform, and the last two at a distance from each
other. The mandibles are almost entirely covered. The
to traverse beneath the skin on either side of the body.
The movements of these insects in the larva state are ef¬
fected in the water, partly by the legs and partly by an
undulatory motion of the tail. They prey upon other
larva;, such as those of dragon-flies, ephemene, gnats,
&c. As an instance of their great voracity, it may be
mentioned that we once observed one of the larger kinds
transfix and suck out the juices or thirteen well-grown
tadpoles in a single day. When the period of their trans-
other. The mandibles are almost entirely coverea. me - . ,
body is always oval, the eyes but slightly prominent, and formation has arrived, they leave t bank-
the thorax much wider than long. The terminal hook of selves in the moist soft eai th ( a & iforriKAr
the maxillae is curved from its base ; those at the extre- There they work for themselves an egg-s ape c >
rnitv nf the tarsi are often uneaual. in which they assume the nympha state. (Flate L^aaii.
AVlhese aquatic Coleopter! pass both their first and fig. 9.) How long they 7^ diem
final stage of existence in the fresh and placid waters of very precisely known, from the dlffic X A it ig
lakes and marshes, or the undisturbed parts of tranquil in confinement throughoutthe ^ ennf makin^ its appear-
rivers, and are distributed over all the countries of the believed that the insect is not lonS ^ ™akl"® f a
earth, wherever such localities occur, from Greenland to ance in the peifect sta e. ma> kinds (Dvtisci
Vnn Dipmpn’s T and tumble!- for several seasons, and the larger kinds {JJytisci
The old genus Dytiscm (Plate CCXXII. fig. 3 and 4) proper) soon assume a certain degree oftamenessandfa-
embraced a vast assemblage of aquatic insects which the miliarity, will follow the finger around the walls of their
more minute observance of modern times has partitioned transparent prison, and, coming to the surface at anacc
into many genera. They form a truly amphibious family; tomed signal, will demand, according to their own moue
for although water is their favourite element, they survive of expression, a youngearthworm, or a piece ot tresn d
for a long time on moist land, and most of them fly about or mutton ; for on these and several other articles tliey tee
in the evening and morning twilight, and even during the from the first with extreme, and as it were accus o
darkness of the dewy night, with great power and celerity, greediness.1 1 hey may thus be said to be aqua ic m
They vary considerably in size, according to the species, larva state, terrestrial in that of nymph, an amp n iou
some being extremely small, while others measure be- their winged condition.
tween one and two inches in length. They are fierce and Genus Dytiscus,2 Linn. Antennae setaceous, ong
voracious in their habits, preying indiscriminately upon than the head. Lxternal palpi filiform, or a litt e en
whatever smaller and softer tribes they are able to sub- larged towards their extremity. Anterior tarsi pate i orm
due. They are frequently observed resting on the sur- in the males, the middle pair with their basal joints i
face of the watej-, with their legs expanded, their heads lated; the hind pair long, thick, and tapering to the apex,
downwards, and the terminal segment of their bodies in where there are two very small claws. Plate CCX
contact with the air. It is thus that they carry on the fig. 3 and 4.J
process of breathing, for they cannot respire except by The Dytisci are large aquatic beetles, the characteris
bringing a globule of atmospheric air in contact with the tic habits of which have been sketched in our preceding
It fed on beef.
1 Esper kept a living specimen of Dytiscus marginaln in a glass vessel for three years and a half.
2 From Syr,}*, a dher.
3 Figure 5 of the plate above referred to represents the head of D. serricornis, a species remarkable for the anomalous form oi the
antennae. (See Nov. Act. Acad. Scient. Stockh. xx. 1, 3.)
ENTOMOLOGY.
ileo ra general observations. We are acquainted with about
/nta^ra-fourteen species, six or seven of which inhabit Britain.
D. punctulatus seems to be the most common in Scot'
land. It thrives well in confinement, and will live for a
year or two in any small vessel, feeding on earthworms
and shreds of beef or mutton.1 D. marginalis, when re¬
cently captured, has a smell resembling liquorice. It is
said to kill Hydrus piceus, which is a much larger and
apparently stronger insect, by piercing it between the
head and thorax, the only part of the body which is un¬
protected. Esper asserts that it is much affected by at¬
mospheric changes, and that it indicates these, when in a
state of confinement, by the height at which it remains in
its jar.
In the genus Colymbetes2 of Clairville (fore leg, Plate
CCXXII. fig. 7), the four anterior tarsi have their three
first joints equally dilated in the males, and forming col¬
lectively a small pallet in the form of a lengthened square.
The antennse are at least as long as the head and thorax.
The eyes are slightly or not at all projecting. Many of
these insects are common in ditches and small brooks,
and their habits resemble those of the preceding genus.
There are about seventy species in all, of which one half
inhabit Britain.
The genus Acilius was first proposed by Dr Leach in
the Zoological Miscellany. It is distinguished by the
great flatness of the species; by the hairy elytra of the
females, which have but few striae ; and by the basal joint
of the tarsi in the second pair of legs not being dilated.
In the genus Hygrobia3 of Lat. the antennae are short¬
er than the head and thorax, the body is ovoid, and very
thick in the middle, and the eyes are prominent. (Plate
CCXXII.fig.il.)
In Hydroporus4 of Clairville, the four anterior tarsi
are nearly similar, and spongy underneath, in both sexes,
and are composed apparently of only four joints, the fifth
being deficient, or very small, and concealed along with
I a portion of the fourth in a cleft of the third articulation.
' * The scutellum is not apparent.5 In Noterus6 of the same
; author, the antennae are slightly dilated in the middle,
j and the last joint of the labial palpi is emarginate, and ap¬
pears forked. In Haliplus,7 Lat. there are only ten dis-
| tinct joints in the antennse; the external palpi are fusiform,
or have a more slender termination, tapering to a point;
the body is convex and ovoid beneath; all the tarsi are
filiform, composed of five cylindrical joints, and have
’ 1 . nearly the same form in both sexes.
All the preceding genera of Hydrocanthari belonged
to the old genus Dytiscus. The remainder of the tribe
e are comprised in the
Genus Gyrinus,8 Linn. Antennae shorter than the
head, the basal joint very large, and produced externally
into a triangular ciliated lobe, the rest forming a clavate
mass, attached by a short peduncle to the upper side of
the first joint. Anterior legs rather long, and projecting
hke arms ; the others compressed, ciliated, and formed for
swimming. (Plate CCXXII. figs. 8 and 12.)
In this genus the body is oval and generally very glossy.
The head is sunk in the thorax almost to the eyes, and
these are large, and divided by a horny process or bor¬
der, in such a way that there seems to be two above
and two below. Only seven joints of the terminal por¬
tion of the antennae are distinctly visible. The singular
auriform shape of these organs induced Latreille to form
135
the Gyrini into a family along with Parnus, under the Coleoptera
name of Otiophori. But at an after period that great ento- Pentamera-
mologist approximated the genus to the Dytiscida;, thereby
correcting the error he had previously committed of con¬
founding, as Mr Macleay observes, a relation of ana-
logy with one of affinity. The Gyrinidae live in society,
and several species are extremely common on our ponds,
and ditches by the way side. They swim flat upon the
surface, with their shining backs above water, chasing each
other in circles, or darting about in more irregular gyrations.
When hemmed into a corner of the pond, they make their
escape by darting beneath the surface, carrying along with
them a portion of air, which shines like quicksilver. Bri¬
tain produces several species of this genus. They are
known in England by the name of whirlgigs. These in¬
sects fly well, and transport themselves with ease and ra¬
pidity from place to place. The females deposit their
eggs on the leaves of aquatic plants. The eggs are very
small, lengthened in the form of little cylinders, and of a
white colour tinged with yellow. According to the ob¬
servations of Degeer, they produced minute six-footed
larvae in the course of eight days, which swam in the
water, or crept along the sides of the vessel in which they
had been deposited. Neither he nor Roesel, however,
could succeed in rearing them to a state of completion.
These larvae (Plate CCXXII. fig. 17) exhibit rather a sin¬
gular aspect, and at first sight resemble small Scolopen-
drae. They are of a dingy white or greyish colour, and
their clear transparent skin permits the view of their in¬
ternal structure. Their bodies are long, slender, cylin¬
drical, and divided into thirteen rings, which are deeply
incised. The head is oval, very much elongated, and flat¬
tened both above and below. It is armed in front with
a pair of comparatively large curved jaws, tipped with
brown, which, when closed, meet with their points in ad¬
vance of the head, but are capable of wide extension.
The structure of these parts demonstrates a carnivorous
disposition. The antennae are very delicate, divided into
four articulations, and equal the head in length. The first
segment of the body is nearly twice as long as the others,
and the three pairs of feet are attached to the first three
segments. The eight following rings are garnished with
very singular, long, slender, transparent filaments, which
float in the water without being apparently under the
guidance of the animal. From their resemblance to the
gills of the Phryganeae and Ephemerae, it is probable that
these are the respiratory organs. The twelfth or penul¬
timate segment of the body is furnished with four of these
filaments, of much greater length than the preceding, and
covered with long hairs or secondary filaments. The last
segment, which is much less than the others, is terminat¬
ed by four long and remarkable hooks, placed parallel to
each other, with their points bent beneath inwards. The
whole body seems filled with little globules of air, which
are in frequent motion, sometimes towards the head and
sometimes towards the other extremity. Modeer has de¬
scribed the transformations of these creatures in the Me¬
moirs of the Royal Academy of Sweden. About the be¬
ginning of August, according to that author, the larvae
leave the water, and, crawling up the stems of reeds or
other aquatic plants, they are transformed into nymphs,
beneath the envelope of a small cocoon, pointed at both
ends, and formed of a substance resembling grey paper.
Towards the end of the same month the perfect insect is
2 ntomologia Edinensis, p. 127. 3 From lygos, moist, and /3/«, life.
6 rom to swim. 4 From water, and a passage.
or the other genera, see the works of Messrs Stephens and Curtis. The Scotch species are described by Messrs Wilson and
0npn m the Entom°logia Edinensis.
Tom versus, humid. i From aX;, the sea, and tXoii;, sailing. 8 From yvgau, to go in a circle.
13(5
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera excluded, and immediately jumps into the water Modeer
Pentamera. adds, that the cocoons are very frequently found pierce
' bv the ovipositor of an ichneumon fly.
Great Britain produces nine species of the genus Gy-
rinus ("including G. vi/losus, which belongs to Potamobius,
Leach1 *). There are twenty-six in all. Tliey are rare m
Africa and Asia, but are widely spread over ^uroPe’ North
and South America, and New Holland. W e have re¬
ceived a large species from Java. They are also found
at the Cape and the Isle of France. _ .
The most common and best-known species in this coun¬
try is G. natator, of an oval form, bluish-black, extremely
glossy, the inflected margin of the elytra, apical segments
of the abdomen, and legs, ferruginous. This agile little crea¬
ture appears to have been rather a favourite object of ob¬
servation with the entomologist. “ Water, quiet still wa¬
ter ” says Mr Knapp, “ affords a place of action to a very
amusing little fellow (Gyrinus natator), which, about the
month of April, if the weather be tolerably mild, we see
gamboling upon the surface of the sheltered pool; and
every schoolboy who has angled for minnows in the brook
is well acquainted with the merry swimmer in his shining
black jacket. Retiring in the autumn, and reposing all the
winter in the mud at the bottom of the pond, it awakens in
the spring, rises to the surface, and commences its sports.
They associate in small parties of ten or a dozen near the
bank, where some little projection forms a bay, or renders
the water particularly tranquil; and here they will circle
round each other, without contention, each in his sphere,
and with no apparent object, from morning until night,
with great sprightliness and animation; and so lightly do
they move on the fluid, as to form only some faint and
transient circles on its surface. Very fond of society, we
seldom see them alone, or, if parted by accident, they
soon rejoin their busy companions. One pool commonly
affords space for the amusement of several parties, yet
they do not unite or contend, but perform their cheerful
circlings in separate family associations. If we interfere
with their merriment they seem greatly alarmed, disperse
or dive to the bottom, where their fears shortly subside,
as we soon again see our little merry friends gamboling
as before. This plain, tiny, gliding water-flea seems a
very unlikely creature to arrest our young attention ; but
the boy with his angle has not often much to engage his
notice; and the social active parties of this nimble swim¬
mer, presenting themselves at these periods of vacancy,
become insensibly familiar to his sight, and by many of
us are not observed in after-life without recalling former
hours—scenes of perhaps less anxious days ; for trifles like
these, by reason of some association, are often remembered
when things of greater moment pass off and leave no trace
upon the mind.”* Wordsworth has likened a beetle to
A mailed angel on a battle day;
and Messrs Kirby and Spence describe the subjects of
our present notice as being “ covered with lucid armour,
—when the sun shines they look like little dancing masses
of silver and brilliant pearl.”3 They however exhale a
disagreeable and rancid odour.4
FAMILY II—BRACHELYTRA, Lat.s
In this, the second family of Pentamerous Coleoptera,
Latreille places those genera which have only a single
palpus to each maxilla, or four in all, including the labialCoM
pair. The antenme, sometimes of equal thickness, and cental
at others slightly enlarged at the extremity, are usually s-rYJ
composed of lenticular or graniform articulations; the
elytra are much shorter than the body (from which cir¬
cumstance they derive their name), and the latter is nar¬
row, elongated, generally depressed, with the coxae of the
two anterior legs very large. The posterior extremity of
the body is provided with two vesicles, which are protrud¬
ed at will.
These Coleoptera composed the great genus btap/iy-
linus (of Linnaeus) before its subdivision by more recent
writers. Ancient authors appear to have bestowed the
name of Staphylinus on certain species, which, from the
characters assigned them, and their reputed injurious
effects on horses, we can scarcely refer to any of the mo¬
dern genera of brachelytrous insects. Mouffet, however,
having satisfied himself that some ancient passage did ap¬
ply with sufficient correctness, made use of the term Sta¬
phylinus in relation to the present group; and whatever
may have been its original application, its meaning is now
no longer ambiguous in the modern systems. The genus,
as constituted by Linnaeus, was first dismembered by Fa-
bricius of two of its component groups, under the generic
names of Pcederus and Oxyporus ; and in still more recent
times numerous other subdivisions have taken place, which
have raised the original genus to the rank of an ordinal
section or comprehensive family.
Some writers regard the Staphylini as forming the pas¬
sage from the Coleoptera in general to the horficulae or
ear-wigs, which compose the first genus of the orthop¬
terous order. In their habits they somewhat resemble
the Silphae and Necrophori. They have usually a large,
flattened head, strong mandibles, short antennae, and a
thorax as wide as the abdomen, which is long, narrow,
and generally depressed. The elytra are very short and
truncated, although they still suffice to cover the long
membranous wings, which, when not in use, are compact¬
ly folded. The upper portion of the segments of the ab¬
domen, being exposed in consequence of the shortness of
the elytra, is, contrary to the usual rule among the co¬
leopterous tribes, of as firm a consistence as that beneath.
From the terminal segment of the abdomen two vesicles
are protruded or retracted at the pleasure of the animal,
and from these, when irritated, a subtile vapour makes its
escape with a strong odour of sulphuric ether. “ I hough
most of the micropterous species,” Mr Kirby observes,
“ have a fetid smell, yet there are some exceptions to this
amongst them. One species (*S'. suaveolens, K. MS.),
related to S. micans, Grav. which I once took, smelt pre¬
cisely like a fine high-scented ripe pear; another, Oxyte-
lus morsitans, like the water-lily; a third, O. rugosus, like
water-cresses; and lastly, a fourth ($. fuscipes) like saf¬
fron.” M. Leon Dufour has described the apparatus by
which these odours are produced.6 The insects of this
family, when attacked or touched, elevate the extremity
of their abdomen, bend it in various directions, and fre¬
quently protrude the vesicles above alluded to. They
also use the point of the abdomen to close or unfold their
wings. The tarsi of the two anterior legs are frequently
broad and dilated, and their coxae, as well as those of the
intermediate pair, are very large. The species usually oc¬
cur in damp places, under stones, in earth, and excrementiti-
ous matters. Some live in mushrooms and fungi, or in
1 Orectoch'dus of Eschscholtz and Dejean. 2 Journal of a Naturalist, p. 307. * Introduc. to Ent. vol. ii. p. 372.
4 For the Scottish species, see Entomologia Edinensis, p. 130.
* From short, and iXvr^ov, sheath. Mxchoptera, Gravenhorst. Staphylinus, Linn.
‘ Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. viii. p. 16.
E N T O M
i?ra rotten wood, while a few of the smaller species are found
5?ra-on flowers. They are all swift, active, and voracious.
The larvae bear a close resemblance to the perfect in¬
sect. In figure they more nearly resemble an elongated
cone, the base of which is formed by the head ; the ter¬
minal segment is prolonged into a tube, and is accompa¬
nied by two conical and hairy appendages. Their food
and habits of life are very similar to those of the imago.
According to M. Dufour, the only essential difference
between the alimentary canal of the brachelytrous tribes
and that of the carnivorous Coleoptera consists in the ab¬
sence of the crop. The first stomach is small and desti¬
tute of folds ; the second is very long and pilose ; the in¬
testine is extremely short. The biliary vessels are insert¬
ed at the same lateral point as in the Carnivora, and pre¬
sent in some species, near the middle, a knot or vesicle,
not observable in any other insects. Their sexual appa¬
ratus differs greatly from that of the carnivorous Coleop¬
tera.1
Many of the species of this family are of minute dimen¬
sions, and a knowledge of their names and characters is
of difficult attainment. Many more of the described spe¬
cies than have been hitherto collected no doubt exist in
Britain, and many of the Scandinavian species will pro¬
bably be discovered to inhabit Scotland. There is every
reason, indeed, to believe that an assiduous entomologist
would here reap a rich harvest among a tribe of insects
which seem characteristic of, though by no means pecu¬
liar to, temperate or northern countries. Notwithstanding
the obscurity in which many of our smaller species are
still involved, Great Britain already possesses nearly eight
hundred recorded species of brachelytrous insects, while
the last edition of Dejean’s Catalogue (1833), including
European and exotic kinds, gives only 789.2
In a family so extensive, and of late so minutely subdi¬
vided, we must satisfy ourselves with a few brief indica¬
tions of the principal genera. It is divided into five great
j sections.
ls£, Fissilabra.
In these the head is completely exposed, and separated
from the thorax (which is sometimes square or semi-oval,
sometimes rounded or cordiform, and truncated) by a neck
or sensible restriction. The labrum is deeply bilobed.
In Oxyporus,3 Fab. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 13), the max¬
illary palpi are filiform, those of the labium terminated by
a large and lunate article. The antennae are large, per¬
foliate, and compressed. The anterior tarsi, of which the
last (and next to it the second) joint is the longest, are
not dilated. The species inhabit Boleli and Agarici. In
Astraf^eus, Grav. the four palpi are terminated by a
larger and nearly triangular article. The anterior tarsi
are greatly dilated, and the first and last joints are the
longest. In Staphylinus, Fab. (the true Staphylini), all
the palpi are filiform, and the antennae are inserted be¬
tween the eyes, above the labrum and mandibles. Some,
particularly the males, have the anterior tarsi greatly di¬
aled, and the antennae rather distant at the base; the
length of the first joint being equal at most to that of a
ourth of the whole number. The head is but slightly
O L O G Y. 137
elongated. These, according to the views of some au-Coleoptera
thors, alone constitute the genus.4 Our largest British Tentamera.
species, S. Olens ( Goerius, Leach), is placed here by La- 'W’"Y'W'
treble, along with a more ornamental example, S. eryth-
ropterus (Plate CCXXII. fig. 16). Others are linear, with
the head and thorax in the form of an elongated square,
and the antennae approximated at the base, and strongly
geniculate and granose. The anterior tarsi are either not
at all or but slightly dilated. The anterior tibiae are spi¬
nous, with a stout spine at the extremity. The labrum is
small. These form the genus Xantholinus of some au¬
thors. In Pinophilus of Grav. the palpi are filiform, but
the antennae are inserted before the eyes, outside the la¬
brum, and near the exterior base of the mandibles. In
Lathrobium (Plate CCXXII. fig. 21) of the same author
(Pcederus, Fab.), the palpi are terminated suddenly by a
pointed and often indistinct article, much smaller than
the preceding; those of the maxillae are longer than the
labial; the antennae are inserted as in Pinophilus; the
anterior tarsi are strongly dilated in both sexes; and the
length of the last joint of the four posterior tarsi is almost
equal to that of the four preceding taken together.
2d, Longipai.pi.
In this section the head is also completely exposed, but
the labrum is entire, the maxillary palpi nearly as long as
the head, with a clavate termination formed by the third
joint, the fourth concealed or but slightly visible, and, when
apparent, terminating the club in the form of a small point;
the preceding much enlarged. These insects dwell chief¬
ly along the shores of rivers, or on banks in the vicinity
of water.
In P^derus, Fab. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 15), the an¬
tennae, inserted before the eyes, are filiform, or gradually
increase in thickness. In Ev^estketus of Grav. the an¬
tennae are likewise inserted before the eyes, but are hard¬
ly longer than the head, and almost entirely moniliform;
the body is but slightly elongated, and the head as wide
as the thorax. In Stenus,5 of Lat. (Plate CCXXII. fig.
20), the antennae are inserted near the margin of the eyes,
and are terminated by a triarticulated club. The extre¬
mity of the mandibles is forked. The eyes are large.
3t?, Denticrura, Lat.
This section differs from the preceding in the form of
the maxillary palpi, which are much shorter than the head,
and always consist of four distinct articles; the anterior
tibiae, at least, are dentated or spinous along their exte¬
rior side. The last joint of the tarsi, which in most are bent
under the tibiae, is as long as all the preceding joints com¬
bined, or longer; and the first or first two are usually so
small or so concealed that their total number does not
seem to exceed two or three. In several males the fore¬
part of the head, and even the thorax, is armed with
horns. The antennae are inserted before the eyes. With
the exception of the Tachini, the anterior tarsi are no lon¬
ger dilated.
In Oxytelus, Grav. the palpi have an awl-like termi¬
nation, the antennae are mostly granose, and gradually
enlarged towards the extremity. The tarsi present only
a das Sciences Nat.; and Regne Animal, p. 432.
Mr Stephens arranges his British Brachclytra in five families, containing eighty-two genera. How vague, from its extremely
comprehensive limits, must have been the original genus Staphylinus of Linn., when even our indigenous species present the ground-
W0J , such diversified groups! Perhaps, however, we may be now falling into the opposite extreme.
^ from that crosses swiftly.
S. dilatatus, Fab. has been separated from the above on account of its antennae, which form an elongated serrated club. It is said
o^ee* on caterpillars, which it searches for on trees,
rrom mvo;, narrow.
VOL. IX.
s
138
ENTOMOLOGY.
Caleoptera three distinct articles. In Ozorius, Leach, the body is
Pentonera. cviindrical, all the tibiae broadened and dentated, the hea
as long as it is wide, the thorax almost cordiform. I he
mentum is large and buckler-shaped. The species come
from America and Madagascar. In Coprophilus, a-,
the body is flattened, and the antennae much longer than
the head.
spinous, the antennae composed of pyriform joints, and m-Coleopk^
sensibly enlarging; the palpi are filiform. TACHYPORUS1 2 * 4lentaiB(;
of Grav. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 28) resembles the preced-
ing in the tibiae and antennae; but the termination of the
palpi is subulate.5
FAMILY III—SERRICORNES, Lat.
4£/i, Depressa, Lat.
In these the head is disengaged or free, as in the pre¬
ceding, the labrum entire, the maxillary palpi short, and
of four articulations; but the tibiae are simple, or without
teeth or exterior spines, and the tarsi exhibit five obvious
articulations. „rr
In the two following genera the palpi are hlitorm.
Omalium, Grav. Thorax as wide as the elytra, wider
than the head, and almost forming a transverse square;
the angles, at least the anterior ones, rounded, and fre¬
quently exhibiting a raised lateral margin; the antennae
enlarging towards their extremity. Lesteva, Lat., Antfio-
phaous, Grav. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 22.) Thorax cordi-
form, narrowed, truncated posteriorly, almost isometncal,
as wide as the head, and narrower than the elytra. In
the ensuing genera the palpi are subulate. Micropeplus,
Lat. (Plate CCXXII. figs. 10 and 14.) Antennae termi-
mating in a solid club, and lodged in fossulae of the thoiax.
Proteinus, Lat. Antennae granose, somewhat perfoliate,
and larger at the end, but clavate, always exposed, and
inserted before the eyes; the thorax is short, and the
elytra cover the whole of the abdomen. Aleochara,
Grav. Antennae inserted between the eyes, or near their
inferior margin, and exposed at the base, with the first
three joints obviously longer than the following ones,
which are perfoliate, the last elongated and conical; the
thorax is nearly oval, or like a square rounded at the an¬
gles.
5th, Microcephala, Lat.
Head sunk posteriorly into the thorax, nearly up to the
eyes, and separated neither by a neck nor visible restric¬
tion; the thorax is in the form of a trapezium, and is
widened from before backwards. Ihe body is less elon¬
gated than in the preceding section, and approaches more
to an ellipsis; the head is much narrower, contracted,
and projecting forwards, and the mandibles are of mode¬
rate size, edentated, and simply curved at the point. Ihe
elytra in several cover rather more than the half of the
upper surface of the abdomen. Some of the species live
on flowers and mushrooms, others on dung.
In Lomechusa, Lat., the tibiae have no spines; the
antennae from the fourth joint form a perfoliaceous club,
elongated or fusiform; the palpi are subulate; the an¬
tennae frequently shorter than the head and thorax. In
Tachinus,3 Grav. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 23), the tibiae are
In this family of pentamerous Coleoptera, we find only
four palpi, as in the preceding family, and those that fol¬
low. The elytra cover the abdomen, which character,
with certain others, distinguishes the Serricornes from
the Brachelytra.6 The antennae, with some exceptions,
are equal throughout, or smaller at the extremity, dentat¬
ed either like a saw or comb, or even fan-like ; and in that
respect are more developed in the males. The terminal
article of the tarsi is often bilobed or bifid. Ihese cha¬
racters are rarely visible in the ensuing family, that of
Clavicornes ; at which, however, we shall arrive by tran¬
sition so graduated, that rigorous limits are with difficulty
assigned.
Section 1st, Sternoxi,7 Lat.
Body always of a firm and solid consistence, and gene¬
rally of an oval or elliptical form; the feet in part con¬
tractile ; the head sunk vertically into the thorax up to
the eyes; and the praesternum or median portion of the
thorax elongated, dilated, or advanced as far as beneath
the mouth, and usually marked on each side by a groove,
in which the antennae, always short, are lodged, and pro¬
longed posteriorly to a point, which is received by a de¬
pression of the anterior extremity of the mesosternum.
The anterior legs are distant from the anterior extremity
of the thorax. This section is further divisible into two
tribes.
Tribe 1st, Buprestides.
In these the posterior projection of the praesternum is
flattened, not terminated in a laterally compressed point,
and simply received into a depression or emargination of
the mesosternum. The mandibles are frequently termi¬
nated in an entire point, without fissure or emargination.
The posterior angles of the thorax are either not at all or
but slightly prolonged. The terminal article of the palpi
is generally almost cylindrical, scarcely thicker than the
preceding ; the others globular or ovoid. Most of the ar¬
ticulations of the tarsi are generally broad or dilated, and
furnished with pellets beneath. These insects never leap,
a character which distinguishes them decidedly from the
Elaterides. This tribe corresponds to the old genus Bu-
prestis, as constituted by Linnaeus,—the Richard of Geof-
froy ;8 so named by the latter author on account of the
1 From Kovgos, dung, and tpiXos, a lover.
2 From small, and TicrXo;, a covering; the elytra being so short as to leave a considerable part of the abdomen exposed.
This genus is placed in the necrophagous family, Nitidulidce, by Mr Stephens.
* From Ta^/voj, swift, active. * From Ta^uf, quick, and •raoa;, a passage.
5 For the species of this family, see Gravenhorst’s Coleoptera Microptera, Gyllenhal’s Insecta Suecka, &c. With Mr Duncan’s aid,
we have described the genera and species of ordinary occurrence near Edinburgh (Ent. Ed. pp. 308-388); but, as already mention¬
ed, numerous undescribed Brachelytra inhabit Scotland.
11 In the genus Atractocerus, however, the elytra are extremely short. In Proteinus of the preceding family they are, on the other
hand, comparatively long ; thus showing the tendency to exception in each general rule.
7 From STsavav, sternmn, and oi-u;, pointed. ■
8 “ This genus,” it has been observed, “ furnishes the most beautiful coleopterous insects which can adorn either the domain of
nature or the cabinet of the naturalist. Most part of the species are clothed with such brilliant colours, that Geoffroy has thought
proper to designate them all under the generic appellation of Richard. The origin of this name is as singular as its application is
fantastical. It was originally given to the jay, in consequence of the facility with which that bird was taught to pronounce the
word.” (Griffith’s Animal Kingdom, Insecta, part 2d, p. 356.) Professor Klug has stated that the Berlin Museum possesses not less
than five hundred species of the Linnsean genus Buprestis.
ST o
E N T O M
isra extreme richness of their external covering. Even of the
^“•European species several are extremely beautiful, and
'^"n^ many of the foreign kinds are not only of the largest size
for the class of insects, but present a brilliant surface, be¬
set as it were with gold and emeralds, or glittering with
an iridescent play of green and azure. The body is in
general oval, somewhat lengthened, rather wider and ob¬
tuse before, as if truncated, and narrowed behind from the
base of the abdomen. The eyes are oval, the thorax short
and wide. The scutellum small or unapparent. The ex¬
tremity of the elytra is frequently dentated. The legs are
short.
All these insects walk very slowly, but fly exceedingly
well in dry and sultry weather. When an attempt is made
to seize them they drop upon the ground, with a view no
doubt to conceal themselves in the subjacent herbage.
The abdomen of the female is furnished at its extremity
with a coriaceous or horny conical appendage, composed
of three pieces (the terminal abdominal rings), and which
may be regarded as a kind of ovipositor, by which she
deposits her eggs in dry or decayed wood, in which the
larv* dwell. Several of the minor species occur on leaves
and flowers; but the greater proportion are found in fo¬
rests or depots of timber. They sometimes appear sud¬
denly in places where they were never seen before, hav¬
ing been involuntarily transported in foreign timber in the
nymph or larva state.
The Buprestides are very common in South America
and many of the other sultry regions of the earth. They
decrease in number as we advance northwards into the
temperate climes, and altogether disappear in colder
countries. Scarcely a score occur in Britain; and of
these we are not aware that even one has yet been found
in Scotland.
Genus Buprestis,1 Lin. Palpi filiform, or slightly en¬
larged towards the extremity, terminated by an almost
cylindrical article. Antennae of equal thickness through¬
out, and serrated from the third or fourth joint. Penul¬
timate article of the tarsi deeply notched. Maxillae bilobed.
These are the characters of the genus Buprestis, as re¬
stricted in recent times. Some of the species have no ap¬
parent scutellum. Such is B. fasciculata, a species from
the Cape of Good Hope. It is about an inch long, of a
golden or coppery-green, densely punctured, and with lit¬
tle tufts of yellowish or reddish hairs. It sometimes hangs
in such abundance on a shrub, as to make it appear all
laden with flowers. Others are furnished with a scutel¬
lum. Of these we may name B. gigas from Cayenne, a
species, as its name implies, of the largest size ; the tho-
, rax cupreous, mingled with brilliant green, and two large
spots like burnished steel; the elytra tridentate at the
end, cupreous in the centre, bronze-green on the margin,
with impressed points and some elevated lines and ridges.
Its larva is represented on Plate CCXXII. fig. 19. On
the same plate (fig. 18) we have delineated a magnificent
species, B. bicolor, lately received from Java. It is of
a deep-green colour, with a golden lustre, two cream-
coloured spots on the elytra, and one on each side of
the thorax. It belongs to the genus Catoxantha of
Dejean.
Of the other genera of the tribe we shall here name
only Trachys, Fab. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 26), Aphanis-
iicus, Lat., and Melasis, Oliv.2 The last-mentioned
genus (probably named from /asAgcs, black), conducts na¬
turally to
O L O G Y. 139
Tribe 2d, Elaterides. Coleoptera
Pentamera.
This numerous tribe corresponds to the undivided ge-
nus Elater of Linnaeus, and differs from the Buprestides
chiefly in the posterior style of the praesternum, which is
prolonged to a sharpish point or spine laterally compress¬
ed. On examining the living species, the use of the last-
named organ becomes obvious. The legs are very short,
and when the creature falls upon its back, which it fre¬
quently does while dropping from a plant to the ground,
it can only assume its natural position by springing up¬
wards, which it is enabled to do by bringing the project¬
ing point into sudden contact with a groove situated in
front of the mesosternum. The sides of the praesternum
are also distinguished by a groove, in which the antennae,
pectinated or bearded in several males, are partly lodged.
The females have a species of elongated ovipositor, with
two lateral pieces pointed at the end, between which is
the true oviduct. The tarsi are entire.
The Elaterides occur in flowers, on various plants, and
on the ground. We owe to Degeer the description of the
larva of one species (undidatus). It is long, nearly cylin¬
drical, provided with small antenna2, palpi, and six feet.
Its body consisted of twelve scaly segments, of which the
posterior was covered by a circular plate, furnished with
two blunt points curving inwards ; underneath was a large
fleshy mammilla, which seemed to serve the office of a
foot. The larvae of Elater striatus are said to do much
injury, by attacking the roots of wheat. The grub known
in this country under the name of wire-worm is an Elater
in the early state. It lives under ground for several years,
feeding on the roots of grain and vegetables. It is partial
to land newly broken up, and does great damage in gar¬
dens recently converted from pasture-land. In the year
1813, according to Mr Spence, this larva destroyed the
greater proportion of the annuals sown in the botanic
garden of Hull. In such cases Sir Joseph Banks recom¬
mended that slices of potatoes stuck upon skewers should
be buried near the seeds, and examined and cleared of
the wire-worms from time to time.
M. Leon Dufour has studied the anatomical structure
of several species of this family. In the number, length,
and mode of insertion of the hepatic conduits, they show
a resemblance to the Carabidae. The digestive canal is
seldom more than once and a half the length of the body.
Immediately succeeding an oesophagus, so short as to be
included within the region of the head, there is a small
smooth conical crop, which appears to have escaped the
observation of Ramdhor. The chylific ventricle is bilobed
in certain species. This tribe is very extensive both in
exotic and European species, and is much more prevalent
in temperate and even northern countries than the pre¬
ceding. The Elaterides now consist of numerous genera.
Some of the American species are remarkable for the fine
phosphoric light which is observed to emanate from them
during the evening twilight, and when the shades of night
have fallen upon the forests. One of these had the for¬
tune to be transported to Paris under the form of nymph
or larva; and having made its escape into the streets after
the assumption of the perfect state, it greatly astonished
the inhabitants of the Faubourg St Antoine. Most of
the genera are recognisable, in a general way, by their
narrow, elongated, and somewhat flattish forms. We have
above sixty species in Britain, arranged according to the
modern views, under not less than twenty genera.
r°m an 0X5 anc^ vinir'Tris'> swelling, in allusion to the supposed injury produced on cattle by an insect anciently named Bu~
‘ £ or the species, the reader may consult Olivier, Coleopteres, t. ii.: Fabricius, Systema Eleut. t. ii.; and Schcenherr’s Synonymia Ik-
sectorum. See also Rlgne Animal, t. iv. p. 446.
14o E N T O M
Coleoptera The various groups of the Elaterides are refeired by
Pentamera. Latreille to two principal divisions.
Antennce entirely received into the inferior cavities of
the thorax.
In some the antennae are received on each side into a
longitudinal groove, placed directly under the lateral edges
of the thorax, and are always filiform, and simply serrat¬
ed. The joints of the tarsi are always entire, without
prolongations, and in the form ot a pellet underneath.
The thorax is convex or arched, at least on the sides, and
dilates towards the posterior angles in the manner of a
lobe, pointed or triangular. They approach the Bupres-
tides. Here are placed the genera Galea and Eucne-
mis. # .
In others the antennas, sometimes clavate, are received,
at least partially, either into the longitudinal grooves of
the lateral borders of the praesternum, or into fossettes
placed under the posterior angles of the thorax. The
tarsi are frequently provided with little pellets, formed by
the prolongation of the inferior parts, or the penultimate
article is bifid. Here are placed the genus Adolecera,
Lat. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 29), and others.
o L o G Y.
We shall conclude by observing that the name of MrcVe-Coleopt
worm, bestowed on several larvae of Elaters, is more speci-Penta^l
ally applicable to the early state of Cataphagus lineatusG ’^yy
of Stephens. Its history appears to be given in the Stock¬
holm Transactions for 1777, by Mr Bierkander. He calls
it the root-worm. It measures when full grown about se¬
ven lines in length. The body is very narrow, of a yellow
colour, hard, shining, and composed of twelve segments,
on the last of which are two indented dark-coloured specks.
The head is brown, the extremity of the jaws black. The
anterior segments have six scaly feet. It is said to remain
five years in the larva state, from which it issues as an
Elater, the E. segetis of Bierk. supposed to be synonymous
with the E. lineatus of Linn, and the insect above named
of Stephens. Great damage is often occasioned by the
wire-worm to the turnip crops. An instance is recorded
by Messrs Kirby and Spence of a field in which it had de¬
stroyed one fourth of the crop, and the owner calculated
his loss at L.10Q. He one year sowed a field thrice with
turnips, which were twice wholly, and the third time in
great part, cut off by this destructive larva.7
m
✓V
Section 2d, Malacodermi.8
2d, Antennce exterior or exposed.
In the genus Cerophytum, Lat. (Plate CCXXII. fig.
30), the terminal joint of the palpi, especially the maxil¬
lary, is much larger than the preceding, and almost secu¬
riform. These insects are more particularly distinguish¬
ed from the following by their tarsi, of which the first four
articles are short, triangular, with the penultimate bifid.
The antennae of the males are ramose on the internal side,
the base of the third and following articles being prolong¬
ed into a widened branch, rounded at the extremity ;
those of the female are serrated. In the succeeding ge¬
nera the articles of the tarsi are entire and almost cylin¬
drical. In Hemirhipus, Lat. (Plate CCXXII. fig. 31),
the mandibles and labrum are exposed, and the antennae
of the male have a flabelliform termination. The species
are foreign to Europe. In Elater properly so called
(Plate CCXXII. fig. 27), the antennae of the males are
simply serrated. Here we place the fire-fly, or mouche
lumineuse of the French colonists, which during the night
diffuses from its thoracic spots a strong and beautiful light,
sufficient to enable one to read the smallest print, parti¬
cularly if several are placed together in a glass vessel.
By means of this natural illumination the women of the
country (the species is South American) are said to pur¬
sue their work, and ladies even use it as an ornament,
placing it among their tresses during their evening pro¬
menades.1 M. de la Cordaire, w ho has studied the habits
of these insects in the living state, informed M. Latreille
that the principal reservoir of phosphoric matter is placed
below, at the junction of the thorax and abdomen.2 Mr
Curtis had the insect alive in London, and has recorded
his observations with his accustomed accuracy.3 In the
genus Ctenicera,4 Lat. the antennae of the males are
pectinated.5 * * 8 9 10
The insects of this section are distinguished from the
Sternoxi by their bodies being generally, in whole or ia
part, of a soft or flexible texture. From this character
they derive their name. Their head is likewise inclosed
posteriorly in the thorax, or at least covered by it at the
base ; but the praesternum is not dilated or advanced an¬
teriorly in the manner of a chin-cloth (rnentonniere, Lat.),
nor is it usually terminated posteriorly in a point received
into a cavity of the mesosternum.9 The Malacodernii
are divided into five tribes.
Tribe 1st, Cebrionites.
So named from the genus Cebrio of Fabricius, with which
all the others are connected. The mandibles terminate in
a simple or entire point, the palpi are of equal thickness,
or more slender towards the extremity. The body is
rounded or convex in some, oval or oblong, but curved
above, and inclined anteriorly, in others. The thorax is
transversal, broader at the base, with the lateral angles
sharp, or even prolonged, in many, in the form of a spine.
The antennae are generally longer than the head and tho¬
rax. The legs are not contractile. The habits ofthese insects
are unknown. Many are found on plants, in moist places.
In Cebrio (proper)10 of Lat. the praesternum termi¬
nates posteriorly in a point, received by a groove of the
mesosternum. All the joints of the tarsi are entire and
without pellets, and the posterior thighs are not larger
than the others. The species peculiar to Europe appear
in great numbers after heavy rains. Of the ten species
enumerated by Dejean, seven occur in Europe, one in
Africa, one in Java, and one in North America. In Cal-
lirhipis, Lat. (Plate CCXXII. figs. 32 and 33), the prse-
sternum is not prolonged into a point, the antennae are
closely approximated at the base, inserted on an eminence,
1 Regnc Animal, t. iv. p. 445. * Ibid. note. See also Nonvellet Annates du Mus. d'Hut. Nat. t. ii. p. G6.
3 Zoological Journal, vol. iii. p. 379. 4 From xn,;, a comb, and ki^xs, a horn.
8 For the British genera and species, see the works of Messrs Curtis and Stephens. Such as have been hitherto ascertained to in¬
habit Scotland are described in Entomologia Edincnsis, p. 192-9.
s From xaruQxya, 1 devour.
\ P10clern genera of Elaterides are far too numerous to admit of being even named in our present article. We refer the read¬
er, in addition to the systematic works of F abricius, Olivier, and Eatreille, to Palisot de Beauvois’s Insectcs d'Af> ique ct d'Ameriquc,
Dalman s Analecta Entomologica, and the beautiful monograph by Count Mannherheim entitled Eucncmis Insectorum genus.
8 From /xuXxxos, soft, and h-opa, skin.
9 The Cebriones may be said to constitute an exception to this negative character, and thus approximate the Elaterides; but the
inferior extremity of the praesternum does not advance under the head.
10 Aristophanes applies the name KsSj/ov to a species of bird, i ■ •
jl
ENTOMOLOGY.
Golentera and from the third joint, in the males, form a large fan.
I'en lera. The terminal joint of the palpi is ovoid, that of the tarsi
almost as long as the others united, and presenting be¬
tween its hooks a little silky and linear appendage. We
have represented the head of the species ((7. Dejeanii),
which serves as the type of the genus. It occurs in Java.
In Rhipicera1 of Lat. and Kirby51 (Plate CCXXIII. fig.
1), the inferior surface of each of the first four joints of
the tarsi presents two membranous and projecting lobes ;
the last is long. The antennae are flabelliform in both
sexes, and consist of much more than the ordinary num¬
ber of eleven joints. The articulations are much fewer
in those of the females. The genus consists of a few
species from North and South America and New Holland.
In Dascillus, Lat. (Atopa of Fab.), the antennae are
simple in both sexes, the first three joints of the tarsi
reversed cordiform, without membranous prolongations;
the penultimate is deeply bilobed. D. cervinus (Curtis,
B. E. V. pi. 216), the only British species, occurs rather
plentifully in the alpine districts of Scotland. In the re¬
maining Cebrionites the mandibles are small, and project
but little, if at all, beyond the labrum. The body is ge¬
nerally soft, and almost hemispherical or ovoid, and the
palpi terminate in a point. The posterior legs of several
are fitted for leaping. They live on aquatic plants.
Such are Elodes3 of Lat. (Cyphon, Fab. Steph.), of which
the hind thighs differ but little in thickness from those of
the preceding genus (we have seventeen kinds in Bri¬
tain), and Scyrtes, Lat. of which the species are leapers,
with the posterior thighs very large, and the tibiae termi¬
nated by two strong spurs.
Tribe 2d, Lampyrides.
This tribe is distinguished from the preceding by the en¬
larged termination of the palpi, at least of those of the max¬
illae ; by their straight, depressed, but slightly convex body;
and by the thorax, sometimes semicircular, sometimes
nearly square or trapezoidal, projecting over and almost
concealing the head. The mandibles are generally small,
and terminate in a slender, arcuated, very acute point, ge¬
nerally entire. The penultimate joint of the tarsi is always
bilobate, and the terminal hooks have neither dentations
nor appendages. The females of some are apterous, or
have but short elytra. When seized, most of these insects
press their feet and antennae close to the body, and re¬
main as motionless as if they were dead. Several curve
the abdomen underneath. They correspond to the old
genus Lampyris of Linn., and include some species re¬
markable for their phosphorescent or luminous qualities.
1^, Antennae approximated at the base, the head either
prolonged anteriorly in the manner of a snout, or for
the greater part, or entirely, concealed beneath the
thorax. Eyes of the males large and globular.
Mouth small.
Here w-e place the following genera, in all of which the
141
head is exposed 1^, Lycus,4 Fab. In this the snout isColeoptera
as long as the preceding portion of the head, or longer, Pentamera.
and the antennae serrated. The elytra are generally di-
lated, either laterally, or at their posterior extremity, the
two sexes (particularly of certain African species) differ¬
ing greatly in that respect; 2d, Dictyoptera, Lat.
(Plate CCXXIII. fig. 2); and, 3c?, Omalisus,* Geoffroy
(ibid. fig. 4). The remaining insects of this division are
distinguished from the preceding, not only by the want of
a snout (it is not apparent even in the last-named genus),
by their head, which in the males is almost entirely occu¬
pied by the eyes, and much concealed by the square or
semicircular thorax—but more particularly by a very re¬
markable character, either common alike to males or fe¬
males, or peculiar to the latter sex, viz. the property of
phosphorescence. Hence the names of glow-worms, fire¬
flies, &c. bestowed upon the species which form the ge¬
nus Lampyris properly so called.6 7
In regard to the general history of these insects, we
may observe, that the Greeks applied the name of Lam¬
pyris, and the Latins those oi' Noctiluca, Luciola, &c. with¬
out any very special reference, to such insects as were ob¬
served to shine during the night with a lambent or phos¬
phoric flame. They were long confounded with Telepho-
rus and Malachius under the genus Cantharis. Geoffroy
effected their separation from Telephorus, and placed
them in the genus Lycus, while Linnaeus also combined
them with that genus and Pyrochroa. Fabricius was the
first to restrict and define the genus with propriety.? The
antennae are short, the articulations cylindrical and com¬
pressed. The head is concealed beneath the anterior mar¬
gin of the thorax, which is semicircular in the indigenous
species. The eyes are large. The body rather soft, ob¬
long-oval, much depressed. The abdomen is serrated on
its lateral edges. The elytra are coriaceous, and slightly
flexible. The legs are compressed and simple. The fe¬
males are apterous, with the rudiments of elytra at the
base of the abdomen. Other characters are minutely
detailed by systematic writers, which we need not here
enter into. We shall, however, record some observations,
both of a general and particular nature, which we were
induced to make in consequence of our having kept the
common British glow-worm in confinement.8
The beautiful light which emanates from this insect
constitutes its most interesting and peculiar attribute. If
several ancient nations were worshippers of the sun, and
regarded “ holy light” as a divine effulgence, the offspring
of heaven, and the purest of the elements, we need scarce¬
ly wonder that in remote times, when natural phenomena
were but slightly understood, even the more obscure ma¬
nifestations of a supposed celestial principle should have
excited the wonder and admiration of mankind. We con¬
sequently find many exaggerated accounts of the cause
and effects of these flying and creeping lights, which, as
they do not illustrate the natural history, properly so call¬
ed, of the insects themselves, we shall leave for the pre-
3 From j/o-if, a fan, and a horn. • 2 Linn. Trans, vol. xii. pi. 21, 3.
, I.,1,0111 £^,-c’ a marsh, the species usually frequenting moist places. 4 From Xvx.ou>, / destroy. 5 Perhaps from oy.a.~,.r>$, Jlat.
I he word Xa.y.rrv^oi occurs in Aristotle, and is derived from Xctynu, to shine, and fire. The genus in its undivided state is
very extensive, containing not fewer than sixty species. We observe, however, that in the last edition of Dejean’s Catalogue, so
many divisions have taken place, that the genus Lampyris, properly so called, is now made to consist of only nine species. It is very
poorly represented in Britain, and indeed produces but few European examples. If, as Mr Stephens supposes, L. splendidula has
een erroneously introduced into the British Fauna, then L. noctiluca, Linn., may be regarded as the sole indigenous species. Some
razihan species, in which the antennae of the males consist of more than eleven joints, formed like the laminae of a feather, consti-
u e the genus Amydetes of Hoffmansegg. Others, also peculiar to South America, and of which the antennae consist of only eleven
7 i! *orni t^le Senus Phengodes of that author. (Illiger’s Mag. vi. p. 342.)
L or representations of the glow-worm (L. noctiluca), see Plate CCXXIII. Fig. 5 is the winged male ; fig. 6 the wingless female ;
7 the larva ; fig. 10 represents a large and remarkable species, the Lampyris Savignii of Kirby.
VVe here in part avail ourselves of what we have already stated in the Entomologia Edinensis, p. 202-7*
142
E N T O M
Coleoptera sent unrecorded. But the actual phenomena are ex-
Pentamera. tremely interesting, on account both of their singularity
and beauty, and, without the aid of fiction, are well deserv¬
ing the attention of the poet and philosopher. Huet,
bishop of Avranches, an eminent scholar, composed a
poem, entitled Lampyris; and the masterly genius ot
Wordsworth, which draws so much that is new and beau¬
tiful from the observance of common things, has not fail¬
ed to immortalize the radiance of the “ earth-born star.
“ And if,” say Messrs Kirby and Spence, or one or other
of these authors, while speaking of the British glow-worm,
“ living like me in a district where it is rarely met with,
the first time you saw this insect chanced to be, as it was
in my case, one of those delightful evenings which an
English summer seldom yields, when not a breeze dis¬
turbs the balmy air, and hundreds of these radiant worms,
studding their mossy couch wdth mild effulgence, were
presented to your wondering eye in the course of a quar¬
ter of a mile,—you could not help associating with the
name of glow-worm the most pleasing recollections, ^so
wonder that an insect which chiefly exhibits^ itself on oc¬
casions so interesting, and whose economy is so remark¬
able, should have afforded exquisite images and illustra¬
tions to those poets who have cultivated natural history.
However beautiful the effect produced by our own species,
and by the fire-flies (L. italicd), which are still more
abundant over Italy and the rest of the south of Europe,
their splendour, according to Humboldt, cannot be com¬
pared in richness to those innumerable scattered and mov¬
ing lights that embellish the nights of the torrid zone, and
seem to repeat on earth, along the vast extent of the
savannahs, the spectacle of the starry vault of heaven.
These, however, belong to a different tribe of insects (Ela-
terides), which resemble the glow-worm merely in their
luminous properties; yet we cannot resist quoting the
beautiful lines by Mr Southey, in which he describes their
first effect on the earliest visitors of the new world.
  Sorrowing we beheld
The night come on; but soon did night display
More wonders than it veiled ; innumerous tribes
From the wood-cover swarm’d, and darkness made
Their beauties visible : one while they streamed
A bright blue radiance upon flowers that closed
Their gorgeous colours from the eye of day ;
Now motionless and dark, eluded search,
Self-shrouded; and anon, starring the sky,
Rose like a shower of fire.2
The glow-worm is now a very rare insect in the neigh¬
bourhood of Edinburgh. Mr Neill informs us that it for¬
merly occurred between the city and the village of Ca-
nonmills; but we have not heard of its having been found
there or elsewhere around our immediate suburbs for
many years. Dr David Ritchie has observed it occa¬
sionally near Pathhead, and Professor Wallace has met
with it in Fife. Professor Wilson informs us that he once
saw it on the Queensferry road, near Comely Bank. We
have ourselves taken it by Loch Lomond side, and else¬
where in Scotland. It abounds in the north of England.
We once received some living specimens early in July
from Borthwick, about twelve miles from Edinburgh.
They laid eggs a few days after their arrival, on the sides
of a glass vessel. The parents soon after died, probably
from being kept in too confined a space; but the young
larvae were hatched in a few weeks, and by the end of
September they measured about the third of an inch in
length. These larvae bear a strong resemblance to the
female perfect insect. The body is composed of twelve
segments, of which the central are the largest. The three
O L O G Y.
first segments bear each a pair of feet, and the caudal Coleo;
segments are slightly retractile within each other; andPentail
when the insect walks, which it does very leisurely, it w"vv
bends its tail beneath it in such a way as to assist or sup-
port it in its progress. The head is very small, and is
also retractile, and is usually withdrawn whenever the in¬
sect is alarmed or disturbed. These little creatures throve
well in captivity. They were kept on a piece of moist
mossy turf, which was frequently renewed ; but whether
they sustained themselves on the dewy herbage, or by
means of the minute animal substances which it contain¬
ed, it was not for a time very easy to discover. The
curved and extended form of the little jaws would in the
first place induce one to suppose that they were carnivo¬
rous. Olivier, however, observes, in his description of the
larva of the glow-worm, “ elle vie cependant sur de la
terre fraiche, avec de 1’herbe et des feuilles des differentes
plantes ; mais Ton a remarque qu’elle devient foible et
languissante, quand on la laisse manquer de terre humide.
Elle est tres-pacifique, et paroit craintive.”3 Fresh earth,
or the moisture which arises from it, certainly seems
necessary to their welfare, for we noticed that, when their
turf became dry, and a slice of fresh apple or potato was
introduced, they immediately settled on it, and inserted
their heads as if drinking. We, however, soon after de¬
tected one with its jaws fixed in the head of a minute snail,
which it appeared to be devouring, its own head being in¬
serted into the aperture of the shell.
This observation appeared the more interesting, in as
far as it served to connect those insects, by means of their
habits, with that singular species the Drilus jiavescens,
which is known to feed voraciously on the Helix nernoralis,
and the female of which was described by Mielzinski as
the type of a distinct genus-, under the name of Cochleae-
tonus. This latter insect is parasitical on the body of the
helix, in the shell of which it dwells and undergoes its
metamorphoses.
While engaged in the observance of these glow-worms,
we met with a notice, in the Annales des Sciences, by a
French gentleman of Rouen, on the same subject. In it
we have ample proof of the carnivorous propensities of
the creatures in question. He placed a great number
of the larvae in a vessel with fresh earth, and supplied them
with various kinds of leaves. They soon however became
extremely feeble, and remained so for several weeks, when
he happened to put a dead slug in their jar, of which the
young glow-worms were no sooner aware than they gree¬
dily seized upon it with their arched and sharp-pointed
mandibles. On the ensuing day they were found to have
eaten their way so far into the slug, that nothing but their
tails was visible. They were perceived however occa¬
sionally to quit their prey and walk about upon the moist
earth. The French naturalist was curious to observe how
they would proceed with a living snail, and he therefore
introduced one into his colony of insects. The animal
soon began to crawl about its new domicile, but it no soon¬
er came upon the path of a glow-worm than it was seized
by the latter immediately beneath the mouth, and with
such force and tenacity that it drew itself suddenly into
its shell, and of course dragged its enemy along with it.
The glow-worm however immediately disengaged its hold,
and struggled back to the mouth of the shell, on the back
of which it soon mounted, thus keeping the snail in a state
of siege. Whenever it protruded even the point of its
horns it was instantly seized, bitten, and obliged to with¬
draw within its fortress. The larva being soon joined by
a companion, the two attacked the unfortunate snail, and
1 Introduction to Entomology, vol. ii. p. 410.
2 Modoc.
Entomologk, t. ii. No. 28, p. 7*
ENTOMOLOGY.
i after a continued combat of several hours, they put it to
u death, and by next morning it was not only slain, but
' eaten. These and similar experiments were made from
the month of November to the month of June, after which
the larvae were observed to undergo their transformations.
They occupied about a week in assuming the state of
nymph—they continued in that state eight days longer—
and then appeared in the form of the perfect insect.
When about to assume the nympha state, the skin of the
upper and anterior portion of the body cracks and opens,
or a lateral division takes place on either side, so as to
separate the skin of the upper from that of the under por¬
tion. By alternate elongations and contractions they then
work their way forwards, and contrive to effect their libe¬
ration in a few minutes from their old attire. The nymph
is larger than the larva, though not quite so long. Its
colour is at first pale yellow, with two reddish spots on
the posterior and lateral portion of each segment of the
abdomen, as well as on the posterior angles of the thorax.
It wants the large acute mandibles of the larva; its an¬
tennae are very obvious, and consist of eleven articulations.
The tarsi are likewise distinctly composed each of five ar¬
ticulations. The last rings of the abdomen are very bril¬
liant, especially when the insect is handled; and it was
noted as remarkable that the whole body partook, though
with less intensity, of that phosphoric splendour which
in the perfect insect characterizes only the terminal seg¬
ments of the abdomen. Before the termination of the
eight days which are passed in the nympha state, all the
more delicate colours had disappeared, and were finally
converted into those duller hues which distinguish the in¬
sect in its matured condition. As soon as it has disen¬
gaged itself from the slough of the larva, it bends its body
into an arch or semicircle, and is then a genuine nymph,
although it still continues to move its head, and even its
limbs and antennae. In this intermediate condition its
general form has undergone no great change, but the head,
feet, and antennae are considerably altered, and seem en¬
larged or swollen. At first the body manifests a slow
and heavy movement, which ere long ceases, and the an¬
tennae and feet are then applied more closely to the sides
of the body. The only signs of life now consist in a
movement of the abdomen, which is bent into an arch, or
occasionally moved from side to side. The body is short¬
er than that of the larva, the head is bent beneath the
first segment or thorax, the antennae consist of numerous
articulations, and the caudal segment of the body, instead
of being terminated by a couple of points, is now sur¬
rounded by eight of those points, in the centre of which
are two fleshy tubercles, placed in a slight depression.
Olivier had previously informed us that the nymph, after
quitting the skin of the larva, shone with a very lively and
brilliant light of a beautiful green colour, which became
more splendid for a time when the vessel which contain¬
ed it was moved, and disappeared again, as if by some
voluntary action of the animal, even in the nympha state,
in which the vital and instinctive powers are usually almost
in a state of suspension. According to Degeer, the larva
is also luminous. We did not however observe any mani¬
festation of that faculty in those in our keeping.
It has been a frequent subject of inquiry to ascertain
the purposes which the light is intended to serve. In the
perfect state the female continues wingless, while the male
has become a swift-flying insect; and this has led to the
supposition that the lambent flame, which is always most
143
conspicuous in the female, is intended as a “ nuptial Coleoptera
lamp,” to guide the male to her society. In this case, Tentamera.
however, we do not so clearly see the use of it in the
larva and nympha states, unless, to be sure, as a prepara¬
tory process for the formation of the animal phosphorus.
Although many insects discover each other merely by
the sense of smell, the fact seems nearly certain that the
male or winged glow-worm ascertains his mate by aid of
her luminous property; for it is a well-known and success¬
ful entomological device to place a female in a conspicu¬
ous position, and watch by her side, with a view to entrap
the rarer or less visible males, which ere long make their
appearance. Olivier has frequently caught the males by
holding a female on the palm of his hand,—which makes it
the more singular that he did not perceive the two lumi¬
nous points which the former bears on the last segment of
the abdomen,—“ Je n’ai pas encore m’assurer, il est vrai,
si le male de notre espece commune a la propriete de luire.”
We may add, that the eggs are also beautifully luminous for
some time after they are laid.
Dufour has examined the anatomical structure of the
female glow-worm. The alimentary canal measures about
twice the length of the body. The oesophagus is so short
as to be nearly imperceptible. It dilates immediately
into a short crop. The chylific ventricle is separated from
the crop by a valvular contraction. It is long, smooth,
that is, unprovided with papillae, but pursed and cylindri¬
cal in its two anterior thirds, and intestiform in the re¬
mainder. The small intestine is very short.1
The matter from which the luminous property of the
glow-worm results has been the subject of frequent expe¬
riment and observation. It is obviously under the con¬
trol of the insect, which, when approached, may fre¬
quently be observed to diminish or put out its light.2
In the perfect female the luminous matter occupies
chiefly the inferior part of the three last annuli of the
abdomen. These differ from the rest in colour, and are
usually of a yellow hue, especially on the under side. The
light diffused is more or less intense, according to cir¬
cumstances. The insect lives for a considerable time in
a vacuum, and in various gases ; but in nitrous acid, mu¬
riatic and sulphurous gases, it soon expires. When placed
in hydrogen gas it has sometimes been observed to pro¬
duce detonation. When the luminous portion of the body
of a glow-worm is cut off, the insect continues to live, and
the separated segments retain their phosphoric nature,
and are luminous for some time, whether placed in va¬
cuum, exposed to the air, or submitted to the action of
different gases. By what means the living insect is able
to shroud itself in darkness, and then suddenly to clothe
itself a« it were in a mantle of radiant light, is a subject
beyond our power of investigation ; but when dried the
phosphorescence seems to depend on a certain degree of
softness or humidity; for when apparently quite extinct,
it may be reproduced by pressure, and the application of
a little moisture. In the living state, however, although
immersion in warm water produces a brilliant light, the
application of cold water tends to its speedy extinction.
The next peculiarity in the history of the glow-worm
consists in the change of its habits in regard to food,
which takes place on its attaining maturity. From an
insect of a predaceous nature, greedy of animal juices, it
becomes entirely herbivorous, not much addicted indeed
to food of any kind, but still confining itself, when it does
indulge in eating, to the tender leaves of plants. It is
1 Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. iii. p. 225.
s On this curious subject, however, we beg to refer the reader to the writings of Beckerheim [Ann. de Chimie, t. iv. p. 19), Cara-
dori, and Treviranus, among foreign authors, and to those of Mr Macartney [Phil. Trans. 1810), and Kirby and Spence (vol. ii.
P‘ 423), among ourselves.
144
Coleoptera this circumstance which has no doubt led to so much con-
Pentamera.trariety of opinion on the part of entomological wii us
' ^ regarding its natural disposition. Most observers having
attended to it chiefly after it had undergone its transfor¬
mations, they naturally, and so far correctly, concluded
that it was a herbivorous insect. Had they watched its
progress from the egg they would have come to another
conclusion, at least in regard to its earlier condition.
This alteration in the habits of these creatures is in tact
by no means unexampled, either among other genera ot
the same class, or among the more distantly related rep¬
tile tribes. The most familiar instance among the latter
is the common frog, which in the early state of tadpole is
herbivorous, while under the perfect form it preys on
flies and other insects. In this case, to be sure, the order
of change is inverted, the alteration being from a herbi¬
vorous to a carnivorous diet; while the contrary takes
place in the glow-worm. But the analogy is more strictly
maintained in the case of those aquatic beetles which
form the family of Helophoridce, which in the larva state
are carnivorous, but become herbivorous after assuming
their final transformation. The same singularity is also
illustrated by many dipterous flies, which, born and bred
amid the putrid moisture of animal remains, no sooner
become winged insects, than they seek a purer diet in the
nectarous juices of fruits and flowers.
In relation to the glow-worm, the observation is of more
practical interest, because the appearance of the insect
among our lawns and shrubberies is so extremely orna¬
mental during the summer nights, that many have tried
to import it to districts where it does not naturally occur.
They have failed, in consequence of endeavouring to rear
the young on vegetable food. Moist herbage, or a supply
of damp earth, seems almost indispensable; but, in addition
to these, their box must contain some minute testacea,
such as the young of the ordinary species of the genus
Helix. Perhaps the best plan is to hatch the eggs, and
then place the young at liberty under an old hedge as
soon as they have begun to eat freely.
2c?, Antennae decidedly remote at their base; head nei¬
ther prolonged nor narrowed anteriorly in the form
of a snout; the eyes of ordinary size in both sexes.
In genus Drylus, Oliv. (Plate CCXXIII. figs. 8, 9,
and 12), the males are winged, and the inner side of the
antenna?, from the fourth joint, is prolonged like the tooth
of a comb. Those of the female are shorter, or somewhat
perfoliaceous, and slightly serrated. The maxillary palpi
in both sexes are thicker towards the extremity, and ter¬
minate in a point. There is a tooth on the internal side
of the mandibles. The D.jlavescem (see figs, last referred
to) feeds, while in the larva state, on the Helix nemoralis
of Linn, in the shell of which it dwells and undergoes
its metamorphosis. It was on this account described
by Comte Mielzinsky under the name of Cochleoctonus.
Its history, and that of the other species, are now well
known.1
All the remaining genera of this second division of the
Lampyrides are winged in both sexes, and the maxillary
palpi are not much longer than the labial. They corre¬
spond to the family Telephoridce of English naturalists,
and are composed chiefly of the species placed by Lin-
nreus under the genus Cantharis. Schoeffer and Degeer
reserve that name to the species used in medicine, and
apply the term Telephorus (probably from dskog cpooiu, I
carry death) to the remainder. The true Cantharidae,
therefore, are constituted by the genus Meloe, and the
well-known blister-fly C. vesicatoria, &c.
ENTOMOLOGY.
In the genus Telephorus (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 11) Colet
the palpi are terminated by a securiform article, and thefents
thorax offers no lateral emarginations. Their bodies are ^
long, narrow, depressed, and of a soft or somewhat flexible
consistence. These insects abound in meadows during
the summer season, on umbelliferous and other plants.
The larvae are characterized by a flat scaly head, fur¬
nished with two strong teeth, a pair of small antennae,
and four palpi. Their bodies are flattish beneath, divided
into twelve rings resembling those of caterpillars, and
covered by a membranous skin, which is soft to the touch.
The general colour of these larvae is a deep velvety black,
except the front of the head, which is shining. The an¬
tennae, palpi, and feet are of a reddish or yellowish brown.
They dwell in moist earth. Olivier was of opinion that
they fed on roots, but the laborious and accurate Degeer
asserts that they voraciously devour a great variety of
insect prey. That of Telephorus fuscus was observed to
change into the nympha state towards the end of May.
It buried itself in the earth, but presented no appearance
of cocoon. The nympha was about six lines in length,
with the body somewhat arched, and of a pale-reddish
white. The perfect insect was developed in the month
of June. Even in the last-named state, in which so many
species are chiefly occupied in the indulgence of other
propensities, the Telephori, according to Degeer, continue
their accustomed appetite. He has observed a female
drag a male to the ground, turn him on his back, and
suck out his entrails; so that, as among the spider tribes,
considerable caution is necessary on the part of an inex¬
perienced suitor while making his advances. Mr Curtis
has frequently seen Telephori with other insects in their
mouths. He once observed T. lividus eating an ichneu¬
mon, and he took another of the same species with an
Empis in its mouth. T. fuscus is known to prey upon its
own species. There are above thirty different kinds of
this genus in Britain. Dejean, under the Linnaean name
of Cantharis, enumerates 132 species. Whatever we
know of the anatomy of these creatures accords with their
apparent dispositions. Dufour has ascertained that their
digestive canal is absolutely straight. Their biliary ves¬
sels are four in number, in which character, as well as in
that of their generative system, they present a resem¬
blance to the genus Lycus.
One of the most remarkable incidents in the history of
the Telephori is the frequency with which, in some con¬
tinental countries, the species are carried into the air in
great quantities by violent winds, and unexpectedly de¬
posited in distant regions,—thus giving rise to what are
called insect showers. Sweden and Hungary have been
most productive of such phenomena. One of the most
ornamental of the British species, and the only one we
shall here describe, is T. cyaneus of Curtis. The head is
black and shining, but rufous before the eyes ; the thorax
and abdomen are likewise rufous, the elytra are deep
blue, the legs black. This insect is pretty widely, though
sparingly, distributed over the southern and central coun¬
ties of Scotland, and the north of England. We have
specimens from the Edinburgh district, from Kinordy in
Forfarshire, from Dollar in Clackmannanshire, and from
Dumfries and Roxburgh shires.
The genus Silts of Megerle differs from the preceding
chiefly in having an emargination posteriorly on each side
of the thorax. In Maltiiinus of Lat. (Plate CCXXIII-
fig. 14) the palpi are terminated by an ovoid joint; the
head is narrow behind; and the elytra, in several species,
are shorter than the abdomen.
See Annates des Sciences Nat. Jan. Juil. Aout, 1824 ; and le Bulletin de la Soc. PhiL for April of the same year.
E N T O M
■!ra Tribe 3d, Melyrides.
Here we find the palpi generally short and filiform ;
the mandibles emarginated at the point; the body usually
narrow and elongated ; the head only covered at base by
a flat or but slightly convex thorax, generally square, or
elongated and quadrilateral; the joints of the tarsi en¬
tire, and the terminal hooks unidentated or bordered with
a membrane. The antennae are usually serrated, and even
pectinated, in the males of several species. Most of these
insects are of active habits. They occur on the leaves
and flowers of plants.
In MALAcmus^f Fab.(PlateCCXXIII. fig. 13), there is
a retractile and dilatable vesicle under each anterior angle
of the thorax, and on each side of the base of the abdo¬
men. Most of the species are adorned by ornamental
and contrasted colours. The habits of the larvae are but
obscurely known. Olivier presumes that many of them
live in wood, because he has frequently found the perfect
insect in timber-yards, as if newly escaped from the nym-
pha state. This is an extensive genus, and may be re¬
garded as characteristic of temperate climes, although a
few occur in Africa and the East Indies. Mr Stephens
enumerates seventeen British species. Comte Dejean’s
collection contains 104 in all. Among the Melyrides with
filiform antennae, but of which the thorax and abdomen
are unfurnished with retractile vesicles, Latreille places
the genus Dasytes2 of Paykul. The antennae are at least
as long as the head and thorax; and the body is generally
narrow and elongated, sometimes linear. We have figured
the male of B. ater (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 15). In Mely-
ris properly so called (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 16), the an¬
tennae are shorter than the head and thorax, insensibly
enlarged, but without forming a club, as in Lygia. Their
joints are also less dilated laterally^, and are almost iso-
metrical. The thorax is less convex.
In other Melyrides, such as Pelocophorus of Dej. the
maxillary palpi are terminated by a larger and securiform
article, a character which, with certain others, approxi¬
mates them to the ensuing tribe. Dejean at one time
placed them among the tetramerous species.
Tribe 4th, Clerii.
Distinguished by at least two of the palpi being project¬
ing and clavate. The mandibles are dentated. The
penultimate joint of the tarsi is bilobate, the first very
short or but slightly visible in several. The antennae
vary, being in some nearly filiform and serrated, in others
insensibly enlarged towards the extremity. The body is
usually cylindrical, the head and thorax narrower than
the abdomen, and the eyes emarginate. Most of these
insects occur on flowers, some of them on the trunks of
trees or in dry timber. The larvae are regarded as car¬
nivorous.
Of some the tarsi, viewed from above or from beneath,
d'st>nctly exhibit five joints. Such is the genus Tillus3
of Olivier, in which the mandibles are cleft or bidentated
at the extremity; the antennae sometimes serrated, from
the fourth joint to the tenth inclusively, with the last
ovoid, sometimes terminating suddenly from the sixth in
a serrated club. The terminal joint of the labial palpi is
very large and securiform; the head short and rounded,
an the third and fourth joints of the tarsi dilated in the
torm ot a reversed triangle.
Of others the tarsi, when viewed from above, appear to
O L O G Y. 145
consist of only four joints, the first being extremely short, Coleoptera
or concealed beneath the second. Such is the genus Pontamera-
Clerus4 properly so called (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 17),
in which the maxillary palpi are terminated by a com¬
pressed joint in the form of a reversed triangle, the last
°f. the labial palpi, which are larger than the others,
being securiform. The club of the antennae is hardly
longer than wide, and is composed of crowded joints ; the
thud is longer than the second. I he maxillae terminate
in a fringed and projecting lobe. The thorax is depress¬
ed anteriorly. The species, in the perfect state, occur on
flowers. Their larvae feed on those of certain bees. Dufour
has described their internal structure. The crop is so short
as to be almost entirely contained within the head. In Ne-
crobia,j Lat. (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 19), the four palpi are
terminated by an elongated, compressed, triangular joint
of the same size; the second and third joints of the an¬
tennae are almost equal, and the terminal club is elongat¬
ed, and with looser articles. These insects occur chiefly
in spring. They are said to live on carrion, and are rich¬
ly adorned for such foul feeders. Deep blue is their pre¬
vailing colour. There are four species in Britain, of which
we have as yet found only two in Scotland, viz. N. ruficol-
lis, of a greenish blue, the thorax, base of the elytra, and
legs rufous,—JV. violacea, of a bright blue, shining yet
pubescent, the antennae and legs black. If the geographi¬
cal notices which we have collected of the former species
be correct, its distribution must be very extensive. It
seems to occur both in Africa and the East Indies,—a
wide circuit for an insect which we have taken behind the
glass-works at Leith. <£ Insectum mihi carissimum,” says
Latreille, “ illis enim infelicissimis temporibus quibus ca-
lamitatum omnium pondere obruta Gallia trepidanter ge-
mebat, amicissime auxiliantibus Bory de Saint Vincent,
Dargelas, Burdigalensibus, posteriori maxime, hoc ani-
malculum mihi libertatis salutisque occasio miranda eva-
sit.”5 6
Tribe 5th, Ptiniores, Lat.
This tribe, consisting of the genus Ptinus ofLinnasus, and
of some others nearly allied, possesses a body of a tolerably
firm consistence, in some cases almost ovoid or oval, and
at others nearly cylindrical, but generally short, and round¬
ed at either end. The head is nearly globular or orbicu¬
lar, and is received almost entirely into a strongly arched
or rounded thorax, resembling a hood. The antennae of
some are filiform, or diminished towards the termination,
and are simple, flabelliform, pectinated, or serrated; of
others they are terminated suddenly by three larger and
longer joints. The mandibles are short, thick, and den¬
tated beneath the point. The palpi are very short, and
terminated by a larger article, almost ovoid, or like a re¬
versed triangle. The tibiae are not dentated, and the spurs
at the extremities are very small. These insects are all
of small size, exhibit little variety in their colouring, which
is usually dark or sombre, and when touched they coun¬
terfeit death. Their motions are slow', and such as are
winged seldom take to flight. In the larva state they are
extremely destructive in museums.
In the genus Ptinus (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 18) proper¬
ly so called, the antennae are as long as the body, and in¬
serted between the eyes, which are somewhat protuberant.
The body is oblong. In the genus Ptilinus, Fab. (ibid,
fig. 20), the antennae, inserted before the eyes, are short¬
er than the body, and are pectinated or plumose from the
5 From j£aXa:*‘’55 * The word xXn^ is applied by Aristotle to an insect which inhabits hives.
* Fro aaVTr^i shagginess. 5 From carcass, and (itos, life.
om rax*, to pluck or pull out. « Genera Crust, et Insect.
VOi. IX.
T
146 E N T O M
Coleoptera thirtl joint in the males1—serrated in the females. They
Pentamera. inhabit old wood, in which they perforate deep round
holes. In Anobium, Fab. the antennae are terminated by
three larger or longer joints, the terminal one being ovate.
The name of Byrrhus, originally bestowed upon the in¬
sects of the last-named genus by Geoffrey, was transfer¬
red by Linnaeus to a very different group. His genus
Ptinus included both Ptilinus and Anobium. Fabricius
was the institutor of the genus Anobium, so called tiom
avaZtov, resuscitated—the species being characterized, in
common with most of their congeners, by their frequent
simulation of death, and their re-assumption of activity
as soon as the threatened danger is removed. In this
instinctive mode of preservation Olivier accuses them ot
exhibiting an invincible obstinacy. “ Us se laissent en-
tierement bruler sans donner aucun signe de vie. ihe
larvae of these insects are extremely injurious to old fur¬
niture, in which they perforate numerous round holes.
Hence the genus is named vrillette by the french, from
grille, a gimlet. In the larva state they resemble small,
white, soft worms, with six short minute feet. 1 he head
is scaly, and is terminated by two maxillae in the form ot
strong cutting pincers, with which they gnaw the wood
into the finest sawdust. When about to change into the
nympha state, they line the bottom of their little cells
with a few silken threads. Other species feed on flour,
bread, sealing-wafers, &c. where they form grooves or gal¬
leries, according to the thickness of their working mate¬
rials. The superstitious fancy of the death-watch lias
arisen partly from an insect of this genus, the An. tesse-
latum. It is supposed, however, to share tins mysterious
calling with the Termes pulsatonum of Linnaeus, and pro¬
bably with several others. According to Dr Shaw, it is
in the advanced state of spring that the former of these
insects commences its mysterious pulsations, which, he
asserts, is nothing more than the signal-call of the sexes.
The number of distinct strokes is generally from seven to
eleven, and these are occasioned merely by its beating
with its head with considerable force and quickness against
the plane of its position. Where the insects are numer¬
ous, as is not unfrequently the case in old houses, these
sounds may be heard during the whole day, especially in
warm weather. The sound greatly resembles a moderate
tapping on a table with the finger nail, and indeed by
that simple process they may be induced to beat in reply
wl^ien not otherwise inclined so to do. “ He that could
eradicate this error,” says the quaint Sir Thomas Brown,
in allusion to the death-tick, “ from the minds of the peo¬
ple, would save from many a cold sweat the meticulous
heads of nurses and grandmothers.”2 One of the most
common species of the genus is Anobium striatum, ot a
somewhat pitchy-brown colour, the thorax obsoletely
grooved, and produced towards the base into an elevated
triangular ridge. This little timber borer, which is the A.
pertinax of Fabricius, lias been long famous for a most
pertinaceous simulation of death. “ All that has been re¬
lated of the heroic constancy of American savages when
taken and tortured by their enemies, scarcely comes up
to that which these little creatures exhibit. You may
maim them, pull them limb from limb, roast them alive
over a slow fire,3 but you will not gain your end ; not a
joint will they move, nor show by the least symptom that
they suffer pain. Do not think, however, that I ever tried
these experiments upon them myself, or that I recom¬
mend you to do the same.”4 This species was observed
o L O G Y.
bv Latreille to produce the sound called the death-tick, byCoWjj
striking its mandibles upon wood. On this occasion itPentJ
was immediately answered ftW within by a precisely si- ^
milar sound. We took a very rare British species, A. abie-
tis Fab. many years ago in a fir-wood near Edinburgh.
A. erythropum of Leach is also stated by Mr Stephens fo
have been taken at Ravelston.
f®1
Section 3d, Xylotrogi, Lat.
This final section of the Serricornes is distinguished
from the two preceding by the freedom of the head,
which is completely exposed and separated from the tho¬
rax by a strangulation or species of neck. It is composed
entirely of the genus Lymexylon of Fab. as subdivided by
recent writers. .
In Atractocerus of Palisot de Beauvois, the elytra are
extremely short, and in the form of little scales; the an¬
tennae are compressed and almost fusiform ; the thorax is
square, the abdomen depressed. This limited and very
anomalous-looking genus (it has the aspect ot a Staphyh-
nus) has representatives in Guinea, Brazil, and Java. A
species is likewise known to occur in amber. In Lymex¬
ylon,5 Fab. the elytra are as long or little shorter than
the abdomen, the antennae are simple, slightly if at all
compressed, and almost moniliform. The thorax is near¬
ly cylindrical. The L. navale, Fab. (of which L.flavipes
of the same author is the male), is a small narrow insect
of about half an inch in length, of a pale fulvous colour;
the head, exterior margin, and extremity of the elytra
black, the latter colour more predominant in the males.
This species is extremely common in the oak forests of the
north of Europe, although unknown in Britain, and rare in
the vicinity of Paris. Its larva is so long and slender as
almost to resemble a Filaria. It multiplied so prodigious¬
ly some years ago in the dock-yards at Toulon, as to cause
the destruction of great quantities of timber.6
FAMILY IY CLAYICORNES, Lat.
In this family, as in the preceding, we find four palpi,
and elytra covering the upper surface ot the abdomen, or
its greater portion ; but the antennae are almost always
thicker at the extremity, which frequently forms even a
perfoliaceous or a solid club; they are longer than tie
maxillary palpi, and their base is exposed or scarcely co-
vered. The legs are not fitted for swimming, and the
joints of the tarsi, at least of the posterior ones, are usu¬
ally entire. In the larva state they feed on animal mat¬
ter. Latreille divides the tribe into two sections.
Section 1st. Antennae always composed of eleven
joints, longer than the head, not forming from the
third articulation a fusiform or nearly cylindrical
club ; the second joint not dilated in the form of an
auricle. The terminal joints ot the tarsi, as well as
its hooks, of moderate length, or small. All the ge¬
nera of this section are terrestrial. It comprises
several tribes.
Tribe 1st, Palpatores.
These, in a natural series, should be placed near the Pse-
laphii and Brachelytrous genera. Their antennae are at
least as long as the head, are slightly enlarged towards
1 The geceric name is no doubt derived from a feather,-
Pseudodoxia Epidemica. 3 Degeer, iv. 229.
4 From y.vpn, destruction, and 1-uXov, •wood.
-in reference to the form of the antenme.
4 Introd. to Ent. vol. ib p. 235*
‘ Rtgne Animal, t. iv. p. 3G9.
O L O G Y. 147
body is much depressed, the mentum deeply emarginate, Coleoptera
and the palpi formed of almost cylindrical joints. The Pentamera-
species dwell beneath the bark of trees. In Hister4
properly so called (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 22), the pra?-
sternum projects beyond the mouth, and the palpi are
composed of joints, the last excepted, rather in the form
of a reversed cone than cylindrical.5
E N T o M
< ?ra the extremity, or are nearly filiform ; their first two joints
|era. are longer‘than those thatsfollow. The head is distin-
guished from the thorax by an ovoid strangulation. The
maxillary palpi project, and are long and inflated at the
extremity. The abdomen is large, oval or ovoid, and la¬
terally embraced by the elytra. The legs are elongated,
the thighs clavate, the joints of the tarsi entire. These
insects are found on the ground beneath stones and other
substances. They form a single genus, divided by some
writers into Mastigus and Scydm^nus. The latter fre¬
quent moist places.
In all the following Clavicornes the head is generally
sunk in the thorax, and the maxillary palpi are never at
the same time advanced and club-shaped.
Tribe 2d, Histeroides.
This tribe is composed of the great genus Hister of
Linnaeus. The four posterior legs are more widely sepa¬
rated from each other at^their origin than the anterior
pair. The legs are contractile, and the exterior tibiae
dentated or spinous. The antennae are always bent or
elbowed (geniculate), and terminated in a solid mass, or
composed of close-set articulations. The body is of a
very solid consistence, and the elytra so hard that even
the pin of the entomologist is with difficulty made to en¬
ter, and the praesternum is often dilated in front, and the
elytra truncated. The mandibles are strong, and not un-
frequently unequal as to size. The palpi are almost fili¬
form, or slightly enlarged at their extremity, and termi¬
nated by an oval or ovoid article. In respect to their ha¬
bits, the dentation of their tibiae, and some other circum¬
stances, these insects seem to exhibit an approach to the
coprophagous Lamellicornes ; but both Dufour1 and
Latreille2 are of opinion that well-founded anatomical
considerations connect them with the Silph^e. In the
species (i/. sinuatm) dissected by the former author, the
digestive canal was found to be four or five times as long
as the body. The oesophagus is extremely short; the ob¬
long enlargement which immediately succeeds it exhibits
throughout its parietes some brownish lines, which seem
to indicate the existence of interior appendages proper for
trituration ; and if so, such enlargement may be regarded
as the gizzard. The chylific ventricle is very long, twist¬
ed on itself, and beset with pointed and projecting papillae.
The hepatic vessels have six distinct insertions around
the chylific ventricle.3
These insects feed on putrid and stercoraceous sub¬
stances, decaying vegetables, &c. and some dwell beneath
the bark of trees. Their movements are slow, their co¬
lour blackish, frequently with a tinge of bronze. Such
of the larvae as are known to naturalists affect the same
food as the perfect insect. Their form, however, is dif¬
ferent, being almost linear, depressed, smooth, soft, and
of a yellowish white, with the exception of the head and
first segment, of which the skin is scaly and of a brown or
reddish colour. These larvae have six short legs, and are
terminated by a pair of articulated appendages, and an
anal prolongation or tube. The scaly shield of the first
segment is longitudinally channelled.
In some the tibiae, at least the anterior ones, are trian¬
gular and dentated, and the antennae always free and ex¬
posed, the body square, and slightly if at all inflated.
Such is the genus Holepta of Paykul, in which the
Tribe 3d, Silphales.
In these and the remaining Clavicornes the legs are
inserted at an equal distance from each other, and, with
the exception of the eighth tribe (Byrrhii), the legs are
not contractile, or at most the tarsi only can be bent upon
the tibiae, the mandibles are generally salient and flat¬
tened or not thick, and the praesternum is more dilated
anteriorly.
In the Silphales we find five distinct joints in all the
tarsi, and the mandibles terminate in an entire point with¬
out fissure or emargination.6 The antennae terminate in
a club which is generally perfoliated, and composed of
four or five articulations. The internal side of the max¬
illae in some is furnished with a horny tooth. The ante¬
rior tarsi are frequently dilated in the males, and the ex¬
terior margin of the elytra of the greater number is mark¬
ed by a groove with an obvious border. This tribe is
composed of the genus Silpha of Linnaeus.
In the genus Necrophorus, Fab. so named from vsx.go(,
a carcass, and (poom, I carry (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 21), the
antennae, scarcely longer than the head, terminate abrupt¬
ly in an almost globular club of four joints, the first of
which is long, and the second much shorter than the
third. The body forms nearly a parallelepiped ; the tho¬
rax is widest anteriorly; all the tibiae are strong, widen¬
ed at the extremity, and terminated by strong spurs ; the
elytra are truncated at right angles. The maxillae are
destitute of a corneous claw.
This important and well-marked genus was first defined
by Fabricius. Linnaeus had placed the species of which
it is composed with the Silphae, while Scopoli and Geof-
froy combined them with the genus Dermestes. The
most marked peculiarity in their manners consists in their
habit of interring small animals, such as mice and moles,
for the purpose of depositing their eggs in their decaying
carcass. To effect this operation, they remove the earth
from beneath the dead body, which sinks into the hollow,
and is afterwards covered with the looser soil of the ex¬
cavation. Their sense’of smell, like that of many other
insects, is extremely delicate, and no sooner has any of
the smaller quadrupeds perished, than one or more of
these grave-diggers make their appearance, and in a few
hours the corpse is interred. The larvae are of a length¬
ened form, of a greyish-white colour, with a brown head.
Their bodies are composed of twelve rings, furnished on
their anterior and superior portion with a small scaly plate
or shield, of a ferruginous brown colour; the shields
of the last segments are provided with small elevated
points. The head is hard, scaly, and furnished with strong
cutting mandibles. The feet are six in number, very
short, and attached to the first three segments of the body.
When these larvae have attained to their final term of in¬
crease, they descend, it is said, fully a foot beneath the
surface, and, forming an oval chamber, the walls of which
are strengthened by a coating of a gluey liquid, they as-
1 Aimaks des Sciences Nat. Octob. 1824. 2 Re-gne Animal, t. iv. p. 491.
3 Rid. Juil. 1825.
4 f he generic name is supposed to be derived from Histrio, a word of Tuscan or Etruscan root, signifying an actor, and was pro-
bablybestowed in consequence of their instinctive propensity to simulate death when handled.
for the further divisions of this tribe, see Paykul’s Monographia Histeroideum ; and Leach’s Zoological Miscellany, vol. iii.
‘ In Sybarites, dentations are sometimes found on the internal side.
148
ENTOMOLOGY
Coleoptera sume the nympha state. The perfect insect makes its
Pentamera. appearance in the course of three or four weeks. I ieie
are seven species of this genus in Britain. Dejean pos¬
sesses twenty-five. They are all of considerable size, and
are chiefly from Europe and North America. We have
received a specimen from Persia.1 N. vestigator is black,
the club of the antennae, external margin of the elytra,
and two transverse bands, orange yellow. N. humator,
the most common species in Scotland, is a shining black,
with the club of the antennae ferruginous. Neither
mortuorum nor N. vespillo (the species here figuied) are
very common in Scotland.
In Necrodes2 of Wilkin (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 23) the
antennae are obviously longer than the head, and termi¬
nated by an elongated club of five joints, the second of
which is larger than the third. Their body is oblong oval,
the thorax almost orbicular, widest in the middle, fhe
tibiae are narrow, elongated, slightly enlarged at the end,
and terminated by two ordinary spurs. I he elytia are
obliquely truncated. We have probably not more than
one species in Britain, N. littoralis (the species figured),
which is black, depressed, and oblong, with the thin ter¬
minal joints of the antennae orange. It occurs on the sea¬
shore and the banks of rivers, beneath sea-weed, cairion,
&c. and is found on the continent of Europe, along with
N. simplicipes. The others occur in North and South Ame¬
rica, New Holland, and Java.
In the genus Silpha3 the body is almost shield-shap¬
ed and depressed, or but slightly elevated. Ihe thorax
is semicircular, truncated, or very obtuse before ; the ex¬
terior margin of the elytra strongly recurved and gutter¬
ed; the palpi filiform, with the last article almost cylin¬
drical, and in many terminated by a point. Most of these
insects feed on carrion, and thus contribute to the more
speedy disappearance of putrid effluvia. Some climb upon
plants, particularly the stems of wheat and other grain,
where they find small Helices, on which they prey. Others
dwell on trees, and feed on caterpillars.
The genus was originally of great extent, but has been
much modified and circumscribed by Fabricius, Dejean,
Latreille, Leach, and others. The species which it now
contains resemble their congeners in being of an essen¬
tially carnivorous nature—preferring animal substances
in a state of putrescence to fresher food. They exhale
a disagreeable odour, and, when seized, a thick and dark
coloured liquid exudes from their bodies. The larvae re¬
semble the perfect insects in their habits. They consist
of twelve segments, of which the sides are terminated by
sharp angles, the terminal segment being furnished with
two conical appendages; the head is small, and bears a
pair of tri-articulate filiform antennae, and two strong
maxillae. Like the preceding genus, they undergo their
metamorphoses under ground. The species are pretty
extensively distributed over the earth, and are rather
numerous. Dejean enumerates thirty-four species in his
Catalogue, which, however, includes under the generic
name of Silpha the genera Oiceoptoma and Phosphuga of
Dr Leach. Of the restricted genus we have not more
than eight British species. Most of these are deep black
or dark brown. One of the most ornamental is S. quadri-
punctata (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 24), of which the margins
of the thorax and the elytra are pale-yellow, the latter
with two round black spots on each. We took this rare
Scottish insect some years ago near Currie, in the vicinity Cole0pj
of Edinburgh. It has since been brought to us from Loch Pentan*
Tay by Dr Greville. It is more frequent in England, W/-
where it frequents oak woods for the purpose of preying
on lepidopterous larvae.
Tribe 4th, Scaphidites.
In these the mandibles are cleft or bidentated at the ex¬
tremity. The tarsi are composed of five very distinct and
entire joints. The body is oval, narrowed at either end,
arcuated or convex above, and thick in the middle. The
head is low, and received posteriorly into a trapezoidal
thorax, slightly bordered, broadest behind. The antennae
are generally as long at least as the head and thorax, and
are terminated by an elongated mass of five articles. The
terminal joint of the palpi is conical. The legs are slender
and elongated. With the exception of the Cholevce, the
tarsi are nearly the same in both sexes.
In this tribe we place the genera Scaphidium4 of Olivier,
and Choleva of Spence ;5 * of the former, S. maculatum is
the only British species,—the rest inhabiting North and
South America, and some of the continental countries of
Europe. Of the latter, Mr Spence has described eighteen
British species, arranged in three sections, of which some
of the constituent parts are referable to the genus Ptomo-
phagusG of Uliger and Knock, to Lvperus1 of Frcelich, and
Catops of Fabricius and Paykul. Only two or three of
Mr Spence’s species belong to the genus Choleva in its
present restricted form.
Tribe 5th, Nitidulari^e.
The Nitidulariae approach the Silphales in their scuti-
form and bordered body, but the mandibles are bifid or
notched at their extremity; the tarsi seem to consist of
only four joints, the first and last, in some, being only vi¬
sible beneath, where they form but a slight projection,—
in others the penultimate is extremely small, in the form
of a knot, inclosed within the lobes of the preceding. Ike
club of the antennae is always perfoliate, of three or two
joints, and is usually short or but slightly elongated. Ihe
palpi ,are short and filiform, or somewhat thickest at the
extremity. The elytra in several are short or truncated.
The legs are but slightly elongated, and their tibiae fre¬
quently widened at the end; the tarsi are furnished with
hairs or pellets. These insects are of various habits, ac¬
cording to the species. They occur on flowers, in mush¬
rooms, beneath the bark of trees, and even on putrid meat.
This tribe is composed of the genus Nitidula, as sub¬
divided into Colobicus, Thymalus, Ips, Nitidula (pro¬
per) (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 25), Cercus, and Byturus.
In the restricted genus Nitidula,8 the antennae are short,
abruptly clavate, the radical joint large, thick, and some¬
what orbicular, the third above one half longer than the
fourth, the three last forming a club. Nearly thirty spe¬
cies occur in Britain. Many others are found in Europe
and America.
Tribe 6th, Engidites.
These resemble the preceding in the emargination of
the extremity of the mandibles, which however project
but slightly, and that laterally, beyond the labrum. Iheir
body is oval or elliptical, with the anterior extremity of
the head a little advanced in an obtuse or truncated point.
1 For notices of their anatomical structure, see Dufour, in Ann. des Sciences Nat. for October 1824 and July 1825.
2 Probably from cadaverous.
3 The word Silpha, derived from a Hebrew root, occurs in Aristotle, and appears to have been sometimes used by that author to
signify a cockroach. e p'rom wropa, a carcass, and tpaya, I eat.
* From a boat, and hut, form. i From iwri^s, troublesome.
i Linn. Trans, voh xi. » From nitidus, shining, or bright.
E N T O M
i;?ra The tarsi consist of five distinct joints, entire, and at most
Lra. only slightly pilose beneath, the penultimate being some-
what shorter than the precediqg joint. The antennae ter¬
minate in a perfoliate club of three articulations. The elytra
completely cover the abdomen, and the palpi are somewhat
thickened at'the extremity. Some very minute species
live in the interior of houses, and are frequently found on
window-sashes. They constitute the genus Dacne, divi¬
sible into, Is/1, Dacne proper (Engis, Fab. Erotylus, Oliv.),
in which the antennae terminate abruptly in a rather large,
orbicular, or ovoid and compressed cl ub, composed of crowd¬
ed articulations, of which the central one at least is much
wider than long, and the third longer than that which pre¬
cedes and follows; the centre of the posterior margin of
the thorax is dilated behind or lobed, and the upper
extremity of the mentum is advanced, and terminated
in a truncated or bidentated point: 2d, Cryptophagus}
Herbst, Lat. (Dermestes, Linn. Ips, Oliv. Antherophagus,
Knock), in which the antennae are moniliform, with the
second article as large or larger than the preceding,
and terminate in a less abrupt and narrow club than in
Dacne, and with intervals between its segments. This is
a pretty extensive genus, occurring in various parts of the
world, but chiefly in European countries. We have four¬
teen species in Britain.
In Latreille’s arrangement {Regne Animal, t. iv. p. 508)
we now come to certain tribes in which the praesternum
is frequently dilated anteriorly in the manner of a chin-
cloth (mentonniere), and which differ from the preceding
in their legs being more or less contractile. The tarsi
may be free, but the tibiae, at least, are folded upon the
thighs. The mandibles are short, usually thick, and den-
tated. The body is ovoid, thick, and furnished with de¬
ciduous scales or hairs of various colours. The antennae
are generally straight, and shorter than the head and tho¬
rax. The head is sunk into the thorax as far as the eyes.
The thorax itself is but slightly if at all bordered; it is
trapezoidal, and -wider posteriorly, the middle of the pos¬
terior margin being frequently somewhat prolonged or
lobate. The larvae are pilose, and dwell for the greater
part on the skins or carcasses of animals. They are hurt¬
ful in museums. Those in which the legs are not com¬
pletely retractile, the tarsi being always free, and the tibiae
lengthened and narrow, form
Tribe 7th, Dermestini.
In Dermestes proper (so called from skin, and
vsdm, to eat or consume) the antennae are shorter than the
thorax, the radical joint large and ovate, the seven follow¬
ing short and slender, the remaining three forming an
ovate compressed club, of which the two lower joints are
somewhat dilated in the inner side, the terminal being
smaller and rounded. They are not received in a parti¬
cular groove beneath the thorax. D. lardarius (Plate
CCXXIII. fig. 27) is black, pubescent, the elytra with a
broad cinereous band across the base, in which are three
brownish or black spots. In Attagenus the club of the
antennae is proportionlly very large, almost serrated, and
composed of three articles, of which the first and last, es¬
pecially in the males, are the largest. The body is ovoid,
short, slightly convex. The terminal article of the max¬
illary palpi is large and ovoid. In Anthrenus2 the club
of the antennae is more solid than perfoliate, and is in the
form of a reversed cone, and lodged in a short cavity, hol¬
lowed beneath the anterior angles of the thorax. In the
larva state these insects live on dried animal matters, par-
O L O G Y. 149
ticularly on the contents of entomological cabinets. In Coleoptera
that condition they are oval, and furnished with hairs, some Pentamera.
of which are dentated ; they form aigrettes or tufts, of
which the hinder are prolonged in the form of a tail. In
the perfect state they are found among flowers. Other
genera, such as Limnichus of Ziegler, Trogoderma and
Globicornis, Lat., pertain to this tribe.
Tribe 8th, Byrrhii.
This tribe is composed principally of the genus Byrrhus
of Linn., and differs from the preceding in its feet being
entirely contractile, the tibiae being susceptible of being
bent upon the thighs, and the tarsi upon the tibiae, so that
the species, when their limbs are thus contracted, appear
inanimate and without legs. The latter are usually broad
and compressed. The body is short and convex.
In Nosodendron, Lat. (of which we have one British
example, N. fasciculare), the mentum is entirely exposed,
large, and buckler-shaped. In Byrrhus proper the men¬
tum is of ordinary dimensions, and as it were interlocked,
at least partially, by the praesternum, of which the ante¬
rior portion is dilated. The larvae of these insects have
been studied by M. Wadouer. Their heads are large,
their bodies narrow and elongated, with the two terminal
segments more extended than the others ; the first, or that
of the prothorax, presents superiorly a large corneous plate.
The genus was confounded by Degeer with Dermestes, and
with Cistela by Geoffroy. The species occur in fields,
woods, and sandy places. They are not unfrequent by the
side of highways, and although they can fly with facility
when they choose, they rarely exercise that faculty.
When handled or even approached, they apply their legs
and antennae so close to the body as to exhibit the ap¬
pearance of a little ball, and in that state they simulate
death with great perseverance. Of eight or nine species
found in Britain, we shall here name only B. census, an in¬
teresting species, lately added to the British Fauna by the
Rev. James Duncan. It is oblong-ovate, brassy green
above, scutellum whitish, the elytra irregularly punctur¬
ed, and without striae. It was found in an open part of
a wood near Newbattle House in Mid-Lothian. It has
since occurred under stones on Musselburgh Links, has
been taken in Dumfriesshire, and was met with by Dr
Greville in considerable numbers near the ferry of Kyle-
stroem in Sutherland. There are thirty-three species in
Dejean’s collection.
Section 2d. The Clavicornes of this section, al¬
though forming a good natural group, can only be
characterized by the assemblage of several features.
Some which are nearest to the Palpicornes have
antennae of only nine or even six joints. Others have
ten or eleven joints to these organs, which are some¬
times scarcely longer than the head, and from the
third joint form an almost cylindrical or fusiform
club, arcuated and somewhat serrated; sometimes
nearly filiform, and as long as the head and thorax.
In this case, as well as among most of the other ge¬
nera of the same division, the tarsi are terminated
by a large joint, with two strong hooks at the end.
In certain genera, such as Heterocerus and Georyssus,
these parts consist of only four articulations. The
form of the body in this section is generally ovoid,
with the head sunk up to the eyes in a trapezoidal
thorax laterally bordered, and terminated posteriorly
by acute angles. The praesternum is dilated poste-
1 From xfwrros, hidden, and eating.
2 Ayfytvt! is the ancient name of an insect which dwelt among flowers,—a kind of bee.
ENTOMOLOGY.
150
Coleoptera riorly (the Potamophfli excepted), and the legs are
Pentamera. imperfectly contractile. Ihey usually occur in wa-
ter, beneath stones by river sides, or in mud. They
form two tribes.
Tribe 1st, Acanthopoda.1
Remarkable for their broadish flattened legs, armed ex¬
teriorly with spines. The tarsi are short, of four articula¬
tions,2 the hooks of ordinary size. The body is depressed,
and the praesternum dilated. The antennsB aie lather
longer than the head, arcuated, and composed of eleven
joints, of which the last six constitute an almost cylindri¬
cal and slightly serrated club, the second being short and
not dilated. This tribe is composed of the single genus
Heterocerus3 of Bose (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 26).
Tribe 2d, Macrodactyla.4
Here are included such of the Clavicornes as have sim¬
ple narrow tibias and lengthened tarsi, all composed, except
inGeoryssus, of five articulations, the lastof which is large,
with strong terminal hooks. Ihe body is thick or convex,
 the thorax less rounded, and usually terminated on both
sides by acute angles.
The type of this tribe is formed by the genus Dryops
of Olivier—Parnus, Fab. We here place the genus El-
mis,5 of which the species, pretty frequent in Britain, oc¬
cur in water, beneath stones, or on the leaves of water-
lilies. In Parnus proper (Dryops, Lat. Oliv.) the anten¬
nas, shorter than the head, are lodged in a small cavity
beneath the eyes, the second joint being compressed and
much produced,—concave for the reception of the remain¬
ing joints, which form a serrated mass attached by a small
peduncle near the base. P. prolificornis is oblong, olive
brown, villose, with the elytra thickly punctured, and
obscurely striated towards the sides and apex. It occurs
in moist places by the sides of ponds and marshes, not
unfrequent during spring. Here are also placed the ge¬
nera Potamophilus of Germar, Macronychus of Muller, and
Georyssus of Latreille.
FAMILY Y—PALPICORNF.S.
In this family, as in the preceding, the antennae are ter¬
minated by a kind of club, usually perfoliate, but composed
at most of only nine articulations, and inserted beneath the
advanced and lateral margins of the head, and scarcely
longer than it and the maxillary palpi,—frequently even
shorter than these last-named organs. The mentum is
large and buckler-shaped. The body in this family is
generally ovoid or hemispherical, and arched or convex.
The feet in most of the genera are formed for swimming,
and these present either four articulations to the tarsi, or
five, of which the first is much shorter than the second:
the whole are entire.
Tribe 1st, Hydrophilii.
Feet fit for swimming. First article of the tarsi much
shorter than the others. Maxillae entirely corneous. Of
this tribe (genus Hydrophilus of Geoffroy) Linnaeus form¬
ed only a division of his genus Dytiscus. Their anatomi¬
cal structure however differs in many important particulars
from that of the true Dytisci. The digestive canal, which
is four or five times as long as the body, presents a strong
analogy, both in its length and texture, to that of the La-Cole,*,; J
mellicornes, and differs from that of the Carnivora except
as regards the biliary vessels. We perceive neither the ^
swimming bladder nor the excrementitial apparatus, such
as these exist among the Hydrocanthari. In the females
only, the latter is replaced by secreting organs fitted for
the formation of a cocoon to contain the eggs. Ihe sex¬
ual organs of the male bear a great resemblance to those
of the preceding family. These and other considerations
have induced M. Latreille to place them here. The spe¬
cies are more convex in their general forms than the Dy-
tiscidae, and their antennae are dissimilar; but in many of
their instincts and habits of life, and in their general trans¬
formations, they bear a resemblance to that group. The
largest water insect of Great Britain (Hydrophiluspiceus), \
which we have failed as yet to discover in Scotland, be¬
longs to this division. Many species are also extremely
minute. (|
In the genus Helophorus of Leach (from sAoj, ci marsh,
and pogew, I penetrate) the antennae are shorter than the
head, the first joint is the longest, robust, and slightly
curved, the second shorter than the first, the three following
minute, the last four forming the club. H. aquations (Plate
CCXXIII. fig. 29) abounds in almost every pond. It is
almost always found covered with mud, in such an ingeni¬
ous manner that, when feeding in its little pool, it is with
difficulty distinguished from the subjacent soil, either by
its natural enemies, or the no less dangerous eye of the
practical entomologist. //. granularis is more frequently
found upon the wing in situations remote from water. In
Hydrochus of Germar (from vdag, water, and o/xsew, to in¬
habit) the general form is narrower and more elongated,
the thorax like a lengthened square, and the eyes promi¬
nent. //. brevis, a rather scarce species, occurs in the
Edinburgh district in ditches near Craigcrook, and in the
Braid marshes. As allied to the preceding genera we may
here name Enicocerus of Stephens (so called from svaog,
singular, and xsgag, horn). The antenfiae are as long as
the head, the basal joint long, curved, slightly geniculate
at the base, the second ovate-truncate, three or four fol¬
lowing very minute and obscure, the last five of nearly
equal thickness, penultimate cup-shaped, terminal orbi¬
cular. E. viridiceneus, of a brassy green, thorax with an
oblique groove near each of the hinder angles, and two
foveae in front, the legs piceous. Although a newly de¬
scribed insect, it does not seem at all scarce in Scotland,
where it occurs beneath small stones by the margins or
water, or imbedded among mud and confervae. In the
genus SPERCHiEus, Fab. the antennae have only six joints,
and the clypeus is emarginate. In Hydrophilus,6 pro¬
perly so called, of Leach, the tarsi are identical in both
sexes and not dilated, the pectoral spine terminates
with the praesternum, and the scutellum is proportion¬
ally small. H. caraboides is the only British species.
The genus Hydrous of the last-named author7 (Hydro¬
philus, Lat.) is characterized by the great extension back¬
wards of the sharp-pointed sternal spine, and by the tri¬
angular-shaped dilatation of the last article of the two an¬
terior tarsi of the males. The scutellum is large. H. pi-
ceus (Plate CCXXIII. fig. 28), the only British species, is
one of the largest of the European Coleoptera. It mea¬
sures above an inch and a half in length, is of an oval
form, a blackish-brown colour, with a polished or shining
surface. The club of the antennae is partly reddish. A
1 From uxav0K, a thorn or spine, and rrtw;,foot.
According to the accurate Gyllenhal, there are actually five, the first being small and oblique. (Insecta Suertca, t. i. p. 138.)
3 From Krijof, different, and horn.
4 F™m lon£\ an^ "^axToXoi, Jinger. « From li'Sup, water, and (po.cs, a lover.
s the name is applied by Galen to a species of intestinal worm. 7 Zoological Miscellany, vol. iii. p. 94.
ENTOMOLOGY. 151
I ra few slight stria; are visible on the elytra, of which the pos- The antennae, inserted in a deep groove beneath the la- Coleoptera
interior extremity is rounded posteriorly, and prolonged to teral margin of the head, are always short, and composed Pentamera.
^ a small tooth at the inner angle. This fine insect flies generally of nine or ten articulations; they are always ter- v—
well and swims swiftly, but is inefficient as a pedestrian, minated in a club or mass, which usually consists of three
When held loosely in the hand it sometimes inflicts a joints, expanded in the form of thinnish plates or leaves,
wound with the point of the sternum. The female con- disposed in various ways,—like the spokes of a fan, the
structs an ovoid cocoon, arcuated, and of a brown colour, leaves of a book, the teeth of a comb, or a series of fun-
Its exterior tissue is composed of a gummy paste, at first nels placed above and within each other. The body is
somewhat fluid, which soon hardening, becomes impene- generally ovoid or oval, and thick. The exterior edge of
trable by water. The eggs which it envelopes are sym- the two anterior tibiae are toothed, and the articles of the
metrically disposed, and kept in their position by a sort tarsi, with the exception of certain males, are entire, and
of whitish down. These cocoons float in the water.1 The without brush or pellet beneath. The anterior extremity
larva is depressed, blackish, and rugose; the head reddish of the head is advanced and dilated in the form of a cly-
brown, smooth, round, and capable of being drawn back- pens or epistoma. The mentum is usually large, cover-
wards. This peculiar faculty gives it the power of seiz- ing the ligula, or incorporated with it, and bearing the
ing whatever small shells or other living prey it may per- palpi. The mandibles of many are membranous, a cha-
ceive floating on the surface. Its back serves it as a kind racter scarcely if at all to be observed in any other Cole-
of table, on which it bruises its prey. The bodies of these optera. The males are frequently very different from the
predaceous larvae become very flaccid as soon as they are females, being distinguished by horn-like elevations on
caught. They swim with facility, and are provided be- the head and thorax, and by the greater size of the man-
neath the anus with two fleshy appendages, which serve dibles. Linnaeus indeed founded the sections of his great
to maintain them at the surface of the water when they genus Scarabaeus in accordance with these peculiar pro-
ascend to breathe.2 They are called on the continent jections, while Scopoli assumed the spines or teeth of
m’s-assossms, on account of their greedy and ferocious na- the fore-legs as the distinguishing characteristic of his
ture. They become more herbivorous in the perfect state, subdivisions. The latter author likewise proposed two
In Limnebius of Leach (from a marsh, and /3;of, other methods, one of which regards the number of arti-
life), the antennas are short, slender, the club six-jointed ; dilations in the clava of the antennae, and the other takes
the maxillary palpi longer than the antennae, with the ter-' into consideration the varying manners of the insects
minal article shorter than the preceding, and cylindrical, themselves. The former of these is extremely defective,
In this tribe are likewise included the genera Hydrobius the second is chiefly deserving of consideration as exhi-
and Berosus. biting the first attempt ever made towards a natural ar¬
rangement of these insects. They are divided into An-
Tribe 2d, Sphjerodiota. thophylli, Phyliophagi, and Stercorei.
These Palpicornes differ from the-preceding in being Degeer was the first to avail himself of the improve-
terrestrial. Their tarsi consist of five distinct articula- ments indicated by Scopoli, while at the same time he
tions, of which the first is at least as long as the follow- avoided his principal imperfections. He arranged the
ing. The maxillary palpi are shorter than the antennae, Scarabaei into three families, as follows : 1st, Scarabees
| with the third joint larger, inflated, and in the form of a de terre; 2d, Scarabees des arbres; 3d, Scarabees des
reversed cone. The maxillary lobes are membranous. Jteurs. Ofyctes and Trox were no longer regarded as
The body in this tribe is almost hemispherical, with the phyllophagous insects.
praesternum prolonged to a posterior point, and the tibiae Geoffrey separated from Scarabaeus of Linnaeus the ex-
spinous, the anterior being palmated or digitated in the scutellateil species under the name of Copi'is, and Scopo-
larger species. The antennae are always composed of nine li’s genus Lucanus under the name of Platycerus. The
articles, or simply of eight, if we regard the terminal one institution of the genus Copris was certainly an improve-
as an appendage of the preceding. The genera are Cer- merit, although it was founded on such defective charac-
cyon of Leach, and SpuiERiDiuM3 of Fabricius (Plate ters, that coprophagous insects, such as the family Geo-
CCXXIII. fig. 30). The former is abundant in Britain, trupini of Latreille, were included in the same genus
where we find about sixty species, many of which occur with Cetonia, from which they might have been perceiv-
in Scotland.4 Few are as yet ascertained to inhabit extra- ed to be distinct so soon as the necessity was admitted
European countries, although one or two occur in North of carrying the investigation among the Lamellicornes
and South America. All the species of this tribe are of somewhat beyond that first affinity—the form of the an-
small size. They usually occur in cow dung, and excre- tennae.
mentitious matter. Some are found on the margins of At a still later period Fabricius further improved upon
water. the heterogeneous composition of Geoffrey’s genus Scara¬
baeus, by taking from it the genera Trox, Melolontha, Ce¬
tonia, and Trichius. But the re-union of Geoffroy’s genus
FAMILY VI LAMELLICORNES.* Copris with Scarabaeus was a retrograde step which the
entomologist of Keil afterwards corrected in a supple-
This is the last family of the pentamerous Coleoptera, mentary work. I he connection, however, between the
and one of the most remarkable of the order,—whether we insects afterwards named Geotrupes by Latreille and the
consider the great size of many species, the singularly va- genus Copris of Geoffrey, was so far re-established by the
ried forms of their head and thorax, or the richness of the formation of the Fabrician genus Scarabaeus.
metallic colouring with which the vegetable-eating kinds Olivier adopted the genus Scarabaeus of kabricius, with
are frequently adorned. all his other genera except Trichius, and divided it into
1 For a detailed and accurate account of the structure and transformations of this insect, see a posthumous work of the celebrated
Lyonnet, lately published under the title of Recherches sur l'Anatomic el les Metamorphoses de differentes especes d'Insectes.
2 Annalcs du Museum d' Hist. A at. t. xiv. p. 441. 3 from Xtymifin'didv, gloibe-shaped.
4 See Ent. Ed. p. 13!).
* I rom lamella, a little plate, and cornu, a horn, in allusion to the structure of the club of the antennae.
152
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera the following sections: 1st, Those furnished with man-
Pentamera. dibles, but unprovided with a labium ; 2d, those furnish-
e(j with mandibles and a labium ; 3d, those which have
neither mandibles nor labium. The three groups just
mentioned are characterized by Mr Macleay as strictly
natural.1
This important family, in the system of Latreille, seems
to include all those insects classed by Linnaeus in the old
genera Scarabceus and Lucanus. T-he lamellicorn tribes,^
indeed, include a very numerous assemblage, many of
which, especially such as feed on flowers and living ve¬
getation (called Thalerophaga by Macleay), are remark¬
able alike for beauty of form and splendour of colour.
Most of those, however, which feed on decomposed vege¬
tables, or excrementitious substances, are usually of a
more uniform black or brownish hue. But even the co-
prophagous kinds sometimes surprise us by their beauty,
and present a singular contrast when disentangled from
their repulsive habitations. They are all winged insects,
although for the most part rather dull and heavy in their
movements.
The larvae are long, semi-cylindrical, soft, of a whitish
colour, and divided into twelve rings or segments. The
head, of a harder consistence, is armed with strong man¬
dibles. The feet are six in number, and squamous or of
a scaly texture. On each side of the body there are nine
stigmatic openings. The posterior extremity is the most
bulky; it is rounded and almost always curved inwards,
in such a manner as to prevent the larva from extending
itself in a straight line. Its motions are consequently slow
and awkward, and when crawling on the surface it fre¬
quently rolls over or falls on one side. The nympha or
intermediate state is in some instances not assumed till
after the lapse of several years. Immediately preceding
the assumption of that state the larva protects itself by
means of a cocoon of an oval form, composed of earth and
the gnawed fragments of other materials, agglutinated by
a viscous secretion which exudes from its body. These
larvae seek their food in the dung of cattle, in tan pits, in
gardens where rich vegetable mould occurs, and among
the roots of plants. In regard to their interior struc¬
ture, it has been observed that the nervous system, when
studied in the different stages of life, presents a consider¬
able dissimilarity. The ganglions are less numerous,
and approximate more to each other, when the insect has
reached the term of its final transformation ; and the two
posterior ganglia throw out numerous filaments disposed
in a somewhat radiated form. In the larva the trachea
is elastic, but simply tubular in the perfect insect. The
structure of the eye in most of the lamellicorn beetles
exhibits characters analogous to those of the Tenebrio-
nites, the Blattae, and other lucifugous or light-shunning
species.
The alimentary canal is of great length, especially
among the coprophagous kinds ; and the chylific ventri¬
cle is beset with papillae, which, according to the investi¬
gations of M. Dufour, serve as the receptacles of the ali¬
mentary fluids. The biliary vessels resemble those of
the carnivorous Coleoptera in number and position, but
they differ in being of greater length and much more
slender. Latreille divides this important family into two
Tribe 1st, Scarabjeides.2
Cob
These correspond to the unrestricted genus Scarabaus
of Linn. Their antennae are terminated by a foliaceous
club, generally capable of being alternately closed or ex¬
panded ; or are composed of joints that fit into each other,
either in the form of a reversed cone, or nearly globular.
The mandibles are of identical form, or nearly so, in both
but the head and thorax of the males frequently
sexes
exhibit projections or peculiar forms. The antennae in
the latter sex are frequently more fully developed than in
the females. The alimentary tube in these insects is ge¬
nerally much longer than that of the following tribe, and
the oesophagus is proportionally shorter. But it is chiefly
by the genital system of the males that the Scarabaeides
are distinguished, not only from the tribe with which they
are conjoined, but from all other pentamerous Coleoptera.
The larvae have a cylindrical stomach surrounded by three
ranges of small caeca, the small intestine very short, the
colon extremely thick and turgid, and the rectum of mo¬
derate size. A prodigious accession of fine typical forms
has been received of late years by this division of Ento¬
mology, far beyond what we are able to indicate in this
work.3 We shall, however, notice the most important
and remarkable genera, and illustrate many of these by
means of the plates connected with this department of the
Encyclopaedia.
The following sections are established on the conside¬
ration of the masticating organs, the antennae, and the
habits, and have been confirmed by the anatomical re¬
searches of M. Dufour.
Section 1st, Coprophagi.4
tribes.
In some of these the antennae are formed of nine, in
others of only eight articulations ; the three terminal ones
forming the club. The labrum and mandibles are mem¬
branous and concealed. The terminal lobe of the max¬
illae is also of the same consistence, broad and arcuated at
the upper margin, and curved inwards. The terminal ar¬
ticle of the maxillary palpi is always the largest of all,
nearly oval or almost cylindrical; but that of the labial
palpi is almost always more slender than the preceding,
or very small. Behind each of these latter palpi is a
membranous projection, in the form of a ligula. The
mentum is emarginate. The sternum presents no parti¬
cular projections, and the hooks of the tarsi are always
simple. The anterior tarsi are frequently wanting in cer¬
tain species, either naturally or because they are decidu¬
ous. The extent of the alimentary canal is always very
great, occasionally (as in Copris lunaris) even ten or
twelve times the length of the body. The chylific ventri¬
cle occupies the greater portion; it is beset with papill®)
conoid or in the form of nails, folded on itself, and main¬
tained in that state of agglomeration by numerous tracheal
bridles. The intestine is filiform, but terminates in an
enlargement. “ Les testicules des coprophages disstiques
par M. Dufour, lui ont paru composes de six capsules
spermatiques, orbiculaires, un peu deprimees ordinaire-
ment reunies, par des trachees, en un paquet, portees cha-
cune sur un pedicule tubuleux, assez long, et qui aboutit
a un canal deferent de peu de longueur. II n’y a qu une
1 Hor. Ent. p. 17-
2 The Scarabceidas, as restricted by Macleay, are chiefly tropical forms, that is, the species in the warmer regions of the earth are
to those from beyond the tropics nearly as five to one. Out of 450 species and upwards, in the collection of Mr Macleay senior,
only nine are natives of England, and of these eight are Ontliophagi.
J Comte Dejean informs us that his collection now contains 2000 species of Lamellicornes, among which he has found himself under
the necessity of establishing 70 new genera.
* From Kosrjof, dung, and fayos, eating.
ENTOMOLOGY.
153
?ra Paire de vesicules seminales; elles sont filiformes, tres (ibid. fig. 1), and, instead of being black like the former Coleontera
longues et fort repliees. 1 Our present section corresponds is green with a golden hue. The occiput also, instead of PentaLra.
to the third division of the genus Scarabseus of Olivier being bi-tuberculated, exhibits only a slight elongated
(Copris), with the addition of some other Scarabaei (Apho- eminence, which is smooth and shining. & h
dii) of that author. In Gymnopleurus of Illiger, the exterior sides of the
T , . . r1 , elytra are strongly emarginate near the base. The four
In some the intermediate pair of legs are much more posterior tibiae are in general simply ciliated, or furnished
remote from each other at the base than the rest; the with small spines, and the last article of the tarsi is as lon^
labial palpi are hairy, with the terminal articulation if not longer, than all the preceding ones taken ton-ether’
much smaller than the others, or even indistinct; the The first article of the labial palpi is dilated internally and
scutellum is either null or extremely small. almost triangular. There is a fossula on each side of the
Coprophagi of this division, peculiar to the eastern con- thorax.5
tinent, with a rounded body, usually depressed above, or Other Coprophagi, nearly allied to the preceding and
but slightly convex, similar or differing little in the sexes, likewise placed by Fabricius among the Ateuchi, are dis¬
and without horns; the antenna; of nine joints, terminated tinguished by the intermediate tibia:, the extremities of
by a foliated club; without either scutellum or a sutural which, as well as of the two hinder ones, are frequently
hiatus indicating its place ; the four posterior tibia;, usual- clubbed or dilated, and present two spurs’or spines. The
ly furnished, as well as the tarsi, with ciliated or hairy epistoma in many has only four or two teeth. The first
fringes, and slender, elongated, not dilated at the extre- article of the labial palpi is always larger than the follow-
mity, or but slightly so, truncated obliquely, and termi- ing, and dilated on the internal side. The third and last
natedbya single strong-pointed spur; with the epistoma article is distinct. We shall here name only the crgnus
more or less dentated ;—these form the genus Ateuchus2 Sisyphus, which differs from the others in having6only
of Weber and Fabricius. (Plate CCXXIV. figs. 1 and 2.) eight joints in the antenna;. The form of the abdomen is
The above genus, however, has been since restricted to triangular, and the intermediate and hind legs are lono-
such species as have the exterior margin of the elytra and narrow, with the thighs clubbed. ^ ' °
straight or unemarginated, and without a sinus, near the In all the ensuing Coprophagi the intermediate and
base, leaving exposed the corresponding portion of the hind tibiae are always dilated at their extremity, and al-
upper margin of the abdomen. The tibiae and tarsi of the most in the form of a lengthened triangle ; the interme-
last four legs are furnished with long hairs; the first four diate pair terminate, like those of the preceding, in two
articles of the tarsi are generally longer than the others, strong spines ; but the head or thorax, or both these parts,
The first joint of the labial palpi is almost cylindrical, or of the males, are distinguished by horns or marked pro-
in the form of a reversed cone. The epistoma is gene- jections. In several the last three articulations of the
antennas are semi-cupular, and concentrically fitted into
each other. These insects are referable to the genera
Onitis and Copris of Fabricius.
The genus Onthophagus,6 Lat. (ibid. fig. 3) (which,
rally divided into three lobes or festoons, and its contour
presents six teeth. The Ateuchi form the genus Scara-
bans of Macleay.3 These insects deposit their ova in
dung, which they form into balls, and roll along with their
hind legs till they find a hole adapted to receive them, or in common with Oniticellus of Dejean, has the third
a softish soil in which they may be buried. Two species joint of the labial palpi small or indistinct, and the pre-
were worshipped by the ancient Egyptians, and form a ceding larger than the first), exhibits a short body with a
noted and conspicuous feature in the hieroglyphical system thickish thorax, broader than long, and semi-orbicular or
of that mysterious nation. We still find them sculptured nearly orbicular, but strongly emarginate or truncated in
on their monuments, in various positions, and sometimes front. The head, and frequently the thorax also, is horned
of gigantic size. They were also formed into separate in the males. The scutellum is not apparent. Of this
figures, as seals and amulets, composed of gold and other genus we have eight or ten species in Britain. Dejean’s
precious materials, and hung around the necks of the liv- Catalogue contains 150. Some beautiful species of small
ing, or buried along with their famous mummies. The size occur in Africa and the East Indies. They are like-
insect itself in the natural state is also sometimes found wise met with in New Holland, where they constitute the
in their gaudy coffins. principal portion of the coprophagous beetles, which seem
I he Ateuchus sacer (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 2) occurs not rare in that vast region, a circumstance attributed by Mr
only in Egypt, where it formed an object of superstitious Macleay to the absence of all large herbivorous mamma-
worship, but over a great portion of the south of Europe, ha, except of the marsupial kind.
It is also found in the western regions of Asia. Another Two other genera, furnished with a scutellum or a su-
species, discovered in Sennaar by M. Caillaud, was, how- tural hiatus, with the anterior legs often deprived of or
ever, according to M. Latreille, the first to attract the unprovided with tarsi, and frequently long, slender, and
notice of the Egyptians.4 It is named A. Egyptiorum curved in the males, are distinguished from all other Co-
i t. iv. p. 531. 2 Probably from « priv. and an instrument of war, the head being unarmed.
,. "e Kenus Scarabaeus of Macleay (Ateuchus of most modern authors) is proper to the ancient world. Of the forty-three species
Y I fompose its five types, as exposed in the Horce Entomologies, twenty-seven occur in Africa. The first type extends from the
antic Ocean to Thibet, and from Austria to the Cape of Good Hope. It contains the following species:—S. (Heliocantharus)
tacer, Dnfresmi, puis, Bonelli, Hottentotus, impius, Lamarckii, Cuvieri, Sanetus, Pa!anion, intricatus, puncticollis, Spencii, Dcgeeri, Savignii,
r Uosus, laticollis, vario/osus, scmipunctatus. Type second contains as yet only a single species, from the north of Africa, S. (Mne-
atium) Ritchii. The third type seems confined to the south of Africa, and includes 5*. (Pachysoma) JEsculapius and Hippocrates.
je existence of the fourth type is inferred upon general principles, and from an observed hiatus in the series of affinities, but has
Chi^6-1 «0n sPeciall.v detected. The fifth type inhabits all that tract of country which extends from the Atlantic Ocean to the
ese oea, and from Paris to the Cape of Good Hope, and contains S. (Gymnopleuru s) azurens, nitens, mundus, sinuatus, pilnlarius,
culo;»n' airon*tidus, jlagellatus, humanus. Led, Bufo, fulgidus, ccerulescens, a finis, cyaneus, Koenigii, gran iilatus, parvus, miliaris, spilotus, ma-
s ^eiicr’ption des Insectes recueillis par At. Caillaud, forming part of his Voyage en Nnbie.
or the other genera, see Regne Animal, t. iv. p. 405. Consult also Hor. Eut. p. 404.
VOL. IX. o > i
* From ovfat, dung, and eating.
V
154
entomology.
Coleoptera prophagi by the form of the dub of the antennae ; its first
Fentamera. [oi^t (oi- the seventh of the whole, counting from the base)
being sub-triagonal, and receiving within it the ensu g,
of which the inner margin is shaped like a horse-shoe;
the third or terminal article is in the form of a reverse
cupula. The thorax is large, and usually exhibits tvyo
depressions near the middle of its posterior margin. n
Onitis, Fab., the second article of the labial palpi is the
largest of all; and the scutellum, though small and sunken,
is yet visible. The anterior legs are generally long, slen¬
der, and curved in the males, and the tarsi are often ab¬
sent. The thorax, with a few exceptions, is without horns.
In Phan^us of Macleay (Copris, Onitis, Fab.), _ a e
CCXXIV. fif. 4, the first article of the labial palpi is tne
largest, and'dilated on the inner side. A simple sutural
void indicates the place of the scutellum. This genus
is composed of large and beautiful species, chiefly from
the equinoctial regions of the new world. 1 he males
differ greatly from the females in regard to the horn¬
like processes which frequently characterize the head
and thorax of the former; but the respective length of
the legs does not differ between the sexes, as in the pre¬
ceding genus.
The genus Copris1 (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 5), as now re-
stricted°by Latreille, contains those species only the an¬
tennae of which are terminated by a trifoliate club; the
four anterior tibiae strongly dilated and truncated at the
extremity; both scutellum and hiatus wanting ; the body
thick, and differing on its upper surface in the sexes ; and
the labial palpi composed of three distinct joints, of which
the first is the largest, almost cylindrical, and not dilated
on the inner side. The largest species of this numeious
genus (there are eighty-four in Dejean’s collection, of
which, however, scarcely half a dozen are European, and
only one, C. lunaris, occurs in England) are indigenous
to the warmer countries of Asia and Africa.2 Many spe¬
cies are likewise native to the new world.
Although these insects closely resemble each other in Coleo. M(f
general structure, they yet differ rather widely in their Penta< ijje
modes of life. They are not all coprophagous, strictly
speaking, for several prefer vegetable matter, for the most
part manne, in a state of putrescence. We shall notice
the two principal genera. In Aphodius,4 Fab. (Plate
CCXXIV. fig. 6), the last article of the maxillary palpi is
cylindrical, and that of the labial more slender than the
preceding. The maxillae have no appendage, or corneous
and dentated lobe, on the inner side. The species of this
genus are slow of foot, but they fly with facility ; and their
appearance is interesting, as denoting the “ ethereal mild¬
ness” of returning spring. They are common in cow pas¬
tures. We received the species figured on the plate re¬
ferred to (A. bipunctatus) from the south of Russia. Above
fifty species occur in Rritain, and three times that number
are known to naturalists. In Psammodius, Gyllenhal (so
named from ■vl/ot./A/xwSjjs, sandy, in refeience to the places of
their most frequent occurrence), the last article of the pal¬
pi is almost oval, and longer and thicker than the others,
and the internal lobe of the maxillae is corneous, and di¬
vided into two dentations.
Section 2d, Arenicoli.
In others the legs are inserted at equal distances from
each other; £he scutellum is distinct; the labial pal¬
pi smooth, or but slightly haired, with the third and
terminal article larger, or at least longer, than the pre¬
ceding.
In the genera of this subdivision of the Coprophagi the
elytra entirely envelope the contour of the abdomen, to
which they form as it were an arched covering,—a cha¬
racter by which they approach the ensuing section. They
are, however, closely related, by the structure of their
legs and antennae, to the preceding genera ; although the
sexual differences are less pronounced or apparent, and
frequently consist merely in small tubercles instead of
horns. All the species are of small size, and some of them
are among the most frequent of the British Lamellicornes.
They constitute the family Aphodiidai of the English ento¬
mologists. These insects are extensively distributed over
the whole of the north temperate zone ; and Mr Macleay
has made out the proportion of tropical species to be to
those from countries beyond the tropics as one to eight.
According to the same authority, none have hitherto been
brought from New Holland, although several occur at the
Cape of Good Hope, which is nearly of the same south
latitude. It is probable, however, that if the marine detri¬
tus of New Holland were properly searched, some insects
at least approaching to Psammodii in habit would occur.3
The groups of this section have one character in com¬
mon with the two genera last mentioned, that the elytra
entirely cover the posterior extremity of the abdomen ;
but their other features are distinctive. The labrum is
coriaceous, and generally projects beyond the epistoma.
The mandibles are corneous, and usually curved and sa¬
lient. The terminal lobe of the maxillae is straight, and
not curved inwards. The third and last article of the la¬
bial palpi is always very distinct, and always at least as
long as the preceding. With few exceptions, the anten¬
nae consist of from ten to eleven articulations. Like the
preceding insects, however, these also live in dung, be¬
neath which they dig holes in the earth. Their principal
period of flight is during the evening, after sunset. When
touched they counterfeit death.
In this subdivision the labium is terminated by two
lobes or projecting ligulae ; the mandibles are gene¬
rally salient and curved; the labrum is exposed in
whole or in part; the antennae, in the greater num¬
ber, are composed of eleven articulations. The body
is black or reddish, with the elytra smooth or simply
striated. The males are generally distinguished from
the females by horn-like projections and other exter¬
nal characters. They affect more especially excre-
mentitial substances.
In the genera ./Egialia of Lat. and Chiron (Plate
CCXXIV. figs. 7 and 11) of Macleay, the antennae are only
nine jointed. In the latter their terminal club is rather
semipectinated than foliated, and the species are placed
by some with Passalus.
In the subsequent genera the antennae are considered
to consist of eleven joints, although the computation va¬
ries according to the view which may be adopted of the
exact structure of the articulations. The genus Leth-
rus, Scopoli, is distinguished from all the others by the
form of the antennal club, like a reversed cone, and com¬
posed of leaflets contorted into a kind of funnel, and fit¬
ted concentrically into each other ; and by the mandibles,
1 From dung.
* The fine insect which, following the nomenclature of M. Fischer of Moscow (Entomog. de la Buss.), we have represented as an
Aieuchus (see Plate CCXXIV. fig. 8), is, we understand, regarded by Latreille as belonging to the genus Copris.
* Hor. Ent. i. p. 58. * From ccipihs, dung.
1
ENTOMOLOGY.
155
tl'oleo] pra
enta pra.
tk
which are entirely dentated and serrated on their infier
side, and present a corneous advancement underneath,
especially in the males. L. cephalotes is said to be ex¬
tremely injurious to cultivated grounds, where it attacks
the scarcely visible buds and leaves of plants, cutting
them cleanly off with its mandibles. It is hence called
Schneider in Hungary, where it sometimes proves very
hurtful to the vines. This species (there are only two or
three others known j lives in holes in the eai th, and fierce
battles take place during the nuptial season between the
males when aspiring to the favour of the gentler sex.
The antennal club of the remaining Arenicoli is com¬
posed of ordinary-shaped leaflets, placed one on another
like the leaves of a book. In Geotrupf.s of Lat. (Plate
CCXXIV. figs. 9 and 10) named from yr\, the earth, and
rpwaw, to bore, 'm reference to their excavating propen¬
sities, the dub of the antennae is oval or ovoid, and the
edges of all the leaflets are perceptible even when the part
is contracted. The labrum forms a transverse square, en¬
tire, or simply dentated. The mandibles are curved,
greatly compressed, dentated at the extremity, and fre¬
quently sinuated on the inner side. The species are
pretty numerous, and occur both in Europe and America.
Some are common in Britain, especially G. stercorarius,
a large black beetle, with brilliant metallic blue or purple
reflections on the under surface, well known as “ wheel¬
ing its drowsy flight” during fine evenings. We have often
been amused by the different devices made use of by in¬
sects to deceive their enemies. While the Byrrhidae, and
several other tribes already alluded to, contract their
limbs when alarmed, so as to give themselves the appear¬
ance of a little ball t)f inert matter in no way tempting to
any insectivorous creature, the species above named pur¬
sues an opposite line of conduct, and sticks out its legs
at full length, where it holds them perfectly still and rigid,
so as to produce the same appearance as if it had been
long deprived of life. It is thus supposed to deceive the
cunning rook and other birds, which value it chiefly as a
living prey.1 In Bulboceras2 of Kirby (Plate CCXXI\ .
figs. 12, 13, and 14), one of the mandibles is simple at the
extremity, while the other is dentated. The genus is also
distinguished from the preceding (in common with Athy-
reus and Elephastomus of Macleay) by having the club of
the antennae large, orbicular, or nearly globular, with its
first and last leaflet, when the part is contracted, com¬
pletely enveloping the tenth or intermediate, and forming
for it a kind of box (see figs. 13 and 14).
In Hybosorus and Acanthocerus (placed in different fa¬
milies, the former in Geotrupidce, the latter in Trogidce,
by Macleay3), the antennae consist, as in most of the sub¬
sequent Scarabaeides, of ten articulations.
anterior angles advanced. The abdomen is large, Coleoptera
arched, and covered with very hard elytra. The an- Pentamera.
terior legs are advanced, and their thighs cover as it
were the lower surface of the head.
These insects form the genus Trox4 of Fabricius and
Olivier. They generally occur on sandy soils, and are
supposed by Latreille to feed on the roots of plants. We
suspect that our knowledge is still extremely vague re¬
garding their habits of life and modes of transformation.
It is certain that they are attracted by dried bones and
other cadaverous remains, but it is difficult to determine
whether this is owing to the peculiar colour, or the na¬
ture of the animal substance. Pallas observes, “ sub ca-
daveribus aestivo ardore exsiccatis cum Histeribus et Der-
mestibus hospitatur;” but it by no means follows from
that peculiarity of position that the insect partakes of the
carcass, any more than that numerous other species which
seek the secure covering of a rock or mass of stone, are in
the habit of devouring these inorganic matters. We may
further remark that the Troges are the only petalocerous
insects among which we find an apterous species,—the T.
horridus being destitute of wings. It forms the genus
Phoberus of Macleay, and is worthy of consideration as
probably destined, when its habits are better known, to
throw some light, either by agreement or opposition, on
the history of "its congeners, and the value of the groups
into which they have been divided. These in general are
supposed to delight in cadaverous substances: all insects
intended to live on animal matter, partially distributed
and collected in masses, are provided with wings, which
convey them rapidly (with the joint guidance of the sense
of smell), to those decaying objects which they instinc¬
tively desire ; but the species above named being destitute
of wings, a doubt naturally arises as to the probability of
its feeding, like its congeners, on dried cadaverous mat¬
ter. It has been stated as an illustration of this point,
that the genera Silpha, Hister, Dermestes, and other ne¬
crophagous kinds, are winged, whilst Pinielia, Brachyce-
rus, &c. which, like T. horridus, frequent sandy deserts,
are apterous,—a formation supposed to accoid with the
fact that the particles of which their food is composed
are so universally spread over these arid plains as to ob¬
viate the necessity of any rapid or extended change of
place.5
Section 3d, Xylophili,6 Lat.
* *
In this our second subdivision of the Arenicoli, the an¬
tennae, scarcely longer than the head, are composed
of -ten articulations, of which the first is large and
hirsute. The ligula is entirely concealed by the men-
tum. The labrum and mandibles are but little ex¬
posed, and the latter qre thick. The palpi are short,
the mentum vei'y hairy. The inner side of the max¬
illae is armed with teeth. The body, of a cinereous
or earthy hue, is rough or tuberculated on the upper
surface. The head is inclined, and terminates in
an angle or point. The thorax is short, transversal,
without lateral borders, sinuated posteriorly, with the
In these the scutellum is always distinct, and the ely¬
tra do not cover the posterior extremity of the abdomen.
In several the hooks of the tarsi are unequal. The an¬
tennae have always ten articulations, of which the last
three form a foliated mass,—the central leaflet being
never entirely concealed or inclosed by the others. Ihe
labrum is not projecting, and only its anterior part is ex¬
posed. The mandibles are entirely corneous, and late¬
rally project beyond the head. The piaxillae are corneous,
or of a solid texture, straight, and usually toothed. Ihe
li"iila is covered by an ovoid or triangular mentum, nar¬
rowed and truncated at the extremity, where the angles
are frequently dilated. All the legs are inserted at equal
distances from each other.
A first subdivision contains those genera in which the
males are distinguished from the females by tubercles or
, s Hor. Ent. pp. 120 and 136.
Eiit. Edxneims, p. 180. 4 T | from I gnaw.
From a J«», and a term ^ ^ ^ p e2. Ent, Ed. p. ,86, and Regne Animat, t. iv. p. 546.
• From Sv/Uf, wood, and a lover.
156 E N T O M
Coleopterahorn-1 ike projections on the head or thorax, and some-
Pentamera. times by a difference ih the form of the latter part. Ihe
' epistoma is small, triangular, and either pointed, truncat¬
ed, or bidentated at the end. The labrum is almost
always concealed. In some the maxillae terminate by a
simple coriaceous or crustaceous lobe, more or less hairy,
and without teeth ; in others they are entirely squamous
or scaly, pointed, and provided with a small number of
teeth, accompanied by hairs. 1 he mentum is ovoid, or
truncate-triangular. The chest exhibits no projection.
The hooks of the tarsi are generally equal. The scuteh'
lum is small, or of medium size. The colours incline to
black and brown.
Of those genera in which the maxillae are terminated
by a coriaceous or crustaceous lobe without teeth, and
simply hirsute or furnished with cilia, we shall adduce as
an example Oryctes1 of Illiger (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 15).
The legs of these differ but little in length, and the four
posterior tibiae are thick, strongly incised or emarginate,
with an extremity greatly widened, and appearing as if
stellated in some. This genus contains some large and
striking species, such as O. rhinoceros, and others, from the
East Indies. There are few European species, and of these
O. nasicornis is by some regarded as indigenous in Eng¬
land. It feeds on tan and rich vegetable mould. Its
larva is well known as having furnished the great Swam¬
merdam with the subject of one of his many remarkable
anatomical investigations.
Of such as possess maxillae which are usually corneous
or scaly, and more or less dentated, we shall mention the
genus Scarab.®us2 properly so called (Plate CCXXIV.
fig. 17). In these the body is thick and convex, and the
external side of their mandibles sinuous or dentated.
These insects occur chiefly in the equatorial regions, both
of the old world and the new. They are scarcely known
in Europe, and do not exist in Britain. S. punctatus is
found in Italy and the south of France, and S. monodon
in Hungary. Several species from South America (such
as S. Hercules') and the East Indies, are remarkable for
their gigantic size and extraordinary structure. S. Atlas,
Fab. (Hector of Dejean?), is a native of Java, but it also
occurs in the mainland.3 We know little of the actual
history or transformations of these fine insects, but their
habits may be inferred to resemble those of Oryctes, and
other congenerous tribes of the Scarabaeides. The larvae
probably dwell in the decaying portions of great timber
trees, and no doubt hasten the death and overthrow of
these sylvan monarchs. We could dilate with pleasure
on the singular aspect of these gigantic Coleoptera, did
not the nature of our general plan, and our desire to no¬
tice, however briefly, most of the principal genera, pre¬
clude our entering into the descriptive details of species.
We must therefore rest satisfied with a general reference
O L O G Y.
to the works of Olivier, Fabricius, Latreille, Macleay, andColeoptj
the Catalogue of Dejean, part ii. p. 150.4 We cannot
help, however, here alluding to that principle of associa- ^
tion in the human mind, by which size or dimension affects (
us with such different ideas in relation to different ob- I
jects. Many may smile at our using the expression
“ gigantic” or “ magnificent” to creatures the largest of
which (of the Coleopterous kinds, e. g. Prionus gigas)
scarcely exceeds six inches in length ;—yet true it is, that
to an entomologist accustomed only to the European
forms of insect life, the first sight of any of the great¬
er Prionidae, or of Scarabceus Hercules, or Atlas, or Ac-
tceon, creates a feeling bordering upon awe, such as that
which an enlightened artist may be supposed to expe¬
rience on first beholding the perfect proportions of some
great temple. Our ideas are perhaps equally relative in
all departments both of art and nature. An Egyptian
pyramid is thought shipendous, while North Berwick Law
(of about equal height with the greatest of the Coptic
monuments) is almost nameless as a Scottish mountain.
An eagle, from his size and strength, is called a “ feather¬
ed king,” although his body is less than that of a pig a
few months old. A mastiff or Newfoundland dog, being
among the largest of the canine kind, is called “ majes¬
tic,” although a sucking elephant might squeeze both of
them to death by an accidental stumble,^—the said ele¬
phant being at the same time regarded as a “ poor crea¬
ture,” because it is not a full grown example of the “ wisest
of beasts.” An ancient walrus, floating among the hoary
icebergs of the arctic seas, is looked upon as one of the
most ponderous of created things; yet a Greenland sea¬
man considers as insignificant, and will scarcely throw his
harpoon into the sides of a young whale, which with one
blow of its upraised tail could lash the ocean into foam,
sink a “ captain’s gig,” and send the walrus with a frac¬
tured skull to the bottom of the sea. The same principle
is capable of illustration, by the practice of the more en¬
thusiastic disciples of Isaac Walton. Even the most ex¬
perienced of anglers gazes with delight, almost with won¬
der, at a river trout of three or four pounds weight. A
grilse of the same dimensions, when made to “ spurn the
indignant shore,” is viewed by the salmon fisher almost
with a feeling of disappointment. We remember our friend
Sir William Jardine killing, inter alia, one morning in the
Tweed, a salmon of six and thirty pounds weight, in an
hour and five minutes, and yet the same skilful angler was
greatly astonished by a Loch Awe trout, which, though a
giant of its kind, was, when brought to the balance, found
wanting by several ounces, in the weight of twelve pounds.
But to return to our beetles.
The genus Phileurus ofLat. (Geotrupes of Fabricius)
differ from the Scarabaei in their mandibles, which are
straighter, without sinus or dentation on the outer side ;
1 ' Oovy.rwv, one ’wtlo digs.
- The term Seamb^us appears to have been either applied by the Itomans to coleopterous insects in general, or at least to have been
ication. The origin ot the word is by no means clear, and its derivation from ffx.d.vru, as
used with a wide and indefinite generic application. The origin ^ ,vu,u « uV means ^eai,      ,
given by habricms and Olivier, has been regarded as inconsistent with the rules of etymology. Mr Macleav thinks it difficult to
rinn111 1,6 T°r r & ti*0111 ^ ^ ^llee!'’ an(^ regards it rather as being of Etruscan origin, the more especially as it never occurs in other
W ai!uI0« ‘ • Lfet l!.S ,heT note that the Scaraboei (properly so called) of Latreille belong to the genus Dynastes of Mac-
kay, which includes the giants of the insect race ” We believe, however, that some Prionuhv exceed them in size.
Swintnn w*!1, °Ur ™llectlon "'as at Rangoon by Sir Archibald Campbell, and obligingly transmitted to us by George
Swmton, Esq. We have since received Javanese specimens from Lieutenant. Loudon, li. N. of Musselburgh.
rntnS'l.ktm-vi^nve’r0!6 PuzzllnS’or.Pro?uctlve of greater delay in the progress of the student, than the cloud of synonyms by which
induce tnaVtl er “ cnnfnh rved' an*es Pf^.v from ignorance, and partly from the (nearly allied) source of self-conceit, which
tos of the art have s,COn 0• m m the ver>' face of an expressed desire to enlighten and amend. Even the great mas-
FaL Ins no nari of the S ^ of their generic names. The reader will bear in mind that Geotrupes of
bears the latter name in the 'Th!rrr F ?? Presfnt day, but corresponds to the genus Scarabceus of Latreille; while the genus which
There is no doubt that Mr Maelonv” ^ 0"ICCE 18 en{,lca. in lts prevailing parts to the genus Ateuchus of the Systema Eleutheratorum.
Ihere is no doubt that Mr Macleay s genus contains the insects to which the name of Scarakeus was applied by Pliny.
E N T O M
^oleo) ra their body is also depressed, and the thorax dilated or
’enta ra, r0Unded laterally. Such are S. dydimus, vulgus, depres-
^ sus, of Fab.
* *
A second subdivision of the Xylophili contains those
genera in which the head and thorax are of similar struc¬
ture in both sexes, and not characterized by peculiar pro¬
jections. The anterior margin of the labrum is almost al¬
ways exposed or apparent. The maxillae are entirely squa¬
mous, as if truncated at the termination, and furnished
, with five or six strong teeth on their inner edge. The
mentum is proportionally shorter and broader than that
of the Scarabaei, and less narrowed superiorly. The me-
sosternum is frequently prolonged to a horn or blunt point
between or beyond the second pair of legs. The scutel-
lum is usually large. The hooks of the tarsi are generally
unequal. A small number excepted, these xylophilous
Coleoptera are peculiar to the equatorial regions of the
new world. They resemble in many respects our preceding
subjects, and are at the same time nearly allied to the Me-
lolonthae, and particularly the Cetoniae, of which they bear
the external aspect, although their masticating organs
differ. Fabricius and Olivier, in fact, arranged most of
these insects with each other. The body of the kinds
[ now under consideration is shorter, more rounded, and
smoother than that of the preceding. They moreover
differ in being frequently ornamented with brilliant co-
t lours.
In some (agreeing in this character with all the pre¬
ceding Scarabaeides), we do not perceive, between the
posterior angles of the thorax and the exterior ones of the
s base of the elytra, an axillary piece filling up as it were
the space comprised between these parts.
, We shall first notice a genus in which the central por¬
tion of the chest presents no pointed prolongation. Such
is Hexodon1 (Plate CCXXIV. figs. 16, 20, 22, and 23),
of which the body is almost orbicular, plane beneath ; the
j head square, and received into a deep emargination of
I the thorax ; the exterior margin of the elytra dilated and
1 anteriorly marked by a small groove or gutter; the legs
slender, and the hooks of the tarsi small and equal. But
I in the following genera the sternum is prolonged between
the second pair of legs to a conical point. In Chuyso-
phora of Dejean (Melolontha chrysochlora,2 Lat.), Plate
CCXXIV. figs. 18 and 19, the hind legs of the male are
very large, the thighs thick, the tibiae arcuated, and termi-
5 nated at the inner angle by a very strong point. Here is
also placed the Scarabceus macropus of Shaw.3 In Ru-
tela, Lat. (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 25), there is no remark¬
able difference in the size of the legs in the two sexes;
I tlie mentum is almost isometrical; the scutellum small or
moderate; and the sternal point is short,—not reaching
to the origin of the two anterior feet. The body is ovoid
or oval. Macraspis, Macleay (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 26),
differs from the preceding in the proportions of the men¬
tum, which is obviously longer than broad ; in the short
and rounded form of the body; in the length of the scu¬
tellum, which at least equals a third of that of the elytra ;
and in the length of the sternal point, the extremity of
which attains to the origin of the two anterior legs, or ex¬
tends beyond it. The mandibles are almost triangular,
with the extremity pointed or emarginate. The maxillae
t are finished with several teeth. One of the hooks of the
tarsi, at least of the four anterior ones, is bifid, the other
O L O G Y. 157
entire. Here Latreille places also the genus Chasmo- Coleoptera
DIA of Macleay. Pentamera.
In other genera we perceive the axillary piece, before
alluded to (agreeing with that seen in the same quarter
in the Cetonia, and named epimera by M. Audouin4), fill-
ing up the space comprised between the posterior angles
of the thorax and the exterior angles of the base of the
elytra. Such is the genus Ometis of Latreille.
Section 4th, Phyllophagi.5
This section, as well as the ensuing, is formed from the
great genus Melolontha of Fabricius, of which certain spe¬
cies are scattered also among the preceding groups. The
Phyllophagi are nearly related to the concluding genera
of the third section. Their mandibles, however, are co¬
vered above by the epistoma, and concealed beneath by
the maxillae,—their exterior side being alone exposed, but
without either protruding or presenting the sinuosities or
dentations observed in the Rutelas and other analogous
genera. The anterior edge of the labrum is exposed, and
is sometimes of the form of a broad reversed triangle,
sometimes (and more frequently) of a transverse lamina,
emarginate in the centre. The number of the articula¬
tions of the antennae is by no means uniform, and varies
from eight to ten. The same observation applies to those
of the club, which in several differs even in the sexes of
the same species. The ligula is entirely covered by the
mentum, or incorporated with its anterior face, and the
elytra meet completely along the whole of the dorsal su¬
ture,—characters which distinguish our present species
from those of the fifth or ensuing section.
*
The family of Anaplognathides of Mr Macleay, and
some other genera nearly allied to the preceding, form
the first subdivision according to M. Latreille’s views.
The epistoma is thickened anteriorly, and forms, either
alone or with the labrum, a vertical facette in the form of
a reversed triangle, the point of which rests on the men¬
tum. This last-named portion is sometimes almost ovoid,
densely pilose, with the extremity either rounded or
truncated, and without emargination,—sometimes in the
form of a transverse square, with the middle of the supe¬
rior margin prolonged into a tooth, simple or emarginate.
The maxillm of some terminate by a coriaceous or mem¬
branous lobe, very hairy, without teeth, or with a very
small number, and situate near the middle of the internal
border;—those of the others are entirely corneous, re¬
semble mandibles, and are either truncated or obtuse and
entire at the end, or terminated by two or three teeth.
In the genera Pachypus of Dejean, and Amblyteres
of Macleay, the mentum is almost ovoid ; and in the for¬
mer the antennae of the males are composed of only eight
joints, of which the last five form the club,—in the lat¬
ter they consist of ten joints, of which the last three form
the club.
In the other genera of this subdivision the mentum
forms a transverse square, the centre of the superior mar¬
gin projecting in the manner of a tooth, entire or emar¬
ginate. In the genus Anapeognathus of Leach (pecu¬
liar to Australasia) there is a sternal projection, and the
hooks of the tarsi are entire and unequal. The antennae
are composed of ten joints, and the extremity of the max¬
illae is truncated, or obtuse and entire. These insects are
s From six, oh vs, tooth, in allusion to the amount of dentations of the maxillae. See Plate CCXXIY. fig. 16.
3 v°yaSe- dc MM. Humboldt et Bonpland, ii. xv. 1, fem.; 2, male.
^ Naturalist's Miscellany, 380, iv. 4 Mctnoirc sur le Thorax dcs Insedes.
r rom <QvX\ov, a leaf, and $ayc;, eating.
158
entomology.
Coleoptera of considerable size, and of rather brilliant aspect. Here
Pentamera. a]s0 arc placed the genera Leucothyreus of Macleay,
and Apogonia and Geniates of Kirby.
# *
A second subdivision of the Phyllophagv2 of Latreille
contains the Melolonthid;e of Macleay. In these the la-
brum is in the form of a transverse place or leaflet, gene
brilliant or metallic colouring. Their elytra, of which Coleoptf
brown is a characteristic colour, are generally slightly scaly Pentfl afcr
or hirsute. Throughout the entire period of their existence w’Vf ^
these insects live on vegetable substances, and their rava¬
ges are often extremely injurious. The larvae are very
Tong lived, and sometimes pass three or four years in that
destructive state. In cold and temperate climates they
longer than broad, sonrewha. ^.wed ^rtor t. Ae MEnor.oNTHA properly so called (fron,
summit, and eithei neaily squaie o emarlinate or ar'/sa, an apple-tree, and inflorescence?), see Plate
concave rihemidlieita; wiLnt an, tooth-like dilota- CCXXIV. fig. 29, the antennte are ten jointed with the
don The maxillse are usually squa.noCs, and armed with five or seven terminal joints in the males, and the six or
several ffrequently five or six) teeth. This subdivision is four in the females, composing the club. I he labrum is
S capable of a further partition into two groups, the thick and strongly emargmate beneath. All the hooks
first corresponding to the genus Mdolontha of Fabricius, of the tars, are equal, and terminate in a point entire or
a restr ctePd by Illiger and Latreille-the other to the simply un,-dentate at their base. 1 he posterior ex retm-
genus X& of Illiger. The former continues to bear ty of the abdomen usually ends inanom or style, a least
genus nupua m ah jn t]ie ma]es. Qf the species of which the antennal club
the name ot jn tl)e ma]e COnsists of seven leaflets, in the female of
Melolonthides. only six, we shall here notice the common cockchafer,
Distinguishable by the following general characteris- M. vulgaris {S.Mehlontha^ Linn.). I he body of tlns m-
tics The number of complete leaflets of the club ex- sect is ot a pitchy black, with a whitish pubescence ; the
ceeds three in several genera. The form of the body is sides of theabdomen are marked by a range of trianga.
usually thick and massive. The mandibles are strong,
entirely or in greater part corneous, and exhibiting at
most only a membranous and hirsute appendage, placed
in the emargination of the inner side ; the superior extie-
mity is strongly truncated, with two or three teeth or an¬
gular projections. All tne tarsi are terminated by two
hooks ; the first article of the two anterior being prolong¬
ed inferiorly into a hooked appendage. The labrum is
usually apparent,—the maxillary teeth robust.
The insects of which this group is composed were in¬
cluded by Linnaeus, like all those with which we have
been lately engaged, in bis extensive genus Scarabccus,
and they also continued to form a portion of that genus
in the works of Geoffrey, Degeer, Schaeffer, and other
entomologists prior to the time of fabricius. ihe last-
named author established the genus Melolontha, which in
lar spots. The elytra are testaceous. The antennae of
the males are much larger than those of the females.
(Plate CCXXIV. figs. 21 and 24.) This, though a most
abundant insect in England, and over most parts of Eu¬
rope, is less generally known in Scotland, and is rare in
the Edinburgh district. Specimens, however, have been
procured in the park of Dalkeith House, in Lanarkshire,
at Lorn in Ayrshire,4 at Raehills and Moffat in Dum¬
friesshire, and as far north as Glencoe.5
We may observe that the existence in the perfect state
of the species above named is of very short duration. The
life of an individual is supposed not to extend beyond a
week, and the entire species during each successive season
prevails only for the space of a single month. The male
speedily perishes after the sexual union, and the female
merely survives for a sufficient time to deposit her eggs in
named autnor esiaousneu uie genus luviuiumnu,,      J V r ,
its extended signification may be regarded as synonymous safety. As soon as the latter is fecundated, she digs a nole
with the Melolonthides of Latreille. Were we to follow in the earth of about half a foot in depth, by means of her
the prevailing and praiseworthy example of botanists, who dentated fore legs. Ihe larvae which proceed from these
bestow upon z family the name of the genus by which it eggs are soft, lengthened, of a dingy-white or yellowish
is most strongly characterized, our present group ought colour; they have six short scaly )eet, a large scaly head,
to be denominated Sericides, in as far as the type is not two antennae, each composed of five pieces, and nine
formed by Melolontha vulgaris, but rather by M. brunnea stigmata on each side of the body. The eyes are not at
of Fahricius, which now constitutes the genus Serica of first visible—being concealed under the skin, which is ere
Macleay. But as it is at all times desirable that families long cast off. These destructive creatures feed upon the
should be named after well-known genera, the designa- roots of various plants. I hey are most voracious during
tion now adopted is preferable to that which might be the summer season. In the course of the autumn they
derived from the less noted though more characteristic descend into the earth, and pass the winter in a state of
type. The Melolonthides are not often distinguished by profound repose, neither requiring nor desiring food. As
1 See Hor. Ent. p. 143 ; and Linn. Trans, vol. xii. pp. 401—5 ; also Leach’s Zoological Miscellany, vol. ii. p. 44.
1 Misnamed (we presume accidentally) Xylophiles in the second edition of the llegne Animal, t. iv- p. 558. _ ,
? MuXijXovUjj, or MsiXav&j, is a term of frequent occurrence in Aristotle and other ancient authors, and was first applied by Fabn-
cius to the insects of the present genus. It is derived from the words mentioned above, because the insects it denoted either were
supposed to be produced from the flowers of fruit-trees, or were accustomed to resort to them for food. This circumstance renders
it probable that the pyXoXovOr, of the ancients belonged to the family Cetoniides, as the true Melolonthides are hardly ever seen on
' scription of Eustathius, who says that the animal resembled a wasp, led Mr Macleay to conjecture that it might
flowers; and the description ,       v  a 
be the Trichius fasciatus, a vernal beetle common in Greece, which might be readily mistaken by a casual observer for one of the
Hymenoptera, as it hears a considerable resemblance to some of the members of that order, both in its colouring and mode of flight.
Moutfet’s investigations led him to a very different conclusion—that the insect was of a metallic green, and referable to the Bupres-
tides. The former opinion is greatly the more probable, and accords with the brief notices on the subject found in ancient writers,
particularly Hesychius and the scholiast on Aristophanes ; but these notices are too imperfect to warrant the determinate apphe®’
tion of a word obviously used with considerable latitude of meaning, and intended in all probability to indicate a group or tribe of
insects rather than any individual species. (See Ilor. Ent. p. 78; and Mouffeti, T/ieat. Insect, xxi. 158.)
* Professor Rennie, in Insect Transformations, 225. 5 Ent. Ed. p. 188.
ENTOMOLOGY.
159
oleop lira
entau'ra.
soon as the solar rays produce their genial influence in
early spring, they ascend within six inches of the surface,
and recommence their ravages. They change their skin
every year, assume the nympha state in the course of
the third autumn after they are hatched, and appear
in the perfect state during the ensuing spring or early
portion of summer. The beetle, when it first escapes from
its cocoon, is pale and soft, and does not venture to leave
its subterranean chamber for some time. But ere long it
acquires a firm consistence, and crawling to the surface,
it expands its wings, and mounting into the air, is hence¬
forward no more a subterranean dweller, but seeks its
nourishment among the umbrageous brandies of the lof¬
tiest trees.1
Although the generality of insects are more destructive
in the larva than in any other state, great ravages are oc¬
casionally committed even by the perfect insect. It is in
relation to the present species that Mouffet records the
number of beetles which at pne time fell into the Severn
as being sufficient to stop the wheels of the water-mills.
In the year 1688 they covered the hedges and trees in a
district of the county of Galway, in such infinite numbers
as to hang in clusters like bees when they swarm. When
on the wing they almost darkened the light of day, and
produced a peculiar sound by the rustling of their wings.
When feeding, the noise of their jaws might have been
mistaken for the sawing of timber; and in a very short
time the foilage of the trees for miles around was so to¬
tally consumed, that at midsummer the country wore the
aspect of the leafless winter.2 “ One of the worst of these
ravagers,” say Messrs Kirby and Spence, “ is the grub
of the common cockchafer. This insect, which is found
to remain in the larva state for four ye^rs, sometimes de¬
stroys whole acres of grass, as I can aver from my own
observation. It undermines the richest meadows, and so
loosens the turf that it will roll up as if cut with a turfing
spade. These grubs did so much injury about seventy
years ago to a poor farmer near Norwich, that the court
of that city, out of compassion, allowed him L.25, and the
man and his servant declared that he had gathered eighty
bushels of the beetle.3 In the year 1785 many provinces of
France were so ravaged by them that a premium was of¬
fered by the government for the best mode of destroying
them. They do not confine themselves to grass, but eat
also the roots of corn ; and it is to feast upon this grub
more particularly that the rooks follow the plow.4”
The scarcity of this species in Scotland saves it from
the fate often inflicted in the south, where spinning a
cockchafer is a favourite amusement among school-boys.
When the larger Coleoptera fall upon their backs, they
have some difficulty in resuming their natural position,—
and in Sweden, according to Sparmann, there is a fond be¬
lief among the simpler of the common people, that their
sins will be forgiven them if they set a cockchafer upon
Us legs. If this creed be true, our English youths have
much to answer for.5
The only other species of the genus which we shall Coleoptera
mention is M. fullo (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 29), one of the Pentamera,
largest of the European Coleoptera. It is sometimes near-
ly an inch and three quarters long, of a brown or blackish
colour, marked with many irregular white spots. The
club of the antennae in the males is remarkably large.
This species occurs chiefly on downs along the maritime
shores of Europe. It is sometimes captured in England.
We have received it from Persia and other eastern
countries.
In the genus Rhisostrogus of Lat. (formerly Am-
phimalla of the same author), the species closely re¬
semble the preceding ; but the antennae, consisting of nine
or ten joints, have only three leaflets in the club. Such is
a well known English insect not yet ascertained to inhabit
Scotland, R. Solstitialis. In the genus Areoda of Leach
and Macleay (Plate CCXXIV. fig. 30) the antennae have
ten articulations, the sternum is corneous, and all the
hooks of the tarsi are equal in those individuals presumed
to be females, and unequal in such as are regarded as
males., The species are brilliantly adorned, and inhabit
Brazil. All the preceding phyllophagous genera, it may
be observed, with few exceptions, are furnished with ten
articulations to the antennae; but in the following Melo-
lonthides there are only nine. In Phyllopertha of Kir¬
by (from tpvXXov, a leaf and to destroy), the antennae
are only nine jointed. Here we place a species which
often appears in prodigious quantities among ferns on
commons in many parts of Britain. It is called the
Bracken-clock in the north of England—P. hordeola. It
falls into the genus Anisoplia of Megerle and Dejean. A
larger and much rarer species is P. Frischii. It has been
found near Montrose. In the genus Serica6 of Macleay
(Plate CCXXIV. figs. 27 and 28), the joints of the an¬
tennae seem to have been differently computed.7 All the
hooks of the tarsi are bifid. The body is ovoid, arch¬
ed, with a silky aspect, and changeable reflections. Cer¬
tain insects, as yet found only in New Holland, form the
genus Diphucephala8 of Dejean. Their tarsi are bifid, as
in the preceding, but the body is narrow and elongated,
and the thorax square. In Euchlora of Macleay (Plate
CCXXV. fig. 1 and 2), the hooks of the tarsi are unequal,
and there is no sternal projection; one of the hooks of
the four anterior tarsi is bifid in the males, the body is
arched, the epistoma short and transverse.
The second group of this subdivision, or the third and
last of the Phyllophagi, is called
Hoplides,
and is characterized as follows. The mandibles are small
and depressed, and as if divided longitudinally into two
parts, of which the internal is membranous, the external
corneous; the superior extremity presents no sensible
dentations. The labrum is concealed or but slightly ap¬
parent. The maxillm have frequently only small denta¬
tions. The body is short, depressed, broad, with the ely-
'jbii'
ndefl
;D(I
ii$'
f*
itei5
1 Some very laborious and beautifully elaborated works have been recently published on the anatomical structure of the Melolon-
thae. See more particularly Considerations generates sur VAnatomic comparce des Animaux articults, auxquelles on a joint 1'anatomic dcscrip.
tive du Hanneton, par M. Straus, 1 vol. in 4to, with plates. Paris, 1828. The illustrious and lamented Cuvier has observed of this pro¬
duction, that it is the only work fit to be compared to that of Lyonnet, Sur la Chenille du Saule. M. Dufour has also explained the di¬
gestive system of these insects, in the Bd vol. of the Ann. des Sciences Nat. ; while the muscular economy of the wings and thorax has
been described and figured by the accurate Chabrier, in his Essai sur le Vol des Insectes. Paris, 1823.
8 Phil. Trans, xix. 3 Phil. Trans. 1741, 531- 4 Introd. to Ent. vol. i. p. 177-
6 We may here record that the Melolontha hippocastani. Fab. (Olivier,!. 3, a,b, c) was taken by the writer of this article some years
ago on the banks of Windermere. It was formerly confounded with M. vulgaris, but is distinguished by being rather smaller, shorter,
and more convex ; the elytra are narrowly margined with black, and the terminal style of the abdomen is rather shorter, and has a
slight constriction or neck, which makes the extremity appear broader and more obtuse. It does not seem to be known as British
to the English collectors. (See Entomologia Edinensis, p. 190, note.)
8 From irn^Kov, "silk. * Antenme articulis decern, Ilor. Ent. 14G. Je n’en compte que neuf, Rigne Animal, iv. 562.
8 I rom double, and head.
ENTOMOLOGY.
160
Coleoptera tra narrowed posteriorly at the exterior side. The last
Pentamera. tw0 tarsi are usually furnished with but a single hook.
'—"Y— In such as have two"hooks to all the tarsi (genus Diora¬
ma), the first joint of the anterior tarsi is prolonged inte¬
riorly, and exhibits on the internal side a strong hooked
t0°M.'Leon Dufour, as Latreille informs us, has remarked,
that the digestive canal in these insects (at least in such
Hoplioe as he has examined) is much shorter than that of
the Melolonthae, and rather approaches the same part in
the genus Cetonia. The chylific ventricle is smooth
and flexuous. The small intestine is shorter than in Me-
lolontha, and often presents an ovoid inflation at its ori¬
gin. The great intestine is elongated, and destitute of
valvular anfractuosities, and the rectum is distinctly mark¬
ed by an obvious collar. The generative system resem¬
bles that of the Melolonthae.
In the genus Dicrania (Lepel. and Serville, in Ency-
clop. Moth.), besides the characters alluded to above, the
body is very smooth, without scales, the scutellum rather
large, and there are two strong spines at the extremity of
the four posterior tibiae ; the lower extremity of the two
hindmost tibiae is dilated. These insects are natives of
Brazil. In the genus Hoplia of Illiger there is only a
single hook to the two posterior tarsi (Plate CCXXY.
fig. 4). The pairs of the others are bifid and unequal.
The extremity of the intermediate and hind tibiae is as
it were crowned by little spines of nearly equal length.
The body is generally furnished with minute scales. The
epistoma is either almost square or nearly semicircular.
The thighs of the two hind legs are moderately enlarged,
and the tibiae are long, straight, and without a hooked
tooth at their extremity. H. farinosa (Plate CCXXV.
fig. 3), one of the most beautiful of European Coleoptera,
is a common insect in the south of France. The antennae
are nine-jointed, the body is covered with silvery scales,
of a pale but bright and ethereal blue, with a greenish or
golden tint beneath. This species, on which a British
entomologist gazes with great delight, is common in seve¬
ral European countries, near the banks of brooks and
rivers.
Section 5th, Antiiobii.1
The scarabideous insects of this section also formed a
portion of the undivided genus Melolontha, and are near¬
ly allied to the concluding members of the preceding
groups. Their paraglossae, however, or divisions of the
ligula, project beyond the upper extremity of the men-
tum, and the edges of the elytra are somewhat open, or
removed from the usual line of the dorsal suture, towards
their posterior extremity, which is narrowed to a point, or
rounded. The antennee consist of from nine to ten joints,
of which the three last alone form the club in both sexes.
The terminal lobe of the maxillae is often almost membra¬
nous, silky, in the form of a pencil,—in others it is coriace¬
ous and dentated along the inner edge. The labrum and
mandibles are more or less solid, according as these parts
are exposed or covered. These insects live among flowers
and the varied foliage of shrubs and trees.
In the genus Amphicoma,2 Eat. (Plate CCXXV. figs. 5
and 6) the first joint of the antennal club is concave, and
encases the others. The mandibles are rounded and
curved on the exterior side, without dentation on the in¬
ner margin ; the antennal mass is globular, the abdomen Coleopii
soft, and all the legs of ordinary size. The epistoma is^r*
distinctly margined. The anterior tibiae have three teeth
on their outer edge. The first four articles of the tarsi
are strongly ciliated in the males. These singular insects
can scarcely be regarded as European, although they do
occur occasionally in Greece. They are more frequent
in the south of Russia, and in the western parts of the
Persian dominions. Comte Dejean informs us that A.
hirta. Fab. is the female of A. vulpes of the same author.
A. vidpecula, with which we were favoured by M. Falder-
mann of the Imperial Botanic Gardens of St Petersburg,
appears to be also a variety of the first-named insect. The
only other genus of this section which we can here notice
is Anisonyx of Eat., an example of which is given in
Plate CCXXV. figs. 7 and 13.
Section 6th, Melitophili.3
In these the body is depressed, usually oval, brilliant,
hornless, with the thorax trapeziform or almost orbicular.
An axillary piece occupies, in the greater number, the
space comprised between the posterior angles and the
exterior of the base of the elytra. The anal termination
is exposed. The sternum is frequently prolonged in the
form of a point or advanced horn. The hooks of the tarsi
are equal and simple. The antennae are 10-articulate, with
the last three joints forming the club, which is always fo-
liaceous. The labrum and mandibles are concealed, la-
melliform, and nearly if not entirely membranous. The
maxillae terminate in a silky lobe, in the form of a pencil,
without corneous teeth. The mentum is usually ovoid,
truncated superiorly, or almost square, with the middle of
the superior edge more or less concave or emarginate.
The ligula is not projecting.
The alimentary tube of these insects, according to M.
Dufour, is shorter than in any of the scarabideous family.
The ehylific ventricle has usually its external tunic co¬
vered by very small superficial papillae, or projecting points.
The enlargement which terminates the small intestine is
not cavernous, as in the Melolonthae.4 The larvae are said
to live in decayed wood. In the perfect state they occur
on flowers, and not unfrequently also on the trunks of
such trees as exude any fluid.
This section, according to the views of M. Latreille, by
which we have already been so long guided, is susceptible
of division into three principal groups, corresponding to
the genera Trichius of Fabricius, Goliathus of Lamarck,
and Cetonia of Fabricius, but reduced and simplified by
certain abstractions.
The Melitophili of the first two divisions have no strong¬
ly-marked sternal projection; the lateral portion of the
mesosternum (or that named epimera by M. Audouin)
does not generally manifest itself upwardly. The thorax
does not increase from before backwards as in Cetonia;
nor is the exterior side of the elytra abruptly narrowed or
uni-sinuate a little below the humeral angle, as in those in¬
sects. A more rigorous character consists in the labial
palpi being inserted in lateral grooves of the anterior face
of the mentum, so that they are entirely exposed, the
sides of the mentum jutting beyond them at their origin,
and protecting them behind. In the first two divisions
these palpi are inserted beneath the lateral margin of the
mentum, or in the margins themselves, in such manner
•P1
1 From aytfes, afiover, and fims, life.
* T rom u/Atpi, about, or on both sides, and Kopri, hair, in allusion to the frequent covering with which the species are invested.
8 From honey, or y-iXirou, to make honey, and tpikos, a lover.
4 For other details, especially for such as illustrate the generative system, see Annales des Sciences Nat. t. iii. p. 235, and t iv. p 178-
ENTOMOLOGY.
Colflutera that the first articulations, when viewed from before, do
161
Pent :era. not appear.
ls^, Trichides.
In these the mentum is either almost isometrical, or
rather longer than broad, and leaves the maxillae expos¬
ed. They correspond, as we have said, to the genus Tri-
chius of Fabricius (Plate CCXXV. figs. 8 and 9), of which
we may mention as an example T. fasciatus, probably the
only British species. It is black, with scattered yellow
hairs, the elytra yellowish, with three transverse black
bands, interrupted at the suture. It is very rare in Scot¬
land, but is, however, recorded by Mr Curtis as occurring
“ on the flowers of the thyme, near Loch Rannoch, in
July.” It was also noticed some years ago by Dr Gre-
ville in Glen Tilt, and we saw it taken by Mr Giles Mun-
by, on the southern border of Sutherland, early in the
month of August 1833. The dimensions of the female
considerably exceed those of the male. The genus, as now
restricted, is not very extensive. Dejean enumerates
twelve species, several of which are from North America.
2d, Goliathides,
May be distinguished from the preceding by the men¬
tum, which is much longer and wider, and covers the max¬
illae. In some the mentum is concave in the centre. The
anterior extremity of the epistoma is neither toothed nor
horned. Such is the genus Cremastocheilus of Knock
(Plate CCXXV. fig. 10), in which the thorax forms near¬
ly a transverse square ; the maxillae are terminated by a
strong tooth, hooked or falciform, with setae or little spines
in place of an inner lobe ; the last article of the palpi is
very long and cylindrical; the mentum in the form of a
widened heart, or of a reversed triangle rounded at the
upper angles, without sensible emargination. In others
the mentum is in the form of a greatly widened heart,
but without a discoidal cavity, its superior edge being
emarginate or sinuous. The anterior extremity of the
epistoma in the males is divided into two lobes, in the
form of obtuse or truncated horns. The thorax is almost
orbicular. Such is the extraordinary genus Goliathus
of Lamarck (Cetonia of Fab. and Olivier), Plate CCXXV.
figs. 14 and 16, which contains some of the largest and
most striking of coleopterous insects. One of the species
which we have represented appears to exhibit some varia¬
tion in its markings.1 The same species seems figured
by Drury (Illustrations, vol. i. pi. 31), who says it was
brought from Africa, where it was found “ floating dead
in the river Gaboon, opposite Prince’s Island, near the
equinoctial line.” The only specimen with which we are
now acquainted is that preserved in the Hunterian Muse¬
um, Glasgow. Mr Kirby has described two smaller spe¬
cies from Brazil.2 Other kinds form the genus Inca of
modern writers.3
3(f, Cetoniides.
In this group the sternum is more or less prolonged to
an obtuse point, between the intermediate pair of legs;
the axillary piece before mentioned is always visible
above, and occupies the entire space which separates the
posterior angles of the thorax from the base of the elytra;
the thorax is usually enlarged posteriorly, and has theColeoptera
form of a triangle truncated anteriorly or at its point. Pentamera.
I he mentum is never transversal ; its superior margin is
more or less emarginate in the middle. The terminal
lobe of the maxillae is silky or pencil-shaped. The body
is almost ovoid, and depressed. The membranaceous tex¬
ture of the mandibles and maxillae of these insects de¬
monstrates, as Mr Macleay has observed, that in the per¬
fect state they live on vegetable juices. Thus C. morio.
Fab. and doubtless many others, especially of the darker
coloured kinds, regale themselves on the sap of wounded
trees,—while C. aurata and its brilliant allies are only
found on flowers.4 The Cetoniides, though in general gay
and ornamental insects, yield in metallic splendour to se¬
veral species of the genera Rutela, Glaphyris, and Anaplog-
nathus. “ Nothing, however, can exceed the beauty and
lustre of the polish, or the admirable variety of ornament,
with which their elytra are adorned. The larvae live in
the fattest vegetable soils ; but notwithstanding the ex¬
cellent observations of Degeer, much remains to be per¬
formed towards the elucidation of this part of their his¬
tory.”5
Sufficient data have not yet been collected for the pro¬
per elucidation of their geographical distribution, but it
appears that many more species exist within than without
the tropics. In some the thorax is prolonged posteriorly
in an angular form, so that the scutellum disappears.
These form the genus Gymnetis of Macleay (Plate
CCXXV. fig. 12). Several species occur in America.
In others from New Holland and the East Indies the
clypeus is bifid, or armed, in the males, with a couple of
horns, and the body is proportionally narrow and elongat¬
ed, with the abdomen obviously decreasing in size poste¬
riorly. It is even almost triangular in some. The club
of the antennae is elongated. These constitute the genus
Macronota of Wiedemann (Plate CCXXV. fig. 15).
“ Mais toutes ces coupes n’acquerront de la solidite que
lorsqu’on aura fait un etude particuliere des nombreuses
especes du genre Cetonia de Fabricius.”6
The European Cetoniae are provided with a scutellum
of ordinary size. C. aurata (commonly called the rose-
beetle) is well known in many parts of England. It is
nearly an inch long, of a brilliant golden green above,
with coppery red reflections beneath, and some whitish
markings on the elytra. It has been taken in Morayshire
by the Misses Dick Lauder, and is also known to have
occurred in Dumfriesshire. It is still, however, to be re¬
garded as inter rariores of the Scottish species. Dejean’s
Catalogue contains 125 Cetoniae, of which the greater
part are foreign to Europe. They occur over all the
warmer regions of the earth. Java produces several of
great beauty, of which C. Macleayi is described, and figur¬
ed by Mr Kirby in his Century of Insects I The one which
we have represented, C. Baxii (Plate CCXXV. fig. 11),
is highly prized by collectors.
Tribe 2d, Lucanides.
In this second tribe or principal division of the lamel-
licorn Coleoptera, which derives its name from the genus
Lucanus of Linnaeus, the club of the antennae is compos¬
ed of leaflets or dentations disposed perpendicularly to its
1 See Olivier, Cotiopteres, No. 6, pi. 5, fig. 33, et pi. !), fig. 33. We are indebted to Mr Joseph Dalton Hooker for an accurate
drawing of the valuable specimen in the Glasgow Museum. We did not receive it till the figure above referred to had been copied
by our engraver from Olivier’s wmrk. , „ , ^ ? ipo
2 Linn. Trans, vol. xii. p. 407. 3 Encyclopedic Mtthodique, art- Scataleides. See also Dejean s Catalogue, p. JOB.
4 Hor. Ent. p. 74. ’ S Ilid" P’ f
* Regne Animal, t. iv. p. 574. We observe a work On the Family of the Cetoniides, recently announced in France as preparing lor
publication, and from which, we doubt not, the entomologist will derive advantage.
7 Linn. Trans, vol. xii.
VOL. IX.
X
162
entomology.
Coleoptera axis, like the teeth of a comb. These organs always,con-
Pentamera. gjgj 0f ten joints, of which the first is usu y rj
V—^ t an the other . The mandibles are always corneous,
in a narrow lobe, lengthened and adky.rn oU^ers they
ire entirely corneous and dentated. 1 he ligula in e
areater number is formed of two small silky pencils, moi
or le^s projecting beyond the mentum, which is almost
semicircular or squa/e. The anterior legs are genera ly
elongated, with the tibiae dentated all along their outer
edo-eS The tarsi are terminated by two hooks, equ ,
simple, with a small appendage, ending in two setae, be¬
tween them.1 These insects compose two sections winch
correspond to the genera Lucanus and Passalus ot Oli¬
vier.
by fi". 21. The last-named author here places the genusCo]eopt(5
Chiron, which Latreille classes with the coprophagous tribe. Hete*
All these insects are foreign to Europe, and we believe also »>ea
$
fieri
to Africa. They are characteristic chiefly of South Arne-
rica, but are also known in New Holland, Java, and the
eastern countries of Asia. Madame M.erian informs us that
the larva of the species figured in her work feeds on the
roots of the sweet potato. The perfect insect is well
known in sugar-houses.
HETEROMERA.
Five Articulations to the first four Tarsi, and four to the
hindmost pair.
In the first the antennae are greatly bent or genicu¬
late, smooth, or but slightly hirsute ; the labrum small, or
confounded with the epistoma; the maxlll8e.,
by a membranous or coriaceous lobe, very silky, pencd-
shaped, without teeth, or with one at most; the hgu a
either entirely concealed, or incorporated with the men¬
tum, or divided into two narrow elongated silky lobes,
more or less projecting beyond the mentum. I he scu-
tellum is placed between the elytra. _ . „ c
In some genera the antennal club consists only ot from
three to four joints or leaflets. Such are Synodendron
All the groups of this, the second primary section of
the coleopterous order, feed on vegetable substances. La¬
treille comprises them under four great families, of which
the first two exhibit, by reason of an excrementitious ap¬
paratus discovered by M. Dufour, an analogy to some ot
the pentamerous Coleoptera. Their chylific ventricle is
also frequently beset by papillas. In several of these in¬
sects we find the vestiges of another secreting apparatus,
of which we have few examples among the Coleoptera,
that denominated the salivary apparatus. The hepatic
vessels, as in the preceding or pentamerous section, with
few exceptions, amount to six in number, and have two
tnree to rour joints ui  , T AAf intestines, distant from each other; at one extremity
ISa STt Obii%; 1*7 KXsson™; Mad according to Dufour, they are inserted by six insu.ated
_ _ \ TTT-* 1 X TX   rr> Tr ▼ TV/Tr» Avl / 1 lY 1 <1
leay (Luc. nebulosus of Kirby), Philodotus, Macl. (ibic
fig. 19), and Lucanus properly so ^JJed (djid. fig. tS).
To the last belongs L. cervus (Plate CCXX. figs. 1, 2. 3),
the largest and most formidable looking of the British
Coleoptera. It inhabits the interior of oaks and beeches
for several years before assuming its final transformation,
and is by some regarded as the Cossus of the ancients, a
vermiform larva, long regarded as a delicious food, but not
now coveted by the refined epicures of modern days.3 In
other genera of this section the club ot the antennae, as in
Syndesus of Macleay, is composed of the seven terminal
articulations.4
ends around the collar which terminates the chylitic ven-
tricle ; at the other they open into the origin of the caecum
by trunks varying in number in different families and
genera.
The Lucanides of the second section have the antennae
simply bent, or but slightly geniculate and hairy; the la¬
brum is always exposed, crustaceous, and transversal; the
mandibles strong and much dentated, but without any
remarkable disproportion of size between the sexes; the
maxillae are entirely corneous, with two strong teeth at
least; the ligula, likewise corneous or very hard, is placed
The first general division of the section may be made
to contain the first three families. The elytra are gene¬
rally of a firm and hard consistence, the hooks of the
tarsi almost always simple, the head ovoid or oval, sus¬
ceptible of being sunk posteriorly in the thorax, or some¬
times narrowed behind, but not abruptly, and without an)
neck at the base. Many of these insects are “ darkhngs,
that is, lucifugous or light-shunning.
FAMILY I—MELASOMA.
This group consists of black or ash-coloured species,
without mixture or variety of colour, from which circum¬
stance they derive their name.6 Ihey are for the most
least; the ligula, likewise corneous or very naru, is piaceu .7 T , f ~ 11prpfi together,
in the superior emargination of the mentum, and termi- part apterous, with the elytra as it were soldere“ t0g he
nated by three points. The abdomen is supported on a The antennm are partly or entirely Sran.os^ ^ ®Lrerai.
kind of pedicle, bearing the scutellum above it, and se- same size throughout, or a little enlarged at their ext!e
parated from the thorax by a neck or obvious interval, ty, inserted under the projecting margin o !■ Ww
These insects form the genus Passalus of Fabricius (Plate the third articulation generally elongated, i he mana ^
CCXXV. figs. 21 and 23), which has undergone subdivi- are bifid or emarginate at the extremity, ana mere
sion in recent times. In Paxillus of Macleay, for ex- corneous tooth or hook on the inner side of the ma •
ample (fig. 23), the club of the antennae is composed of All the articulations of the tarsi are entire, an
five joints, the labrum is very short, the maxillae have but are oblong and but slightly elevated—-a c arac er ’
two teeth, one terminal, the other on the inner side.6 Mr according to M. Marcel de Serres, indicates noc uin
Macleay restricts Passalus to such species as have only bits. Almost all these insects dwell upon the groun , e
three articulations to the club of the antennae, as shown in sandy soils or under stones, and they are no u
1 See our elementary plate (CCXX.) figs. 1, 2, and 3. 1 From 2u», •teith, and AsvSjsv, wood. . thede-
3 As we have given figures on the plates above referred to, of most of the genera just named, we abstain from entering mto
tails of their respective characters. . _
4 For a description of the singular genus Chiasoonathus of Stephens, see the Cambridge Philosophical Transactions for loo • ^
6 The insect which we have figured under the name of Passallus pentaphyllus, is, we believe, synonymous with Paxillus Leac *
Macleay, Hor.'Ent. p. 106.
6 From (tttAa,-, black, and <rupa, body.
ENTOMOLOGY.
163
voleo
HeL
me
i
{
i
t
raquent in cellars, stables, the ground floors of houses, and
■ other dark and sombre situations. According to M. Du-
four,1 the insertion of the biliary vessels takes place on the
under surface of the caecum, by means of a single tubular
trunk resulting from the junction of two strong short
branches, themselves composed of the reunion of three
biliary vessels. The bile is yellow, sometimes brown, or
even violet coloured. The alimentary tube2 is long; in the
first tribe, that of the Pimeliariae, three times the length
of the body. The oesophagus is long, and leads to a crop,
smooth or glabrous externally, more developed among the
last-named insects, where it forms an ovoid sac lodged in
the pectus; it is furnished interiorly with folds or longi¬
tudinal fleshy columns, terminating in some species, such
as Erodii and Pimelice, beside the chylific ventricle, at a
valve formed of four principal corneous, oval, and conni-
vent parts. The chylific ventricle is elongated, flexuous
or doubled, generally beset with small papillae or project¬
ing points, and terminates in a small collar, callous within,
which receives the first insertion of the biliary vessels.
In the genera Elaps and Asida there is a salivary appara¬
tus, consisting of two floating vessels or tubes, sometimes,
as in the latter, perfectly simple, sometimes, as in the for¬
mer, irregularly branched. The same structure no doubt
will be found to occur in others of the family. The tex¬
ture of the tunics of the alimentary canal has been studied
with great care and assiduity by JVI. Marcel de Serres.3
The adipose tissue is more abundant in these Heteromera
than in the ensuing; and it is probably this provision which
enables them, even when transfixed and fastened down by
a pin, to live for six months without food—a fact witness¬
ed (we presume accidentally) by Latreille in a species of
Aids.
!
!■
it
J. '
t
li'
I
Si
1
t
ss
S’
i
t
Our present family, which corresponds to the ancient
unrestricted genus Tenebrio of the Linnaean system, is
subdivided according to the absence or presence of the
wings.
Tribe 1st, Pimeliarle.4
Apterous, the elytra generally fixed or soldered. Palpi
almost filiform, or terminated by an article not greatly
dilated, and not forming a distinct triangular or securi¬
form mass.
In the genus Pimelia properly so called,5 the body is
more or less ovoid and oval, with the thorax narrower
even at the base than the abdomen, generally convex,
without sharp prolongations at the posterior angles, or
posterior projection at the praesternum. These insects
are proper to the basin of the Mediterranean, to the west¬
ern and southern parts of Asia, and to Africa.
In the three following genera the body is ovoid, short,
arched or gibbous above, with the thorax short, as broad
posteriorly as the base of the elytra, and terminated on
each side by a sharp angle. The praesternum is dilated pos¬
teriorly in the manner of a lamina or point, with its pos¬
terior extremity resting on the mesosternum. In Erodius,
Lat. the last two joints of the antennae are united, and
form a little button-shaped mass. The anterior tibiae have
a strong tooth near the middle of the exterior side, and
another on the same side at the end. The mentum is
incased (encadre) inferiorly, and covers the base of the
maxillae. E. gibbus, which is black, the elytra with thin
raised lines, occurs in Portugal. In Zophosis,6 Lat. the
antennm are almost filiform, or enlarge insensibly towards Coleoptera
the end. The anterior tibiae want the teeth. Z. testudi* Hetero-
narius is black, the elytra chagrined, and covered on the mera-
sides with a whitish powder. It occurs at the Cape. In
Nyctelia, Lat. (Plate CCXXV. fig. 24), the third article
of the antennae is much larger than the preceding, and
the following, as well as the ninth and tenth, are almost
globular. The base of the maxillae is exposed. The species
are proper to South America.
In the genus Hegeter, Lat. the thorax assumes the
form of a trapezium, almost as broad at the posterior mar¬
gin as the base of the elytra, against which it is applied
throughout its breadth. The terminal article of the an¬
tennae is rather less than the preceding. In Tentyria
of Lat. (Akis, Fab.) the thorax is almost orbicular, some¬
times narrower than the abdomen, sometimes of the same
breadth, but rounded at the posterior angles, and leaving
an hiatus between them and the base of the elytra. The
terminal article of the antennae is as large as the preced¬
ing. These, as well as the following genera, are peculiar
to the warm and western countries of the ancient conti¬
nent.
The genus Akis7 of Fab. (Plate CCXXV. fig. 25) is
now restricted to those species in which the thorax is
wider than the head, strongly emarginate before, short,
its posterior margin widely truncate, and the lateral edges
turned up. The antennae consist of eleven distinct articu¬
lations. In Eurychora,8 Thunberg, the body is oval, with
acute and ciliated edges, the thorax semicircular, and re¬
ceiving the head in an anterior notch, the abdomen almost
heart-shaped, and the antennae composed of linear articu¬
lations, compressed or angular, of which the third is the
longest, and the eleventh indistinct.
The following genera of this tribe differ from the pre¬
ceding in the mentum, of a square form, not being either
emarginate or widened at its upper margin. In Tage-
nia of Lat. (Akis, Fab.) the thorax is narrow, and either
cylindrical, or in the form of an elongated heart, truncate
at both ends. The antennae are almost perfoliate, with
the third articulation scarcely longer than the following
ones, and the eleventh or last extremely small, and closely
united with the preceding. The head is elongated pos¬
teriorly, and borne upon a kind of neck or knob. In
Scaurus,9 Fab. the thorax is at least as broad as the ab¬
domen, almost isometrical. The anterior thighs are strongly
inflated, and frequently dentated in the males. The tibiie
are long and narrow. The terminal article of the an¬
tennae is ovoid-conic, and elongated. The species are
peculiar to the western countries of the ancient conti¬
nent, and are confined to its warmer parts. In Scoxo-
bius of Germar, the terminal article of the antennae is
scarcely longer than the preceding, and in the form of a
reversed top. The thorax is perceptibly broader than
long, and much arched in its lateral margins. These in¬
sects are peculiar to South America.
Other insects of this tribe, agreeing with those just
named in the entireness of the mentum, are remarkable
for the lateral dilatations or tooth-like projections of the
thorax. The eyes are more projecting than in the others,
and the antennae are pubescent. The elytra are very
unequal. Such is the genus Sepidium10 of Fab. of which
the species are found in the southern countries of Europe,
and in Africa.
1 Ann. des Sciences Nat. v. p. 276.
* Ibid, iii p. 478.
Observ. sur les usages des diverscs parties du tube intestinal des Insectcs. Ann. du Mus.
J 4 From njpixn, fat.
‘ For the new generic divisions of Pimelia of Fabricius, see Regne Animal, v. p. 5-7.
* From ZtxptucrTs, obscurity.
5 From axis, a javelin.
8 From ’Eu^a^a^os, wide.
9 From 'Xxa.vgos, having projecting claws.
1# From 'Xnmliov, putridity.
164
entomology
Coleoptera Among the last to which we
Hctero- genuS'TRACHYNOTUS, Lat. (Plate CCXXV. fig. 26), whic i
mcra. differs from the preceding in the joints of the antennae :
v »   these are mostly cylindrical, or in the form of an elon-
species called BJaps sulcata is said by Fabricius to beColi
i .1 r'T' 1-* -1. i *-» tTr-rirrAf + r\ fLom ■f*Q (h UqJ
eaten by the Turkish women in Egypt, to make them fat.
They cook it with butter. On the same authority, it is
asserted to be used as a cui e toi headach and the sting
iuCBc —v ~tV,P W three or four being of the scorpion. In Scotinus of Kirby (Plate CCXXVI.
done ro^ndedland either ovoid, turbiLted, or hemisphe- fig. 9),^ the thorax is emarginate and dilated at the ante-
rical. The eyes are a^ost round or oval, Xicke^edrthrtwo lastTieing confounded together,
the fm^ennae*^1 sensibly longe; anal thieher than the pre- ^^^lo-entain -^1 anti shgh^
Ceinn!he genus Moluh.s, Lat. Pmmmodes, Kirby (Plate difference in the tarsi the first or the two anterior pair
CCXXV fig 27), the eyes are narrow and elongated, and being most dilated in the males, and their inferior surface
scarcely elevated The thorax is convex, nearly orbicu- usually silky or furnished with a brush. These insects
lar emlrginate in front, truncated posteriorly, and with- frequent sandy places I heir two anterior tibiae are ge-
ou angukr dilatations on the sides. These insects, in nerally wider, dilated triangularly at the extremity anti
common with those immediately preceding, occur at the adapted for digging. Here are placed the genera Ped,-
common witn most nmueu J' I » nus, Blaptinus, &c. of Latreille, Dejean, and other au¬
thors.3
Cape.
Tribe 2d, Blapsides, Lat.
This tribe receives its name from the genus Blaps of
Fabricius. The maxillary palpi are tei minated by an
obviously dilated article, triangular or hatchet-shaped.
Among other anatomical observations made by M. Du-
four in relation to these insects, he states that they aie
provided with a double excrementitial secreting appaia-
tus, totally different in structure from that of the penta-
Tribe 3d, Tenebrionites, Lat.
These differ from the last in being provided with
wings. Their body is usually oval or oblong, depressed
or but slightly raised, with the thorax square or trape¬
zoidal, and as wide as the abdomen at its posterior extre¬
mity. The palpi are larger at their extremity; the last
joint of the maxillary palpi has the form of a reversed tri-
merous tribes. It consists of two tolerably large oblong angle, or is hatchet-shaped : the mentum is but slightly
bladders, placed altogether beneath the viscera of diges- widened, and leaves the base of the maxillae exposed,
tion and generation, closely approximated to each other, The genus Tenebno, as originally arranged by fabricius,
with extremely thin parietes, and surrounded by vascular together with Opatrum Orthocerus, serve in this tribe
folds, adherent, more or less pursed or turgid, and of which as the types of as many divisions.
it is difficult to ascertain the precise point of insertion, 1^, Those in which the body is oval, with the thorax
from the impossibility of unrolling them. The same may nearly trapezoidal, arcuated laterally, or forming a semi-
be said of the canals destined to the emission of the se- oval truncated anteriorly, wider than the abdomen, at
creted fluids. They are concealed by a kind of membra- least at its posterior margin, but slightly, if at all, border-
nous diaphragm, which is applied, by means of a fleshy ed; the maxillary palpi terminated by a securiform joint,
pannicle, to the last ventrical segment. The fluid flows or nearly resembling that form ; the antennae insensibly
out laterally, and not from the extremity of the terminal
segment: it is of a brownish colour, extremely acrid and
irritating, of a peculiar and penetrating odour, and is ca¬
pable of being thrown to a distance of six or eight inches.
Those in which the body is generally oblong, with the
enlarged. Here are placed the genera Crypticus of
Lat. and Opatrum, Fabricius.
2c?, Those in which the body is narrow and elongated,
almost of equal breadth posteriorly, or wider, with the
thorax nearly square, and at least almost as long as it is
abdomen laterally embraced by the elytra, and in which broad; the antennae forming a thickish club, or abruptly
-L „„„ 4-1nnrl flilntpfl nf tlifx Snr-ll nrp flmnncr Others, tllfi
these parts are frequently narrowed towards the end, and dilated at the extremity. Such are, among others, the
terminate in a tail-like point, form Latreille’s first divi- genera Corticus of Dejean (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 13),
sion. The tarsi are nearly alike in both sexes, and without Orthocerus, Lat. (ibid. fig. 25), and Chiroscelis of
any remarkable dilatation. In the genus Acanthomera, Lamarck (ibid. fig. 32).
Lat. (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 2), the thorax is almost orbicu- 3d, Those of which the body is equally narrow and
lar, transversal; the abdomen nearly globular ; the third elongated, with the thorax nearly square, but of which
article of the antennae cylindrical, and longer than the the antennae are of the ordinary thickness, and not abrupt-
ensuing. In Blaps1 proper (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 27) the ly terminated by a mass or club. In Upis, Lat. (Plate
thorax is almost square, and plane or but slightly convex. CCXXVI. fig. 5), the thorax forms a lengthened square;
The abdomen is oval, transversely truncate at the base, the body is narrow, though not linear; the penultimate
more or less elongated. The elytra, for the most part, are joints of the antennae are lenticular and transversal. In
narrowed or prolonged to a point, especially in the males. Tenebrio4 properly so called (ibid. fig. 23), the thorax
The third article of the antennae is cylindrical, and much differs from that of Upis in being broader than long. T.
longer than the ensuing; the last is short and ovoid. As an molitor (the species figured) is a well-known insect, which
example of this genus (of which there are three British spe- appears in the evening in the least frequented parts of
cies), we may name a well-known insect, B. mortisaga
(ibid.) nearly an inch long, of a somewhat shining black,
the ends of the elytra forming an obtuse point. It oc¬
curs occasionally in pantries, store-rooms, and other parts
of houses, especially such as are dirty or neglected. A
houses. It is likewise found in flour-mills, bakehouses,
and among old walls. Its larva, commonly called the
meal-worm (ibid. fig. 29), is long, cylindrical, of an ochry
yellow, scaly in its texture, and smooth. It lives among
bran and flour, and forms a favourite and judicious food
1 From BXa%, slow.
* Owmg to the accidental omission, by the engraver, of several figures, which were afterwards inserted in the vacant spaces, some
ot the subjects of 1 late CCXX\ I. are by no means in systematic order ; but the references in the text will be found correct.
*' bee Htgne Animal, t. iv. p. 456.
* The name refers to the habits of the species, and signifies one that shuns the light.
E N T O M
ileo,i ra for nightingales in the domestic state. It sometimes oc¬
tet - curs in the interior of the human body. How it gets
me there nobody seems to know, but the fact is certain. We
^ ^ have three or four species of the genus in Britain. In a
singular genus, named Heterotarsus1 by Latreille (Plate
CCXXVI. fig. 30), the penultimate joint of the tarsi is
extremely small, in the form of a little knob, and received
into a longitudinal groove of that which precedes it, which
is itself more dilated, and almost cordiform (ibid. figs. 34
and 36). The only species with which we are acquainted
comes from Senegal. It has all the characters of a Tene-
brio, with the exception of its remarkable tarsi. At first
sight the two anterior seem to consist but of four joints,
and the two others of three. See the figures last refer¬
red to.
FAMILY II.—TAXICORNES, Lax.
In this family the small corneous tooth on the inner
side of the maxillae, mentioned in our generalities of the
preceding tribes, is wanting. All the species are v/inged.
Their body is generally square, their thorax trapezoidal
or semicircular, and either concealing or receiving the
head. The antennae, usually inserted beneath a marginal
projection of the sides of the head, are short, more or less
perfoliate or granose, and either enlarge insensibly or
terminate in a club. The legs are not adapted for run¬
ning, and all the articles of the tarsi are entire, and ter¬
minated by simple hooks; the anterior tibiae are often
broad and triangular. Several males have the head fur¬
nished with horns. The greater proportion of these He-
teromera occur on tree fungi, or beneath the bark ; some
live on the ground under stones. M. Dufour has observ¬
ed an excrementitial secreting apparatus in several genera,
and salivary vessels are known to exist in the genus Dia-
peris. The chylific ventricle is beset with little hair-like
I papillae.
In some the head is exposed, and never entirely re¬
ceived into a deep anterior notch of the thorax. The lat¬
ter portion is sometimes trapezoidal or square, sometimes
almost cylindrical; its margins, as well as those of the ely¬
tra, do not extend perceptibly beyond the body. This
division forms
Tribe 1st, Diaperales, Lat.
In the genus Diaperis properly so called2 (Plate
CCXXVI. fig. 1), the maxillary palpi terminate in an ar¬
ticle scarcely thicker than the preceding, and nearly cy¬
lindrical ; the anterior tibiae, scarcely, if at all, larger than
the following, are narrow, almost linear, and feebly dilated
at their extremity. Among the ovoid and convex species,
with the central portion of the thorax lobate posteriorly,
we may name the insect here figured, D. boleti. Its body
measures about three or four lines in length; it is of a
shining black, with three bands of fulvous yellow, transverse
and dentated, upon the elytra. It is a well-known British
species, not yet observed in Scotland. In Leiodes of Lat.
yAnisotoma of Fab.) the body is short and convex, and the
antennae terminate in an oval mass of five joints, of which
the second is the least. Mr Stephens enumerates above
thirty British species, of which L. arenaria was lately dis¬
covered near Cramond Bridge, Edinburgh.3 In this tribe
are contained several other genera of minute insects, such
as Tetratoma, Herbst, Eledona, Lat. &c.
O L O G Y. i65
Thibe 2d, Cossyphenes, Lat. Uoleoptera
’ Hetero-
These are analogous in form to the genus Pdtis of Fab. mera*
and to several Nitidulae and Cassidae. They are ovoid or
sub-hemispherical, and overlapped in their contour by the
dilated sides of the thorax and elytra. The head is in
some entirely concealed beneath the thorax,—in others it
is received or incased in its anterior emargination. The
last joint of the maxillary palpi is larger than the preced¬
ing ones, and hatchet-shaped. I his tribe corresponds to
the unrestricted genus Cossyphus of Olivier and Fabricius.
In the genus Cossyphus properly so called (Plate
CCXXVI.fig. 3), the thorax is almost semicircular, exhibits
no anterior emargination, and entirely covers and conceals
the head. The antennae are short, terminate abruptly in
an oval mass of four articles, chiefly transversal; the se¬
cond of the whole number and the following ones are al¬
most identical. These insects inhabit the East Indies,
the south of Europe, and the north of Africa. In He-
LiEus of Lat. and Kirby, the head is received into a deep
emargination, or median aperture of the thorax, and is ex¬
posed at least superiorly. The antennae terminate gra¬
dually in a narrow elongated club. These insects are
peculiar to New Holland. Some other species, proper to
South America, of which the body is almost hemispheri¬
cal, very convex, and of a soft or slightly solid consistence,
form the genus Nilio of Lat. At first sight they remind
one of Coccinellae, and of various species of Erotyli.
FAMILY III.—STENELYTRA,4 Lat.
This family of heteromerous Coleoptera differs from the
preceding one chiefly in the antennae, which are neither
granose nor perfoliated. In the greater number the ex¬
tremity is not thickened. The body is generally oblong,
arcuated above, and the legs elongated, as in many other
insects. The males, except in their antennae and general
dimensions, resemble the females. Our present species
generally are of much more active habits than those we
have just left. Many conceal themselves beneath the
bark of trees, while most of the others are met with on
flowers and foliage. Linnaeus referred most of them to
his genus Tenebrio, and distributed the remainder among
the incongruous groups of Necydalis, Chrysomela, Ceram-
byx, and Cantharis. In the first edition of the Regne
Animal, Latreille combined them under a single genus,
that oi‘ Helops; but a more intimate knowledge of their
structure, interior as well as exterior, has since induced
him to partition them into five tribes, referable to a corre¬
sponding number of the older genera, viz. Helops, Cistela,
Dirccea, of Fab. and (Edemera and Mycterus of Olivier.
In (Edemera the head is more or less narrowed, and pro¬
longed anteriorly in the form of a muzzle, and the penul¬
timate article of the tarsi is always bilobed,—a character
which seems to connect these insects with the weevils, or
rhyncophorous Coleoptera. In respect to the digestive canal,
and some other considerations, Helops and Cistela approach
the Tenebriones; but in Cistela the chylific ventricle is
smooth, and the mandibles entire, and the species affect
flowers and leaves, a habit by which they are distinguish¬
ed from Helops. Most of the Dirceae possess the faculty
of leaping, and the penultimate article of the tarsi, or at
least of some of them, is bifid. Some live in mushrooms,
others in old wood. They connect on one side with He-
s t/0111 ,£T££aG different, and ranees, a. part of the foot or hand. * From Ttiueru^u, to pierce through.
4 ntomologia Edinensis, p. 145. We also possess an undescribed species, from the same locality, named in our cabinet L. fuscieollis.
'rom mvos, narrow, and eXargav, sheath, in reference to the form of the elytra.
166
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleopteralops, and on the other with CEdemera, and still more with
Hetero- that sub-genus of the same tribe named Nothus by Zieg
mera. }er These are the principles by which Latreille has been
1 v—' recently directed in his arrangement of the present family.
A certain number (including the first four tribes) have
the antennae approximate to the eyes, and the head no
prolonged into a trunk, but terminated at most by a short
muzzle.
digestive canal is shorter than that of the Helopii, andColef
Tribe 1st, Helopii.
Antennae covered at their insertion by the margins of
the head, almost filiform, or a little larger towards the ex¬
tremity, generally composed of nearly cylindrical articles
attenuated towards the base, and of which the penu ti-
mate are frequently a little shorter, in the form of a re¬
versed cone,—the terminal being for the most part nearly
ovoid, and the third always lengthened. The extremity
of the mandibles is bifid; the last joint of the maxillary
palpi is of larger size, and hatchet-shaped, or m the form
of a reversed triangle. The eyes are oblong, renifoi m,
or emarginate. None of the legs are adapted for leaping;
the penultimate joint of the tarsi, or at least of the hind¬
most ones, is almost always entire, or not deeply bilobed ;
the terminal hooks are simple, or without fissure or den¬
tation. The body is for the most part arcuated above, and
always of a firm and solid consistence. Such of the larvae
as are known are filiform, smooth, shining, with very short
feet, like those of the Tenebriones. They occur in old
wood. It is also beneath the bark of ancient trees that
we find the perfect insects. The tribe corresponds in
great part to the genus Helops of Labricius.
Some have the body almost elliptical, strongly arcuated
above, or very convex, with the antennae at the utmost as
long as the thorax, compressed and dilated towards their
extremity, like the teeth of a saw ; the thorax transversal,
plane above, either trapezoidal and widening posteriorly,
or almost square; the elytra frequently terminated by a
point or tooth. The posterior extremity of the praester-
num forms a little salient point, which is received by a
forked notch of the mesosternum. Here are placed the
genera Epitragus and Cnodalon of Lat. and Campsia
of Lepelletier and Serville.
In all the other Helopii, the mesosternum exhibits no
marked emargination, and the posterior extremity of the
praesternum is not prolonged to a point. Here are placed
the genera Spheniscus of Kirby, Acanthopus of Me-
gerle and Dejean, Amarygmus of Dalman, SpiiiERoxus
and Adelium of Kirby, and Helops properly so called.
In the last named, most of the joints of the antennae are
nearly in the form of a reversed cone, or cylindrical and
attenuated at the base. The thorax is transverse, or
scarcely as long as broad, either square, or trapezoidal, or
heart-shaped, abruptly narrowed posteriorly, terminated
by pointed angles, and always applied exactly to the base
of the elytra. Here also are placed the genera Lasna of
Megerle, Stenotrachelus, Strongylium of Kirby, and
Pytho of Latreille.1
the chylific ventricle exhibits no papillae. They corre- He*
spond to the genus Cistela of Fabricius. . ^
In some all the articles of the tarsi are entire. Ihe '
last joint of the maxillary palpi is simply a little larger,
obconical or triangular. In Lystronichus, Lat., the tho¬
rax is thick, narrower than the abdomen, almost orbicular
or heart-shaped. The antennae are thickened towards the
extremity. The thighs are clubbed. In Cistela pro¬
perly so called, the thorax is depressed, trapezoidal, of
the breadth of the abdomen at its posterior margin, or
scarcely narrower. The antennae are filiform, or slightly
enlarged at the extremity, and the head is advanced in the
manner of a muzzle. In others, such as the genus AZ/e-
cula, Fab., the penultimate article of the tarsi is bilobed,
and’the last joint of the mdxillary palpi much dilated, in
the form of a hatchet. The body is generally more oblong.
Tribe 3d, Serropalpides
The most remarkable distinction of this tribe, and that
from which it derives its name, is the frequent serration
of the maxillary palpi, which are likewise large and in¬
clined. The antennae are inserted in an emargination of
the eyes, exposed as in the preceding tribe, and often
short and filiform. The mandibles are emargipate or bifid
at the extremity, and the hooks ol the tarsi are simple.
The body is almost cylindrical in some, oval in others,
with the head inclined and the thorax trapezoidal. The
anterior extremity of the head is not advanced, and the
posterior thighs are not inflated. The penultimate ar¬
ticle of the tarsi, or at least of the four anterior, is fre¬
quently bilobed ; and in those in which it is entire the pos¬
terior legs at least are adapted for leaping ; they are thin,
long, compressed, the tarsi small, almost setaceous, with
the first article elongated. The anterior are always short
and dilated. The genus Dirccea of Fabricius forms the
type of the tribe. It contains the genera Orchesia, Lat.,
Eustrophus, Illiger, Hallomenus, Paykul, Dircjea
(proper), Fab., Melandrya, Fab., Hypulus, Paykul,
Serropalpus, Hellw., and Conopalpus, Gyll.
Tribe 4th, CEdemerites.2
Tribe 2d, Cistelides.
This is very closely allied to the preceding, but the
insertion of the antennse is not covered. The mandibles
terminate in an entire point, or are unemarginate. The
hooks of the tarsi are dentated beneath like the teeth of
a comb. Several of these insects live on flowers. Their
This tribe is allied to the preceding by several charac¬
ters, such as the exposed insertion of the antennae near
the eyes, the bifid extremity of the mandibles, the bilo-
bation of the penultimate article of the tarsi, and the
hatchet shape of the terminal joint of the maxillary palpi;
but they exhibit other characters, which authorize their
separation. The body is elongated, narrow, almost linear,
with the head and thorax scarcely so broad as the abdo¬
men ; the antennse are longer than those parts, serrated
in some (such as Calopus'), filiform or setaceous, and com¬
posed of long and nearly cylindrical articles, in others.
The anterior extremity of the head is more or less pro¬
longed in the form of a small muzzle, and rather restricted
behind, with the eyes proportionally more elevated than
among the preceding tribes. The thorax is at least as
long as wide, and a little narrowed behind. Ihe elytra
are linear, or narrowed posteriorly, and are frequently
flexible. Latreille regards the species as allied to lelfr
phorus and Zonitis. M. Dufour has recognised in the
CEdemerites the existence of salivary vessels, of a simple
nature, flexuous and floating, as well as of a paunch form¬
ed by a lateral crop, furnished with a neck or pedicle.
1 For the details of these and other genera of the tribe which we have been unable to do more than name, we must refer therea e
to Latreille’s Genera Crustac. et Insect.; the Encyclop. Method.; Linn. Trans, vol. xii.; Dalman’s Analecta Entomol.; Dejean’s Catalogue,
and Fischer’s Entomog. de la Russie.
2 From oiliu, I swell, and thigh.
ENTOMOLOGY.
167
Dleopra They are the only Coleoptera in which that character has
Het ' been observed. These insects, of which the transforma-
me: tions are unknown, are found on flowers and trees. They
are all comprised in the old genus QZdemera of Olivier.
In some the antennae are always short, inserted in a
notch of the eyes, and simple ; the posterior thighs are
inflated, at least in one of the sexes; the thorax as broad
as the base of the abdomen; and the hooks of the tarsi
bifid. Such is the genus Nothus of Ziegler, in which the
maxillary palpi are terminated by a large elongated hat¬
chet-shaped article. The posterior legs in one of the
sexes are very large, and furnished beneath with a strong
tooth and two little spurs, near the lower extremity of
the tibiae. The head is not prolonged anteriorly.
In others the antennae are always longer than the head
and thorax, the legs usually of nearly equal size, the tho¬
rax narrower than the base of the abdomen, slightly nar¬
rowed posteriorly, and the hooks of the tarsi entire. Such
are Calopus, Fab. Sparedrus, Megerle, Dytilus, Fisch.
and CEdemera properly so called (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 4).
Tribe 5th, Rhynchostoma.1
In this, which forms the concluding tribe of the Stene-
lytra, are grouped certain insects, some of which are evi¬
dently allied to the preceding, while others in a natural
system might be regarded as belonging to the Ilhynco-
phori. The head is obviously prolonged anteriorly in the
form of an elongated muzzle, or of a flattened trunk,
bearing the antennae at its base, and in advance of the
eyes, which are always entire or without emargination.
Sometimes the antennae are filiform, and the muzzle not
enlarged at the base; the thorax is narrowed in front in
form of a truncated cone or of a trapezium; the ligula
is emarginate, and the terminal joint of the tarsi bilobed.
These insects occur on flowers, a habitat indicated by the
silky prolongation of the terminal lobe of the maxillae.
Such are the genera Stenostoma, Fab. and Mycterus,
s ! Clairville.
Sometimes the antennae are terminated by an elongat¬
ed mass, formed by from three to five terminal joints;
; the muzzle is very flat, with a projecting angle on each
side, anterior to the extremity; the thorax is in the form
of a truncated heart, narrowed posteriorly; the ligula
and all the joints of the tarsi are entire. These insects
dwell beneath the bark of trees, and seem allied to the
i Anthribi of Fabricius. They form the genus Rhinosimus
of Lat. and Oliv. Those of which the club of the an¬
tennae consists of only three articles, fall under the genus
Salpingus of Uliger. We have several British species.
*
The second general division of heteromerous Coleop¬
tera forms
>
■
FAMILY lY—TRACH ELIDES.
l
The head is triangular or heart-shaped, borne upon a
kind of neck or abrupt pedicle ; the body is usually soft;
the elytra flexible, without striae, sometimes very short,
in others slightly inclined. The maxillae are not ungui-
culated. The joints of the tarsi are often entire, and the
hooks of the posterior ones bifid. The majority of these
insects live in the perfect state on various plants, of which
they devour the foliage, or suck the nectarous juices,
iany, when seized, bend their heads, contract their limbs,
and simulate death. Others are extremely active. La-
icule divides them into six tribes.
Coleoptera
Tribe 1st, Lagriarue. Hetero-
These have the body elongated, and narrower in front;
the thorax either almost cylindrical or square, or ovoid
and truncated. The antennae, inserted near a notch on
the eyes, are simple, filiform, or insensibly increasing
towards the extremity, generally and at least partially
granose, with the terminal article longer than the preced¬
ing in the males. The palpi are thickened at their ex¬
tremity, and the terminal joint of the maxillary is larger,
and in the form of a reversed triangle. The thighs are
oval and clubbed ; the tibiae elongated, narrow, with at
least the two anterior arched. The penultimate article
of the tarsi is bilobed, and the hooks of the last are nei¬
ther incised nor dentated. The tribe is formed of the
genus Lagria of Fabricius, subdivided in accordance with
certain characters detailed' in the Regne Animal^ t. v.
p. 52.
Tribe 2d, Pyrochroides,
Approach the preceding in regard to the tarsi and the
elongation and restriction of the anterior part of the
body,—but the latter is flattened, with the thorax almost
orbicular or trapezoidal. The antennae, at least in the
males, are pectinated or plumose—en panache ; the max¬
illary palpi are somewhat toothed or serrated, and ter¬
minate in an elongated and almost hatchet-shaped article;
the labial palpi are filiform. The abdomen is elongated,
entirely covered by the elytra, and rounded at the end.
These insects are found in woods in spring. The larvae
dwell beneath the bark of trees.
In the genus Dendroides, Lat. the antennae of the
males are almost as long as the body, and give off long
bearded filaments; in the same sex the eyes are large,
and approximated behind. The thorax is trapezoidal, or
in the form of a truncated cone; and the body, as well as
the legs, is proportionally more elongated. In the genus
Pyrochroa properly so called2 (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 6),
the antennse are shorter and simply pectinated, the eyes
distant, and the thorax almost orbicular and transversal.
Tribe 3d, Mordellon^:.
These do not present, either in relation to the form of
the tarsi and their hooks, or to that of the antennae, any
constant character in common, but they are easily distin¬
guished from the other Heteromera of the same family
by the general conformation of their body. It is elevated,
and arcuated; the head is low, the thorax trapezoidal or
semicircular, and the elytra either very short, or narrow¬
ed, and terminated by a point, as well as the abdomen.
Several of these insects approach the Pyrochroides in
respect to their antenme ;—others in their maxillae, the
hooks of the tarsi, and their parasitical habits, resemble
Nemognathus and Sitaris, two genera of an ensuing tribe ;
 but they differ from all of these in their extreme agili¬
ty, and the firm and solid consistence of their teguments.
They formed the old genus Mordella of Linn.
Some have the palpi almost of the same thickness
throughout. The antennae of the males are strongly pec¬
tinated or fan-like. The extremity of the mandibles offers
no emargination. The articles of the tarsi are always en¬
tire, and the hooks of the hindmost are dentated or bifid.
The middle of the posterior margin of the thorax is al¬
ways much prolonged backwards, like a scutellum. Ihe
eyes are unemarginate. The larvae of certain species (/ft-
piphori) live in the nests of wasps.
The genus Ripiphorus of Bose (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 7)
1 From leak, and trr'opa, mouth.
From fire, and yellow.
168
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera has the wings extended, and reaching beyond the elytra,
Hetero- which equal the length of the abdomen. I he hooks ol
mera' the tarsi are bifid. The antennae, inserted near the inner
v—edge of the eyes, are pectinated on both sides in the
males,—serrated, or with only a single range of short
teeth, in the females. The terminal lobe of the maxillae
is very long, linear, and projecting ; and the ligula is also
elongated, and deeply bifid. Some naturalists having
found in the nest of the common wasp several living
specimens of B. paradoxus, it has been inferred that
they live there in the larva state. M. Farines, however,
has observed that the larva of R- bimaculatus lives ant
undergoes its transformations in the roots of Eryngium
campestre.1 Here are placed the genera Pelocotoma of
Fischer, and Myodites of Lat.
Others have the wings always covered by the elytra,
which are prolonged nearly to the extremity of the ab¬
domen, and terminate in a point. The posterior margin
of the thorax is slightly if at all lobed. The abdomen of
the females is terminated by a pointed tail. I he eyes
are sometimes emarginate. The maxillary palpi are ter¬
minated by a large article, in the form of a hatchet or re¬
versed triangle. The extremity of the mandibles is notch¬
ed or bifid. The antennae, even in the males, are merely
serrated. In Mordella properly so called ( Plate CCXXVI.
fig. 8), the antennae, of equal size throughout, are slightly
serrated in the males. All the articles of the tarsi are
entire, and the hooks of the last present beneath one or
two small indentations. M. Dufour has observed in a
species of tins genus two floating salivary vessels, longer
than the body. The hepatic vessels have no caecal in¬
sertion,—an exceptive character in the present section.
The genus Anaspis,2 Geoff, is distinguished from the pre¬
ceding by the antennae, which are simple, and gradually
enlarged, by the emargination of the eyes, and by the four
anterior tarsi, of which the penultimate article is bilobed.
The hooks of the last are entire and without sensible den¬
tations.
generally bifid. They are all herbivorous in the perfectCole«fi i#fi
^ "    !4-?r« 1 «>rVtils» lot*iroQ in iVlA rlunol TTalJUjjjjj’O*
state, but many are parasitical, while larvae, in the dwel¬
lings of other tribes.
Tribe 5th, Horiales.
These differ from the ensuing, or Cantharidiae, in their
hooks, which are dentated, and each accompanied by a
serrated appendage. The antennae are filiform, not long¬
er than the thorax; the labrum is small, the mandibles
strong and projecting, the palpi filiform, the thorax square,
and the two posterior legs very robust, at least in one of
the sexes. The tribe is composed of the genus Horia
of Fabricius (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 10). These insects
inhabit the intratropical regions of India and America.
The lamented Lansdown Guilding has published figures
and a short history of H* ,niaculataS> It deposits its eggs
in the nest of a wmod-gnawing bee {Xylocopa teredo), and
the larvae, when hatched, are supposed to devour the food
deposited in the ligneous chambers for a very different
purpose by the parent bee. “ Forsan,” says Mr Guild¬
ing, “ dum larva cibum apibus praeparatum avide consu-
mit, hospes fame peril.” It is often so.
Tribe 6th, Cantharidle.
Tribe 4th, Anthicides.
Here the antennae are simple, or slightly serrate, fili¬
form, or a little thicker towards the end, and most of the
articles are in the form of a reversed cone, and nearly
alike, except the last (and sometimes also the two pre¬
ceding), which is larger and oval. The maxillary palpi
are terminated by a securiform club. The penultimate
joint of the tarsi is bilobed. The body is narrow anterior¬
ly, with the eyes entire or slightly emarginate. The tho¬
rax is sometimes in the form of a reversed oval, narrowed
and truncated posteriorly, sometimes divided into twro
knots, in others semicircular. Certain species are found
on plants of different kinds, but the majority occur upon
the ground. They run with great swiftness, and their
larvae have been supposed to be parasitical. They com¬
pose the genus Notoxus3 of Geoffroy, which Latreille
divides into SEaAPTiA, Steropis, and Notoxus proper¬
ly so called.4
The two concluding tribes of this family, and of the
heteromerous section, exhibit certain characters in com¬
mon, such as the termination of the mandibles in a sim¬
ple point, the palpi filiform or simply a little longer at their
extremity, but never either clubbed or securiform, the
abdomen soft, the elytra flexible, and in most instances
blistering or vesicatorial, and, with few exceptions, the
articles of the tarsi entire, and the hooks of these parts
This tribe is distinguished from the preceding by the
hooks of the tarsi, which are deeply divided, and appear
as if double. The head is generally large, broader, and
rounded posteriorly. The thorax is usually narrowed be¬
hind, and approaches the form of a truncated heart; in
some it is almost orbicular. The elytra are often some¬
what inclined laterally, or tectiform, and rounded. These
insects counterfeit death when seized, and several of
them exude a yellow caustic liquor, of a penetrating
odour, from the joints of their antenna;; but no peculiar
apparatus for the production of that secretion has yet been
ascertained. Many kinds are highly serviceable in the
formation of blistering applications. They were all in¬
cluded originally in the old genus Meloe of Linnaeus,
now greatly subdivided. The anatomical observations of
M. Dufour, and the extremely interesting researches of
M. Bretonneau of Tours, on the vesicatorial properties
of this tribe of insects, have enabled Latreille to arrange
them in what he regards as a natural order,—not greatly
differing, however, from that which he had previously
adopted. M. Bretonneau has ascertained that the genus
Sitaris is not vesicatorial,—and M. Dufour has found that
these same Heteromera possess only four biliary vessels
instead of six, the amount by which other insects of the
tribe are characterized. That genus also resembles goni¬
tis in its general organization, while the latter is itself
closely allied to Cantharis. The series of groups adopt¬
ed by Latreille is also in harmony with the progressive
changes in the form of the antennae.
In some these organs are composed in both sexes of
only nine articulations, of which the la-st is large, and m
the form of an ovoid head ; those of the males, as well as
their maxillary palpi, being very irregular. Ihe body is
depressed. Such is the genus Cerocoma of Geoff. Ihe
species make their appearance during the summer solstice,
and frequently in great numbers on the same spot. They
frequent the flowers of the wild chamomile, milfoil, &c.
Meloe Schcrfferi of Linn, of a bluish green, with the an¬
tennae and legs wax yellow, may be mentioned as an ex¬
ample.
In all the others the palpi are identical and regular m
Annales des Sciences Nat. viii. 224 ; and Nouv. Diet. d'Hist. Nat. second edition, art. Ripiphore.
1; rom « priv. and scntcllum. * 8ee Regne Animal, t. v. p. 58 ; and Mem. des Nat. de Mo scon, i- 166-
trom voros, back, and o&t, pointed. * Linn. Trans, vol. xiv. part ii. p. 315.
ENTOMOLOGY.
eopwi both sexes. The antennae have generally eleven articu-
ete lations, and when they offer one or two less they termi-
nen nate regularly in a club. The body is thickish, and the
iMP elytra somewhat inclined.
In some the antennae, always regular and granose in
both sexes, sometimes appear to be composed of only from
nine to ten joints, and are not longer than half the body ;
they occasionally terminate in an arcuated club, or are
obviously enlarged at the extremity; while in others they
form from the second joint a short cylindrical or almost
fusiform stem. They constitute the genus Mylabris of
Fabricius. Such of them as have the two or three last
joints of the antennae united, at least in the females, and
forming an abrupt, thick, ovoid, or button-shaped club, the
extremity of which does not extend beyond the thorax,
and in which the total joints are only from nine to ten,
form the genus Hycleus of Lat. Such, again, as have the
antennae proportionally longer, and offering in both sexes
eleven distinct and well-divided articulations, gradually
enlarging, or terminating by degrees in an elongated club,
of which the terminal joint, very distinguishable from the
preceding, is large and ovoid, belong to the genus Myla¬
bris properly so called (Plate CCXXVL fig. 11). The spe¬
cies we have here represented is the M. chicorii. It is more
than half an inch long, black, pilose, with an almostrround
yellowish spot on the base of each elytron, and two trans¬
verse and indented bands of the same colour, one near the
centre, and the other nearer the extremity. The antennae
are black. This insect, unknown in Britain, is occasion¬
ally found as far north as the vicinity of Paris, but it is
much more common in the south of France, and other me¬
ridional parts of Europe. Its blistering qualities are quite
as active and efficient as those of the true Cantharis or
Spanish fly; and in Italy it is employed for the same pur¬
poses, mixed up with the latter, or even used alone. M.
pustulatus is used by the Chinese.
In the other Heteromera of this tribe the antennae, al-
i ways composed of eleven very distinct joints, are almost
of equal thickness throughout, or rather more slender to¬
wards the extremity, and frequently much longer than the
head and thorax. They are irregular in several males.
In Meloe properly so called (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 12),
, the antennae are composed of short and rounded joints,
the intermediate of which are the largest, and sometimes
so disposed that these parts in the males exhibit an emar-
gination or crescent-like form. The wings are wanting,
and the elytra, oval or triangular, with a portion of the
inner margins crossing each other, only partially cover
the abdomen, especially that of the females, which, as
often happens, is extremely voluminous. According to
Dufour, the crop of these insects may be considered as a
true gizzard, being furnished internally with callous and
anastomosing plicae, and separated from the stomach or
1 chylific ventricle by a valve formed of four principal pieces,
each of which results from two hollow cylinders placed
back to back, and tridentated posteriorly.
All the species of the genus Meloe are awkward and
mis-shapen, and of sluggish movements. They are found
either crawling slowly and heavily along the surface of the
169
earth, or on plants of humble growth. They feed on Coleoptera
leaves, and when handled, an oily fluid of a yellow or red- Hetero¬
dish colour flows from the joints of their legs. Latreille t ^era. ^
suspects that these insects are the Baprestides of the an-
cients, to which were attributed such destructive effects
on cattle, when inadvertently swallowed by the latter.
The genus seems characteristic of the European continent
and islands. Eight or nine species occur in Britain; and
of the twenty-one species enumerated by Dejean, the
whole are European. Mr Kirby however possesses a
specimen taken in North America by Professor Peck.
They are all characterized by dark or sombre colours.
They are most frequent in spring and autumn, and occur
in fields and pathways, preferring, it is said, a sunny situ¬
ation and a sandy soil. In some districts of Spain they
are employed along with Cantharides, or in their room.
They are also used by farriers.1 The females, when filled
with eggs, become greatly dilated, and in that condition
much exceed the males in size. An individual of the for¬
mer sex observed by Goedart, and fed by him with the
leaves of anemone and ranunculus, laid 2212 eggs be¬
tween the 12th of May and the 12th of June, besides
about as many more which were thrown aside uncounted.
It effected this laying at two separate periods, placing the
extremity of its abdomen in a hole which it had formed
in the earth, and depositing the eggs in packets. These
are of a yellowish colour, and resemble grains of sand
pressed together. The larvae are long, cylindrical, gar¬
nished with scattered hairs, composed of eleven nearly
equal segments, besides the head, which is oval, and pro¬
vided with two eyes, and a pair of longish antennae. They
have six legs, of rather large size compared with the
length of the body, which is terminated by two long bris¬
tle-like appendices. Their larvae are supposed by some
ingenious observers to be parasitical on the bodies of
winged insects. Degeer having remarked that a strong
resemblance existed between the larvae of Meloe, and a
small insect which he found adhering to Eristalis intrica-
rius, he placed two domestic flies among the former, and
found that they were speedily adhered to by the larvae, which
stuck to them pertinaceously, and caused their death in two
or three days. Bees are also subject to their attacks ; and
MM. Lepelletier and Serville are said to have recently
confirmed the observations of Degeer, by breeding these
parasites from the eggs of Meloe. “ On the other hand,”
says Mr Curtis, “ Mr Kirby is disposed to think that his
Pediculus Melittce (P. Apis, Linn. ?) is not the larva of
Meloe ; and M. Leon Dufour has even formed them into
a genus under the name of Triungularis andrenetarum;
and a figure of one is given in the thirteenth volume
of the Annates des Sciences Naturelles.”2 3 M. Latreille
seems to adopt the opinion of their parasitical nature ; and
the facts, so far as known, are well stated by M. Walke-
naer, in his Memoires pour servir a VHistoire Naturelle des
Halides? The digestive system of the genus Meloe, with
other anatomical details, has been illustrated by M. Du¬
four ;4 and we are indebted for a monograph of the British
species to Dr Leach.5
All the ensuing genera of the tribe are provided with
1 In regard to these insects we may further observe, that Dr Leach was informed by Mr Hunneman that the species called M.
'varicgatus is highly prized in Germany as a medicine, being considered as a specific in hydrophobia. Tor this purpose it is taken by
slipping a hair round its neck, and suspending it till dry; the oily secretion first thrown out being preserved, as in that the chief
virtue is supposed to exist. Mr Hunneman adds more particularly, that the late king of Prussia, Frederick the Great, purchased
the nostrum from the discoverer for a valuable consideration, as a specific against the bite of a mad dog. According to the recipe,
twenty-five of these insects that have been preserved in honey, are, with two drachms of powdered black ebony, one drachm of vir-
ginia snake-root, one ditto of lead filings, and twenty grains of fungus sorbi, to be reduced to a very fine substance ; the whole, with
two ounces of theriaca of Venice (and, if necessary, a little elder root), to be formed into an electuary ! (See Linn. Trans, xi. p. 245.)
3 Brit. Ent. vol. vi. fol. 279. 4 -^nn- ^es Sciences Nat. t. iii. p. 486.
s See also Introduction to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 225. 5 Linn. Trans, xi. p. 35 and 242.
VOL. IX. Y
170
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera wings, and elytra, of the ordinary structure, covering lon-
Ketero- „itudina]ly the back of the abdomen. In the genus Can-
*_THARIS> Geoff. (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 14), all the joints
^ ’l *- ^jle jarsi are entire, the thorax almost ovoid, a little
elongated, and restricted anteriorly, truncated posterior¬
ly. The second joint of the antennae is much shorter
than the following, and the last of the maxillary palpi is
sensibly larger than the preceding. The head is a little
broader than the thorax. rlhe antennae of the males are
sometimes irregular, and even semi-pectinated. Ihe name
of Cantharis is extremely ancient, and has been received
in a variety of acceptations. Aristotle did not apply it to
any particular insect, but to various Coleoptera.1 Lin¬
naeus made use of the term to designate a great genus of
the same order, which, however, did not include the tiue
Cantharis, which he placed in Mdoe. Geoffroy substitut¬
ed the name Cicindela, already otherwise employed, for
that of Cantharis, and placed in the latter the genuine
Spanish fly. Fabric!us placed it in his genus Lytta, which
corresponds to Cantharis of Geoffroy. Ihe latter, how¬
ever, amidst all these revolutions of names, appears to
have maintained its ground, and to have been the most
generally adopted.
The Cantharides properly so called have an elongated
and almost cylindrical form. The history of the most
noted species, C. vesicatoria, commonly called the Spa¬
nish fly (fig. 14), is still somewhat doubtful, so far as con¬
cerns our knowledge of its transformations. Neither De-
geer nor Geoffroy ever saw the larva. Ihose who sup¬
pose themselves to have seen it say that it feeds on vari¬
ous roots, and is metamorphosed in the earth,—an obser¬
vation which accords with the usually sudden appearance
of the perfect insect, the unexpected apparition of which
has sometimes given rise to the belief that they migrated
from more southern regions. It is described by Olivier
as consisting, in its early state, of thirteen segments, soft,
of a yellowish-white, with six short scaly feet,—the head
rounded and flattish, and furnished with two short filiform
antennae. The mouth consists of a pair of tolerably solid
maxillae and four palpi. The medicinal uses of this now
celebrated beetle are universally known, but its connec¬
tion with the sanitory art is not traceable to a remote
antiquity ; for the Cantharis of the ancients was certainly
not the same as the Spanish fly, and is even supposed to
have belonged to a different genus. According to the
testimony of Pliny and Dioscorides, who affirm that the
best Cantharides are such as are marked with transverse
yellow bands, it becomes evident that their species wras
the Mylabris chicorii already mentioned, which in China
is used for epispastic preparations down to the present
day. The insect of the European laboratories, C. vesica¬
toria, is of a beautiful golden green, with black antennae.
The males are less than the females, and there exists in
general a great variety of size among different individuals.
These insects are very common in France,2 Italy, and
Spain. The greater proportion employed in commerce
come from the last-named country, and hence their com¬
mon name. Their collection requires precaution on the
part of those who are employed in that office, both with a
view to guard against injurious accidents, and for the pro¬
per preservation of the objects themselves. They are
killed by means of vapour of vinegar, and completely dried
after they are dead. The following is the plan of pro¬
cedure : In the course of the month of June the natives
place extended cloths or sheets beneath the trees onCoi^
which the Cantharides occur, and make them tumbleTet*)
down by beating all the branches. When they have ob- ’
tained a considerable quantity, they either put them into
a hair sieve, which they place over the vapour of vinegar,
or into a fine cloth, which they dip repeatedly in a ves¬
sel containing diluted vinegar. They are then allowed
to dry under the shade of some loft or granary, being
placed on hurdles covered with cloth or paper, and stirred
occasionally with a stick, or with the hand protected by
a stout glove. WThen thoroughly dry they are packed into
vessels of wood or glass, which are afterwards carefully
and tightly closed. These little processes being properly
attended "to, the insects retain their blistering qualities
for a length of time.
The chemical analysis of Cantharides has been made
by numerous experimentalists, who appear, however, to
have confined their researches rather too exclusively to
the Spanish fly. Had they studied ■with equal assiduity
the genera Mdoe and Mylabris, and even Carabus, Coc-
cindla, and several Tenebriones, they would have disco¬
vered in these also an analogous or identical principle,
less active perhaps in its nature, but for that very rea
son susceptible of being employed with greater advan
tage in special cases. Thouvenet, Fourcroy, Beaupoil
Orfila, and especially Robiquet, have arrived at some re
markable results. The latter has demonstrated the ex
istence of a particular substance, on which he has be
stowed the name of Cantharadine, and which may be
characterized as white, crystalline, insoluble in water,
soluble in boiling alcohol, in ether, and in oils. It is the
seat of the vesicatorial or blistering property, which does
not therefore reside in the green oil, nor in the black in¬
soluble matter, nor in the yellow matter soluble in alco¬
hol and in water,—the other ingredients of which analysis
has demonstrated the presence. This discovery, though
important in a scientific point of view, has produced no
alteration in the practice, which proceeds effectually
enough upon the old experience, that when the substance
of the insect is i educed to powder, mixed up with some
fatty matter, and applied to the surface of the body, it
immediately proceeds to action, and detaches the outer
skin from the dermis with great rapidity. It is also used
for several other purposes.3 Naturalists are acquainted
with many other species of Cantharis besides the Spanish
fly. Of these we may mention C. Syriaca of Olivier,
which occurs in Syria and the south of Europe, and the
C. dubia of the same author, found in the southern pro¬
vinces of France, Italy, the Levant, and Siberia. In the
United States a species, described by Fabricius under the
name of vittata, is employed for medicinal purposes. It
is found in great abundance among potatoes.
The remaining genera of the tribe are Zonitis, Fab.
Nemognathus, Lat. Gnathium, Kirby, and Sitaris,
Lat.
/f
TETRAMERA.
Four Articulations to all the Tarsi.
The numerous and important groups which constitute
this, the third primary section of the coleopterous order,
are all vegetable feeders. The larvae have very short
1 Hist. Animal, lib. iv. cap. 7-
E N T O M
jleojixa feet, and in many even these seem wanting, or are re-
jtranra.placed by mammillae. The perfect insects occur among
"S flowers and plants. Latreille divides them into seven fa¬
milies. The larvae of the first four or five most commonly
live concealed in the interior of plants, and are generally
destitute of feet, or have these organs extremely small;
many attack the hard or ligneous portion of their dwel¬
ling. These Coleoptera are the largest of their section.
FAMILY L—ItHYNCHOPHORA.1
This numerous and widely extended family, so re¬
markable for the beauty of its South American species, is
easily recognised by its more or less extended muzzle,
terminated by a mouth, of which the parts, from their pe¬
culiar structure and position, are not easily determined
without the aid of microscopical examination and dissec¬
tion. The abdomen is generally of a bulky form, the an¬
tennae geniculate and clavate, and the penultimate joint
of the tarsi almost always bilobate. In many tribes the
posterior thighs are dentated. The body of the larvae is
oblong, and resembles a small white worm, exceedingly
soft. The head is squamous or scaly, and the feet are
either wanting or mammillaeform. They live by gnawing
the various parts of plants. Many dwell exclusively in
the interior of fruits and seeds, and do great damage to
the farmer, grain-dealer, and horticulturist. Some, such
as the Brachyceri, are supposed to live beneath the ground,
and to feed on roots.
The muzzle in this richly adorned family differs essen¬
tially from the rostrum of the hemipterous species. It is
in fact merely a prolongation of the head, and not com¬
posed of the parts of the mouth, as in the last-named or¬
der. This prolongation, however, exerts an influence over
the alimentary tube, the oesophagus being thereby some¬
what prolonged, and—as we find to be the case in the
i truly suctorial tribes—there is also a provision of salivary
glands.
We have little detailed information regarding the in¬
ternal structure of the Curculionidae. Two species (Atte-
labus betuleti and Cryptorhynchus lapathi) have been exa-
1 Since the publication of the first edition of the Rcgne Animal, considerable attention has been bestowed on this difficult
family. Messrs Germar and Schcenherr, more particularly, have devoted their time to its elucidation ; and the latter author (in his
Curculionidum Dispositio Mcthodica, Leipsic, 1 gives a hundred and ninety-four genera, exclusive of sub-genera. He divides the
Curculionidae, in accordance with the straightness or geniculalion of their antennae, into two great sections, the Recticornes or Or-
thocr.ra, and Fracticornes or Gonatocera. The recent observations of M. Leon Dufbur on the internal structure of these insects seem
to strengthen the propriety of that classification. The species of the latter section are furnished with salivary vessels, which are
wanting in those of the former. In Latreille’s recent reconstruction of Schoenherr’s arrangement, the Recticornes compose four
tribes—the Bruchelet, the Authribides, the Attelabidcs, and the Brcntides. In the first two the labrum and palpi are very visible; these
palpi are filiform or larger at the extremity; they are small and conical in the two other tribes, as in all the following lihyncho-
phora. The Fracticornes form a fifth tribe, viz. the Curculionites. These are divided into the Brevirostres and the Longirostres,
terms which bear relation to the place of insertion of the antennae. In the former these organs are attached to the extremity
of the muzzle, or on a line with the base of the mandibles,—while they are placed further back, or nearer the head, in the latter.
, H16 genera of the Brevirostres are arranged in three subtribes, viz. Pachyrhyncides, Brachycerides, and Liparidas,—corresponding to
the genera Curculio, Brachycerus, and Liparus of Olivier ; the last sub-tribe comprising also some Lixi of that author. The rela¬
tive size and form of the mentum, the mandibles, the presence or absence of wings, the direction of the lateral sulci of the proboscis,
in which the first joint of the antennae is partly lodged, the length of that joint, and the proportions and forms of the thorax—these
and other secondary considerations furnish the characters of the various groups. The CurcuViorutes Longirostres are divided into two
principal sections, in accordance with their habits, and the composition of their antennae. These consisit, in the Phyllophagi, of not
fewer than ten joints, the last three of which, at least, form the terminal club. But among the Spcrvmtophagi the antennae never con¬
sist of more than nine joints, of which the last or the last two form the club. The legs of the Phyllophagi are sometimes contiguous
and sometimes remote. Those in which they approach each other are divided into four tribes:—the Lixides (Lixus, lab.), the
Rhynchrenidet (Rhynchaenus, Oliv.), the Cionides (Cionus, Clairv.), and the Orchestides (Orchestes, Illig.). The Spermatophagi, again,
form three principal sections or sub-tribes:—the Calandrwidcs (Calandra, Clairv., Fab-), the Cossonides (Cossonus, Clairv.), and the
Dryopthorides (Dryopthorus, Schcen., Bulbifer, Hej.). These latter lead to the Hylesini, Fab., and other Xylophagi.. (See Ktgne
Animal, t. v. p. C9.) A great proportion of the European Curculionidoe are most accurately described by Gyllenhal in his Insecta
Succica. Mr Kirby’s paper on the genus Apion (Linn. Trans, vol. iv.) is also deservedly esteemed. The reader will find a critical
and expository treatise on this family by Latreille, under the term Rhynchophores, of the Diet. Class. d'Hist.Nat. t. xiv. p. 584
He may also consult Gemiar’s Inseciorum Species Novae, and the continuation of Iliiger’s Magazin fiir Insectenkunde. The British
species are described, with their usual skill, by Messrs Curtis and Stephens. The latter, in the second edition of his Nomenclature,
( enumerates above 500 indigenous species. The Scottish kinds are described in our Entomologia Edinensis. We see, from our recent
Correspondence, that about 3000 species of this great family are now known to naturalists.
Albildungen zur Anatomic der Insecten. 3 Introduction to Entomology, vol. iv. p. 107.
O L O G Y.
171
mined and described by Ramdbor.2 In both of these the Coleoptera
alimentary canal ^as moderately long, the stomach par-Telramera.
tially shaggy, and the small intestine inversely claviform.
In other respects, however, they differed materially.
There was no crop or gizzard in the former, the stomach
was fringed on each side, except at its upper extremity,
with a series of small caeca or shags, and there were three
pair of bile-vessels; in the latter the gullet was dilated
into a crop, which included a gizzard of singular and ex¬
quisite construction ; for, though so minute as scarcely to
exceed a large pin’s head in size, it was found to be pro¬
vided internally with more than four hundred pairs of
teeth, moved by an infinitely greater number of muscles.
A transverse section of this gizzard represented two con¬
centric stars, with nine rays each, the object of this struc¬
ture being the comminution of the timber which the insect
has to perforate, and probably devour. The stomach was
very slender, but dilated in the middle into a spherical
vesicle ; and only two pairs of bile vessels were observable.3
It may well be supposed, that in a family consisting of
not much less than three thousand ascertained species,
many diversities occur both in habit and external struc¬
ture. The antennae are sometimes straight, but more
frequently have an angular bend. They are inserted ei¬
ther towards the extremity of the muzzle when that organ
is short, or nearer the centre, or even towards the base,
in the long snouted species. The number of the articu¬
lations of the antennae varies in certain genera from six to
ten ; but eleven is the more usual number, or even twelve,
if we count the false or terminal article. The body is ge¬
nerally narrowest in front, with a large abdomen covered
by very hard elytra. The tarsi are very frequently gar¬
nished beneath with short hairs. None of the species are
carnivorous in any degree; but even in the perfect state
they are sometimes extremely noxious, when they happen,
as they sometimes do, to occur in great abundance. They
tap the buds and leaves of trees, and of several cultivated
vegetables, and feed upon their juices.
Tkibe 1st, BaucHELiE, Lat.
Labrum apparent, anterior elongation of the head short,
broad, depressed, and in the form of a snout. Palpi very
172
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleopten, visible, filiform, or larger at the extremity. These insects
Tetramera. compose the old genus Bruchus, Linn. y
vided as follows.
Those species of which the antennae are clavate, or very
obviously enlarged at their extremity, with the eyes un-
emarginate, and which appear to have five articulations
to the four anterior tarsi, form the genus Rhinosimus,
which Latreille, in accordance with its tarsal characters
formerly placed among the Heteromera, but which other
natural affinities connect more closely with the following
senus. Those of which the antennae and eyes resemble
the last, but which present only four tarsal articulations
compose the genus Anthribus of Geoffrey and LaR
(Plate CCXXVI. fig. 16), to which Latreille adds the
Rhinomacers of Olivier. These insects are generally
found on old wood, although some occur on
the genus Bruchus properly so called (Plate CCX^ •
fig. 17), the antennae are filiform, frequently serrated or
pectinated. The eyes are emarginate. I he anus is ex¬
posed, and the hind legs are frequently very large. 1 hese
species deposit their eggs in the yet tender germs of our
leguminous plants, of our most valuable grains or palms,
coffee, &c., where the excluded larvae occasion infinite
damage. The perfect insect detaches a portion of the
epidermis in the form of a cap, and, on issuing, produces
those circular holes so often seen on peas and beans, buch
is a small species called B.pisi (see the figure last referred
to), an insect which has been known to occasion great in-
iury in North America. A very large species, the B. Bac-
tris of Linn, occurs in Cayenne, where it feeds on the
fruit of Cocos guinensis. It is named Counana by the na¬
tives. The genus Rhcebus of Fischer is distinguished
from the preceding by flexible elytra and bifid hooks to
the tarsi. The genus Xylophilus of Bonelli is characte¬
rized by clavate palpi.
nera the head enters into the thorax up to the eyes, and Cole##
the snout is elongated in the form of a proboscis. InTetnW^
Rhynchites the latter is somewhat widened at the end, ^ ^
and the abdomen is nearly square. In Apion, of which
Mr Stevens enumerates ninety-one species as indigenous
to Britain, the snout is not widened at the end, and fre¬
quently terminates in a point. The abdomen is large or
inflated.7 Here also are placed the genera Rhinotia
and Eurhinus of Kirby,8 and Tubicenus of Dejean
(Auletes, Schcen.9). .
Those in which the antennae are filiform, or in which
the terminal article alone forms the club, in which the
muzzle, often longer in the males than in the females, and
differently terminated, is always borne in advance,—of
which the proportions of the body are usually much
lengthened, and in which the penultimate article of the
tarsi is bilobed, form
Tribe 3d, Brentides, Lat.1
In the other tribes there is no apparent labrum. The
palpi are very small, inconspicuous to the naked eye, and
of a conical form. The anterior prolongation of the head
represents a beak or trunk.
In the genus Brentus properly so called (Plate
CCXXVI. fig. 15), the body is linear, and the antennae
filiform or slightly enlarged towards the extremity, and
composed of eleven articulations. There is only one spe¬
cies of Brentus found in Europe, the B. italicus, which
lives beneath the bark of trees, and generally, according
to Savi the younger, of Pisa, in the same domicil with a
certain species of ant. They are numerous in South
America, and occur there also beneath the bark of trees.
The genus Ulocerus, Schcen. resembles the preceding in
general form, but the antennae have only nine articula¬
tions, the last of which forms a little club. The last of
this tribe is constituted by the genus Cylas, Lat. in
which there are ten articulations to the antennae, the last
of which forms an oval club. The thorax seems divided
into two knots, of which the posterior, forming the pedicle,
is the smallest. The abdomen is oval.
Sometimes the antennae are distinctly geniculate (Go-
natoceri), the first articulation being much longer than
the following. These form the genus Curculio of Linn, or
Sometimes the antennae are straight or not geniculate
(Orthoceri), inserted on the rostrum, and consist of nine
or ten joints.
Those in which the three or four last joints are united
into a club form
Tribe 2d, Attelabides, Lat.
They gnaw the leaves and tender parts of plants. Most
of the females roll up these leaves into a tube or trumpet,
in which they deposit their eggs,—thus forming a proper
nidus for their offspring. The different proportions of the
trunk, the mode of its insertion, the nature of the tibiae,
and the form of the abdomen, have given rise to the for¬
mation of several genera, such as Apoderus,3 Attela-
bus,4 Rhynchites,5 and Apion.6 The first is very strong¬
ly marked. The head is narrowed behind, or presents
a neck-like prolongation, and unites with the thorax by
means of a rotule. The muzzle is short, thick, enlarged
at the end, a character common to the Attelabi properly
so called; but in them, as well as in the other two ge-
Tribe 4tii, Curculionites, Lat.
These seem naturally divisible into two lesser groups,
according as the antennae are inserted near the extremity
of the proboscis (Brevirostres or Brachyrhynchi), or fur¬
ther back, either towards the centre, or near the base
(Longirostres, or Mecorhynchi) ; “ mais il n est pas facile,
says Latreille, “ de bien determiner leurs limites, et pla*
sieurs genres sont tres-ambigues sous ce rapport. 11
A. Brevirostres.
In the genus Brachycerus,12 Fab. all the joints of the
tarsi are entire, and without brush or pellet beneath. The
antennae are short, not much bent, and present externally
only nine joints, the last of which forms the club. These
insects are destitute of wings, and their body is very sca¬
brous or uneven. They are characteristic of Southern Eu¬
rope and of Africa, live on the ground, in sandy soils, ana
appear very early in the spring. The women of Ethiopia
use one species as a sort of amulet, passing a string through
its body, and hanging it around their necks.13
1 From mSo;, flower, and I destroy. _ 2 From (igvx.w, I gnaw.
3 From ano, used to augment the sense of the word with which it is used, and <h»s, the neck, which is much prolonged^
4 From arra, to leap, and Xa.3:, seizure. The name was originally applied by Aristotle to an orthopterous insect.
From \vvxas, rostrum.
From asr/uv, a pear, which the insects somewhat resemble in form.
See Kirby in Linn. Trans, vol. ix.
Ibid. vol. xii.
Qurcul. Disp. Method. 46.
10 Gen. Brentus, Fab. Curcueio, Linn.
11 Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat. t. xiv. p. 594.
12 From short, and xtoa.;, horn.
13 Caillaud, Voyage au Fleuve Blanc.
ENTOMOLOGY. 173
’optif, In the genus Curculio, Fab. almost the whole of the thorax. There are several ranges of impressed or hollow Coleoptera
ram|r-under parts of the tarsi are furnished with short stiff spots upon the elytra, of a beautiful and sparkling green, Tetramera.
I'YT hairs forming pellets, and the penultimate article is deep- with intervals of black, presenting the appearance of in-
ly divided into two. The antennm are composed of eleven numerable emeralds incased in gold and ebony. Such
articulations, or even of twelve, if we count the false one also is C. regalis, an insect still of great value, of which in
by which they are sometimes terminated. The last form former days a single specimen once sold in Paris for L.23
the club. This splendid and extremely numerous genus, sterling. It is a good deal less than the diamond-beetle,
although greatly restricted by Fabricius, compared with of a bluish green, with extremely brilliant gold and cop¬
its vast extent in the system of Linnaeus, has been still per bands upon the elytra. It is found in St Domingo
more circumscribed by authors of the present day. An and the island of Cuba. Many others, of almost equal
enormous accession of species having been discovered and beauty, will occur to the recollection of those who have
described, these have been arranged by Germar, Schcen- inspected an extensive collection of foreign insects, and
herr, Megerle, Dejean, and others, into a corresponding the specific names of fastuosus, sumptuosus, nobilis, ’and
variety of generic groups, partly for the sake of conve- sufficiently attest the unfeigned admiration of the
nience, and’partly (though not entirely) because the na- lovers of nature, of that bright attire which distinguishes
ture of the subjects required such systematic modifica- these favoured creatures.2 The genus Leptocerus3 dif-
tions. Latreille’s observations have led him to form these fers from the preceding in having the two anterior legs
Curculiones into two principal divisions. larger than the following, with the thighs thick, the tibiae
ls£, Those in which the mentum, more or less widened arcuated, and the tarsi often dilated and ciliated. The
superiorly, and more or less orbicular, occupies the en- antennae are usually long and slender. The thorax is al-
tire breadth of the cavity of the mouth, and wholly or most globular or triangular, and is scarcely exceeded in
nearly conceals the maxillae,—and in which the mandi- width by the abdomen. Ihese insects are very abundant
bles have no very sensible dentations, or merely exhi- in Brazil, and several analogous species are found in the
bit a slight sinus underneath the point. The generic Isles of France and Bourbon. Some inhabit Africa. An-
groups are as follows. In Cyclomus the tarsi (as in other genus, that of Phyllobius,1 comprehends likewise
genus Brachycerus) are unprovided with brushes, and winged species, but in which the grooves of the sides of
the penultimate articulation is entire, or very slightly the proboscis are straight, short, and consist only of a
notched, without distinct lobes. In this genus Latreille simple fossette. Several of these are extremely common
would comprise those named Crytops, Deracanthus, in Britain. Along with the preceding, Latreille combines
Amycterus, and Cyclomus of Schcenherr. The tarsi of all the genera Macrorhynus, Myllocerus, Cyphicerus, Ambli-
the others are furnished with brushes beneath, and the rhinus, and Phytoscapus, of Schoenherr.
penultimate joint is deeply bilobate. Some are apte- Those Brevirostres in which the penultimate joint of
rous. In Curculio properly so called (Plate CCXXVI. the tarsi is bilobate, but which are apterous, and always
fig. 18), the lateral sulci of the proboscis are oblique and destitute of a scutellum, form other sub-genera, such as
directed inferiorly. The anterior legs differ little in their Othiorhynchus, Omias, Pachyrhynchus, Psalidium, Thy la-
proportions from the following ones. The genus, even cites, Syzygops, and others.
thus restricted, comprises an immense number of groups, 26?, I hose in which the mentum is nan owed, and, not
raised by Germar and Schcenherr to the rank of genera, occupying the whole of the cavity of the mouth, leaves
“ dont les caracteres,” says Latreille, “ sont peu impor- the jaws exposed on either side. The mandibles, too,
tants et souvent tres-equivoques.”1 He thinks that at are evidently dentated. The club of the antennae is fre-
most only those should be detached of which the anten- quently formed of the last five or six joints,
nae are proportionally longer. Among such as have short Some have scarcely more than two teeth to the man-
antennae, the thorax longitudinal, and forming a truncated dibles. The labial palpi are distinct. The club of the
cone, the shoulders salient, and of which recent writers antennae, rather abrupt, does not commence, except from
have formed the genera Entbnus^ ChlorinicL, and others, the eighth or ninth articulation, and is not elongated &nd
we find many noted South American species, of con- fusiform. The body, though frequently oblong, is not of
siderable size and exquisite beauty, and which, consi- a uniform figure. Several are apterous, with the tarsi un-
dered all in all, maybe regarded as the most splendid ex- furnished with pellets, and their penultima.te aiticle feebly
amples of the coleopterous order. Such, for example, is bilobed. Such is the genus Myniops of Schcenherr, with
C. imperialis, commonly called the diamond-beetle, which which Latreille combines Rhytirrhinus of that author.
(may the scientific reader pardon the digression), inclosed Several, likewise apterous, have, like most of the llhyn-
in its little box, and covered by a microscope, has so of- chophori, the under surface of the tarsi furnished wit i
ten exhibited to the wondering gaze of youth hues more pellets, and the penultimate article deeply bilobed. 1 icy
gorgeous than are ever seen in after days, when no glass, compose the genus Liparus, Lat. which compuses seve-
however potent, can dispel the mists w hich gather around ral genera of Schcenherr. Such as aie winged orm two
whatever seemed the brightest and most beautiful of additional genera,—that of Hypera, Germar, in whici
earthly things. The species just named is of a brilliant the tibiae have either no hook at their extremity, or but
golden green, with two black longitudinal bands upon the a very small one, and that of Hylobius,j in w ne i t it
■ Even alTg’our native Curculinnito there are many species, though of small size yet of e=te
drusus of Germar, and PhylloUns of Schoenherr, frequent the foliage of trees and of herbaceous plants i hey excel most ot the
digenous Coleoptera in brilliancy of colouring,-produced by a covering of rmnute f aks, the bo^
These scales vary in shape, being often rounded and adpressed to the surface, at ot er imes n ’ . 0f resplendency, 
hair. The prevailing colours are green or silvery-green, golden, and coppery, of various s mi es ai ( however is by far the most
a considerable range of variatiorf being observable even among individuals o le same 3P^C1 objects by which it
common colour, and is no doubt intended to contribute to the preservation of the insect by assimilating it to the objects by
is usually surrounded. (See Entomologia Edinensis, p. 253.) 4 From a ^ and ^ nfe,
tram Xtnro;, slender, and xwus, horn.
s From 'An, wood, and fiios, hfe.
174 ENTOMOLOGY.
Colectera hook at the internal extremity is very marked. Among rior thighs, which give the faculty of leaping. Those in C*,
SS™. the former, ft Kmarisci (the ?ype 'A' genus Ccna'us which the antennte are on he pjobosets orm the^
 of gehoenherr) rivals in its colours the most beautiful genus Orchestes* of llhger (Plate CLAXV1. tig JO) ^
of the exotic species; among the latter we may name a * th»v nr,ornate between the eves, that of
well-known Scottish insect, //. abietis, Linn. ( Cur. pini of
Marsham1).
Others have from three to four teeth upon the mandi¬
bles, the mentum abruptly narrowed near its upper extre¬
mity, and truncated, the palpi very small or impercepti
those in which they originate between the eyes, that ol
Hamphus6 of Clairville.
In other Fabrician Rhynchseni the legs are remote at
the base, and the sternum frequently exhibits a more or
less extended cavity for the reception of the muzzle, and
even sometimes for that of the antennae. Those in which
ble. The antennae terminate gradually in an elongated even sometimes • , T ...
fusiform club. The body has in most an analogous form, that sternal groove does not exist are formed by Latreille
Olivier placed these insects in the genus Lixus, from into two sub-genera, Amerhinus and Baridius. Ihose
which, in fact, they do not greatly differ. They compose in which it does exist have been formed by hchcenherr into
the genus Cleonus, as constituted by Latreille. a great many genera, reduced to the following by Latreille,
& viz. Camptorhynchus, Centrinus, Zygops, Leuto-
B. Longirostres. rhynchus, Hydaticus, Orobitis, Cryptorhynchus,
In this, the second group of the tribe Curculionites, the and Iylode.7
antennae are inserted beyond the origin of the mandibles,
and often near the centre of the proboscis, which is usually
elongated. It comprises, with the exception of a few
species, the genera Lixus, Rhynchcenus, and Colandra of
Fabricius. In the two former the antennae are com¬
posed of at least ten articulations ; they frequently con¬
sist of from eleven to twelve, of which at least the last
three form the club.
The genus Lixus of Fab. (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 19) al¬
most resembles Cleonus in the organs of manducation,
the elongated fusiform club of the antennae, the long and
The last of the Longirostres have generally nine articles
at most to the antennae, of which only the last or the last
two form the club, which is characterized by a coriaceous
epidermis and spongy extremity. These insects live, at
least in their larva state, on grain and ligneous substances.
They form the great genus Calandra, now subdivided into
the six following smaller groups.
The first two are apterous, the penultimate joint of the
tarsi is bilobed, the antennae are geniculate and inserted
at a short distance from the middle of the trunk. In the
narrow form of the body, and the curvature of the tibiae, first, genus Anchonus ol Schcenherr, the antennae exhi-
L. paraplecticus (the species figured) is nearly linear. Its bit nine articulations anterior to the short ovoid club,
larva lives in the stem of Phellandrium aquaticum, and is which is formed by the tenth, and perhaps by two others
alleged by Linnaeus to occasion paraplegia among horses.
The disease, as well as the plant, is called Staikra by the
Swedes. The transformations of the insect are described
by Degeer. Another species, L. odontalgicus, is a reputed
cure for toothach.
The genus RhyncheENUs of Fab. does not present an
equal uniformity of character among its constituent parts,
and has therefore been numerously subdivided. We shall
mention a few of the modern groups.
*
In some the legs are contiguous at the base, and there
is no sternal groove for the reception of the proboscis.
Of these a certain number never leap; their antennae are
composed of eleven or twelve joints, and their body is
intimately united with it. In the second, Orthoch^tes
of Germar,8 it is the eighth joint which seems to form the
club, although it is probably also of a compound structure.
The four following are provided with wings. In the first
three the tarsi, in accordance with the almost universal
and implied character of the great tetramerous section ol
which they form a part, are all composed of four articula¬
tions, of which the penultimate is bilobed. In Rhina,
Lat. (Lixus, Fab.), the antennae are strongly geniculate,
and inserted near the middle of a straight projecting pro¬
boscis,—their eighth joint forming a greatly elongated
and almost cylindrical club. The anterior legs are longer
than the others, at least in the males. Of this genus we
may mention as an example a well-known and sin'gular-look-
furnished with wings. Such are the genera Tamnophi- ing insect, found in Cayenne and Brazil, called A?, barbiros-
bus,2 Bagous (small insects found in marshes), Brachy- tris, on account of a thick yellowish-brown beard which
pus,3 Balaninus4 (remarkable for the great length of
the proboscis), Rhynch^nus properly so called, and Sy-
bines. Along with these may be placed Myorhinus of
Schcenherr, and other genera, distinguished from the pre¬
ceding by being apterous. In the genus Cionus the an¬
tennae consist of from nine to ten joints. The body is
usually very short, and almost globular. The ensuing dif¬
fer from those above named in having very thick poste-
envelopes the proboscis of the male, and gives it some¬
what the appearance of a bottle-brush. The female wants
this kind of garniture on her snout, and she was conse¬
quently mistaken by Illiger for a separate species, and
named R. verrirostris. In the genus Calandka proper¬
ly so called, the antennae, likewise strongly geniculate, are
inserted near the base of the proboscis,—the eighth joint
forming an ovoid or triangular club. The insects of this
It fiequents the Scotch fir, and is common in the Edinburgh district, as well as throughout Scotland. It seems to occur pretty
frequently over oui southern borders, is more sparingly distributed in Cumberland and the adjoining counties, and, becoming gr&*
dually scaicei as we advance, is regarded as a rare insect in the southern parts of England. The imperfect description of this species
given by Linnaeus,^who appears, in some of his works, to confound it with another insect, has rendered it rather difficult to identify
cabi-
name
in
inhabits
. -iii t • . ,. » ,.c -    j—» i v. ..mu, ucc. j iic iniuiiicis ui me perfect insect are
well described by Linnaeus in his peculiar style : “ Tarde incedit, arete apprehendit, tenaciter adhaeret, ore frustra cutem mordere ten-
tat captivus.” 1
" ^r0m or,\° cut asunder, and fXcs, a lo-ccr. « From g^«paf, the leak of a bird.
rom on.v„.. .* art. *o( , For their characters, see Regne Animal, t. v. p. 86-7-
8 Insector um Species Novae, p. 302.
From short, and vovs, foot.
4 From [ia.Xa.vivo;, produced from an acorn.
* From o^xnorri;, a leaper.
ENTOMOLOGY. 175
,leoi a genus are but too well known for their destructive attacks vast quantity sometimes destroyed. According to the Coleoptera
yjP'f a*upon giain, and aie inc luded with many others unuer the calculation ot DegeeTj a single pair wall produce (among ^^tramera.
vague nameof iveevil. The mostnoted and injurious species themselves and their descendants), in the course ofa sea-
C. granaria {Cur. granarius, Linn.), is fortunately rare son, twenty three thousand six hundred individuals; so that,
in Scotland, and probably in most other northern coun- we may add, a few hundred weevils flying through the
tries. But in Trance and othei continental teiiitoiies grating ot a granary, and settling among its treasured
it is extremely injurious. This little creature measures heaps, might in the course of four or five^months devour
about a couple of lines in length, and is geneially of a or destroy between one oud two hundred millions grains.
pitchy red, smooth, the thorax deeply punctured. The Various modes have been suggested by economists and
elytra are rather narrower than the base of the thorax, men of science to stay the progress of these destroyers,
and do not cover the extremity of the abdomen. They We are not sure that any of them have been found very
are marked with deep striae, punctured in the bottom, efficacious. The most approved is the following: When
The legs are ferruginous. It is not in the perfect state the principal body of grain is suspected, let a small heap
that this destroyer commits its ravages. The season for be placed apart in a corner, and the rest repeatedly stir-
the deposition of the eggs, and the periods of transforma- red about and disturbed. The weevils, which love repose
tion, vary to a certain extent with the temperature of par- and a quiet life, will leave their usual domicils, and seek
ticular seasons; but generally in the south of France, as about for more peaceful dwellings. An instinct, which
we are informed by M. Audouin, the female commences the foresight of man in this instance renders unavailing,
her maternal labours about the month of April, and con- induces them to settle on the smaller heap, and the shovel-
tinues them till the autumn. She first buries herself in ing of the main body being continued for some days, a
a heap of grain, to the depth of some inches, and then vast number may be thus got quit of. Boiling water is
commences to pierce their envelope, probably by means then thrown upon the congregated insects, which have
ofa little dart concealed beneath the lower portion of the sought refuge in what they deemed a place of safety. As
proboscis. The envelope is then raised, and a small hole this process destroys only the perfect insects, and not tlx*
bored, either in an oblique direction, or parallel with the eggs or larva, neither of which care about being stirred
surface of the grain. A single hole is made in each grain, up with any pole, however long, it must be employed dur-
and a single egg is laid in each hole, after which the open- ing the earliest heats of spring, and before the laying of
ing is closed by a glutinous matter, so nearly resembling the eggs. It is said to succeed best when (whatever the
the colour of the grain, that it is extremely difficult to principal store consists of) the decoy heap is formed of
discover which is in a sound state, or which contains the barley, which, it seems, is a favourite food of weevils. Re¬
germ ol an insidious foe. The injured grains may, how- Auction of temperature by ventilation has also been re-
ever, be detected by their floating when immersed in wa- commended, as tending to diminish their productive powers;
ter, as well as by their feeling lighter when fingered by a and M. Clement thinks that dryness produced by lime
practised hand. The egg thus laid is soon hatched, and may prove useful, by its tendency to destroy the eggs.1
gives birth to a very minute, white, soft, elongated worm, Of the larger kinds of Calandra we may mention C. pal-
composed ol nine segments, with a rounded corneous head, marum, an insect known to all who have looked into col-
furnished with two strong mandibles, by means of which lections of foreign Coleoptera,among which it is extremely
it daily enlarges its dwelling, fills its own stomach, and common. It is a large species, measuring about an inch
empties the purse of the farmer or grain-merchant. Hav- and a half in length. It occurs in South America. The
ing attained the term of its increase, it is transformed into larva (figured bv Mad. Merian2) is named ver palmiste by
a nymph, remains in that state for eight or ten days, and the colonists, it lives in the heart of palm trees, and
is transformed into a perfect insect, which, piercing the undergoes its transformations in a cocoon formed of the
envelope ol the grain, ere long produces in its turn a nu- fibres of those lofty and plume-supporting plants.3 It is
merous progeny. The influence of temperature, so gene- fried and eaten as a great delicacy, both by Indians and
ral on insect life, is effective on this noted Charanson de Creoles. “ C’est probablement,” says M. Audouin, “quoi
hie ; but Irom forty to forty-five days maybe stated as qu’en ait dit Linne, cette meme larve, et non cede du Cos-
an average term between the union of the sexes and the sus, dont les Romains etaient si friands, et qu’ils nourris-
reproduction of the perfect insect. When the old and saient avec de la farine.” We cannot well see how this
tmphilosophical belief prevailed of the spontaneous gene- could be, unless the new world was known to the Romans,
ration of the lower tribes of animal life, it was thought or Italy to the palmist worm. We believe, however, that
sufficient to say that these weevils were “ engendered in the Cossus of the ancients was indeed the larva of a
the grain by humidity.” At an after period it was thought beetle (probably of one of the long-horned kinds), and not
by some who called themselves “ observers”—(men of the of a lepidopterous nocturnal insect, or Cossus ligniperday
same class with those who settle all natural phenomena commonly so called.
by a paragraph in a newspaper, which they sign “ Scru- Our two remaining genera are Cossonus of Clairville
tator ),—that the perfect insect laid her eggs in the green and Dryopthorus of Schcenherr {Bulbifer, Dejean). In
ear, from whence, when the fields were ripe for harvest, the former the antennae, scarcely longer than the head and
they were transported to the stores of the granary. The muzzle, have eight joints anterior to the club. They are
accurate and inimitable Leeuwenhoeck {Continuatio Epis- thick, and inserted towards the middle of the muzzle. In
tolarum, p. 56) dispelled these errors, and taught us the the latter the antennae have only six joints, of which
truth of nature, of which he was ever so great an inter- the last forms the club. In regard to the tarsi the genus
preter. As each larva consumes only a single grain, we presents an anomalous character, and one which, if strict-
niay form some idea of their power of increase, from the ly applied to the definition of the section, would exclude
1 Ttf lC\ d'Hist. Nat. t. iii. p. 28 ; and Journal de Physique, t. Ixxxix. p. 358. 2 Insectes de Surinam, pi. 48.
man •> ^ • 111 w*!*ch this insect most affects seems to be one of small size. According to Madame Merian, it grows to the height of a
innu’ n cut °fl when it begins to be tender, is cooked like a cauliflower, and tastes better than an artichoke. In its centre live
on theera 10 lluantlties °f larvae, which at first are as small as a maggot in a nut, but afterwards grow to a very large size, and feed
e marrow of the tree. They are laid on the coals to roast, and are regarded as a “ most pleasant food.”
176
ENTOMOLOGY.
Coleoptera it from the tetramerous families. They present five arti-
Tetramera. cu]ationS) none of which are bilobed.
FAMILY II—XYLOPHAGI.1
These exhibit a head formed in the ordinary way, with¬
out any obvious muzzle, or trunk-like projection. The
antennae are thicker at their extremity, or perfolmted
from their base, always short, and consisting in a great
number of less than eleven articulations. The joints ot
the tarsi are usually entire, but with the penultimate en¬
larged and heart-shaped in some, in which case the an¬
tennae always terminate in a club, either solid and ovoid,
or trifoliate, with the palpi small and conical. These in¬
sects mostly live and feed in wood, from which habit they
derive their family name; and their larvae are often de¬
structive to timber, in consequence of the ramified perroia-
tions which they form in all directions beneath the bark.
They frequently so abound in forests of fir and pine, as to
render in a few years an immense number of trees entire¬
ly useless for all the purposes of human art. Otheis are
extremely injurious abroad to the olive plantations, while
several feed on mushrooms. Latreille divides them into
three sections. . .
1S£, Those of which the antennae have at most ten joints,
and are sometimes terminated by a strong club (generally
solid, in others composed of three elongated leaves), some¬
times form from their base a cylindrical and perfoliated
club ; the palpi conical. The anterior tibiae of the greater
number are dentated, and armed with a strong hook; and
the tarsi, of which the penultimate article is frequently
bilobed or heart-shaped, are capable of being bent or folded
on them.
Some have very small palpi, the body convex and round¬
ed above, or almost ovoid, with the head globular, sunk
into the thorax, and the antennas terminated by a solid or
a tri-lamellar club, preceded by at least five joints. These
Xylophagi compose the old genus Scolytus* of Geoffroy,
which Linnaeus did not distinguish from Dermestes. They
now form the genera Hylurgus, Lat., Hylesinus,3 Fab.,
Scolytus proper (Plate CCXXVI.fig. 22) of Lat., Camp-
tocerus, Dejean, Ploiotribus and Tomicus, Lat., and
Platypus, Herbst.4 Of many of these each female de¬
posits numerous eggs, and 80,000 wood-eating larvae have
been calculated to inhabit a single tree.
Others have the palpi large and obvious, and of unequal
length. Their body is depressed, narrowed in front; their
antennae are sometimes apparently only bi-articulate, with
the last joint very large, flattened, almost triangular or
ovoid, and sometimes consist of ten joints, entirely perfo¬
liate. The labrum is large. The elytra are truncated,
and the tarsi short, with all the articles entire. These in-Col
sects are all exotic, and compose the genus Paussus ofTetji
Linn.5 It has been greatly increased in recent times, and w
is now divided into several genera.6
2d, Those of which the antennae consist of only ten ar¬
ticulations, and of which the palpi, at least the maxillary
ones, do not taper gradually to a point, but are of equal
thickness throughout, or dilated at the extremity. The
joints of the tarsi are always entire. The constituent
groups form two principal genera, according to the mode in
which the antennae are terminated. Thus, in Bostrichus
the three terminal joints form a perfoliated club. These
insects however form four lesser genera, viz. Bostrichus
proper (e. g. Dermestes capucinus, Linn.) Plate CCXXVI.
fig. 24, Psoa, Fab., Cis, Lat., and Nemosoma, Desma-
rets. The second principal genus, called Monotoma, is
distinguished by the solid and button-like form of the
tenth articulation of the antennae, and is likewise further
divisible into four minor genera, — Synchita, Helw.,
Cerylon, Lat., Rhyzophagus, Herbst, and Monotoma
proper.
3d, The Xylophagi of the third division have eleven very
distinct articles to the antennae ; the palpi vary, being fili¬
form or thickened at the extremity in some, more slen¬
der at their termination in others. All the joints of the
tarsi are entire. Among the Lycti the club of the antennae
consists but of two joints. They form the genera Lyctus7
proper, Diodesma, Meg., Bitoma, Herbst. Among others
the last three or four joints of the antennae form the club,
or the last alone is larger than the preceding ones. In the
Mycetophagi, Fab. the mandibles are covered, or project
but little. In Latreille’s arrangement they form the fol¬
lowing seven genera:—Colydium and Mycetophagus
(proper),8 Fab., Triphyllus, Meg., Meryx, Lat., Dasy-
cerus,9 Brongniart (Plate CCXXVI. figs. 26 and 28),10
Sylvanus, Lat., and Latridius, Herbst. The species
of the last-named genus are exceedingly minute, none of
them exceeding a line and a half in length, and several
being scarcely half that size. They occur in houses,
vaults, cellars, &c. and are not unfrequently found beneath
the bark of trees. From their habits they are called lurk¬
ing beetles (Lauerkiifer) by the Germans. Their generic
name (from Lateo ?) has probably the same signification.
The larvae are somewhat egg-shaped and elongate, con¬
sisting of twelve segments of a dirty white colour, the
antennae and legs clear as water, with a black line along
the back, and a tuft of hairs on the sides of each segment.
They live for a longer or shorter period in this condition,
according to the state of the temperature and supply of
food; the usual time is from four to six weeks. I hey
then change into nymphs of a transparent white, with
brownish-yellow eyes, from which, in about fourteen days,
rr
1 From S-uXov, •wood,, and cpayos, eating. 2 From <rx.a\iorn;, tortuosity. 3 From Sxn, wood, and avu, I injure.
4 For their characters see Regne Animal, t. v. p. 91-2, and the works there referred to. _ .
s The genus Paussus did not exist in the twelfth edition of the Systema Naturae, but was published by Linnaeus in a separate disse
tion in 1775. Only a single species appears to have been known at that period (Mr Westwood now describes above twenty), and ano
was added in 1796 by Dr Adam Afzelius, then residing at Sierra Leon {Linn. Trans, vol. iv.). The etymology of the name is suppos
by Afzelius to be from the Greek 'jra.vffit, signifying a pause, cessation, or rest; for Linnaeus, now old, infirm, and sinking unuertt ^
weight of age and labour, saw no probability of continuing any longer his career of glory. “ He might therefore,” adds Dr Shaw, ^
supposed to say, ‘ Hie meta laborum,’ as it proved in reality, at least in regard to insects—Pausus being the last he ever describe
{Gen. Zoology, vol. vi. p. 43.) It was literally, in the language of Young, “ An awful pause, prophetic of his end.”
6 See an elaborate and learned Essay On the Paussidce, a family of Coleopterous Insects, by Mr J. O. Westwood, Linn, sra
vol. xvi. p. 607 •
’ From Awyros, smooth or polished. 8 From puKim;, moss, and epayos, eating. 9 From Sam, hairy, and *s£«s,'
10 We have figured the type of the genus, D. sulcatus, on the plate above referred to. This singular little insect was discovere ,
M. Alex. Brongniart on a fungus in the forest of Montmorency. It is extremely small, and it is difficult to count the articulatio
of the tarsi, even with the aid of a good microscope. These parts consist, however, of only three articulations (see fig. 31), W)LI.
would remove the genus from the tetramerous section, were it not allied to the above genera by other natural characters, ^ ^
first two joints of the antennae (see fig. 21) are globular, the following ones very small, capillary and pilose, and the last three or
also pilose and globular.
The
ENTOMOLOGY.
177
[eopfca emerge the perfect insects.1 We have about a dozen
trarfa. Species in Britain.2 In the Trogosit^s,3 Olivier and Fab.
(Platycerus, Geoflfroy), the mandibles are entirely expos¬
ed, salient and robust. The body is generally elongated,
narrow, and depressed. In some of these the antennae are
shorter than the thorax, or at most of equal length, and
terminate in a compressed club, a little toothed or ser¬
rated, and formed by the three or four last articulations.
The ligula is entire. In Trogosita proper the mandi¬
bles are shorter than the bead, and crossed. The maxil¬
lae have but a single lobe. T. mauritanica ( Tenebrio mcm-
ritanicus, Linn.), about four lines in length, blackish above,
light brown beneath, with striate elytra, occurs in nuts,
bread, and beneath the bark of trees. The larva, known
in Provence under the name Caddie, attacks grain. Here
follow the genera Prostomis of Lat. and Passandra of
Dalman.
FAMILY III.—PLATYSOMA.*
This group of tetramerous Coleoptera approaches the
preceding so far as relates to the internal structure, the
tarsi, and the habits ; but the antennae are of equal thick¬
ness throughout, or more slender towards their termina¬
tion. The mandibles are always projecting; the ligula is
bifid or emarginate ; the palpi are short, and the body de¬
pressed and lengthened, with the thorax nearly square.
These insects are found beneath the bark of trees, and
are reduced by Latreille to the Cucuji of Fabricius, which
he distinguishes as Cucujus proper (Plate CCXXVI. fig.
21), Dendrophagus, Gyll. and Uleoiota, Lat.
FAMILY IV.—LONGICORNES.
The insects of this family, which in the system of Lin¬
naeus formed the genera Cerambyx, Leptura, and Necyda-
lis, have the under surface of the first three articles of the
tarsi garnished with brushes, the second and third being
heart-shaped, the fourth deeply bilobed, with a little swel¬
ling or nodule resembling an articulation at its base.5 The
ligula, borne upon a short and transverse mentum, is ge¬
nerally membranous, heart-shaped, emarginate or bifid,—
in others corneous, and forming the segment of a very
short and transverse circle. The antennae are filiform or
setaceous, generally at least as long as the body, some¬
times simple in both sexes, sometimes serrated, pectinat¬
ed or flabelliform, in the males. The eyes of a great
number are reniform, and surround the antennae at their
base. The thorax is in the form of a trapezium, narrow¬
ed anteriorly in such as have the eyes rounded, entire, or
slightly emarginate; in which case also the legs are long
and slender, and the tarsi lengthened. M. Leon Dufour
has remarked that the Longicornes, in regard both to the
alimentary tube and the disposition of the hepatic vessels,
generally resemble the Melasoma, and, contrary to the
opinion of M. Marcel de Serres, he denies the existence of
a gizzard. The alimentary canal, usually beset with papil¬
lae, is preceded by a crop, which is smaller and less distinct¬
ly marked in Lamia and Leptura, the concluding genera.
Ihe larvae of almost all the Longicornes live in the in¬
terior or beneath the bark of trees. They are either apo¬
dal, or provided with very inconspicuous legs. Their body
is soft, whitish, largest anteriorly, with a squamous head, Coleoptera
furnished with strong mandibles, but without any other Tetramera.
projecting parts. They are extremely destructive to the
larger forest trees, piercing them to a considerable depth
in all directions. A certain number gnaw the roots of
plants. The abdomen of the female, in the perfect state,
is terminated byr a tubular and corneous oviduct. Several
species produce a sharpish sound by rubbing a portion of
the thorax against the pedicle which attaches the base of
the abdomen. Lister calls this sound querulous, while
Dumeril compares it to the braying of an ass. It is on ac¬
count of this peculiarity that Prionus coriarius is known
in Germany by the name of the Fiddler. Of this nume¬
rous and graceful family some are nocturnal, and frequent
old woods and the trunks of ancient trees ; others occur
on flowers and among flowering shrubs and hedges, and
are richly gilded and adorned with various colours ;—
while all are remarkable for their elongated bodies, their
lengthened limbs, and their long and delicately formed
antennas. Several of the species are among the very lar¬
gest of the coleopterous tribes. The deficiency of wood
in our northern quarter of the island is a circumstance un¬
favourable to the frequent occurrence among us of these
lovers of “ forest scenery.” Even of the English species
commonly so called, a few of the finest are probably not
original inhabitants of Britain, but have rather been acci¬
dentally imported in the larva state in foreign timber, and
have afterwards, when excluded in the perfect form, con¬
trived to wing their way, and colonize among our native
woods. Their characteristic position is in countries ad¬
joining the equator (especially in South America), and
they seem to diminish both in size and number in propor¬
tion to their distance from the torrid zone. Britain in
general, and more especially Scotland, are considerably to
the north of the limit where these insects cease to be
common; and in other respects our island presents few
local peculiarities at all adapted to their increase. Yet the
indefatigable Mr Stephens enumerates about one hundred
indigenous species of Longicornes, including, however, cer¬
tain genera, such as Trogosita and Cucujus, which Latreille
and others do not admit among the long-horned tribes.
According to the system by which we are at present
guided, the Longicornes are divisible in the first place into
two sections.
Eyes either emarginate or crescent-shaped, or elongated
and narrow. Head sunk into the thorax as far as the eyes,
without any neck-like restriction,—and vertical in many.
a.
In some the articulation of the palpi is in certain cases
nearly in the form of a cone, or reversed triangle; in others
nearly cylindrical, and truncated at the extremity. The
terminal lobe of the maxillas is straight (not curved upon
the inner one at its extremity); the head generally pro¬
jected or simply inclined, and when, by a rare exception
(as in Dorcacerus), its position is vertical, its breadth then
nearly equals that of the body, and the antennae are dis¬
tant at their base, and spiny. The thorax, often unequal
or square, is rarely cylindrical. They are subdivisible into
two lesser tribes as follows :
Tribe 1st, Prionii.
Distinguished by the labrum being absent, or extremely
small and indistinct; the mandibles strong, or even very
For a more detailed account, see Germar’s Magazin der Entomologie, vol. ii.
^ Stephens’ Nomenclature, col. 32. " 3 From r^wya, I gnaw, and arot, corn.
* From vXarn, breadth or flatness, and «■»>«, body. ,, . , ,
Latreille remarks, that in regard to the above character, the Parandrce perfectly resemble the Longicornes; and that hence, it we
consider the little nodule as a genuine joint, both our present family and that which follows might be regarded as pertaining to tne
great pentamerous section.
VOL. ix.
178
entomology.
Coleoptera large among the males, and the internal lobe of the max-
Tetramera. iHjf small or imperceptible. The antennae are inserted
near the base of the mandibles, or of the emargination of
the eves, but are not surrounded by them at their origin.
The thorax is most frequently trapezoidal or square, and
notched or dentated on the sides.
In the genus Parandra of Lat. the antennae are
simple, almost granose, compressed, of the same size
throughout, and at most as long as the thorax; and the
ligula is corneous, in the form of a short segment of a
circle, transverse, and without emargination. ihe body
is depressed, and parallelepiped, with the thorax square,
rounded at the posterior angles, and without any teeth
or spines. These tribes are peculiar to America. In
Spondylis, Fab. (Attelabus, Linn.) the antennae and max¬
illary lobes resemble those of the preceding ; but the
ligula, as in all the ensuing Longicornes, is membra¬
nous. The thorax is almost globular, without margins,
and unarmed with teeth or spines. The species, which
are few in number, inhabit Europe, and their larvae occur in
trees of the pine tribe. In the genus Prionus of au¬
thors (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 33), the antennae are longer
than the head and thorax,—serrated or pectinated m some,
 simple, attenuated towards the extremity, and with
elongated articulations, in others. The terminal lobe of
the maxillae is at least as long as the first two aiticu a-
tions of the palpi. The body is generally depressed,
with the body square or trapezoidal, and either toothed or
spiny, or presenting a lateral projecting angle. These in¬
sects are said to take wing only during the night or even¬
ing. When reposing they occur on trees. Some exotic
species are remarkable for their great size, and theii pro¬
jecting mandibles. u C est dans ce genie, obseives M.
Guerin, “ qui sont les plus grands Coleopteres connus,
puisque certaines especes Americaines atteignent plus
de six ponces de longueur.”1 2 The larvae of P. cervicornis,
which dwell in the wood of the Gossampinus, are used as
articles of food. We have only four or five species of
this genus in Europe, of which P. coriarius is the sole
British species. It is one of our largest insects, mea¬
suring about fifteen lines in length. The larva lives in
the decaying trunks of oaks and birch trees. It under¬
goes its metamorphosis under ground. P. giganteus
is above half a foot in length. It fortunately inhabits
Cayenne.
Tribe 2d, Cerambycini.
In these thelabrum is very apparent, and extends across
the entire width of the anterior extremity of the head;
the two maxillary lobes are very distinct and projecting;
the mandibles are of ordinary size, and similar, or differ¬
ing but slightly, in the two sexes. The eyes are always
emarginate, and surround, at least in part, the base of the
antennae, which are usually the length of, or longer than,
the body. The thighs, at least the anterior four, are
commonly in the form of an ovoid club, restricted to a
pedicle at the base.
Latreille commences with such as have the last articu¬
lation of the palpi always obviously thicker than the pre¬
ceding ones, and in the form of a triangle or reversed
cone. The head is not sensibly narrowed, and prolonged
anteriorly in the form of a muzzle; the thorax is not
-widened from before backwards, and does not present tbe
figure of a trapezium or of a truncated cone; the elytra
are neither very short and squamiform, nor abruptly nar¬
rowed a little beyond their base, and subulate at the ex-C
tremity. These may be termed the regular Cerambycini^
in contradistinction to those of a more anomalous nature,
by which we shall be afterwards conducted to another
tribe. They compose the genera Gerambyx, Clytus, and
Caliidium of Fabricius, and a portion of his Stenocori;
and consist of the great Linnsean genus Cerambyx, with
the addition of some Lepturm of the Swedish naturalist.
Certain modern entomologists have greatly augmented
the number of generic groups; but Latreille regaids the
characters assigned for their distinction as by no means
sufficiently precise. We shall heie notice the principal
genera, as admitted in the Regne Animal.
& A considerable amount of species, all from South Ame¬
rica, have the body proportionally shorter and broader
than those that follow, and are remarkable for the extent
of the thorax, which nearly equals half the length of the
abdomen. The anterior legs at least are distant at their
base. The scutellum is large in several species. The
antennae are often pectinated, serrated, or spiny., dhose
of this division, of which the thorax, nearly semi-orbicu¬
lar and always very large, is smooth or merely chagrined,
with a single tooth on either side at the posterioi angles,
—of which the posterior extremity of the praesternum is
plane, truncated, without emargination, or emarginate,
and placed upon the mesosternum,—of which the scutel¬
lum is always very large, and the legs distant at their
origin—form the two following genera:—Lissonotus of
Dayman (Plate CCXXVI. fig. 35), in which the antennae
are strongly compressed, serrated or semi-pectinated, and
long, with the posterior extremity of the praesternum un-
emarginate :—Megaderus of Dejean, in which the an¬
tennae are simple and shorter than the body, and the pos¬
terior extremity of the praesternum emarginate, and re¬
ceiving the opposing end of the mesosternum. I hose,
again, of which the thorax is extremely unequal, tuber¬
cular, or with many dentations, and the praesternum caii-
nated or terminated posteriorly in a point, form the fol¬
lowing four genera,—Dorcacerus,3 Dejean, Irachy-
deres, Dalman (Plate CCXXVL fig. 37), Lophonoce-
rus,4 Lat. (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 1), and Ctenodes,
Olivier and Klug.5
In other groups of species, the thorax, sometimes square
or cylindrical, sometimes orbicular or nearly globular, is
very much shorter than the elytra, at least in those m
which it is extended in breadth, and the praesternum pre¬
sents neither a carina nor pointed prolongation at its pos¬
terior extremity. The scutellum is always small, and the
legs are approximate at their origin. Several, remarkable
for their beautiful metallic colouring, and the agreeab e
odour which they exhale, exhibit rather an anomalous
character in regard to the relative proportions of the pa *
pi,—the maxillary being smaller than the labial, and even
shorter than the terminal lobe of the maxillae, which fre¬
quently projects. The body is depressed, with the a{4J;,e‘
rior of the head narrow and pointed. 'Ihe hinder tibiae
are often much compressed. They form the genus Cae-
lichroma6 of Latreille ( Cerambyx, Fab. Dejean). A spe¬
cies well known in England, but which we have not trace
farther north than Westmoreland, and remarkable for its
strong odour of roses, is the Cal. moschata (Cer. mos-
chains of Linn, and of the English naturalists). It mea¬
sures about an inch in length. South America, and t e
equatorial regions of the ancient continent, furnish seve¬
ral species. Other Longicornes of this division, but m
1 From tr^sv, a saw. 3 From a goat or antelope, and moa.;, horn.
2 Diet. Class. d’Hist. Nat. t. xiv. p. 282. 4 From Xotfo;, a tuft, and horn.
5 For the characters by which these genera are distinguished from each other, see Regne Animal, t. v. pp. 111-12-
6 From ku,>.os, beautiful, and x°ugu, colour.
E N T O M
ileo ra which the maxillary palpi are as usual at least as long as
*tra ia.the labial, and surpass the extremity of the maxillae, are
distinguished from such as follow, by the antennae, parti¬
cularly of the males, having twelve distinct articulations
instead of eleven. These parts are always long, setaceous,
and not unfrequently spiny or bearded. • The thorax is
toothed or spiny on the sides. These are united by La-
treille under the genus Acanthoptera1 (Callichroma,
Purpuricenus, Stenocorus, Dej. Dalm.). Certain species
with the thorax nearly square or cylindrical, and the ely¬
tra generally terminated by one or two spines, enter into
the genus Stenochorus of Dalman. Others, more charac¬
teristic of the western countries of the ancient continent,
form the genus Purpuricenus of Ziegler and Dejean. An
elegant insect of a pale ashy blue, with three black spots
on each elytron, and several joints of the antennae furnish¬
ed with tufts of hair, is the Acanth. alpinus of Lat. re¬
cently removed from the genus Callichroma. It smells
strongly of musk. We took it among the Alps of Swit¬
zerland, and have since received a specimen captured in a
timber-yard in Paris.
The following Cerambycini have only eleven articula¬
tions to the antennae.
In some these organs, at least in the males, are long
and setaceous; the terminal article of the palpi is in the
form of a reversed cone; the thorax is either square or a
little dilated in the middle, or oblong and almost cylindri¬
cal ; it is often rugose or tuberculated laterally. They com¬
pose the genus Cerambyx properly so called2 (Plate
CCXXVII. fig.. 2). Of these, certain species form the
genus Hamaticerus of recent writers. Such is C. heros of
Fab. an inhabitant of the temperate and warmer regions
of Europe. It is one of the largest Coleopteraof the Eu¬
ropean continent. The larva forms deep excavations in
the wood of the oak, and has been deemed by some the
[ Cossus of the ancients. As it is not now the custom to
eat grubs, that disputed question still remains obscure.
I Latreille places in this niche of the entomological sys¬
tem various Callichromae (so called) of Dejean, with a
smooth or but slightly unequal thorax. Most of them
belong to South America. They are in general beautifully
ornamented by the hand of nature, though their size is
small. Some are singularly distinguished by one or more
little globular tufts of hair upon the antennae, and even
the hind legs of certain species are similarly adorned.
Ihe thighs of these insects (some of which were arranged
by Fabricius and Olivier among the Saperdce) resemble
a club-like mass, supported upon a more lengthened pe¬
dicle. The antennae consist of long and slender articula¬
tions. In the genus Gnoma of Dejean the thorax is long
and cylindrical. The palpi are almost filiform, and the
inner side of the mandibles presents a tooth. The spe¬
cies occur in America.
In the extensive genus Callidium3 of Olivier, the an¬
tennae are in general scarcely longer than the body, and
are rather filiform than setaceous. The thorax, always
unarmed, is sometimes nearly globular or orbicular, some¬
times more narrow, nearly cylindrical, and simply dilated
and rounded in the centre. The palpi, always very short,
are terminated by an article rather thicker and broader
than the preceding ones, and in the form of a reversed
triangle. These insects now form the genera Certal-
lum 0f Megerle and Dejean, Clitus of Fabricius, and
Eallidium properly so called. Of the second and last we
lave several British species-
Latreille concludes our present tribe of insects with cer-
O L O G Y.
179
tain species, which, in regard to the palpi, the form of the Coleoptera
head, thorax, and elytra, and their general proportions, Tetraniera-
offer some remarkable and anomalous characters. He
commences with such as present a thorax analogous to
that of the preceding, especially the genus Certallum. It
is as broad as the head, and as the base of the elytra,
or scarcely narrower, and is either almost cylindrical, or
rounded, or nearly orbicular; in both cases wider near
the middle. The terminal articulation of the palpi is
sometimes attenuated near the end, and terminated in
a point, sometimes thicker and truncated, and obconi-
cal. All the thighs are clubbed, and supported by an
abrupt, slender, and lengthened pedicle. The elytra of
the greater number are either very short, or abruptly
narrowed at a little distance from their base, and then
subulate.
In the genera Obrium of Megerle, and Rhinotragus
of Dalman, the elytra do not exhibit those peculiar forms;
but in Necydalis, Linn, those parts are either very short
and scale-like, or prolonged, as usual, as far as the extre¬
mity of the abdomen, and abruptly contracted a little be¬
yond their origin, then greatly narrowed, and terminated
in a point. They do not resemble the ADoEMERiE, with
which they were arranged by Fabricius, except in the
form of the elytra. They are divisible into two minor
groups. For example, those with subulate elytra form the
genus Stenopterus4 of Illiger (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 5),
while such as have them short and squamiform continue
to bear the name of Necydalis (ibid. fig. 3).
Certain insects, for the most part proper to the African
islands, to New Holland, New Ireland, and New Zealand,
present some ambiguous characters; and, according to
Latreille, ought perhaps, in a natural order, to be placed
between the Lamiariae and the Lepturetae. In the mean
time, however, he concludes with them the tribe Ceram¬
bycini. The palpi are almost filiform, with the terminal
articulation nearly cylindrical, slightly attenuated towards
the base. The thorax is usually smooth, or but slightly
uneven, without acute tubercles, is widened posteriorly,
or presents the form of a trapezium or of a truncated cone.
The abdomen is almost in the form of a reversed triangle
in the greater number, and the elytra are truncated at
the extremity. They form four genera, viz. Distichoce-
ra, Kirby, Tmesisternus, Lat., Tragocerus, Dejean,
and Leptocera of the last-named author.
b.
In other Longicornes, forming
Tribe 3d, LamiarijE,
The head is vertical and the palpi filiform, or scarcely
larger at their extremity, and terminated by an article
more or less ovoid, and tapering to a point. The exterior
lobe of the maxillae is a little narrowed at the extremity,
and curved upon the inner division. The antennae are
most frequently setaceous and simple, and the thorax, ex¬
clusive of the lateral tubercles or spines, is nearly of an
equal width throughout. Some species are apterous,—a
character not exhibited by any other division of the fa-
mily.
Our present tribe, in the system of Latreille, is composed
of the genera Lamia and Saperda of Fabricius, of some
of the Stenocori of that author, of the Colobothece of De¬
jean, and of several of his Cerambyces.
The genus Acrocinus of Illiger is constituted by an
insect of a very striking and extraordinary aspect, the Ce¬
rambyx longimanus of Linn. The genus is distinguished
1 I‘ rom aKavUtt, a spine, and nrioov, a -wing.
* From horn, and /So*?, an ox.
3 From xxkos, beautiful, and iom, form.
4 From aTivoi, narrow, and wing.
180
ENTOMOLOGY.
n n j.1. t Kxr flip tlinrflx lipin0, DTovidccl on or tr3.p6zoid3.lj sod oorrowod anteriorly. The elytia, be*' Col<
SSKeS s!dfwith0amoveab]e tubercle, termlnared by a point come gradually narrower from the base. This tribe cor-Ta
—„ine The body is flattened, with the thorax trans- responds to the genus Zepfera of LmnKus, with the ex- ,
versar'the antennm are long and slender: the anterior ception of a few species which fall more naturally among
Ws much longer than the others, especially in the males; the preceding tribes, and also of such as belong to the more
and the e ytra are truncated at the end, and terminated modern genus Donacm. We shall here notice only a few
bv two teeth, of which the exterior is the strongest. The of the genera which, as native to our own island, aie the
singular species above named, of which the colours pre- most likely to interest the British naturalist.
an agreeable mixture of grey, red, and block, is In the genus Rhaoium (of which we have three indi.
known to tlie French colonists by the name of the Harle. genous species) (Plate CCXXVII. fig.^6), the antenn®
quin of Cayenne. It is a very large insect. The Pnonus
accentifer of Olivier pertains to the same genus.
All the other Lamiariae are referable to the great genus
lei
are simple, and at most not more than half the length of
the body. The terminal articulation of the palpi forms a
triangular club. The head is large, almost square, with
T A^fi CCXXVII fi0-. 4), which, however, has the eyes entire. The sides of the thorax are furnished
been extensively subdivided fn modern times. A great with a conical or spinous tubercle. In the genus Toxo-
number of species, chiefly from South America, of which xus4 the antennae are at least as long as the body, simple,
the legs are robust and the tarsi much dilated, fall under with the first article much shorter than the head. I he
the genus Acanthocinus of Megerle and Dejean. Not eyes are entire, or very slightly emarginate. 1 he body
more than three species are known in Europe. Of these
we received -T. (sdilis (called the CaTpent&v in France),
from a wood near Inverness; and Sir Thomas Dick Lau¬
der informs us that he likewise took it in a foiest of that
is triangular, or forms a lengthened square, narrowed pos¬
teriorly. T. meridianus and chrysogaster are supposed
to be synonymous,—in which case we have probably not
more than two British species. In the genus Leptura5
northern county. Specimens from the neighbourhood of properly so called, the head is abruptly narrowed mime-
Kirkaldy are preserved in the collection of Sir Patrick Wal- diately behind the eyes, and the antennae, inserted near
ker. The species is remarkable for the great extent of the the anterior extremity of their inner emargination, are
antennae, which in the males are four times the length of distant at their base. The two usual eminences from
the body. It is characteristic of northern countries, and which they spring are almost confounded in one plane,
most of the British examples have occurred in Scotland. The thorax is almost always smooth, or without^ lateral
“ Habitat frequens,” says Linnaeus, writing in reference to
Sweden, “ in linteribus et arborum truncis decorticatis,
dum ex his domes struunt ruricolae, hinc pueris nostris
dicitur Timberman omnibus notissima species: vulgus
hunc laedere religiose apud nos ducet.”1 Others of an
analogous form, but of which the antennae are garnished
with hairs, compose the genus Pogonocherus2 of the
same authors. Britain produces four species, of which
two occur in Scotland. Certain apterous kinds compose
the genus Dorcadion3 of Dalman. These insects are
proper to Europe and the neighbouring countries of Asia.
Their antennae are generally shorter than the body, with
their articulations in the form of a reversed cone, which
gives them a knotted aspect. A species common on the
continent of Europe ( Cer. fuliginator, Linn.) is almost ex¬
clusively confined to calcareous soils
tubercles. The majority of the genus occur in Europe,
and Britain produces about a score. Few of them have
yet occurred in Scotland, probably owing to our compa¬
rative deficiency in wood. W e have met with only one
species in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, L. rafieollis.
FAMILY Y—EUPODA.
Some of the component parts of this family are nearly
allied to the Longicornes or preceding tribes, while others
so much resemble the Chrysomelse as to have been ar¬
ranged with the latter by Linnaeus. The organs of man-
ducation present the same range of affinities. Thus,
among the Donaciae, the ligula is membranous, bifid or
bilobed, as among the Longicornes, and their maxillae are
msiveiy cunmitju lu ccucaieuus auua. Diioueu, us aiiiuug nic —
Other Lamiariae have the thorax cylindrical, and unfur- very analogous to those of the latter; while among the
nished with tubercles or spines. The body is always elon- concluding Eupoda the ligula is almost square or round¬
gated,—in some almost linear. They compose the genus e(]5 and analogous to that of the ensuing family, called
Saperda of Fab., which has been greatly subdivided. W’e Cyclic a. At the same time the maxillary lobes are mem-
have several British species, of which we shall here name branous, or but slightly coriaceous, whitish, or of a yellow-
only S. carchaiias, an insect about an inch in length, co- ish hue; the exterior expands towards the extremity,
vered with a yellowish ashy down, spotted with black, and an(j has not the figure of a palpus,—a feature which allies
the antennae coloured alternately with black and grey. Its our present family rather to that which we have lelt
larva lives in the trunk of the poplar, and sometimes proves than to the one which follows. The body is more or less
injurious to plantations of that tree.
B.
In this our second principal section of the Longicornes,
forming
oblong, with the head and thorax narrower than the ab¬
domen. The antennae are filiform, or gradually enlarge
towards the extremity, and are inserted before the eyes.
These are in some entire, round, and projecting, in others
slightly emarginate. The head is received posteriorly by
the thorax, which is cylindrical, or in the form of a trans-
The eyes are rounded, entire, or scarcely emarginate, verse square. The abdomen may be called large when
and the antennae are then inserted forwards, or at most at compared with the other parts, and forms a lengthened
the anterior extremity of that feeble emargination. The square, or elongated triangle. The articulations of the
Tribe 4th, Lepturetje,
me amend cAuciuiL^ ui mat iceuic eiiia.igiimuun. x nc square, or eiongaieu triangle.   
head is always inclined, prolonged posteriorly behind the tarsi, excepting the terminal one, are furnished beneath
tic in o i r v a I nv o rwii 1 xr n a w/'-vtut ca i va + /-» ™ v, 1 r 1«Irsi t V.    L !      1 x.1—
ucavA ueuiuu nit; uirsi, exct'puiig uie leiimiJcU oiie, art; iu
eyes in several, or abruptly narrowed into a neck-like form w’ith little cushions, and the penultimate is bifid or bilob-
at its junction with the thorax. This last part is conical ed. The posterior thighs are very large in many species*
1 Fauna Suecica. s ii small species of deer.
* From srs/yaiv, leard, and horn. 4 an arc]icr ?,
4 Named from Dittos, slender, and owga, the tail, in allusion to the attenuated form of the elytra.
ENTOMOLOGY.
eop<i|» and it is from that character that the family derives its
ram i-name. They are all winged insects, and occur on the
Vr stems and leaves of various plants, especially, so far at
least as many of the European species are concerned, on
the liliaceous tribes. The larvae of the Donaciae feed on
the internal portion of the roots of aquatic plants. Those
of other genera live exposed, but, after the manner of the
Cassidae, cover themselves with a case or scabbard form¬
ed of their own excrementitious matter. Latreille divides
the family into two tribes.
Tribe 1st, Sagrides.
The mandibles terminate in a sharp point. The ligula
is deeply emarginate or bilobed.
In some the palpi are filiform, the eyes emarginate, the
posterior thighs very large and strong, and the tibiae ar¬
cuated. We here place the genera Megalopus,1 Fab.
and Sagra properly so called (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 7).
The former insects are proper to South America; the lat¬
ter, although one occurs in Africa, are characteristic of
China, and the great eastern islands, such as Java, the
Celebes, and Ceylon. Some of the Sagrae are among the
richest and most beautiful of the coleopterous tribes.
There is something striking in their gigantic limbs, and
their colours consist of burnished green and gold, mingled
with violet and deep flame colour.
In others the palpi are enlarged at their extremity, the
eyes entire, and the thighs of nearly equal dimensions.
Such are the genera Orsodacna of Lat. and Psammce-
cus, Boudier.2
Tribe 2d, Criocerides.
The extremity of the mandibles is truncated, or pre¬
sents two or three teeth. The ligula is entire, or but
slightly emarginate. These insects correspond to the
genus Crioceris3 of Geoffroy, which Latreille divides as
follows.
In some the mandibles taper to a point, and present
i two or three teeth at the extremity. The palpi are fili-
i' form, the antennae of ordinary thickness, almost granose
'• in certain species, and chiefly composed in others of arti-
Si eolations in the form of a reversed cone, or perceptibly
)i thicker towards their superior extremity.
In the genus Donacia, Fab. (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 8),
« the posterior thighs are large and inflated. The antennae
*■ are of equal size throughout, and composed of lengthened
articulations. The eyes are entire, and the terminal joint
j' of the tarsi is inclosed, for the greater part of its length,
if' by the lobes of the preceding articulation. This interest¬
ing genus was confounded with Leptura by Linnaeus and
Degeer, and with Stenochorus by Geoffrey. It was esta¬
blished by Fabricius under its present name, from ciova£, a
3 wed, on account of the species of which it is composed being
found on reeds and other aquatic plants, such as those of
gt the genus Iris, Saggitaria, Nymphaea, &c. to which they
e> cling with great tenacity, and on the roots of which the
larvae are supposed to feed. In the form of their bodies and
antennae they show an alliance to the Cerambycidae, but
o? their habits, and the structure of the cibarian organs, ally
Ki them still more closely to Crioceris and Galeruca. They
if* are frequently bronzed or gilded in their aspect, and are
ill: covered in some cases by a fine silky down, which is sup-
jll posed to prove useful to them when they fall into the wa-
j}. ter. Indeed, even in the perfect state, they are partly
i(i aquatic, and may be seen to seek repose and shelter on
the under side of the leaf of a water lily, where they are
181
necessarily submerged. According to M. A. Brongniart, Coleoptera
the chrysalids are attached to their filaments by one edge Tetramera.
only. M. Leon Dufour inclines to think, in consequence '"-'"V''-'
of anatomical investigation, that the Donacim ought to be
formed into a particular family. His observations, as we
are informed by M. Latreille, demonstrate that their he¬
patic vessels, in number, form, structure, and arrangement,
constitute a very remarkable exception to those of the Te¬
tramera in general, and one which even appears peculiar to
the genus. These vessels only open into the chylific ven¬
tricle, while in all the other Tetramera which M. Dufour
has dissected, they have two insertions, one of which is
ventricular, and the other caecal. These biliary ducts,
which are only four in number, are of two different kinds,
—the first are capillary, and disposed in two strong!}^ flex¬
ed curves, and are inserted by four distinct ends into a
short obround vesicle placed at the inferior and some¬
what lateral extremity of the chylific ventricle,—the others
are much shorter, thicker, more dilatable, thin, and taper¬
ing at both ends, with one extremity free, and separately
inserted by the other into the superior and dorsal region
of the ventricle. They contain a whitish pulp, which is
regarded as an alimentary substance. The oesophagus is
capillary, and has no dilatation in the form of crop. The
Chylific ventricle is beset with projecting papillae.4 Bri¬
tain produces above twenty species of Donaciae—a great
amount, when we consider that Dejean’s Catalogue con¬
tains only twenty-six in all. The genus may be regard¬
ed as characteristic of Europe, for scarcely any occur in
other countries, although a few have been collected in
America.
The genus Crioceris properly so called, differs from
the preceding in the posterior legs being scarcely, if at all,
larger than the others. The antennae become somewhat
enlarged towards the extremity, are almost granose, with
their articulations not much longer than broad. The eyes
are elevated and emarginate, and the posterior extremity
of the head forms a kind of neck behind these latter or¬
gans. These insects are of small size, their bodies narrow
and elongated, and frequently ornamented with lively co¬
lours. They live on the leaves of various plants,—Lilia-
ceae, Asparagi, &c. and occur in gardens and meadows.
When seized they produce a sharpish sound, by rubbing
the superior extremity of the abdomen against the inferior
extremity of the elytra. The larvae feed on the same
plants as those on which we usually find the perfect insects,
and are somewhat adhesive or tenacious by means of their
six scaly feet. Their bodies are soft, short, and inflated ;
and they protect themselves in that early state from the
action of the sun and the changes of the season, by cover¬
ing their backs with their own ordure. They occupy a
subterranean position in the nympha state. The species
are extremely numerous as the genus was originally con¬
stituted, but it has been greatly restricted in recent times.
Mr Stephens gives seven as the amount of British species.
Of these not above three have yet been found in Scot¬
land. C. asparagi was taken near Edinburgh by Sir Pa¬
trick Walker.
In others the mandibles, instead of tapering to a point,
as in the two preceding genera, are truncated. The palpi
are terminated by a strongly inflated joint, truncated, with
a small angular prolongation, exhibiting the appearance of
another joint. The antennae are slender, and composed
of very long and almost cylindrical articulations. Such
is the* genus Megascelis of Dejean and Lat. (Plate
CCXXVII. fig. 9), peculiar to South America.
s Prom a ram, and a horn.
4 llegne Animal, t. v. p. 136.
2 From [MyaXoTavc, having large feet.
lor their distinctive characters, see Eegne Animal, t. v. p. 134-5.
XO*J
Coleoptera
Tetramera-
FAMILY VI—CYCLICA.
In this family the first three joints of the tarsi are still
spongy, or furnished beneath with pellets, the penultimate
joint divided into two lobes, and the antennae filiform, or
a little larger towards the extremity ; but the body is usu¬
ally rounded, with the base of the thorax as broad as the
elytra in such (and these are few in number) as are of an
oblong form. The exterior division of the maxillae, in its
narrow and almost cylindrical form, and darker colom,
presents the appearance of a palpus ; the interior division
is broader and destitute of a scaly tooth. The hgula is
almost square or oval, entire, or slightly emarginate. it
appears from the anatomical researches of M. Leon Dufour,
that the alimentary canal is at least thrice the length o
the body in such of the genera as have been examined,
that the oesophagus is usually inflated behind the crop;
and that the chylific ventricle, or stomach, is generally
smooth, at least throughout a great part of its length. The
biliary apparatus resembles that of the Cerambycidae and
other Longicornes, in the number and double insertion of
the vessels of which it is composed ;—these amount to six,
two of which (except in the genus Cassida) are for the most
part shorter and more slender. The larvae have six feet;
their bodies are soft, and frequently coloured. They feed,
like the perfect insect, on the leaves of plants, to which
they adhere by means of a viscid humour. Some enter
the earth prior to their assumption of the nympha state,
while others undergo that change attached to the plants on
which they feed, and partly encompassed by the exuviae of
the larva. The perfect insects are of small size, but they
are frequently adorned by brilliant colours and metallic
splendour. They are slow and timorous in their general
movements, and when attempted to be seized, they closely
fold their feet and antennae, and drop to the ground. Se¬
veral species are good leapers, and the females are ex¬
tremely prolific. Latreille divides this family into three
tribes, according to the mode in which the antennae are
inserted.
Tribe 1st, CASsiDARiiE.
These have the antennae inserted on the superior part
of the head, and approximate, straight, short, filiform, and
almost cylindrical, or increasing gradually towards the
extremity. The mouth, situate altogether underneath,
and with very short almost filiform palpi, is sometimes
arched (cintree), sometimes partially received into the
cavity of the praesternum. The eyes are ovoid or round ;
the legs contractile and short, with the tarsi flattened,—
the lobes of the penultimate articulation entirely inclosing
the terminal one. The body being flat beneath, these in¬
sects, by the disposition of their tarsi, are enabled to ad¬
here closely to the surface of vegetation, and to remain
there immoveable ; in other respects the body is general¬
ly orbicular or oval, and is margined all round, or overlap¬
ped, by the thorax and elytra. The head is concealed
beneath the thorax, or is received into its anterior emargi-
nation. The colours are extremely varied, and are distri¬
buted in the form of spots and radiated markings, in a
manner delightful to look upon. The larvae present a less
inviting aspect, and have the instinctive habit of covering
themselves with their own excretions.
In the old genus Hispa,1 of Linn, the body is oblong,
with the head entirely free or exposed, and the thorax
trapezoidal. The mandibles have only two or three teeth;
the external maxillary lobe is shorter than the internal,
and the antennae are filiform, and borne projecting for-Cole,
wards These insects now form the genera Alurnus,
Fab. (Plate CCXXVIL fig. 10), and Hispa properly so W
“xhe^enus^AssmA^ Linn, and Fab. (Plate CCXXV1I.
fio- 12), is distinguished from the preceding by the orbi-
cular or almost ovoid form of the body, which, however,
in a small number is nearly square. Ihe thorax, more or
less semicircular, or in the form of the segment of a circle,
entirely covers and conceals the head, or incloses it in its
anterior emargination. The elytra, often elevated about
the region of the scutellum, project over the body. The
mandibles are furnished with not fewer than four teeth,
and the external maxillary lobe is at least as long as the
internal. The name by which the insects of this genus
are distinguished was no doubt bestowed upon them on
account of a strongly marked character in their structure.
The edges of the thorax and elytra overlap and protect
the limbs and abdomen on all sides, and the head is also
nearly covered and concealed by the prothorax. Many
of the species are highly ornamental, and present pleas¬
ing combinations of green and golden hues, which, how¬
ever, soon disappear or diminish in intensity after the
death of the insect, but may be temporarily restored by
the use of hot water. These insects are herbivorous in
their habits, and are fond of artichokes and thistles. The
structure and habits of the larvae are rather singular, and
have been studied and described by Goedart, Roesel,
Reaumur, and Degeer. They are flattish, rather broad,
and beset laterally by sixteen branched spines placed ho¬
rizontally on each side of the posterior and superior por¬
tion of the body. At the base of these spines may be
observed seven small cylindrical truncated tunnels, each
placed on a distinct segment. These are probably the
stigmatic openings. The head is small, of a corneous
consistence, and presents four small tubercdes on each side
of its superior part, and only three on its inferior. These
are regarded by Degeer as genuine eyes. Six scaly feet,
terminated by a brown-coloured hook, sustain the body,
which is terminated by a two-branched fork, curved over
the back, and usually bearing a pile of excrementitious
matter, under which the larva lies in part concealed. ^ It
can elevate or depress this “ stercorareous parasol” at
pleasure, for the varying purposes of shade or shelter.
The nymph is shorter than the larva, broad, flattened, of
an oval form, and surrounded by peculiar appendages. It
has an ample thorax, terminated by a circular arch, and
furnished with similar points or appendages. The legs
and the segments of the abdomen are perceptible. It was
in the aspect of one of these nymphse that Goedart sup¬
posed he recognised a representation of the human figure
surrounded by an imperial crown. Ihe genus Cassida
presents an immense amount of species. About twenty
are indigenous to Britain, several more occur on the con¬
tinent of Europe, and, including exotic species, Dejean
enumerates 103 as the amount (in 1821) of his then
splendid, and now (1834)) unrivalled collection of Coleop¬
tera.
Tribe 2d, Chrysomelin.®.
In this tribe the antennae are inserted in front of the
eyes, near their internal extremity, and are distant at the
base. None of the species are capable of leaping. They
form, in the earlier works of Fabricius, the genera CryptO’
cephalus and Chrysoniela, of which we shall here notice
the principal component parts, as modified by the syste¬
matic views of recent writers.
1 Perhaps from hispidus, shaggy.
2 From cassida, a helmet.
eopt
ram
-T’
ENTOMOLOGY.
i The original genus Cryptocephalus1 contained those
• Chrysomelinae of which the head seemed plunged vertical-
' ly into an arched or hood-like thorax, in such a way that
sthe body, generally in the form of a short cylinder, or
almost ovoid, and narrowed anteriorly, appears, when
viewed from above, as if truncated in front, or deprived
of the head. The terminal articulation of the palpi is al¬
ways ovoid.
In some of these the antenna? are short, and pectinated
or serrated from the fourth or fifth joint, as in the genus
Clythra of Leach and Fab. of which C. quadripunctata
(a Chrysomela of Linn.) may be mentioned as a well-
known British species. It measures about half an inch in
length, and has red elytra, with a pair of black spots on
each. Its larva lives in a little coriaceous tunnel, which it
drags along with it. We here place also the singular ge¬
nus Chlamys2 of Knock3 (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 13), in
which the upper surface of the body is extremely rugged
and unequal. Nothing is known of the history or trans¬
formations of these insects, all of which, as far as yet ob¬
served, are natives of the new world, especially of Brazil,
a region so remarkable for its entomological riches. In a
state of repose they draw in their legs and antennae close
upon their body, and when not in motion are with diffi¬
culty recognised as living creatures. The species are few
in number, and by no means common in collections. Mr
Kirby has described a new species under the name of Chla¬
mys bacca,—“ Animal singulare, baccam rubicundam aci-
nis constantera superficie rugoso simulans.”4 In the ge¬
nus Lamprosoma5 of Kirby (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 14), the
body is almost globular, very smooth and convex, and the
thorax extremely short, broad, gradually raised, and slight¬
ly lobate at the middle of its posterior margin.
In other groups, the antennae, perceptibly longer than
the head and thorax, are simple and filiform, or enlarged
towards the extremity, or even terminated by a club,—in
which case they are generally toothed like a saw, but only
from the seventh joint. In several the body is oval, and
narrowed in front. The last article of the antennae is fur¬
nished with an appendage, so as to produce an appear¬
ance of twelve joints. In the genus Cryptocephalus
properly so called, the body is cylindrical, and the thorax
as broad as the abdomen throughout its length. The an¬
tennae and palpi are of the same size throughout. We
have above a score of species in Great Britain. In the
genus Eumolpus of Kugelan the body is narrowed in
front, and almost ovoid. The mandibles are of ordinary
size, and the second joint of the antennae is shorter than
that which follows. Almost all of them are exotic, al¬
though a few are found in Europe, of which E. vitis, Fab.
and certain others, are said to occur in England. Accord¬
ing to Geoffroy, the larva of the last-named insect is ex¬
tremely destructive to vineyards.
We now approach the second great genus of the pre¬
sent tribe, that called Chrysomela by Linnaeus. Of its
modern reconstruction we shall likewise present the read¬
er with a general sketch. The body of these insects is
usually ovoid or nearly ovular, with the head salient, pro¬
jecting or merely inclined. The antennae are simple, about
half the length of the body, and most frequently granose,
and insensibly enlarged. When the great Swedish natu-
183
ralist established his extensive genus Chrysomela, he in-Coleoptera
eluded within its somewhat too ample boundaries nume-Tetraniera.
rous groups, which the more precise observation and richer
materials of later entomologists have caused to be erected
into separate genera. It is thus that we owe Erotylus,
Colaspis, and Adorium to Fabricius, Eumolpus to Kungel-
man, Helodes to Paykul, Doryphora to Illiger, and Paro-
psis to Olivier,—besides several others, to the origin of
which we need not here particularly allude. Many of the
species of this genus are among the most beautiful and
highly adorned of all the insect tribes. Azure, and green,
and gold, form their ordinary costume ; and to that lustrous
aspect, combined with their compact and rounded forms,
they no doubt owe their title of Chrysomela, which in the
Greek language signifies an apple of gold.6 These insects
are of small or medium size. Few of them measure more
than half an inch in length, and the greater number do not
equal that dimension. They are strictly herbivorous, and
sometimes commit considerable ravages on agricultural and
garden produce. The larvae have in general six feet, an
elongated body, beset with warts or tubercles, and termi¬
nated by a kind of nipple, which secretes a viscous fluid,
used both in w alking, and in order to fix the insect firmly
before its conversion to the nympha state. Their trans¬
formations usually take place in the open air, in which case
they are protected by the hardening of their natural en¬
velope. Many of the species are gregarious, while others
are solitary ; and it is among the latter that such occur as
undergo their metamorphoses under ground. We shall
now enumerate the principal generic groups into which
the old genus Chrysomela has been subdivided.
In some the body is always ovoid, or nearly oval, and
furnished with wings; the palpi terminate in a point.
These insects resemble the Eumolpi already mentioned,
and differ from the ensuing Chrysomelinae in their filiform
antennae, which are longer than half the length of the
body, composed of elongated nearly cylindrical articles, of
which the eleventh or terminal bears an appendage or false
joint nearly half as long as the article itself. Such are
Colaspis, Fab. which have no projection of the meso-
sternum ; and Podontia, Dalman, in which that part pro¬
jects in the form of a short and conical point, the end of
which is received into a posterior emargination of the prse-
sternum.7
In the following groups the antennas are short, compos¬
ed of articulations in the form of a reversed cone, or more
or less nearly granose, and enlarged towards the extre¬
mity. The false joint or terminal appendage is very short
and indistinct. In the genus Phyllocharis of Dalman
there is no mesosternal projection ; but in Doryphora8 of
Illiger (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 15), that part is advanced
like a distinct horn. The former genus inhabits New
Holland and the island of Java,—the latter is peculiar to
South America. The genus Paropsis,9 Olivier, or Noto-
clea of Marsham (ibid. fig. 16), is distinguished from all
the rest of the family by the maxillary palpi, of which
the terminal article is much larger than the others, and
hatchet-shaped. These insects, in so far as entomologi¬
cal research has yet extended, seem peculiar to New Hol¬
land. The two genera next ensuing interest our native
naturalists as abundant over Britain. The terminal article
From xou-rro;, concealed, and x'QuXn, iht
Neuc Betrage zur Insectenkunde, p. 122.
Linn. Trans, vol. xii p. 44G. 1vr—’'■~’
from Xa/A-rprsi, bright, and
the head.
2 From xXoiuas, a coat of mail
Monographs of the genus Chlamys have been published both by Kollar and King.
r rom bright, and /ruga, body.
. fhe word chrysomelum, from ^vao;, gold, and an apple, denoted in ancient times a fruit with a yellow rind, and was deemed
V~nilseus sufficiently applicable to the insects of our present genus, on account of their rounded form and brilliant colouring.
 Ephemcrides Entomologicce.
r rom ooevQo^o;, a pike-bearer, in allusion to the sternal spine.
From a platter.
ENTOMOLOGY.
184
Coleoptera of their palpi is also well distinguished from the preced-
Tetramera. ing, to which it is equal, if not larger, m size, 1 s .c
   being more or less semi-ovoid. These insects are widely
spread over most parts of the ancient continent, especial¬
ly Europe. In the genus Timarcha of Megerle and De-
lean (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 17), the species are few in num¬
ber, and apterous. The elytra are joined together, he
body gibbous, and the tarsi much dilated, especially m the
males. They occur on the ground in woods, fields, and
by the sides of highways. Their movements are slow and
heavy, and a yellowish or reddish liquor frequently exudes
from their articulations. Linnaeus classed a well-known
species of this genus ( T. tenebricosa) as a tenebrio. It
has been dissected by M. Leon Dufour, and exhibited an
intestinal tube three times the length of the body,
presented no appearance ofacrop; and the stomach, which
was long and folded on itself, contained no sensible papil¬
la; : some small transverse muscular bands were just dis¬
cernible. The stomach is followed by a filiform intestine,
then by an oblong caecum, bordering on the rectum. As
far as our own observation has extended, the species, with
a few exceptions from the north ot Africa, seem confined
to Europe. In the genus Chrysomela properly so call¬
ed (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 18), the species are all provided
with wings, and the terminal article of the palpi is as large
or larger than the preceding ones, and in the forrn of a
truncated ovoid, or reversed cone. The species of this
delightful genus are extremely numerous, even in its now
restricted state. Comte Dejean was many years ago in
possession of 120 species, and we know that his collection
has recently been much augmented. Even in Britain we
possess about thirty species, exclusive of fourteen kinds
of Phcedon and six of Melasoma, genera so nearly allied
in structure and economy, that some authors do not yet
distinguish them from the Chrysomela; strictly so called.
We regret that within our present limits we cannot de¬
scribe the species. We shall merely mention that we
lately received one of the largest and most beautiful, C.
fulgida, from the valley of Clova in Forfarshire. It was^
previously unknown in Scotland. Another species of
very exquisite aspect, C. cerealis, common in France upon
the broom, has of late years been taken occasionally in
Wales.1 Our own collection is indebted for it to our libe¬
ral friend and valued correspondent Mr Melly of Man¬
chester, a skilful and accomplished entomologist, and
the owner of one of the largest and probably the best
conditioned of the general cabinets of Coleoptera in Bri¬
tain.
Latreille terminates the tribe with such as have their
maxillary palpi attenuated at the extremity, and ending
in a point. These form two genera,—Ph^don of Me¬
gerle, in which the body is ovoid or orbicular ; and Praso-
curis of Lat. (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 20).2 Of the former,
C. fastuosa, Linn, may be cited as a beautiful example,
which occurs in great plenty at the base of Salisbury
Crags and other places near Edinburgh, on the Lamium
album or white dead-nettle,—of the latter, P. Phellandrii
and Beccabungce are well-known British species.
Tribe 3d, Galerucitye.
1(6 *(
Characterized by the antennae being always at least ^ ^
half as long as the body, of the same thickness through¬
out, or insensibly enlarged towards the extremity, insert¬
ed between the eyes, at a short distance from the mouth,
and usually approximate at their base, and close upon a
small longitudinal carina. The maxillary palpi, thickest
towards the middle, are terminated by two joints of a co¬
nical form, but opposed or united by their base, the ter-
minal one being either truncated, or obtuse, or pointed.
The body is sometimes ovoid or oval, sometimes nearly
hemispherical. Several, especially of the smaller kinds,
have the posterior thighs very large, which gives them
the power of leaping. They form the old genus Galemea.
Latreille divides these insects into two principal groups,
the Isopodes, or such as cannot leap, and the Anisopodes,
or such as possess that faculty.
To the former belong the genera Adorium, Fab., of
which the species are foreign ; Luperus, Geoft., of which
we possess two British species ; and Galeruca properly
so called, of which our indigenous kinds are more abun¬
dant, and which is likewise extremely numerous both in
Asia and America. G. tanaceti occurs in most parts of
Britain. We took it in Sutherland. Java produces a very
beautiful species, named G. albicornis by Dejean.
To the leaping Galerucitae belong numerous insects, of
which the posterior thighs are much enlarged. They were
scattered by Fabricius through the genera Chrysomela,
Galeruca, and Crioceris, and have been united by other
naturalists under the single genus Altica.3. Though of
insignificant dimensions, their colours are varied and bril¬
liant, their movements lively, and their powers of devasta¬
tion considerable. They feed on the leaves of plants, and
are familiarly known by "the name of garden fleas. South
America produces a great many species.4 Many subdivi¬
sions have been proposed of the old genus just named.
Of these, Latreille admits as established groups the genera
OcTOGONOTESofDrapiez,5CEDIONYCHIS, Dibolia, Longi-
tarsus, Lat., and Altica properly so called. The last-
named genus is the most frequent and best known in Bri¬
tain. The species are of small dimensions, and occur in
great numbers during the spring in humid places, and are
extremely destructive both in the larva and perfect state
to pot-herbs and other garden produce. The larvae re¬
semble those of Chrysomela and Crioceris, and some of
them are remarkable for discharging an odorous and acid
fluid from certain small tubercles on their backs. The
nymphae bear a likeness to those of Coccinella, and re¬
main from fifteen to twenty days in that condition. The
perfect insects are often highly adorned, and the species
are extremely numerous. We shall mention merely H.
nemorum, which is oblong-ovate, black, thickly punctured,
with a longitudinal yellowish stripe on each elytron, the
base of the antennae, tibiae, and tarsi testaceous. This
species is but too abundant over all our country. “ The
chief dependence,” say Messrs Kirby and Spence, “ of our
farmers for the sustenance of their cattle in the winter is
1 Certain species, of a darker or more obscure complexion than the others, form the genus Melasoma of Dillwyn, so calle
fi'Xat, black, and truua, body. We may mention as an example, M. populi, the largest of the Chrysomelidae hitherto found m acot ^
On each of the nine intermediate dorsal segments of the larva of this species there is a pair of black, elevated, conical tubercles, o
hard substance, from all of which when touched it emits a small drop of a white milky fluid, the smell of which, according to Deg e *
is almost insupportable, being inexpressibly strong and penetrating. These drops proceed at the same instant from all the eight
scent organs, which then present a singular spectacle. The precious fluid, however, is by no means wasted when exercised, for e ^
drop, after a momentary appearance, during which it dispenses its perfume, is withdrawn again within its receptacle, till again
quired. (See Degeer, t. v. p. 291 ; and Kirby and Spence’s Introduction to Entomology, vol. ii. p. 246.)
* Helodes of some other authors. * s From a/.T;*as, a leaper.
* We are indebted to Illiger for a monograph of these insects, published in the Magazin fur Insectenkunde.
s Annul, des Sciences Phys. iii. p. 181.
ENTOMOLOGY.
t another most useful root, the turnip; and they have of-
,Jn ;Uten t0 lament the distress occasioned by a failure in this
; crop, of which these minor animals are the cause. On its
first coming up, as soon as the cotyledon leaves are un¬
folded, a whole host of little jumping beetles, composed
chiefly of Haltica nemorum, called by farmers the flu and
black jack, attack and devour them ; so that on account of
their ravages the land is often obliged to be resown, and
frequently with no better success. It has been calculated
by an eminent agriculturist, that from this cause alone the
loss sustained in the turnip crops in Devonshire in 1786
was not less than L.100,000.”1
FAMILY YII—CLAVIPALPI.
The insects of this family resemble the others of the
same section in having the under part of the first three arti¬
culations of the tarsi furnished with brushes, and the pen¬
ultimate bifid,—but they are distinguished from them by
their antennae, which are terminated by a distinct perfoli-
ated club, and by their maxillae armed on the inner side
with a claw or corneous tooth. A few' have the articles
of the tarsi entire, but they still differ from other Tetra-
mera with analogous tarsi, in their globular or ball-like
form. In this family the body is- usually rounded, fre¬
quently even very convex and hemispherical. The an¬
tennae are shorter than the body, the mandibles emarginatp
or dentated at the extremity, and the palpi terminated by
a large joint; the last joint of the maxillary palpi is very
large, transverse, compressed, almost lunate. The form
of the organs of manducation indicates that these insects
are gnawers; and most of the European species occur on
tree fungi, beneath bark, &c.
Some have the penultimate joint of the tarsi bilobed,
and are not contracted like a ball. Of these, a certain
number have the last article of the maxillary palpi trans¬
verse, and almost lunate or securiform. Such are the fol¬
lowing genera. Erotylus,2 Fab. (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 19),
in which the intermediate articles of the antennae are al¬
most cylindrical, and the terminal club oblong. The cor¬
neous interior division of the maxillae is terminated by
two teeth. They are peculiar to South America.3 Tri-
plax (Triplax, Tritoma, Fab.) differs from the preceding
in the antennae, which are almost granose, and terminate
in a shorter and ovoid club. The interior division of the
maxillae is membranous, with a single small terminal tooth.
Ihe hemispherical or rounded species form the genus
Iritoma of Fab., while those of an oval or oblong shape
constitute the genus Triplax of that author.
The remainder of this little group have the last article
oi the maxillarjr palpi elongated, and more or less oval,
buch are Languria of Eat., of which the species are
strangers to Europe; and Phalacrus of Paykul (Anisoto-
ma, Illiger and Fab.). The latter genus contains certain
small shining hemispherical insects, frequently found on
I u°Ters; Ihey Pass ^ie winter under moss or beneath the
185
bark of treys, where they probably also undergo their me-
amorphosis. Their general colours are brown or black;
their movements are rapid, and they are with difficulty
seized or retained, on account of their smooth and polish¬
ed surface. They differ from the last-named exotic genus, Coleoptera
not only in their general form, but in the club of their Trimera.
antennae being composed of three instead of five articula-
tions.
In the remaining Clavipalpi all the joints of the tarsi
are simple, and the body is almost globular. Such is the
genus Agathidium, Ulig. so named from ayaOig, a clue,
probably in reference to the faculty possessed by the spe¬
cies of rolling themselves into a ball,—in which state they
feign death in the most imperturbable manner. They
occur in woods, beneath the bark of trees, and in mush¬
rooms. We regard the genus, of which about a dozen
species occur in Britain, as rather characteristic of the
north of Europe. It was originally constituted by a dis¬
memberment of Sphaeridium, from which, according to the
sectional system of Latreille, it stands at a great distance,
having, in common with other Tetramera, only four arti¬
culations to all the tarsi. The same character, in this
instance we fear an artificial one, also removes it widely
from Anisotoma, Leiodes, and other genera with which it
is, in all likelihood more naturally, conjoined by Mr Ste¬
phens and other English entomologists.4
TRIMERA.
Three Articulations to all ihe Tarsi.
This, the fourth primary section of the coleopterous
order, consists of three families, of which the first two
bear a strong relation to the concluding genera of the sec¬
tion we have just quitted. Their antennae, almost always
composed of eleven articulations,5 terminate in a club
formed by the three last joints. The club is compressed,
and in the form of a reversed triangle. The first article
of the tarsi is always very distinct; the penultimate is
usually bilobed; and the last, presenting a knot at its
base, is terminated by a pair of hooks. The elytra are
not truncated, and entirely cover the abdomen. The ge¬
nera of the third family, however, differ from the other
two in the characters last mentioned, in which, as in se¬
veral others, they make an approach to the Brachelytra,
and other groups of the great pentamerous section. In
their habits also they differ greatly from the rest of the
trimerous families.
1st, Fungicolze.6
These have the antennae longer than the head and
thorax, the body oval, with the thorax trapezoidal. The
maxillary palpi are filiform, or slightly enlarged at the
extremity, but not terminated by a comparatively very
large and securiform article. The penultimate joint of
the tarsi is always deeply bilobed. The genera are Eu-
morphus,7 Weber (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 21), Dapsa, Zieg¬
ler, Endomychus,8 Web. (ibid. fig. 22), and Lycoper-
dina, Eat.9
2d, Aphidiphagi.10
Of the great majority of these the body is almost hemi¬
spherical, the thorax very short, transverse, nearly lu¬
nate. The antennae terminate in a compressed obconical
j Intwduction to Entomology, vol. i. p. 185. 4 amorous 3
iurelle^ MonoSruphie du genre Erotyle, by M. Duponchel, inserted in the twelfth volume of the Mcmoires du Museum d'Histoire Na-
s ^1.(j Scottish species of these, and the allied genera, see Entomologia Edinensis.
defcrc k 6 COu^ cleai'ly make out only nine in those of Clypeaster, but he thinks there may be some error in consequence of
^ cave observation, arising from the minuteness of the species.
^ flmnjungus, and co/o, to inhabit.
s ,,rom elegance of form. 9 See Regne Animal, t. v. p. 160.
r°m ‘dopi'XH, concealed within. 10 From aphis, and Quyos, eating.
VOL. IX.
2 A
186 entomology.
i «%•/-» eiTnrf^r in<?prt and each has a distinct and isolated insertion onC a
Coleopteraclub, composed of the three last artic es, am c j stomach, like a caecum. They have a very varicose 'if
Trimera than the thorax. The termmal article of the max^ary appear diaphanous. The insertion of ^
palpi is very large and secunfoim, an tl P ‘ minder these biliary vessels indicates the limits of the stomach,
article of the tarsi is deeply bilobed. In the thesejM ^ ^ ^ ^ ^ intestine, followed by a ,
of the family the articles of the tarsi are S1™P » , • h slightly bulged caecum, and a rectum distinctly marked,
the penultimate is very slightly bi , a c f xhe larva: of the Coccinellse feed on Aphides, and are i
with certain others, distinguishes ties extremely useful in the destruction of those noxious in- ’
ehensive and beautiful genus Coccne^, com- sects which abound to « e ^™ra.ion of so ^
monly called Ladybirds (Plate CCXXVU fig 23) the chintofS
antennre are d.stmctly composed of eleven artrculaMns. Ute^w nte ^ ^.1 ^ These are ofayeU
The body is neaily hemisphenca , •• • . !• iow co]our, with a disagreeable smell, and produce larvae
1 ftaii' slee .yTKed^ “ThetaTi '“oTc'cnSed! of^ aspect very different front that of the perfect insect.
This aenus wa established by Frisch, and has been In that early cond.t.on the body .s much broader than
adopted by ad succeeding entomologists. It serves, ac- deep, and is pointed towards the extrernity, which bears
cording to Mr Curtis, as afemarkable example of the value a fleshy projection, carried by the insect on the plane of
If s ractu e in the combination of groups, and of the its position, and serving as a kind of supernumerary foot
sligllt'importance of the distribution of clur when em- The body consists of twelve rings or segments, which
nlnvpd to distinguish species. “ As a genus, Coccinelia is m some cases are garnished with spines or tubercles, m
so°natural that Its appellation has nevl-been disturbed; others smooth. When the larvae have attained to then
whereas the species composing it are so variable that full size, they adhere by the,r hinder extrem.ty to a leaf
many of them have been described under a great variety ora stone, and party freeing themselves fiom a slough or
many ui i c e the assume tiie state of Chrysalis. In the course
or names. 1 < . .1 ^ —A. .
These insects are distinguishable from the neighbour¬
ing genera of Chrysomela and Erotylus by the number of
articulations of the tarsi, which never exceed three. In
of a week or two, according to the species, the perfect
insect makes its appearance. It is at first soft, flexible,
and almost colourless, but a very short period suffices to
this character they sofer coincide wTth^mor^,' En- adorn it with those gay and contrasted markings which
domychus,^\ Dasycerus,-hut from those genera they render the Coccinellee or “Lady-birds among the most
differ in the shortness of their antennae, the form of their admired of all the smaller tribes of coleopterous insects,
bodies, and the development of the last articulation of Some contrariety of opinion appears to exist in regard to
the maxillary palpi. The general form of these beautiful, the food and habits ot these insects in the perfect state,
and for the most part familiarly-known insects, is hemi- Perhaps their instincts may vary according to circum-
spherical,—an gspect produced chiefly by the convex stances, or may present a disparity in the species. We
shape of the elytra. The under surface is extremely fiat, have frequently observed them preying upon Aphides; and
and the legs are short, and, except when the insect is in yet Bose, in describing the Coccinelia borealis ot America,
motion, scarcely project beyond the lateral edges of the mentions its destructive attacks upon the leaves ot the
elytra. Leon Dufour has illustrated the anatomical struc- melon plantations ; and other species are said to be inju-
ture of this genus with his accustomed accuracy. He dis- rious to the crops of lucerne and cinqfoils. Their nura-
covered in C. septempunctata a salivary apparatus com- hers vary greatly in different years. In 1807, as Messrs
posed of three pair of diaphanous vessels, of extreme te- Kirby and Spence inform us, the shore at Brighton, and
nuity, more or less twisted, and extending from the hin- all the watering-places on the south coast, were literally
der part of the mouth into the abdomen, where the extre- covered with them, to the great surprise and even alarm
mities appear to float. He was, however, unable to de- of the inhabitants, who were ignorant that their little vi-
tect the appearance of any gland or other organ of an sitors were merely emigrants from the neighbouring hop-
essentially secreting nature ; but when submitted to a grounds, where in their larva state they had slain their
powerful microscope, these vessels exhibited a structure thousands and their tens of thousands of the Aphis, which,
entirely analogous to that of the salivary conduits observ- under the name of the Fly, so frequently blasts the hop-
able in the dipterous and hemipterous tribes. A linear grower’s expectations.2 Mr Stephens enumerates thirty
and tubular axis was perceptible through their pellucid British species ol this genus, almost every one of which
coats, resembling that of the excrementitial secretions of exhibits several striking varieties.3
the Carabidae. The digestive canal is itself scarcely long- In the remaining Aphidiphagi the body is very flat,
er than the body of the insect, and is consequently nearly in the form of a buckler, and the head is concealed be-
straight. The oesophagus seems inclosed in the head, in
such a way that, to render it observable, the alimentary
tube must be drawn backwards. The stomach is not pre¬
ceded by any crop or gizzard. It is bilobed at its origin,
where it approaches the head, and receives the cesopha-
neath a nearly semicircular thorax. The antennas do not
seem to consist of more than nine articulations, and ter¬
minate in an elongated club. The articulations of the
tarsi are entire. The praesternum forms anteriorly a kind
of chin-cloth (mentonniere). Such is the genus Clype-
gus in the notch or slope produced by that bilobation. It aster, of which the species occur under stones, and be1
is longer than the rest of the tube,—is very smooth and neath the bark of trees,
dilatable,—and was found filled sometimes with a black¬
ish, sometimes with a yellowish pulp. Near its termina¬
tion were the biliary vessels, six in number. These ves¬
sels are somewhat large in proportion to the size of the
3d, Pselaphii.
This little family, in its short and truncated elytra,
which leave the abdomen in part exposed, presents a cer-
E N T O M
Tth
ter;
tain resemblance to the brachelytrous tribes, particularly
the genus Aleochara.1 The abdomen, however, is much
shorter and wider, and is very obtuse and rounded poste¬
riorly. The antennae terminate in a club, or are enlarged
towards the extremity, and sometimes consist of only six
articulations. The maxillary palpi are usually very large.
All the articulations of the tarsi are entire, and the first,
much shorter than the following, is scarcely perceptible
on a cursory examination; the last is frequently termi¬
nated only by a single hook. These insects occur upon
the ground among vegetable debris. Some are found in
ants’ nests.
Such as have eleven joints to the antennae form the
genus Pselaphus2 of Herbst (Staphylinus, Linn.), which
is thus subdivided by Latreille. A limited-number have
two hooks to the tarsi. These form the genera Chen-
nium, Lat. (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 25), and Dionix, De¬
jean. The remainder have only a single hook to the tarsi.
Such are Pselaphus proper (ibid. fig. 24) of Lat., Bi-
thynus, Arcopagus and Bryaxis of Leach, and Cte-
nistes of Reichenbach.3
The last of the Pselaphii, and with these we conclude
the great coleopterous order, are distinguished by this
peculiarity—that the antennae are composed of not more
than six articulations, and in certain cases (genus Arti-
cerus of Dalman4) apparently of only one. In the genus
Claviger5 (Plate CCXXVII. fig. 26) six joints are quite
perceptible (ibid. fig. 27). These insects do not seem
to have any eyes. The maxillary palpi are very short,
without distinct articulations, and furnished with two ter¬
minal hooks. The first two articulations of the tarsi are
very short, the third or last very long, with a single ter¬
minal hook. These insects occur beneath stones in dry
situations.6
Order II.—ORTHOPTERA.7
In this order the wings are likewise four in number.
The elytra or upper pair are softer and more flexible than
in the preceding order-; they are semi-membranous, reti¬
culated, and for the most part do not form by their junc¬
tion, when closed, a straight line along the dorsal suture.
The true wings are folded longitudinally, and usually af¬
ter the manner of a fan, and are divided by longitudinal
membranous nervures. Maxillae terminated by a corneous
piece, toothed, and protected by the galea, a portion
which corresponds to the exterior division of the jaws of
coleopterous insects. In this order there is also a kind
of tongue or epiglottis. The metamorphosis is semi-com¬
plete.
Linnaeus arranged the first genus of our present order
with his Coleoptera, placing it, however, by itself at the
termination of that order;—the remaining genera were
O L o G Y is;
grouped with his hemipterous tribes. We owe their se- Orthop-
paration to Degeer, who formed the whole into an order, tera.
under the name of Dermaptera? They correspond to the
Ulonata of labricius. The title which they now bear was
imposed by Olivier.
1 he body of orthopterous insects is generally of an
elongated form, and of a somewhat soft and fleshy con¬
sistence. It is composed as usual of head, thorax, and
abdomen. We shall briefly describe the general charac¬
ters of these parts. I he head varies considerably in size,
form, and position. It is usually large and vertical, and
presents in the greater number of species two or three
stemmatic eyes. The front is sometimes prolonged into
a conical form, as in certain species of the genera Trux-
alis and Mantis ; sometimes it bears a kind of fleshy ap¬
pendix resembling a veil, as in the Gryllus umbraculosus
of Spain. The true eyes occupy the sides of the head,
and are generally very large, with a reticulated aspect.
The antennae do not vary so greatly in their structure as
among the Coleoptera, but they are usually composed of
a greater number of articulations. They are generally
inserted in front of the eyes, but sometimes beneath or
between them. Their articulations are not very distinct,
and as to shape they are filiform, setaceous, massive, per-
foliated, and sometimes ensiform, or resembling the blade
of a sword.
The mouth consists of a labrum, two mandibles, a pair
of maxillae, a labium, and four palpi. The labrum is at¬
tached to the clypeus by a distinct suture ; it is moveable,
always external, demi-coriaceous, somewhat arched or
vaulted, almost semicircular, rounded in front, and ad¬
vancing on the mandibles. The mandibles are scaly, or
corneous and strong, triangular, short, thick, with the ex¬
terior side arched, and the interior armed with many un¬
equal teeth or dentations. According to the observations
of Marcel de Serres, these dentations bear a close relation
to the mode of nourishment; and he distinguishes them,
as we do the dental system of the Mammalia, as incisive,
canine, and molar. These last are the largest, and there
is never more than one in each mandible, placed towards
its base. The three sorts of teeth never exist simulta¬
neously, and it is by their presence or absence, and by
the modifications of their forms, that we may recognise
the nature of the various substances by which the differ¬
ent tribes of Orthoptera are nourished. In the genera
Mantis and Empusa, for example, which are purely car¬
nivorous, we find only the canine teeth or laniares. Those
species which have only incisive and molar teeth are her¬
bivorous, while such as are omnivorous possess canine and
molar teeth, but of smaller dimensions. The maxillae re¬
semble in a great measure those of the carnivorous Cole¬
optera. They are very strong, corneous, at least on their
superior portion, which forms a kind of large conical tooth,
provided with two or three dentations. They also bear
a Jhe ^>sc^aP^l^ce °f Mr Stephens form the first family of his Brachelytra. {Nomenclature of British Insects, 2d edition, col. 89.)
2 trom fnkaQia), to feel one's way.
tli3 <nt°r ^'e ^eta^s °f the above genera, of which we can only indicate the names, see Iteichenbach’s Monographia Pselaphorum ;
le 3(( vol. of Leach’s Zoological Miscellany ; the 4th of Gyllenhal’s Insecta Suecica ; the article Pselaphiens of the Encyclop. Meth. ; and
the Hegne Animal, vol. v. p. 164.
Memoir (in Swedish) On the insects inclosed in amber, p. 21.
* Claviger^ a. club-bearer. See a Monograph of the genus by Muller, in the 3d vol. of German's Mayazin der Entomologie.
8 two additional primary sections of the order Coleoptera were formerly recognised, under the names of Dimera and Monomera.
ese are now suppressed, for the reasons assigned at page 110 of this article.
’ Ulonata, Fab.
‘ r ti^16 or^er now known under the name of Dermaptera, and admitted as such by many modern writers, is an osculant one, connect¬
ing the Coleoptera and Orthoptera, and is composed of the genus Forficula. The elytra are of a coriaceous consistence, without veins,
--stnught suture, and inclose wings which are folded longitudinally as well as transversely. These characters serve to connect
all' . PrecedinS order? while the form of the wings, the organs of the mouth, and the nature of the metamorphosis, exhibit its
lance to the orthopterous tribes, along with which we have consequently ranked it in the present treatise, in conformity with the
lews or M. Latreille, although we are aware that most English entomologists, and many foreign ones, prefer that it should be dis¬
tinguished as above mentioned.
188
Orthop-
tera.
E N T O M
two’palpi, but that which is named the internal palpus
among the carnivorous Coleoptera is here transformed
into a membranous inarticulate piece, sometimes cylin¬
drical, in other instances triangular or dilated, but in all
cases vaulted above, and covering the extremity of the
maxillae. It is to this particular portion, or internal maxil¬
lary palpus, that Fabricius applied the name of galea, or
helmet, a term not very accurately translated galette by
Olivier. The external maxillary palpi, which alone are
apparent, are composed of five articulations, of which the
two first are extremely short; and it is in these palpi that
Olivier and Marcel de Serres suppose themselves to have
discovered the organ of the sense of smell. I he lattei
author observed in their interior a pair of nerves spread¬
ing themselves over the vesicular membrane which ter¬
minates their last articulation. These he names the ol¬
factory nerves: one is furnished by the fifth pair, which
springs from the inferior face of the brain, and the other
by the first pair, which derives its origin from the lateral
and superior face of the first ganglion of the head. Be¬
tween these two nerves there is a trachea, which, before
it reaches the vesicular membrane, commences to form a
pneumatic pouch. This pouch is more fully developed
in the interior of the palpus, and throws off numerous ra¬
mifications, which spread themselves within the cavity of
the organ. It was this peculiar structure which induced
Olivier and Marcel de Serres to regard these palpi as the
organs of the sense of smell. We may add, however, that
Latreille is by no means satisfied that they are so, and
thinks that additional observation is necessary to establish
this alleged fact in the physiology of insects. The la¬
bium, o/ligula, of the Orthoptera, is almost membranous,
elongated, slightly enlarged towards its extremity, and
divided into two or four stripes or portions.
The interior of the mouth exhibits an additional piece,
which some regard as a tongue; it is fleshy, longitudinal,
carinated above, broader at its base, slightly restricted
before its anterior extremity, rounded, immoveable, and
somewhat notched at its point. The mentum is coriace¬
ous, in form of a transverse square, rather narrow towards
the summit. The labial palpi are composed of only three
articulations, as among the coleopterous tribes.1 Those
of the maxillae consist of five.
The thorax is composed, as in other cases, of a protho¬
rax, a mesothorax, and a metathorax. The first is gene¬
rally the largest, and is the only part exposed. It pre¬
sents a great variety of forms, some of which are suffi¬
ciently singular. The elytra, in the greater number, are
coriaceous, thin, flexible, semitransparent, and reticulated.
They are occasionally almost horizontal, with a straight
dorsal suture, as among the Coleoptera; but they are
much more frequently more or less inclined, with their
inner edges crossing each other when closed over the
back. The true wings are broader than the elytra, mem¬
branous, full of reticulations, and longitudinally folded
after the fashion of a fan. To this latter character, how¬
ever, the somewhat anomalous genus Forjicula (contain¬
ing the earwigs) presents an exception, as in it the wings
are also transversely (as well as longitudinally) folded, as
among the Coleoptera. In some cases the females, and
in a few instances both sexes, among the Orthoptera,
are destitute of wings. In many species the elytra of the
males are short or rudimentary, and in that sex also a por¬
tion of the inner margin of these parts frequently resem¬
bles talc or parchment, and exhibits large irregular ner-
vures. It is by the rapid friction of these upon each other
O L O G Y.
that the monotonous song, or stridulation as it is called, of 0j
many species is occasioned. In others, however, a shrill t
monotonous cry is produced by rubbing the posterior u
limbs against the edges of the elytra.
The legs of orthopterous insects are sometimes similar
to each other. In other cases the anterior pair are more
extensile, and are armed with spines, with which they
transfix their prey,—or they are dilated, compressed,
strongly toothed externally, and adapted for burrowing in
the earth. The posterior legs, as among locusts and grass¬
hoppers, are frequently much larger than the others, and
fitted for powerful leaping; and both the middle and pos¬
terior pair are more widely apart from each other at their
origin than among the coleopterous species. The arti¬
culations of the tarsi differ in the different tribes; but we
believe that no heteromerous species have been yet ob¬
served. These articulations are not unfrequently furnish¬
ed beneath with little membranous cushions, and the ter¬
minal articulation is always provided with a pair of hooks
or claws.
The form of the abdomen varies in this order. It is
divided externally into eight or nine rings, and is often
terminated by projecting appendages. Many of the fe¬
males are furnished with an ovipositor, composed of two
portions closely applied, and frequently surrounded by a
common envelope.
In relation to the anatomy of the Orthoptera, we may
state, that they are all characterized by a first membra¬
nous stomach or crop, succeeded by a muscular gizzard,
armed interiorly with scales or corneous teeth, according
to the species. Around the pylorus, except in the Forji-
culce, are two or more blind intestines, furnished at their
base with many small biliary vessels ; and numerous other
vessels of a similar nature are inserted towards the mid¬
dle of the intestine. The digestive system of the larvae
resembles that of the perfect insect.
M. Marcel de Serres has particularly devoted himself
to the study of the internal structure of these creatures.
He informs us that the Orthoptera with setaceous an¬
tennae, such as the genera Blatta, Mantis, Gryllo-talpa,
Gryllus, and Locusta, have only elastic or tubular tra¬
cheae, and these of two kinds,—the one arterial, the other
pulmonary. The latter alone distribute the air to all
parts of the body7, after having received it from the for¬
mer. In the genera characterized by cylindrical or pris¬
matic antennae, such as Acrydium and Truxalis, the pul¬
monary tracheae are replaced by vesicular ones. Ihey
are covered by cartilaginous hoops or moveable ribs, and
receive air by means of tubular or elastic tracheae, which
proceed from the arterial kind. According to the same
authority, the nutritive system is more or less developed,
and exhibits four principal modifications. Gryllus and
Gryllo-talpa in that respect excel the others. In them
the crop is shaped like a bagpipe, and placed on one side,
while in the rest it is on a line with the gizzard. In the
latter also the hepatic vessels are inserted insulately, but
in the former by means of a common deferent canal. The
genera Truxalis and Acrydium (criquets), although resem¬
bling Locusta (Sauterelles) in their digestive system, dif¬
fer in respect to the superior hepatic vessels, which are
not furnished at their extremity with secreting vessels,
and no longer form enlarged pouches, but cylindrical and
elongated canals. The intestines of Blatta and Mantis pre¬
sent only two divisions; their nutritive system is in other
respects the same. The Forficulce, of which Mr Kirby
and Dr Leach form a distinct order under the title of D&'
\ characteristic is assigned by Latreille (Rcgne Animal, t. v. p. 108) and other writers ; but we have ourselves detected four
articulations m the labial palpi ot several genera.
E N T O M
rtb
ten
'■V r
maptera, do not appear to have been investigated by Mar¬
cel de Serres.1 AccoVding to Baron Cuvier, they differ
from all other Orthoptera in wanting the superior hepatic
vessels.
The metamorphoses of the Orthoptera are called semi-
complete, and consist chiefly in the development and in¬
crease of the elytra and wings. Both the larvae and nymphae
feed and move about like the perfect insects, and differ
chiefly by the entire want of wings in the first state, and
their rudimentary condition in the second. These insects
lay an immense number of eggs, of an elongated form and
considerable size. They are sometimes deposited in a
mass, and inclosed together within a capsule. Both young
and old are extremely voracious, and frequently produce
the most frightful consequences by their- devastations.
On the other hand, we are not aware of any recompensing
advantages derivable to the human race from any species
of orthopterous insects. Several eastern tribes no doubt
use them as food, and seem to have done so in remote times,
as indicated by the ancient name of Acridophagi ; and the
sacred writings have recorded that the food of John the
Baptist in the wilderness was “ locusts and wild honey.”
We believe that no aquatic species is contained in this
order.
Mr Macleay has observed, that although there may be
reason for hesitation with respect to the types of the Neu-
roptera, there is none in relation to the principal forms
of the orthopterous order. These forms seem to have
been perceived by all entomologists, and their dissimilari¬
ty has led to tribes being regarded in the light of orders.
“ Indeed no forms that are within the limits of an order
can be more distinct from each other than those of a
Phasma, Truxalis, Locusta, Acheta, Blatta, and Forficu-
la; and we accordingly find that they have been consi¬
dered as the types of so many groups by Linnaeus. The
affinity of Blatta to Mantis is acknowledged in the Begne
Animal. The genus Proscopia, lately instituted by Pro¬
fessor Klug of Berlin, one of the first entomologists of the
present day, proves the proximity of Phasma to Truxalis ;
and no entomologist is ignorant that the chain of connec¬
tion from Acridium to Locusta, from Locusta to Acheta,
and from this to Blatta, has been long since detected, and
is now perfectly established. Hence some notion may be
obtained of the contents of the orthopterous circle, if we
reckon the above-mentioned five genera as the types of
the following tribes:
1. Phasmina.
2. Acridina.
3. Locustina.
4. Gryllina.
5. Blattina.
But as this series returns into itself, and the genus
Forjicula cannot be inserted therein without disturbing
its regularity, we must agree with Degeer and Mr Kirby,
that it belongs to a distinct order. That this order can
only be esteemed osculant between the Orthoptera and
Coleoptera, the reader will perceive by referring to its
place in the Systema Naturae. The Dermaptera, for so
they are termed, from its having been the name originally
proposed for the Orthoptera by Degeer, are in fact cole¬
opterous insects, with the metamorphosis and caudal ap¬
pendages of the true Orthopteraf ^
This is a much less numerous order than the preced¬
ing, m the amount at least of the ascertained species, and
m ^eat Britain we have not above sixty different kinds.
O L O G Y.
189
FAMILY I—CURSOItlA.
Orthop¬
tera.
All the feet formed for running. , Wings and wing-cases
almost always placed horizontally on the body. Females
unprovided with a corneous ovipositor.
Genus Forficula. Tarsi triarticulate. Wings folded
like a fan, and refolded transversely beneath the elytra,
which are extremely short, with a straight suture. The
body is linear, and terminated by two moveable scaly
pieces, in the form of a pair of pincers. Head exposed.
Antennae filiform, inserted before the eyes, and composed
of from twelve to thirty articulations, according to the spe¬
cies. The ligula is forked.3 See Plate CCXXVIII. figs.
3, 4, and 6.
The insects of this genus, known under the familiar
name of earwigs, are frequent in moist places, beneath
stones, under the loose bark of old trees, or in decayed
timber. They are injurious in gardens, where they at¬
tack various kinds of fruit. They also pierce the petals
of flowers, and do not refuse animal food. Our entomo¬
logical cabinet, when left open for a summer night, has
sometimes suffered from their depredations. They may
therefore be regarded as omnivorous. Their alleged in¬
clination to enter the ear is a vulgar error,'not derided
however even by the Swedish sage:—“ Aures dormien-
tum interdum intrans,” says Linnaeus, “ spiritu frumenti
pellenda.”
We shall not here describe the species, as their gene¬
ral appearance must be familiar to the reader; but we
shall devote a few lines to the manners of the common
earwig, F. auricularia. The female is known to watch
over her eggs wit'h great care,—an uncommon tendency
among insects. Degeer placed an earwig, with her eggs,
in a box with fresh earth, early in the month of April.
They had been scattered by accident about the box ; but
she soon collected them together, and placed herself above
them, as if she were hatching. Towards the middle of
May the young made their appearance. They seemed
large in proportion to the eggs, and appeared as if swollen.
The movement of the dorsal vessel was very perceptible
through the skin. These larvae have neither wings nor
elytra. They are composed of thirteen segments, of
which the first three bear the legs, and the last exhibits
the germ of the pincers, which are conical and slightly
divergent. The antennae are composed of eight articula¬
tions. Degeer endeavoured to bring up the young along
with their mother, and fed them with slices of apple.
They were observed to cast their skins several times, and
after each of these changes the antennae gained an addi¬
tional articulation. The pincers also became longer, and
their points approached each other, as in the adult insect.
These larvae, however, all perished by degrees but one;
and the mother also perished, and was found half devour¬
ed by her offspring, an ungrateful return for such tender
solicitude. This unnatural voracity, however, probably
arose from a deficiency of other food, as they are never ob¬
served to attack each other in a state of freedom. The
remaining larva increased in size, and assumed the nym-
pha state towards the end of July. The cases of the ely¬
tra and wings are flat, and closely pressed upon the back,
and the pincers have assumed their usual aspect. It there¬
fore does not greatly differ from the perfect insect.
The genus contains many species, and is widely distri¬
buted. Several sub-genera have been instituted by Dr
3 phey ^ave since been examined by M. Dufour. See the note of the ensuing page. 2 Hor. Ent. p. 435.
ft-i °r ^le details of internal structure of this genus, see the Mvmuire sur VAnatomic des Labidoures, by M. Dufour, in the 13th vol.
°i the Annalcs des Sciences Nat.
190
Orthop-
tera.
Leach and others; but the nature of our present article
does not admit of our taking cognisance of those mino
entomology.
snecies of Mantis may be easily discriminated by the form Or ,
and relative length of the legs, which in the spectres are M
an ci rcidbivt: . • , • i
of uniform size. The head in Mantis is triangular, ver-
groups, blatta. Tarsi with five articulations. Mings
folded only in a longitudinal direction Head concealed
beneath the shield of the thorax. Bo.‘1y 'er-
nml denressed. Antennae setaceous, inserted in an inte
Sf noTch of the eye, and composed of a great number of
articulations. Palpi long. Thorax shield-shaped. (Hat
C™ytI;afi&7.hese insects are usually as long as the
body, coriaceous or semi-membranaceous; “d "’he"
closed cross each other a little at the suture. The pos
terior part of the body is furnished with two conical and
articulated appendages. Their crop is longitudinal 'heir
gizzard furnished interiorly with strong hooked teeth, and
there are from eight to ten caeca around the pylorus.
The Blattse, or cockroaches, as they are ca^d ^
country, are nocturnal insects, which seldom fly, but run
wkWeat rapidity. Some inhabit woods or the crevices
of old walls, while others frequent store-rooms and dwel¬
ling-houses, where their voracious propensities produce
great damage to all kinds of provisions. Ihey likemse
destroy silk and woollen stuffs, and even leather. But
their ravages are chiefly confined to warm countries.
The species are numerous. Olivier1 has described thir y-
seven^ and many have been discovered since his time.
The Blatta orientalis of Linn, is about an inch long, o a
reddish chesnut-brown. The wings, which are shorte
than the abdomen in the male, are merely rudimentary in
the female, and are wanting in the larvae of both sexes.
The eces, to the number of sixteen, are inclosed symme-
trically^in an oval compressed shell, which is at first white
and afterwards brown. It is tolerably solid, and is tooth¬
ed along its edges like a saw. The female carries it about
with her for some time, and afterwards attaches it to a
favourable position, by means of a gummy exudation.
This species, originally imported from eastern countries,
is now widely spread over Europe, and occurs as fai north
as Finland. . . ^ o .i
The Blatta Americana of Linn, is a native ot boutn
America and the Antilles,- from whence it was imported
into Asia and Africa, and from these to European coun¬
tries, where it chiefly infests sea-port towns, preying on
sugar and other colonial produce. Sonnerat has describ¬
ed its combats with la Mouche verte, a brilliant fly of the
family of Ichneumonidae. The thorax of this species is
yellowish, with two spots and a border of brown. It may
also be known by the great length of its antennae.2 In¬
cluding foreign importations, we have now twelve species
of the genus Blatta in Britain.
Genus Mantis,3 Linn. Tarsi with five articulations.
Wings folded longitudinally. Head not concealed. Body
narrow and elongated. Palpi short, and ending in a point.
Ligula quadrifid.
We may observe, that the genus Mantis, as originally con¬
stituted by Linnaeus, contained a great variety of very sin¬
gular and somewhat incongruous forms. It has since been
greatly restricted, and more precisely defined, by Illiger,
Latreille, Lichtenstein, and other modern writers. Thus
it is distinguishable from Empusa of Illiger, by the an¬
tennae, which in the latter genus are pectinated in the
male sex, and by the want of the frontal prolongation of
the head. From the spectre insects {Spectrum) with
which they were likewise combined by Linnaeus, the true
tical, with large eyes, and three small distinct stemmata.
The antennae are simple, setaceous, inserted between the
eves, and composed of numerous articulations. I he la-
brum is entire; the mandibles cutting or incisive; the
palpi filiform, pointed, not compressed ; and the ligula is
composed of four parts or divisions of nearly equal length.
The thorax is long, and composed almost entirely ot the
first segment, of which the anterior extremity is fre¬
quently dilated, and the sides rounded. The first pair of
legs are held in advance and raised, the haunch being
very large, and the thigh toothed and compressed; the
tibia is also toothed, and terminated by a strong hook or
crotchet. The other legs are slender, simple, and un¬
armed with teeth or spines. The elytra are horizontal,
narrow, lengthened, rather thin, semitransparent, and over¬
lap each other on their inner edges. The under or true
wings are folded lengthways like a fan. The abdomen is
oblong, and is terminated by two conical articulated ap¬
pendages, and a compressed scaly plate, arched on the
back, and composed of several short pieces received into
a pair of anal valves.
Such, we conceive, are the characters ot the genus Man¬
tis properly so called. It contains a considerable num¬
ber of species, all characterized by singular and eccentric
forms. We do not know by what means it has happened
that an insect of this genus has become, in various parts
of the world, if not an object of religious worship, at least
a subiect of superstitious wonder and credulity, rrom
time immemorial tbe Mantis, in lurkey, has been re¬
garded as a sacred insect; and even among the apathetic
Hottentots, so sparingly endowed with any thing allied
to the nobler faculties, it is said to be held in still higher
estimation. The Mantis religiosa of Europe, called Brega-
Diou (Prie-Dieu) in the southern provinces of trance, is
well known as living habitually under the safe-guard ot
a religious veneration on the part ot the peasantry, w o
deem it a faithful guide and guardian of children who have
lost their way. It has obtained the name ot religma,
from the incessant movements of its fore legs, which it is
continually raising into the air, and as it were dasping
together. This action, however, is the result of its pecu¬
liar instinct and mode of life ; for the insect, in common
with the rest of the genus, is a fierce, cruel, gormandising
creature, and so far from indulging, as is fondly suppose ,
in a state of religious abstraction, is continually seeking
for what it may devour. It preys upon all the weaker in¬
sects, which it either crushes to death, or relentless y im¬
pales alive upon the sharp spines of its own shanks. o
effect this, it is perpetually moving its arms or fore- egs
in the air, and closing one armed joint upon another, so
that whatever insect prey approaches within its reap is
immediately transfixed and devoured. In some or tie
French provinces it is called the sorcerer, tour or ve
different species are found in Europe, and many more occur
in the warmer regions both of the old world and the new.
In the nymph or intermediate state, the Mantides are
as active and voracious as the perfect insect. Follow¬
ing the footsteps of Rossi (author of the Fauna Btrus
ca), the writer of the present treatise has frequently
watched their manoeuvres on the plains of Pisa, and as
more than once had occasion to regret the loss of rarer
captures, in consequence of their indiscriminate voracity-
1 Encyclopedic Methodique, t. iv. 2 11;
2 For the other species, consult Degeer’s Memoires, t. iii.; Encyclop. Methodique, t. iv.; Fuessly’s Archives des Inscctes, tab. 4a,
Coquebert’s Illust. Icon. Insect, iii. 21, 1 ; and the Horcc Entomologies: of M. Toussaint Charpentier, p. 71-78-
3 From gavrn, a prophet or soothsayer.
EN T O M
But he cannot say that he ever confirmed the observation
of Roesel.1 On the back of the nymph there are four
lamina or flattened cases, which contain the germs of the
wings and elytra. The eggs are deposited in a length¬
ened mass of two rows, and protected by an envelope
somewhat of the consistence of parchment. They are of
a yellow colour and elongated form, and are usually at¬
tached by the female to the stalk of a plant.2
Such as have the front prolonged in the form of a
horn, and in which the males are provided with pectinated
antennm, form the genus Empusa3 of Illiger. Their
limbs are furnished with rounded membranous append¬
ages resembling ruffles, and in several the edges of the
abdomen are festooned. (Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 1.)
Others have the anterior legs similar to.the rest; the
stemmatic eyes indistinct or non-existent; the first seg¬
ment of the thorax shorter or not longer than the follow¬
ing one; the interior divisions of the ligula shorter than
the lateral; the antennae inserted before the eyes, and
the head almost ovoid and advanced, with the mandibles
thick and the palpi compressed. These form the genus
Spectrum,4 Stoll, which has since been divided into two,5
both of which are truly remarkable for the singular adap¬
tation of their form and colour to such productions of the
vegetable kingdom as they most affect. The sexes often
differ greatly. Ltf, In the genus Phasma6 of Fabricius
(Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 5), the body is filiform and linear,
and resembles the stem of a plant or the twig of a tree.
Several are entirely apterous, or have extremely short
elytra. Very large species occur in the East Indies, the
Moluccas, New Holland, and South America. P. gigas
measures nearly a foot in length. The body is green, tu-
berculated on the thorax ; the elytra very short and like¬
wise green; the wings are large, of a reddish-grey, reti¬
culated, with numerous bands and spots of brown, and
with a large lateral space of a coriaceous texture and
greenish colour. The legs are spinous. It occurs in the
East Indies. P. Rossi, a much smaller and apterous
species, occurs in the south of France. 2d, In the genus
1 Phyllium? of Illiger (Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 2), both the
body and legs are flattened and membranous, and the
first segment of the thorax is cordiform. The wings and
elytra vary in their degree of development in the differ¬
ent species, but they frequently cover the abdomen in
such a manner as to make it appear as if two leaves had
fallen upon the insect. Some seem green and fresh,
others brown and withered, while an intermediate kind
present the red and yellow hues of autumn. This imita¬
tion, or rather representation, of the vegetable kingdom,
is indeed so singular as to attract the attention and ex¬
cite the astonishment of the least curious inquirer; and
it is in reference to the peculiar character just mentioned
that these insects are known by the name of walking
leaves. According to some authors, the antennae of the
males are long, slender, setaceous, and composed of a
great number of nearly cylindrical articulations,—while
those of the females are shorter than the head, conical,
granular, and composed of not more than nine articula¬
tions. It appears that this great disparity between the
O L O G Y. 191
sexes led Latreille into an error when he formed a dis- Orthop-
tinct species of Ph. longicornis, which is in fact the male tera.
of Ph. siccifolia. The latter (see the figure last referred
to) is fully three inches long, very flat, and of a pale yel¬
lowish-green colour. The thorax is short and dentated
on the sides, and the foliations of the thighs are likewise
dentated. In the female the antennae are very short, the
elytra as long as the abdomen, and the true wings want¬
ing. The form of the male is narrower and more length¬
ened, and the antennae long and setaceous; the elytra are
short and the wings long. This species, Latreille informs
us, is raised by the inhabitants of the Sechelles Islands
as an object of entomological commerce. The same spe¬
cies, and some others nearly allied, occur in India, and the
great eastern islands, such as Java, the Celebes, &c.
FAMILY II.—SALTATORIA.
Posterior legs very strong, spiny, and formed for leap-
in£\
The males of this family (which corresponds to the great
genus Gryllus of Linn.) are musical, that is, provided with
the power of producing peculiar sounds, by friction of
certain parts of their structure upon others. Most of the
females deposit their eggs in the earth.
Genus Gryllus. Tarsi with three articulations. Ely¬
tra and wings horizontal, the latter folded longitudinally,
and forming, when closed, a slender thread-like acumina-
tion beyond the elytra. Antennae setaceous, inserted be¬
tween the eyes. Ligula with four divisions, of which the
central are very small. Labrum entire, with a projecting
slip in that of the female.
This genus contains the insects commonly called crick¬
ets. They inhabit both fields and dwelling-houses. The
common species (6r. domesticns, Linn.) (Plate CCXXVIII.
fig. 9) is of a pale yellowish or clay colour, mingled with
brown. The female bears a long ovipositor, and the male
is characterized by his perpetual cry of cree cree, uttered
most continuously during warm wreather, or in the vici¬
nity of ovens or large kitchen fires. These insects re¬
main in their retreats during the day, and come forth in
the night season to seek their prey. They feed on bread,
flour, and other articles of domestic economy. Latreille
says they also devour insects. The common cricket is
widely distributed over Europe. In Spain it is kept by
the peasantry in little cages hung by the fireside, for the
sake of its song.
The field cricket ( G. campestris') is larger than the pre¬
ceding. It is of a blackish hue, with the base of the ely¬
tra yellowish. The head is large. The posterior thighs
are red beneath. The female, during the month of July,
lays about three hundred eggs, from which the young
are excluded in fifteen days. They feed on herbs and
roots, and moult or change their skins before winter.
During that inclement season they lie torpid under
ground, and re-appear in spring. The larvae are apterous,
the nymphae bear the rudiments of wings and elytra, the
perfect insects, which possess the power of flight, are ma-
* u II a conserve des Mantes en les nourissant avec des mouches ou autres insectes ; quand on les mets ensemble elles se deyorent.
Un male et une femelle de ces insectes ay ant ete enfermes dans un vase de verre, le premier fut saisi par la femelle, qui lui coupa
la tele. Comme ces insectes sont extremement vivaces, le male vecut encore assez long-temps, et ne fut devord par la femelle que
quand celle-ci en eut ete fecondee.” (Guerin.)
■ I or tne species of this and the ensuing genera, see Stoll’s Representation des Spectres, des Mantes, &c.; Lichtenstein s Monograph,
in the sixth volume of Linn. Trans.; and other works.
3 From ifinmira., an apparition. 4 From spectrum, a spectre or ideal form,
s Other minor divisions have been effected at a still more recent period, by MM. Lepelletier and Serville (in the Encyclop. Mith.),
and by M. Latreille in his Families du Regne Animal.
r rom (^cciT(jLa,^ a, prodigy, § 7 From (fvXXov^ a leaf*
192
entomology.
Orthop-
tera.
nifested in June and July. This species inhabits Africa
and all the southern countries of Europe, where the pea¬
sant children are in use to fish for it, by holding an ant
fastened to a hair over its hole. It is foolish and fear¬
less, and will leave its retreat if even a stalk of grass is
inserted in its dwelling ; hence the French expression of
sot comme un gryllon. It occurs in England, and we
heard its song near Edinburgh for the first time last sum-
mer (1833). . , .
There are many very singular insects belonging to tins
genus. The Gryllus umbraculatus occurs in Spain and
Barbary. The male is remarkable for a membranous pro¬
longation of the head, which falls over it like a veil. India
produces the G. monstruosus, of which the elytra and
wings are spirally twisted at their extremities. A new
and large species has been lately discovered in Sicily by
MM. Lefevre and Bibron, and described by them under
the name of G. megacephalus. Of this insect each parti¬
cular cry, instead of being momentarily repeated, is pro¬
longed for about half a minute, and may be heard at the
distance of a mile.
We shall here briefly notice some of the allied genera.
The mole-cricket now forms the genus Gryllo-talpa|
(Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 8), of which the tibiae and tarsi
of the two anterior pair of legs are fiattened and toothed,
and so constructed as to serve for throwing back the
earth while burrowing. These insects are destructive in
gardens and cultivated fields, by detaching or cutting
asunder the roots of plants, during the progress of their
subterranean excavations. Their natural prey, however,
consists of insects and worms. The female of the best
known species ((?. vulgaris, Eat.) lays from two hundred
to four hundred eggs in a commodious dwelling under
ground, resembling a bottle with a curved neck. The
young dwell together for some time in society. The song
of the male is sweet and agreeable.1 2
An insect found in the south of France by the sides of
rivers, a strong leaper, of small size, and of a black co¬
lour, spotted with yellowish-white, belongs to the genus
Tridactylus3 of Olivier, characterized by having the
anterior pair of legs only formed for digging. In place of
the posterior tarsi, there are moveable appendages in the
form of claws. The antennae are short, of equal thick¬
ness throughout, and composed of ten articulations. Ihe
species above alluded to is the Xya variegata of Illiger.
Charpent. Hotcb Ent. p. 84, t. ii. fig. 2, 5.
A singular species, misnamed Blatta acervorum by Pan¬
zer, takes up its abode in ants’ nests, and now forms a
genus of our present group under the name of Myrmeco-
phila.4 The body is oval and apterous, the posterior
thighs very large. In the antennae, and the want of
stemmatic eyes, it resembles Gryllus properly so called.5
Genus Locusta. Tarsi with four articulations. Ely¬
tra and wings inclined. Antennae very long and seta¬
ceous. Mandibles less dentated, and galea larger than
in Gryllus. Females provided with an ovipositor com¬
pressed in the form of a sabre or cutlass.
These insects are herbivorous. They occur in grassy
meadows, and on shrubs and trees. In flying they spring
into the air, and then extend their capacious wings, but
their flight is neither rapid nor long sustained. The cry
of the male is sharp and continuous, and is produced
by the friction of the elytra. The genus is extensive,
1 From gryllus, a cricket, and talpa, a mole.
2 For a curious account of the habits of the mole-cricket, see Nouv. Cours d'Agriculture, deux ed. t. v. p. 163. Its anatomy is
scribed in Ann. du Mus, d'Hist. Nat. t. xx. p. 213. 3 From T^uSa.xTvXos, -with three fingers.
4 Memorie Scienlifiche di Paolo Savi, Pisa, 1828. 5 Regne Animal, t. v. p. 183.
* See also Regne Animal, t. v. p. 184; Charpentier’s Horcr. Ent.; and Thunberg in the Mem. de I'Acad. Imper. de Peterslourg.
* See Proscopia, Novum genus Insectorum Orthopterorum, in folio, with two plates.
and occurs in many countries. They are usually of a o p
brilliant green. One of the best known in Europe (it is 4
also an English species) is the L. vindissima, Eat. (1 late *
CCXXVIII. fi°". 12). It is about two inches in length,
of a fine green colour, without spots. The ovipositor is
straight, and of the length of the body. Another species
(L verrucivora, Fab.) is likewise green, but the elytra
are spotted with brown and black. The ovipositor ex¬
ceeds the length of the abdomen, and is slightly arched.
This latter bites pretty severely, and derives its specific
name from a practice said to be followed by the Swedes,
who allow it to gnaw their warts, which are alleged speedily
to disappear, from the action of a black and bilious liquid
which escapes from the mouth of the insect during mas¬
tication. .
Several species are nearly apterous, or present merely
scale-like rudiments of the organs of flight, such as the
L. ephippiger, which now forms a genus under its specific
name. Some have the antennae bearded beneath, with
the oviduct shaped like a boat, and form the genus Sca-
phura of Kirby.6 „ , , . u . • ,
All the preceding genera of the leaping or saltatonal
Orthoptera have this character in common, that the males
effect their peculiar cry chiefly by a portion of the elytra,
which is discoloured, transparent, and somewhat resem-
bles a mirror or small tambourine. But in the following
genera, the stridulation of the male is effected by the
friction of the spiny legs against the sides and edges of
the elytra and wings. The antennae are sometimes fili¬
form and cylindrical, sometimes sword-shaped, or termi¬
nated by a mass, always at least as long as the head and
thorax. The ligula in the greater number has only two
divisions. There are three simple eyes, the labium is
notched, the mandibles much toothed, the abdomen com'
cal and laterally compressed. The tarsi are composed of
three articulations, and the female is not furnished witi
a prolonged ovipositor.. They all leap better than the
preceding genera, and have a higher and more sustained
flio-bt. They feed on vegetables, and are extremely vo¬
racious. They compose the old genus Acrydium of Geof¬
frey, which Latreille divides as follows.
Mouth exposed, ligula bifid, a membranous cushion be¬
tween the hooks, at the end of the tarsi. Genus Pneu-
mora. Antennae filiform, of sixteen articulations, insert¬
ed close upon the inner margin of the eye. Posterior
legs shorter than the body, and less adapted for leaping.
Abdomen large, vesicular, and appearing as if empty.
We know little of the manners of the insects of this
genus (Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 14). They inhabit southern
Africa, and feed on vegetable substances. The r. sex-
guttata has green elytra, with three silvery spots on eac
It is a very beautiful insect.
Genus Proscopia, Klug. Without wings. _ Body long
and cylindrical. Head prolonged anteriorly into a pom
or cone, bearing turo short filiform antennae, compose a
most of seven articulations, of which the last is pomte
Posterior legs large and long, approximated to the inter
mediate, which are farther than usual from the anterior
pair.
These singular insects are peculiar to South America,
and are usually of a large size. Klug, in his monograph
of the genus, has described fifteen species.7
de-
ENTOMOLOGY.
If
Genus Truxalis, Fab. Head pyramidal, bearing on
its extremity, and above the eyes, two prismatic, com¬
pressed, ensiform antennae.
We are acquainted with about a dozen species of this
genus. Their distinctive characters have not yet been well
to reach the reeds which grew along its shores. Except
these much wished-for reeds, they had devoured every
other green thing. Their destruction on a former occa¬
sion was sudden and singular. All the full-grown insects
were driven into the sea by a tempestuous wind, and
expressed, and it is not improbable that several have been were afterwards cast upon the beach, where they formed
confounded. They are characteristic of the warmer coun- a bank three or four feet high, and extending nearly fifty
tries of the ancient continent The best known is the T. English miles. The smell, as may be easily supposed, was
nasutus of rab. figured by^ltoesel, Insect* ii^Gryll. iv. 1, most abominable, and was sensibly felt at the distance of
150 miles. In regard to the Indian locusts, a correspon¬
dent of Messrs Kirby and Spence informed these authors,
that he was an eye-witness to an immense army of locusts
2. See also Drury, ii. xl. 1. It occurs in Africa and the
south of Europe (Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 10).
Genus Acrydium. Head ovoid. Antennae filiform,
or terminated by a button, and inserted between the eyes,
at some distance from their inner margin. Body solid,-
and not vesicular. Hinder legs longer than the body.
This genus contains the noted insects commonly called
locusts, the structure and history of which we shall brief-
which ravaged the Mahratta country, and was supposed
to come all the way from Arabia. This column extended
Jive hundred miles, and was so compact when its members
were upon the wing, as to darken the sun like an eclipse,
so that no shadow was cast upon the ground, and some
ly detail, ihe head is largely developed, and supports lofty tombs, distant not more than two hundred yards
two rather short antennae, composed of twenty articula- from the observer, were rendered invisible. These were
tions. The true eyes are oval, projecting, and situated not the Grylhis migratorius of Linnaeus (A miqratorium
on the sides of the head, while the stemmatic eyes, three Plate CCXXVIII. fig. 13), but a red species the peculiar
in number, form a triangle on its summit. The mouth is colour of which is said to have added additional horror
composed of a large and broad upper lip, slightly notched
on its anterior margin ; of strong cutting mandibles, irre¬
gularly toothed; of maxillae terminated by three teeth,
and supporting at the same time the galeae by which they
are covered, and a pair of filiform palpi, consisting of five
articulations; of an inferior lip, broad, advanced, bifid at
the extremity, and giving insertion to a pair of filiform
palpi of four articulations. The prothorax, of the same
breadth as the body, sometimes exhibits superiorly small
to the scene;—for after having stript the trees of their
foliage, they congregated around the bare and desolate
branches, producing a hue like blood. When they moved
again, “ the sound of their wings was as the sound of cha¬
riots, and of many horses running to battle.”
The migratory flight of these insects, their desolating
effects upon vegetation, and consequent injury both to
man and beast, have afforded a frequent subject o‘f exer¬
cise to the pen of the poet; but by none has their injuri-
beels, which are prolonged transversely on the sides in ous inroads been so magnificently portrayed as by’ the
slight impressions., appearing to indicate the natural divi- prophet Joel. “ A day of darkness and of gloominess
sions of that portion of the thorax. The chest of the me- a day of clouds and of thick darkness, as the mornin^
sothorax and metathorax, or rather the sternum, is broad, spread upon the mountains ; a great people and a strong*
flattened, and very dissimilar to that of Locusta (Saute- there hath not been ever the like, neither shall be any
relies), in which it has the appearance of two triangular more after it, even to the years of many generations. A
foliaceous plates. The elytra are coriaceous, narrow, and
as long as the wings, which are large, reticulated, folded
like a fan, and frequently ornamented by brilliant shades
of red or blue. The legs are of unequal length,—the two
anterior pair being of ordinary proportions, while the
hindmost are large, and formed for leaping. Many spe-
fire devoureth before them, and behind them a flame
burneth : the land is as the garden of Eden before them,
and behind them a desolate wilderness; yea, and nothing
shall escape them. The appearance of them is as the
appearance of horses ; and as horsemen so shall they run.
Like the noise of chariots on the tops of mountains shall
cies exhibit on each side, and near the origin of the abdo- they leap, like the noise of a flame of fire that devoureth
men, a large cavity, closed interiorly by a thin membra- the stubble, as a strong people set in battle array.” “ The
nous laphragm, of a pearly white colour. Latreille regards earth shall quake before them ; the heavens shall tremble :
it as a pneumatic pouch, forming an acoustic instrument, the sun and the moon shall be dark, and the stars shall
may no doubt be influential in regulating the sounds withdraw their shining.” “ How do the beasts groan!
uttered by these insects, which, however, are certainly the herds of cattle are perplexed because they have no
pro uced in the first place by the alternate friction of the pasture; yea, the flocks of sheep are made desolate.”
inner ace of the hind legs against the surface of the elytra. Dr Southey, “ the laurel-honouring laureate,” as he is
ie females, which are not provided with an exserted well called by his friend and fellow poet S. T. Coleridge,
ovipositor, lay their eggs in some instances in the ground, has also, in his “ wild and wondrous lay” of Thalaba,
m otieis on the stalks of plants, to which they adhere natu- sketched the progress of these destroyers,
rally by a gummy secretion, and are, moreover, enveloped *i,„„ „„ A
and protected by a frothy matter,, which hardens over them.
be larvae, the nymphae, and the perfect insects, are all
voracious, and feed on plants. The ravages of locusts
are so well known to all readers of foreign travels, and
accounts of their desolating inroads have been so fre¬
quently extracted, and published in numerous popular
works, that a few slight notices of the subject will here
Onward they came, a dark continuous cloud
Of congregated myriads numberless,
The rushing of whose wings was as the sound
Of a broad river headlong in its course
Plunged from a mountain summit, or the roar
Of a wild ocean in the autumn storm,
Shattering its billows on a shore of rocks.
Locusts are of very common occurrence in many parts
0 nca. Mr Barrow records, that in the southern dis-
The scene of the above quotation is Arabia, where
these insects are very formidable, and of different kinds.
Forskal thinks that the species which chiefly infests that
. .  , —       tented region, and which he names Gryllus gregarius, is
20nn W11C1 ^e. v's‘tech the surface of an area of nearly distinct from the Gryllus migratorius of Linnaeus. They
square miles might literally be said to be covered come invariably from the'east, which induces the Arabs
iem. Ihe water of a wide river was scarcely visible, to believe that they are produced by the waters of the
consequence of the innumerable dead locusts which Persian Gulf. Nejed is particularly exposed to their ra-
vol °n ltS Sur^ace, aPParently drowned in their attempts vages; and no sooner have they destroyed the harvests,
* 2 B
193
Orthop-
tera.
194
ENTOMOLOGY.
tera.
Orthop- than they penetrate by thousands nto ^ng ^»se9’
devouring whatever they can find, even to the lea her
the water vessels. They appear in the air at a distance
like cloudsof smoke; and their near approach accompanied
as by a sound of falling water, stuns the inhabitants w
astonishment and dread. They alight upon a field and
its verdure disappears,-the lofty palms are stnpt of thur
long shadow-casting leaves,—and pulse and all othe
culent crops are voraciously devoured. Grain, however,
“le, usually escapes, iu consequence of its hardness and
aridity. The^ Bedouins of Sinai are frequently driven to
despair by the multitudes of these flying vermin which
remain for a period of a month or six weeks before they
finally disappear. The time of their arrival is towards
the end of the month of May, when the Pleiades are set¬
ting,-a coincidence which leads the natives to imagine
that locusts entertain a dread of that beautiful constellaUon*
Although a few are visible every year, the great flights are
inflicted only every fourth or fifth season. Most of
Arabs, except those of Sinai, are in the habit of eating
these insects. “ In almost every town there are shops
where they are sold by measure. In preparing them, the
cook throws them alive into boiling water with which a
good deal of salt has been mixed. After a few minutes
they are taken out and dried in the sun ; the head, feet,
and wings are then torn off; the bodies are cleansed from
the salt, and perfectly dried, after which they are put up
into sacks or bags. Sometimes they are broiled in butter,
and spread on the unleavened bread used at breakfast.
The Jewish Arabs believe that the food of which the Is¬
raelites ate so abundantly in the desert was showers of
locusts.”1 They are also used as food in several African
countries, and are even exported as articles of commerce.
The elytra and wings are first cut off, and then the bodies
are preserved in brine. M. Miot, in his translation of
Herodotus, has observed that the numerous carcasses of
winged serpents said to have been noticed in Egypt by the
early Greek historian, were in all probability masses of
the dead bodies of some large species of locust. Latreille
coincides in this opinion.2
The most noted species is that already mentioned
under the name of Acrydium migratorium (Gryilus
migratorius, Linn.), Plate CCXXVI1I. fig. 13. It mea¬
sures above two inches and a half in length. Its usual
colour is green, obscurely spotted, the elytra pale brown,
marked with black. The mandibles are likewise black,
and the thorax is marked by a slightly elevated crest.
This species is common in Poland, but occasionally
extends its ravages into other European countries. It
was very destructive in Provence so lately as the year
1819. It is well known in the Levant, in Barbary, and
Egypt. These countries produce another species, like¬
wise found in the south of France, the A. lineola, Lat.
It is of a reddish-brown colour. The crest of the tho¬
rax is intersected by three impressed transverse lines;
there is a conical pectoral point between the anterior
legs, almost as long as the haunches; and the posterior
legs are furnished with reddish spines, black at their
extremity. This species is eaten in Barbary. Another
kind, native to Senegal and other parts of Africa, of a
yellow colour, spotted with black (it is figured by both
Shaw and Denon, in their Travels), is ground when dry into
powder, and used as flour. Many large exotic species are
characterized by the superior portion of the thorax being
greatly elevated, much compressed, and forming a sharpHe^
crest, rounded and prolonged backwards to a point. Of
this kind, though of smaller dimensions, is the A. arma-
turn, found in the south of Europe, and figured by FischerJ
Others have the elytra and wings so abbreviated, at least
in one of the sexes, as to be incapable of flight. These
form the generic group named Podisma by Latreille.
as exhibit a swelling or button-like expansion at
the tips of the antennae form the genus Gomphocerus
of Thunberg ;—for example, the A. sibinnim (figured by
Panzer, Fauna Insect. Germ, xxiii. 20), which occurs
alike among the desert steppes of Siberia and the moun¬
tain passes of St Gothard.
* *
In this second section of the Acrydium of Geoffroy,
a part of the under portion of the head is received into
a cavity of the praesternum. I he ligula is quadrifid, and
the tarsi are unprovided with a cushion between the claws.
The articulations of the antennae do not exceed from thir¬
teen to fourteen. The thorax is prolonged backwards in
the form of a large scutellum, sometimes exceeding the
body in length, the elytra are extremely small. Such
are the characters of the genus Tetrix of Latreille (Plate
CCXXV1II. fig. 15), which is composed of a considerable
number of small species. A good light has been thrown
on their characters and classification by MM. Lepelletier
and Serville, in the Encyclopedic Methodique, article Te¬
trix, as well as in the more recent works of Mr Zettersted.4
The genus contains the little chirping insects so frequent
in this country on dry and sunny banks, and known un¬
der the familiar name of Grasshoppers.
Order III.—HEMIPTERA.5
The insects of this order have neither mandibles nor
maxillae properly so called. Iheir mouth is fitted lor
suction, and is composed of a tubular articulated rostrum,
cylindrical or conical, curved inferiorly, or directing itself
along the breast, and, when extended, presenting the ap¬
pearance along its upper surface of an elongated groove
or canal, in which are lodged three delicate pointed bris¬
tles, covered at their base by a ligula. These bristles
form by their union a needle-like sucker, of which the
tubular piece just mentioned forms the sheath, in which
they are retained by means of the ligula or triangular
basal portion. The inferior bristle is in fact composed o
two, which unite together not far from their origin, so
that the sucker itself consists of four pieces. Savigny is
of opinion that the two superior bristles are analogous to
the mandibles, and that the inferior represent the maxi -
Le6 of the masticating orders. According to this view,
which the author has illustrated with admirable assiduity
and skill, the mouth of hemipterous insects is as usual
composed of six principal portions, the so-called
representing the labrum, and the articulated sheath t e
labium, of the other orders.7 According to Latreille, the
languette properly so called also exists, and under a form
analogous to that of the supposed labrum, but bifid att e
extremity. The palpi, however, have entirely disappear¬
ed, with the exception of some slight vestiges of those
parts observable in the genus Thrips. These representa¬
tive relations between the parts of the mouth in the man-
dibulated and haustellated orders had in fact been sus-
1 Edinburgh Cabinet Library, vol. xiv. (Arabia, vol. ii.) p. 4G0.
5 Regne Animal, v. 187. 3 Entom. de la Russ. i. Orthopt. i. 1.
* Orthoptera Suecice, 1 vol. 8vo, Lund. 1821, and Fauna Laponica, 1 vol. 8vo, Hamm. 1828.
s Kyngota, Fab. * Mem. sur les Animaux sans Verteb. l. part i*
* See Plate CCXX. figs. 4 and 6, and the detailed explanation of the same at page 69 {note 1) of this article.
ENTOMOLOGY.
195
a.pected by Latreille previous to their laborious demon-
J stration by the ingenious Sayigny.1
The elytra of a great portion of the hemipterous order
are of a coriaceous texture throughout their principal
extent, with their terminations membranous. They thus
partake of the nature of both elytra and wings, and the
order, as formerly mentioned, derives its name from that
peculiarity. Among the Cicadae and the Aphides, how¬
ever, all the four wings are membranous, and frequently
quite clear and transparent. In Tettigonia, Membracis,
Flatta, &c. they are of a denser consistence; while in
Ahyrodes they are farinaceous, and of a milky translu-
cence. Certain kinds are apterous, as the bed-bug, some
species of Lygaus, and the females of the cochineal in¬
sect,—but these anomalies do not remove them from the
hemipterous order, to which the structure of the mouth
shows them to belong.
The composition of the thorax in these insects begins
to experience some modifications, which exhibit their re¬
lation to the ensuing orders. The first segment, or pro¬
thorax, in certain cases resembles in extent that of the
Coleoptera; but in others it is much more minute, and
becomes incorporated with the second segment, which is
then manifest or exposed. The scutellum is sometimes
extremely small, or altogether imperceptible; while in cer¬
tain genera, such as Scutdlera and Membracis, it is great¬
ly dilated, and covers the entire upper surface of the body,
concealing the elytra and wings.
The sucker, regarded as a sting, and so named by the
ancient naturalists, is adapted only for the extraction of
animal or vegetable matter in a fluid state. The delicate
parts of which it is composed penetrate various organic
substances, the nutritive juices of which are forced to flow
into the interior canal by successive compressions, till they
reach the oesophagus.
The antennae of the hemipterous tribes are frequently
very small, and of difficult detection. In Psylla, Cimex,
Thrips, and others, they are very obvious ; in Cicada they
are short, simple, setaceous threads ; in Fulgora they are
still shorter and subulated; while in Nepa, Ranatra, &c.
they are placed beneath the eyes, and so abbreviated as
to be rendered visible only by reversing the insect.
The eyes are rather large, and between them, on the
upper part of the head, in many species, there are two or
three of the stemmatic kind, or ocelli, called yeux lissesby
the French entomologists.
The nature and amount of the tarsal articulations differ
according to the genera or tribes; but tbe greater num¬
ber of hemipterous insects are characterized by three divi¬
sions of the tarsi. In some the anterior tarsi are compos¬
ed of only a single piece, which is bent upon the leg in
the form ol a pincer; while in the aquatic genera, such as
Naucoris and Notonecta, the posterior legs are oar-shaped,
with the tarsi composed of two articulations.
All hemipterous insects pass as usual through three
stages of mutation. But their metamorphosis is not in
any case complete, and their changes consist rather in the
development of the organs of flight, and the increased
bulk of the body, than in any very decided or obvious
transformation. Their anatomical structure exhibits a
stomach with a rather solid and muscular coat, a small
intestine of medium length, succeeded by a large intes-
*nt0 var^ous swellings, and of a small number
o biliary vessels, inserted at some distance from the py¬
lorus.2 The habits of the order are extremely various, as Hemiptera
we shall show when we come to treat of the genera more Heterop¬
in detail. i_tei’^
HETEROPTERA.3
Sucker originating from the front of the head. Elytra
membranaceous at their extremity. First segment of the
thorax much larger than the others. Wings horizontal or
slightly inclined.
FAMILY L—GEOCORISAM
Antenn® exposed, longer than the head, and inserted
between the eyes near their internal margin. The tarsi
are composed of three articulations, of which the first is
sometimes extremely short. These insects form the
great genus Cimex of Linnaeus, which has now undergone
many modifications. They are principally terrestrial in¬
sects, although some dwell upon the surface of waters.
From several of the species a disagreeable odour ema¬
nates.
Genus Scutellera,5 Lam. Sheath of the sucker of
four distinct articulations. Labrum prolonged beyond the
head, awl-shaped, and striated above. Tarsi with three
articulations, the first as long or longer than the third.
Antennae filiform, of five articulations. Body usually
short, oval, or rounded. Scutellum covering the abdo¬
men. (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 1.)
The insects of this genus, formed by Lamarck from
Pentatoma of Olivier, live on plants, of which they absorb
the juices by inserting their suckers in the leaves or ten¬
der twigs. They occur in many countries, but are larger
and more brilliant in equatorial than temperate regions.
The S. nobilis of Latr. is of an elongated oval form, and
of a metallic or golden blue colour, spotted with black.
It is found in Asia. The S. stokerus is oval, green, spot¬
ted with black, and has a red abdomen. It occurs in the
Antilles. Of the European species we shall mention only
the S. lineala (Cimex lineatus, Linn.), which is about four
lines in length, red, radiated above with black lines, and
marked beneath with black spots linearly disposed. It is
common in Central and Southern Europe on umbellifer¬
ous flowers.6
Genus Pentatoma,7 Oliv. Elytra exposed. Scutel¬
lum covering only a portion of the body. Other charac¬
ters as in the preceding genus.
The species of this genus, known as wood-bugs, and
under other names, are extremely numerous. They oc¬
cur in every region of the world, and under various tem¬
peratures. The species proper to the warmer countries
of Africa, America, and the East Indies, attain to a con¬
siderable size, and are adorned by brilliant colours. The
larvae of these insects do not greatly differ from the per¬
fect state, except in having neither wings nor elytra. The
nymphae possess these organs in a rudimentary state, in¬
closed in sheaths. Their changes of condition are accom¬
panied by a general casting of the skin. In their various
states they exist on vegetable juices, which they seem
as it were to pump up by means of their suckers. Some
species, however, have been seen to attack insects, even
those of their own kind, and suck their softer parts. Almost
all of them exhale a disagreeable and penetrating odour,
\ yist' N,at‘ des Crust- et des Insect, t. ii. p. 140-143.
* rom of a different kind or nature, and wings.
t f,rom yii the earth, and bug.
onsult, for the other species, Fabricius, Systema Ryngotorum, genus Tetyra.
2 Regne Animal, v. 192.
* From scutellum, a shield.
5 From srivtu, Jive, and ro//.a, division.
ige E N T O M
Hemipterawhich adheres to whatever substance the insect touches.
Hetorop- The eggs are deposited on the stalks ol plants, regulaily
tera- disposed, and made to adhere by means of a remarkably
tenacious liquid. They are not unfrequently adorned by
extremely agreeable colours.
A pleasant and curious narrative is given by Degeer, re¬
lating to the female of a species of this genus, the Cimex
griseus of Linn. He found on a birch tree several of these
females, each followed by a little troop of thirty or foi ty
young ones, which accompanied their mother as chickens
do a hen. The parents seemed to watch over them with
the greatest solicitude. This is a singular fact in the his¬
tory of insects, which for the most part are not personally
regardful of the welfare of their offspring, although they
seldom fail instinctively to deposit their eggs in situations
the best adapted for the sustenance and preservation
of the future larvae. Several of the generic groups pro¬
posed by Fabricius, as derivable from the genus Penta-
toma of Olivier, are not adopted by Latreille; while, on
the other hand, several genera proposed by more recent
writers have been adopted.1
Genus Tesseratoma, Pel. et Serv Antennae with four
articulations. Body very flat, membranous, with the mar¬
gins much dilated,‘'notched, and angular. Thorax pro¬
longed posteriorly in the form of a truncated lobe. This
genus was formed upon the Edessa papillosa and ame-
thystina of Fabricius. The species are chiefly from India
and the Eastern Islands (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 2). Certain
species from Brazil, and we believe other countries, like¬
wise very flat, with the margins notched and dilated, with
the anterior extremity of the body forming a clypeus
truncated in front, and cloven at the sides, form the genus
Phlasa of the Encyc. Meth. (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 3}.
Genus Coreus,2 Fab. Antennae with four articula¬
tions, filiform, or larger at the extremity, the last being
usually shorter than the preceding. Body oval. Sheath,
labrum, and tarsi similar to those parts in the genus Pen-
tatoma, which they resemble in their habits of life.
The species of this genus have the head in general of
a trigonal form, and sunk, without apparent neck, into
the prothorax, which is narrow anteriorly, and broader be¬
hind. The eyes are small, but prominent. The scutellum
is triangular and obvious. The elytra equal the length of
the abdomen, which is depressed, with elevated edges.
The legs are long and slender. These creatures are said
by some authors to feed on other insects, as well as on the
juices of plants. The C. marginatus is of an obscure
brown, with two small advanced points between the an¬
tennae. The latter have their second and third articula¬
tions fulvous. It exhales a strong smell of apples. Wollf,
Icon. Cimic. fascic. i. p. 20, t. 3, fig. 20. The C. hyslrix is an
insect of a very bizarre appearance, found in France and
elsewhere. Sparmann collected a species not very dissi¬
milar at the Cape of Good Hope,—of a grey colour tinted
in parts with reddish brown; spiny, membranous, the
edges of the thorax relieved in roundish lobes. The ab¬
domen likewise margined by numerous brown-coloured
lobes. The second and third joints of the antennae are
spiny at the extremity. It was named C. paradoxus by
Fabricius (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 4). Between the princi¬
pal genus Coreus, Fab. and that named Lygceus by the
same author, as now restricted, several intermediate ones
occur in the system of Latreille.3 Of these, however, we
shall mention merely the genus Neides (Plate CCXXIX.
fig. 5), distinguished by its greatly elongated and almost
linear form of body, and slender limbs and antennm.
O L O G Y.
Genus Lygaeus, Fab. Antennae terminated by an elon- Hi
gated article, almost cylindrical, and of the same thickness B
as the preceding joint. The stemmatic approach the true i
eyes, and the membranous appendages of the elytra fre*
quently offer only four or five nervures.
The L. equestris (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 6) is red, spotted
with black. The thorax is black before and behind,
and there are two points of the same colour on the scutel¬
lum. The elytra are traversed by a black band, and there
are two small spots and a point of white upon their
membranous portion. It measures about five lines in
length. The abdomen has four ranges of points. The
C. apterus (Stoll, Cimic. ii. xv. 103) is rather less, red,
and without wings. The head, a spot on the centre of
the thorax, and a large point on each elytron, are black.
The extremities of the elytra are truncated, or without
membranous appendages. It sometimes occurs winged.
The species with the large anterior thighs have been
formed into a separate genus by MM. Lepelletier and
Serville. Those with angulated antennae form the genus
Neides of Latr. already mentioned, and the genus Aly-
dus of Fab. includes such as have filiform antennae with
out dilatation, and the body narrow and elongated.4
All the preceding genera of the Linnaean Cimices agree
in having four articulations to the sheath of the sucker,
and a prolonged and striated labrum; but those which
follow have only two or three apparent articulations to the
sheath, and the labrum is short and without striae. The
first joint of the tarsi, and frequently the second also, are
very short in the greater number.
a.
Feet inserted in the middle of the chest, and terminat¬
ed by tw’o distinct hooks, which take their origin from
the central extremity of the tarsus. They are not adapt¬
ed for rowang, or running on the surface of the water.
%
Rostrum straight, more or less inclosed in a sheath
Eyes of ordinary dimensions. Union of the head and thorax
not characterized by a narrow neck, or sudden restriction.
The body is usually membranous in wdiole or in part, and
is generally extremely flat. This group of genera com¬
poses the major part of the primitive genus Acanthia of
Fabricius, which the author himself afterwards dismem¬
bered.
Genus Syrtis, Fab. Anterior feet formed of a mono-
dactyle claw like that, of the Crustacea, and serving them
in like manner to seize their prey. Antennae terminated
by an oval mass or enlarged articulation, and lodged in a
groove of the head and thorax.
The species of this genus feed on flies and other insects,
which they seize with their forejegs, after the manner of
the Mantides. They live in woods. The S. crassipes (Wolf,
Icon. Cimic. tab. 9, fig. 82) measures about three lines
and a half in length. The head and thorax are brownish
red; the abdomen of a deeper hue as far as the centre,—
the sides and towards the base being paler. The anten¬
nae, under parts of the body, and feet, are reddish yellow.
This is a European species. Most of the others occur in
South America.
Genus Tingis, Fab. Body extremely flat. Antennae
with the third articulation much longer than the others,
and terminated by a button.
These insects live on plants, of which they pierce the
leaves and flowers, not unfrequently producing great in¬
jury to their vegetation. The species found on the pear-
tree, and known to the continental horticulturists under
See Rcgne Animal, t. v. p. 193-4.
3 See Itegne Animal; Encyc. Method, t. x.;
4 Ibid, and Genera Crustac.
2 From &oot;, lug.
and the Systcma Ryngoiorum of Fab.
et Insect, iii. p. 126.
ENTOMOLOGY.
a the name tiger, is extremely destructive. It is the T.
■ pyri of Lat. and is distinguished by a white reticulated
thorax, the edges raised, and inflated in the centre. The
"T scutellum is foliaceous. The elytra are white, with two
black bands. The larva of T. clavicornis inhabits the
flowers of Teucrium Chamcedrys, and, by piercing the pe¬
tals, causes them to thicken,—thus preventing their healthy
development. The puncturings of the perfect insects of
this genus sometimes produce a kind of gallnut.
Genus Aradus, Fab. Body formed like that of Tingis ;
but the antennae are cylindrical, with the second articu¬
lation almost as long or even longer than the third.
These insects occur chiefly on the trunks and beneath
the bark of trees, where they congregate during the win¬
ter. They show themselves more actively in. spring. The
A. corticalis of Wolff ( Cimic. fasc. iii. t. ix. fig. 81) serves
as a type of the genus.
Genus Cimex, Lat. Resembles the preceding genera
in the form of the body ; but the antennae are almost se¬
taceous, composed of four articulations, of which the first
is shorter than the others, the second thick and long, the
third also lengthened and more slender than the others,
the last scarcely increasing in thickness at the extremity.
Elytra extremely small. No true wings.
Of this genus the C. lectularius or bed-bug (Plate
CCXXIX. fig. 7) is probably too well known in many
quarters to require particular description. It deposits
its eggs in the month of May. The larvae differ from
the perfect insects in wanting the elytra. This species,
though mentioned by Dioscorides, is said to be not an
original inhabitant of Europe. It is also believed to have
been unknown in London prior to the great fire in 1666,
after which calamity it was transported thither in timber
from America. It is said sometimes to acquire wings, and
infest young pigeons, swallows, and other birds. Latreille
however is of opinion that the kind attached to the last-
named birds is of a distinct species from that which trou¬
bles the lords of the creation. The best means of extir¬
pating bugs are care and cleanliness.
* *
Rostrum exposed, arched, sometimes straight, but with
the labrum projecting. The head suddenly restricted be¬
hind, so as to form a neck-like portion.
Eyes not remarkably large. Neck apparent.
Genus Reduvius, Fab. Rostrum short, but sharp and
piercing. Thorax distinctly lobed. Elytra at least as
long as the abdomen. Tarsi triarticulated. Antennae
with four articulations, setaceous, and extremely slender
at the extremities.1
The species which form this genus are predaceous, and
greedily attack other insects, sucking out their juices with
their sharp-pointed beaks. The R. personatus is about
eight lines in length, and of a blackish-brown colour, with¬
out spots. It is common in France. This species, which
inhabits the interior of houses, covers'itself with ordure,
or the sweepings of apartments, and, thus disguised, lies
in wait in some obscure corner for its prey. No sooner
oes a fly or other feeble insect approach within a calcu-
't ecvlstance>,i ^lan it suddenly darts upon it, and sucks
V1. eath* Sometimes it maybe seen approaching its
victim by slow and cautious steps, till the fly, thrown off
i s guard by this insidious show' of peace, is instantaneous-
} captured by one deadly spring. Its bite is so severe as
o pro uce the immediate death of its captive; and in-
on we are informed that our venerated friend Latreille
197
having been bitten on the shoulder by a Reduvius, expe- Hemiptera
rienced a great swelling of the entire arm, and suffered Heterop-
severe pain for several hours. It is chiefly in the larva tera*
and nympha states that these insects disguise themselves
in the manner just mentioned. Entomologists are ac¬
quainted with a great many species of this genus, few of
which, however, are native to Europe. The rest are
spread over Asia, Africa, and America.
We shall here briefly notice a few of the genera which
in recent times have been formed by dismemberment of
the genus Reduvius as originally constituted by Fabri-
cius. In the genus Heloptilus of Lepel. et Serv. the
antennae have only three articulations, of which the last
two are garnished with long hairs, disposed in two rows,
and verticillated on the terminal joint. In the genus Pe-
talocheirus of Palisot de Beauvois,2 the two anterior
legs are singularly expanded into oval plates or shield-like
dilatations. These insects are of African origin. The/5.
rubiginosus is blackish-brown, with the antennae and feet
of a rust colour. The thorax is spiny on either side, and
surrounded by a line of yellow. The scutellum is sur¬
mounted by a straight spine. The only other species with
which we are acquainted is the P. variegatus of the au¬
thor last named. In the genus Zelus the form of the
body is linear, and the legs very long, slender, and simi¬
lar to each other. The genus Ploiaria is characterized
by the same linear body, and the like length and tenuity
of limb; but the two anterior legs have the haunch elon¬
gated, and formed, as in Mantis, for the seizure of their
prey.
t t
Eyes remarkably large. No apparent neck.
The insects of this subdivision run swiftly along the
margin of waters, making occasionally little leaps.
Genus Leptopus, Lat. Rostrum short, arched, and
spiny beneath. Antennae setaceous. Anterior thighs large
and spiny.
This genus was established by Latreille upon L. litto-
ralis, a small insect about two lines in length, of an ob¬
scure ash colour, with some spots upon the elytra, and
the margins of these parts wrhitish. Their membranous
appendages are pale, with obscure nervures. The feet are
pale yellow. This species was discovered in Spain by
Leon Dufour; and another nearly allied to it, L. lapidi-
cola, has been taken by Basoches in the department of
Calvados.
Genus Acanthia, Lat, Rostrum long, straight, with
the labrum projecting beyond the sheath. Antennae fili¬
form, or slightly enlarged towards the extremity. Form
of the body oval.
This genus is composed of insects belonging to the ge¬
nus Saida of Fabricius, such as S. striata, zosterce, litto-
ralis, &c. We may regard as its type the Lygmis sallatorius
of Fab., a species which dwells by the banks of rivers, and
runs and leaps writh agility. Certain species, of which the
antennae are much shorter than usual, and bent over the
eyes, the body shorter and more rounded, with the scutel¬
lum rather large, form the genus Pelogonus of Latreille.
These Hemiptera approach those of the genus Naucoris
in their nature, and seem to conduct towards them in
common with the following.
b.
Four posterior feet slender and long, inserted on the
sides of the chest, and distant from each other at their
points of articulation. The hooks of the tarsi are very
small, indistinct, and placed in a fissure of the lateral ex-
* The fi f * *
* rS Joint; ls often united to the second, and that to the third, by means of a very small article or rotule. (Regne Animal, v. 202.)
lnSeUes rec^ill en Afr. et en Amer. fasc. i.
198
entomology.
The feet are adapted for rowi-ng or
tera- the genus Hydrometra of Fabncius, which Latreille has
divided into three, as follows. tt0o,i
Genus Hydrometra,! Lat. Antenn*setaceous. Head
profonged into a muzzle, and receiving the rost.ru"\”f
which Uie articulations are by no means obvious, in an m-
^Thes^bsects dwell in moist places, and run upon the
surface of waters. (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 8.) Them bodies
are narrow, thin, linear. Their eyes are large and globu-
lar, and are placed towards the centre of the iaterd parts
of the muzzle, or rather muzzle-shaped head. The best
known species is H.stagnorum, which measures about fie
lines in length. It is of a blacker blackish-brown colour, wi
the feet of a redder hue. The elytra are very short, with
two nervures on each. This species is common through¬
out Europe. The H.fossarum of Fab. is a native ot the
East Indies. We are inclined to regard it as belonging
t0 Genus^Gerris, Lat. Antennae filiform. Rostrum with
three articulations. Anterior feet serving the office ot
pincers. Second pair distant from the anterior, and as
long again as the body. (Plate CCXXIX. g. • •)
These insects have elongated bodies, are usually ot a
blackish colour, and are met with on the surface of still
waters, on which they advance as it were by starts. I heir
under surface seems covered by a peculiar coating, ot a
black or silvery hue, according to the position in which
the insect is held, and which probably protects it from
the influence of the subjacent liquid. They appear rather
to row than to walk upon the surface. The species are
insectivorous, and prey upon such of their own class as
they can master, and especially upon any land species
that have fallen accidentally into the water, and are natu¬
rally inactive in that element. These they immediately
seize upon with their anterior feet. The G. lacustris, Lat.
(Hydrometra lacustris. Fab.), figured on the plate above
referred to, is of a blackish-brown colour, greenish above.
The feet are brown. The body is terminated by a pro¬
jection. This species presents some peculiarities worthy
of notice. There are two varieties of it, one of which is
winged, the other apterous. The former of these constitute
the punaises aquatiques tres-allongees ailees of Degeer, the
latter correspond to the punaises aquatiques tres-aRonge.es
non ailees of that author.2 Such as make their appearance
in spring, and which have without doubt passed the winter
beneath the ice, or under cover of the frozen banks, are all
apterous, but resemble perfect insects in every other part of
their structure. Sexual intercourse takes place among them.
It was this latter circumstance which induced Geoffrey
to believe that they offered a remarkable exception to a
general rule, and that fecundation took place in the state
of nymph or larva. Degeer, in combating this opinion,
maintained that these apterous insects were of a distinct
kind, and perfect in their way. M. Audouin, on the other
hand, is of opinion that they may be regarded as indivi¬
duals of the ordinary kind, proceeding from larvae of the
preceding year, of which the development has been check¬
ed by the rigours of the winter season, and the consequent
condition of torpidity. He conceives that the wings are
not, in these aquatic insects, organs of the first importance,
and that the influence of surrounding causes is on that
account the more likely to prove effectual, and that thus
they remain rudimentary, when the other parts of the
body, and the generative system in particular, have at-Her
tained the maximum of their development. He illustrates He
this point by reference to the genera Lampyris and Dri- _ t
lus in which (in the females) the organs of flight of the w 1
perfect insects are scarcely if at all more developed than
in the larva state, while all the interior parts of structure
are fully and functionally completed. The apterous indi¬
viduals, then, of G. lacustris, which are observed to fulfil
the offices of the perfect insect, are larvae only so far as
regards the undeveloped condition of the wings.3
General Hardwicke has described a new species of this
genus from Nepaul, under the name of G. laticaudata.
The extremity of the abdomen is remarkable for certain
processes like teeth or claws.4
1 Genus Velia. Antennae filiform, as in Gems; but the
rostrum has only two apparent articulations, the legs are
much shorter than in that genus, and are inserted at near¬
ly equal distances from each other.
Uku the preceding species, these insects live on the
surface of water. Their motion, however, is more like
running than swimming. The V. currens is blackish-brown,
with the superior edges of the abdomen fulvous, spotted
with black. The V. rivulorum is black spotted with white,
the abdomen fulvous.
FAMILY II HYDROCOItlSiE.*
Antennae inserted and concealed beneath the eyes,
shorter than the head, or not exceeding it in length. Tarsi
composed of only two articulations. Eyes for the most
part remarkably large. These Hemiptera are aquatic and
carnivorous. They prick severely with their rostrum, and
seize upon other insects with their anterior feet, the joints
of which are bent upon themselves, so as to form a kind ot
rnneer. Their heads appear as if sunk into or intimately
united to the thorax. The rostrum is short. I heir me¬
tamorphoses do not differ from those of the other Hemip¬
tera.
Tribe 1st, Nepides.
We here place the species of the unrestricted genus
Nepa of Linneeus, commonly called water scorpions. They
have the anterior legs in the form of hooks or nippers,—
composed of a thigh, sometimes large, sometimes elongat¬
ed, with a groove on its under surface for the reception
of the tibia, and of an extremely short tarsus, which forms
as it were a hook or crotchet with the tibia. The form o
the body in some is oval and much depressed, in others
it is more linear. Latreille divides this tribe into the o
lowing genera. ,
Genus Galgulus, Lat. All the tarsi similar to eacn
other, cylindrical, with two distinct articulations, of whic
the terminal is provided with two hooks. Ihe antennae
do not appear to have more than three articulations, o
which the last is the largest, and of an ovoid form.
The only species of this genus with which we are ac
quainted, G. oculatus, Lat. (Hist. Nat. des Crust, etdes n
^ . •• v 1 A U.r UoRvir-ina in the
led. xih 286, pi. 95, fig. 9) was placed by Fabricius in the
genus Naucoris. It is of a dull ashy brown, with some pa e
spots upon the elytra. The thorax is unequal. The ee.
are pale brown, with deeper spots. T his odd-looking
sect was brought by Bose from Carolina. Its body
short and rough. The head has little length, but is pr0
1 From water, and ftirgo*, measure.
3 Mem. sur les Insectes, iii.. 311.
3 Diction. Class. d'Hist. Nat. vii. 337.
Linn. Trans, xiv. 134, pi. 6.
From iiiug, water, and ko^h, bug-
ENTOMOLOGY.
199
lipt
,eri
era.
r*
t longed laterally into two angles which support the eyes.
| The prothorax is lobed posteriorly, and placed before a
, triangular scutellum, on each side of which are inserted
' the short and coriaceous elytra. The thighs of the ante¬
rior legs are swollen and dentated beneath, and the tibiae
and tarsi are applied close to them when the insect is in
a state of repose. We are not aware that any thing is
known of the habits of this insect, further than that it is
aquatic.
Genus Naucoris,1 Geoff. Labrum exposed, large, tri¬
angular, and covering the base of the rostrum. Antennae
simple, and consisting of four articulations. Tarsi of the
anterior feet terminating in a simple point or crotchet.
The middle and hinder pair of legs ciliated,—their tarsi
with two articulations, terminated by a pair of hooks.
Of this genus the body is usually depressed, almost
ovoid, with the head rounded anteriorly, and the eyes
lengthened and depressed. The abdomen is dentated
around its edges. The species are extremely active, and
swim with great ease and swiftness, making use of their
hinder legs as oars. They sometimes quit one pool of
water for another, and they then make good use of their
wings. They are extremely voracious, and destroy a great
number of other insects. The larvae and nymphs inhabit
the same situations as the perfect insects, and differ from
them chiefly in the absence of wings. The nymphs indeed
exhibit the rudiments of these organs enclosed in a kind
of case, from which they expand at the period of the com¬
pleted metamorphosis. The N. cimicoides (Nepa cirnicoides,
Lin.) measures about six lines in length. It is of a green¬
ish-brown, with the head and thorax paler and spotted.
The eyes are blackish. The margins of the abdomen are
strongly dentated. It is common throughout the fresh
waters of Europe.
Genus Belostoma, Lat. Labrum sheathed. Anten¬
na; semi-pectinated. All the tarsi with two articulations.
Abdomen terminated by a pair of setae.
The B. grandis {Nepa grandis, Fab.) may be regarded
as the type of this genus. It is a very large insect, mea¬
suring nearly three inches in length. It is of a greyish
colour, spotted with brown. The legs are likewise spot-
! ted. The thorax is smooth. It is common in collections
of foreign insects.
Genus Nepa.2 Labrum and setae as in the preceding
genus. Rostrum curved beneath. Anterior tarsi with
only one articulation,—the middle and posterior pair with
two. Antennae appearing forked. Haunches of the an¬
terior legs short, and the thighs much broader than the
other parts.
The body in this genus is almost elliptical, and nar¬
rower and more elongated than in the preceding genera.
The head is small, and partly lodged in a notch of the
thorax. The setae, which terminate the abdomen, serve,
according to some authors, for the purposes of respiration
m the moist and muddy places in which they dwell. The
Nepae, in their various states, inhabit the quiet waters of
ponds, lakes, and marshes. They swim more leisurely
than many of their congeners, and often proceed along
the surface of the mud below, in search of the minute
insects of which they make their prey, and which they
seize with their anterior feet. Their eggs are of an oval
form, and, when examined with a microscope, are seen
to be crowned by an aigrette of seven small threads.
Swammerdam anatomized these insects, and has given
us some curious details regarding the arrangement of the
eggs in the ovaries. They are so disposed that the Hemiptera
crown-like threads of the one which is next the orifice Heterop-
embraces the one which follows, and so on consecutive- tera.
ly. The generative system of the male is singular, and
very complicated. The larvae leave the eggs in midsum¬
mer. They differ from the perfect insects chiefly in want¬
ing the wings and setae. The nymphs acquire, as usual,
rudimentary wings inclosed in sheaths, and placed on each
side of the body. The perfect insect frequently quits its
subaqueous abode during the dewy night, and flies about
with great agility. The genus is by no means numerous in
species, although these seem pretty extensively distributed
over the waters of the earth.
The N. cinerea, Lin. (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 10), is nearly
an inch in length, of an ash colour, the upper part of the
abdomen red, the tail shorter than the body. We owe
to M. Leon Dufour some curious and excellent observa¬
tions on the anatomy of this species, and on that of Ra-
natra linearis? These insects present a peculiar organ,
which the French observer regards as a kind of pectoral
trachea, communicating with those of the ordinary kind.
It forms in R. linearis a pair of elegant panaches, or fea¬
ther-like bunches, of a pearly whiteness, composed of
numerous little branches, and situated in the centre of
the muscular mass of the breast. In N. cinerea the pec¬
toral tracheae appear to offer the vestiges of a pulmonary
organ. They consist of two oblong bodies, placed imme¬
diately below the region of the scutellum, clothed by a
fine membrane, smooth, and white as satin. They are
almost as long as the chest, free except at their extremi¬
ties, and are filled with a substance like tow, which, when
examined under the microscope, presents a homogeneous
tissue, formed by vascular arbusculae. The nervous sys¬
tem appears to consist of two large ganglions, the one
placed beneath the oesophagus, the other in the chest be¬
twixt the first and second pair of feet, and throwing out
two remarkable cords, divided into two or three threads
at their extremities. Only two biliary vessels have been
yet observed.
Genus Ranatra, Fab. differs from the preceding chiefly
in the linear form of the body, in the rostrum being di¬
rected forwards, and in the character of the anterior legs,
of which the haunch and thigh are slender and elongated.
These insects do not excel as swimmers. They fre¬
quently leave the water in the evening, and are good
flyers. They are very voracious. The R. linearis oc¬
curs throughout Europe. It is pale cinerous, with a yel¬
low tinge; the abdomen reddish beneath. It measures
about an inch in length, and the setaceous appendages
are as long as the body. The aigrette upon the eggs of
this species consists of only two setae. The genus is by
no means numerous in species, but it occurs in the East
Indies and America, as well as in Europe.
Tribe 2d, Notonectides.
In this group the two anterior legs are simply curved
underneath, with the thighs of the usual size, and the
tarsi pointed and thickly ciliated, and resembling those of
the posterior legs. Their body is ovoid or nearly cylin¬
drical, and thickish, or less depressed than in the preced¬
ing tribe. Their posterior legs are much ciliated, and
resemble oars. They are terminated by two small indis¬
tinct hooks. They swim or row with great swiftness, and
frequently turn upon their backs. They correspond to
1 From vciui, boat, and xc^is, bug.
* Supposed by some to have been originally a misprint for Hepa, a Latin word applied to the scorpion.
8 Annales Gen. des Sciences Physiques, t. vii.
200 E N T O M
Heiniplera the genus Notonecta of Linnius, which Latreiile divides
Heterop- as follows. .
tera. Genus Corixa, GeolF. Rostrum very short, tnangu-
lar, transversely striated. Anterior legs very short, with
ciliated compressed tarsi, furnished with a single articu¬
lation. The other legs are elongated, and the middle
pair are terminated by two very long hooks. Elytra ho¬
rizontal. Scutellum not apparent. Sigara of Fab.
These insects are of an elongated form, the body some¬
what flattened, the head large and vertical, the eyes tri¬
angular, the prothorax more developed transversely than
in a longitudinal direction, but prolonged backwards to
a point. They walk defectively, but swim and fly well.
We think they never swim upon their backs, like the
species of the following genus, but are usually seen as it
were suspended by their extremity from the sui face of
the water, and prepare to dive instantly on the approach
of danger. When seized they endeavour to pierce the
skin of the captor with their sharp-pointed rostrum; and
if they succeed in that effort, pain accompanied by swell¬
ing not unfrequently ensues. The genus is not extensive.
We may here name, as the most frequent in the fresh
waters of Europe, the C* stvicitct (^Notoiicctct stviatct) Linn.),
which measures about five lines in length, brown, with
numerous spots or little rays of a yellowish hue. The
head, legs, and under parts of the body, are likewise of
the latter colour.
We may here note, that Dr Leach assumes the Not.
minutissima of Fabricius as the type of his genus Sigara.
It resembles the preceding genus in many respects, but
the body is rather ovoid than linear or cylindrical, and
the thorax is provided with a scutellum.1
Genus Notonecta,2 Geoff. Fab. Rostrum articulated
and in the form of an elongated cone. All the tarsi with
two articulations. The four anterior legs geniculate, with
simple cylindrical tarsi. Elytra declined. Scutellum dis¬
tinct.
The Notonectae properly so called are characterized by
the singular practice of swimming upon their backs, with
their bodies somewhat inclined, their heads being ele¬
vated during their upward progress, and the contrary
while they either rest suspended at the surface or de¬
scend towards the bottom of the pool. When these in¬
sects are in the act of swimming, they make use only of
the middle and posterior pairs of legs, the anterior being
applied closely to the chest; but when they walk at the
bottom, or over the herbage of aquatic plants, in search of
insect prey, they then bring the latter into active service,
and merely trail the former after them, or alongside. The
females deposit their eggs, which are long and white, on
the stalks and foliage of water-plants. The young are
produced in spring, and resemble the perfect insects, ex¬
cept in the want of wings. The nymphae are equally
active, and exhibit these organs in a rudimentary state.
They are all, of whatever sex, age, or condition, preda¬
ceous in their disposition, and, in the absence of more or¬
dinary food, will seize upon and cruelly devour their own
species. We are acquainted with about a dozen of the
genus, of which about a third inhabit Europe. The others
occur in Asia, Africa, and America. The most familiarly
known in this country is the N. glauca of Linn. (Nepa
notonecta, Dejeer, Mem. Insect, iii. p. 382, No. 5, tab. 18,
fig. 16, 17), figured om Plate CCXX1X. fig. 11. It is
about half an inch in length, of a greenish black beneath,
the front of the head of a pale green, the upper and ante¬
rior portion of the thorax whitish, the posterior half ob-
O L O G Y.
scure. The elytra are of a yellowish-grey, with a tint of:
brown, their sides spotted. The scutellum is black. This I
insect varies considerably in its external aspect. Those
with brown elytra, varied with reddish, may be regarded'
as N. maculata of Lat.
The N. minutissima of Linn, must not be confounded
with the species so called by Fabricius. The former con-
stitutes the genus Plea of Dr Leach, and differs from
Notonecta in having the third point of the antennae larger
than the others. The articulations of the anterior tarsi
are also of equal length, and the hooks of the posterior
legs are large. The form of the body, and texture of the
elytra, likewise present some disresemblances.
HOMOPTERA, Lat.
In this second great division of the hemipterous order,
the rostrum or sucker originates from the inferior part of
the head, close upon the chest, or even from between the
two anterior legs. The elytra (almost always inclined)
are semimembranous, and of the same consistence through¬
out. They are sometimes scarcely distinguishable in their
texture from the inferior wings. The three component
segments of the thorax are united as it were en masse,
and the first is always shorter than the one following.
The genera of this section are quite dissimilar in their
habits to those with which we have been previously en¬
gaged. They feed on the juices of plants. Many of the
females are provided with a scaly sheath or ovipositor
(called oviscapte by M. Marcel de Serres). This is usually
composed of three dentated blades, lodged in a bivalvular
groove. They use it as a kind of saw, with which to
produce notches or other excavations in various plants, for
the purpose of depositing their eggs in safety.
FAMILY I.—CICADARI7E.
The genera composing this family present three articu¬
lations in the tarsi,—the antennae are usually very small,
conical or awl-shaped, and consist of from three to six
portions, including the attenuated seta by which they
are terminated. We owe to MM. Ramdhor, Marcel de
Serres, Leon Dufour, and Straus, many excellent obser¬
vations on the internal structure of these insects. Ac¬
cording to Dufour, the stomach, or chylific ventricle, is of
remarkable length. It commences by an oblong dilatation,
either curved or straight, and decreases into an intestini-
form canal, which returns upon itself, and opens near the
origin of the ventricle, alongside the insertion of the he¬
patic vessels, and not far from the origin of the intestine.
They are all provided with four biliary vessels. In the
Cicadae the ventricle has what Dufour calls “ la forme
d’une anse,” the right portion being dilated into a large
lateral, and frequently plaited pouch. Its superior extre¬
mity is united to the oesophagus by an upper ligament,
and the other leads to the narrow, tubular, very long, re¬
flexed prolongation, with the form of an intestine, which,
after its circumvolutions, re-ascends to unite with the
pouch near the insertion of the hepatic vessels. This
truly singular disposition of the chylific ventricle, which,
after several convolutions, finally disgorges into itself, by
the completion of a circle traversed throughout by the ali¬
mentary fluid, is doubtless a circumstance not easily ex¬
plained in a physiological point of view. It is, however,
2 ?Z^C Class'ification °fthc natural tribe of Insects Notonectides, with Descriptions of the..British Species, Linn. Trans, xii. p. 10.
* it iom mro;, back, a.x\a nx.rt.s, swimmer. r •> r
3 Ifom epos, equal, or the same, and wings,—in reference to the similar texture of the organs of flight.
Hit
ENTOMOLOGY.
201
not the less a well determined fact, and one which con-
stitutes the most characteristic feature in the anatomy of
the Cicadae and other Cicadariae.1 In the Ledra aurita
of Fabricius, the inflated portion of the chylific ventricle
is placed immediately after the crop; and there is but a
single cluster of salivary sacks on each side, a character
likewise observable in Cercopis spumaria, or Frog-spittle;
while in Cicada there are two on each side. In Membra-
cis cornuta the arise duodenal of Dufour is replaced by a
short pouch, likewise attached to the oesophagus by a sus¬
pensory filament, a character peculiar to these insects.
1st, Stridulantes.
Antennae composed of six articulations. Three simple
eyes. This division includes the Manniferce of Linnaeus
(Tettigonia, Fab.), and forms the
Genus Cicada of Oliv. and Lat. Head transversal.
Eyes large. Prothorax broad or transversal, with a straight
posterior margin; the mesothorax large, with the form of
an X on its posterior edge. Elytra generally vitreous.
A large scaly operculum covers a cavity on each side of
the base of the abdomen in the males.
These insects differ from those that follow, not only in
the structure of the antennae and the amount of the sim¬
ple or stemmatic eyes, but also in their being all destitute
of the faculty of leaping. The males are musical, that is,
during the heat of summer, they produce, by a peculiar
structure, a loud and continuous cry or stridulation, called
by courtesy a song. When we examine the lateral base
of the abdomen of a male Cicada, we perceive two large
scaly plates of a rounded figure, approaching that of a
demi-oval cut through its smaller axis; so that each plate
presents a side which is rectilinear, while the remaining
portion exhibits a rounded outline. It is by the straight
side that each plate is fixed without articulation, on the
metathorax, of which it forms a portion. When we lift
up these plates we discover a cavity on each side of the
abdomen, divided into two principal chambers by a horny
triangular septum. When viewed from the side of the
abdomen, each cell presents anteriorly a white and plaited
I membrane; and lower down there is another membrane,
thin, light, and transparent as glass, called le miroir by
Reaumur. Some authors have regarded this as a kind of
drum or tambour, and the seat of sound; but that organ
has yet to be described. If we open the mirror from
! above, we perceive on each side of it another plaited
membrane, moved by a very powerful muscle, composed
of a great number of straight parallel fibres, and arising
from the horny septum. This latter membrane is the tym-
bal or drum, on which the muscles act by contraction and
relaxation, alternately tightening and restoring it to its
original state. This is the true origin of the sound, which
m fact may be produced even after the death of the in-
sect, by jerking the muscle.2 We may add, that M. Cha-
brier has perceived a stigmatic opening, not noticed by
Reaumur, at the inferior junction of the mesothorax and
metathorax; while Latreille has discovered on the poste¬
rior part of each tymbal a distinct hdle, which, he thinks,
serves for the egress of the air. Chabrier, however, is of
opinion that the air makes its escape through the two stig¬
mata placed at the base of the opercula before mention¬
ed.3 Further investigation will probably show that the
analogues of this singular structure exist in other insects,
indeed, the principal pieces have been already recognised,
though much more feebly developed, not only in the fe¬
male Cicadie, but also in certain species of the orthopter¬
ous genera Acrydium and Truxalis. In the opinion ofHemiptera
Audouin, the plates or shutters (volets') are merely large Homop-
prolongations of the epimera of the metathorax.4 ter£U
The Cicadae dwell on shrubs and trees, of which they
suck the juices. I he females, which are provided with
ovipositors, lay their eggs in holes, which they form in
the small branches or twigs of trees. The parts thus at¬
tacked are easily recognised by little irregularities, form¬
ed by a portion of the wood which has been raised. These
elevations are placed in a row, one after the other, upon
the same side of the branch. The different holes have a
diameter nearly equal. Their depth is from three to four
lines. They commence in an oblique direction; but as
soon as they reach the pith, they become nearly parallel
with the twig itself. The ovipositor does not pierce be¬
yond the pith; and the number of eggs placed in each
hole varies from four to ten. They are white, oblong,
and pointed at both ends. The larvae are white, and fur¬
nished with six feet. They soon quit their sylvan nurse¬
ries, and make their way under ground, where they gnaw
the roots of plants. Their anterior legs are short, with
strong dentated thighs, and are well adapted for digging.
They increase rapidly in size, and are ere long transform¬
ed into nymphs. These are of a dingy-white colour, and
are chiefly remarkable for their very short and inflated
fore legs, which are dentated, and serve them to penetrate
the earth. After living for about a year in this state, they
leave the groupd during the prevalence of warm weather,
and, climbing up the stems of trees, their skin first hardens,
and then bursts all along the centre of the dorsal line. The
perfect insect then escapes from its exuvue. It is at first
very soft, and of a greenish colour; but it soon attains a
firmer consistence, and various external markings make
their appearance, according to the characteristic aspect of
the different kinds.
These insects were well known to ancient writers, and
their so-called song has been celebrated by poets from the
highest antiquity. To ourselves it appeared monotonous
and fatiguing, although heard not seldom among the leafy
groves which shadow the fair white walls of the “ Etru¬
rian Athens.” The Cicada is the insect so frequently and
fondly commemorated by the Greek poets under the name
of Tirn%,—which our translators have generally though
erroneously construed grasshopper. Linnaeus, with his
accustomed propriety, applied the term Gryllus to the
locust and grasshopper tribes, and that of Cicada to the
“ beloved of the Athenians.” The name of tree grasshop¬
per, however, which is sometimes used, applies with suf¬
ficient accuracy to the latter, and indicates one of its cha¬
racteristic habits, that of usually perching upon trees.
The true grasshoppers are ground insects. The Cicadae
are scarcely known in Britain, although the species attach¬
ed to ash-trees (C. orni) is recorded as an English in¬
sect, in common with C. hcematodes. They abound in Italy
and other southern parts of Europe. The Italians call
them Cicale and the French Cigales, both words being no
doubt derived from the Latin. They are frequently men¬
tioned by the modern Italian poets; and Lord Byron
somewhere alludes to the “ shrill Cigala, people of the
pines,” thus recognising their arboreous disposition. Al¬
though held in the highest estimation as children of the
soil by the Athenians, who used to wear golden images
of them in their hair, there is no doubt that the}' were
also regarded by the Greek nations under a less intellec¬
tual aspect. Aristotle mentions that they were used as
food, and that they were particularly esteemed just before
Rzgne Animal, v. 211. See also Recherches Anatomiques sur les Cigales, in the 5th vol. of the Ann. des Sciences Nat.
3 Rcgne Animal, v. 214. , * Essai sur le Vol des Insectes. * Diet. Class. d'Uist.
VOL. IX.
Nat. i\. 125.
2 c
202
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemiptera the conclusion of the nympha state. The insect which
Homop- he mentions under the name olTettigometra, or mother
tera. 0f Cicadae, is in fact merely that intermediate condi-
tion of nymph, prior to the development of the organs of
flight. In that state, as well as when under the form of
larva, it lives upon the ground, or even beneath it, feeding
on herbage and the roots of plants;.but when about to
undergo its final metamorphosis, it climbs a tree, its outer
garment bursts asunder and is thrown off as exuviae, the
wings expand their folds “ voluminous and vast, and we
have then the perfect insect or tree grasshopper, the Ci¬
cada of the Latins, and Tettix of the Greeks, so beauti¬
fully addressed by Anacreon:— - ■ »
We deem thee blest, thou grasshopper, as on the highest trees,
Having sipp’d a little dew, thou sitt’st, like a monarch, at thine
For every thing before thee, whate’er the fields produce,
And the fruits of every season, are intended for thy use.
Thou art the friend of husbandmen, since harmless are thy ways ;
By mortals held in reverence, sweet seer of summer days.
The muses love thee dearly, to Phoebus art thou dear,
Who with that voice hath gifted thee, so musical and clear.
Song-skilled, earth-born, song-loving one, old age to thee’s no load ;
Fleshless, bloodless, passionless, thou almost art a god.
A great variety of opinion seems to prevail regarding
the musical accomplishments of these celebrated insects.
Virgil accused the Italian Cicadae of bursting the very
shrubs with their noise—“ Et cantu querulse rumpent ar-
busta Cicadaeand Dr Shaw in his Travels calls it, al¬
luding to its shrilly cry, “ the most troublesome and im¬
pertinent of insects.” Kirby and Spence tell us that in
some countries it is execrated for its deafening din. Yet
some one wrho desired to compliment Plato, asserted that
his voice was as sweet as a grasshopper’s; and we may all
remember the story of the rival musicians (Eunomus and
Ariston), one of whom gained the victory in consequence
of a Cicada settling on his harp, and supplying the place
of a broken string. Even at this day the song of the Tet~
tigonia Tibicen of Surinam is supposed so greatly to resem¬
ble the sound of a musical instrument, that the insect it¬
self is called the Harper. The following is Mr Elton’s
translation of Meleager’s invocation.
O shrill-voiced insect! that with dew drops sweet,
Inebriate, dost in desert woodlands sing;
Perched in the spray-top with indented feet,
Thy dusky body’s echoings harp-like ring :
Come, dear Cicada ! chirp to all the grove,
The Nymphs and Pan, a new responsive strain ;
That I, in noonday sleep, may steal from love,
Iteclined beneath the dark o’erspreading plane.
We shall here conclude our general sketch of these in¬
sects by observing that the substance used in medicine,
and known by the name of manna, is an exudation from
certain species of ash (Fraxinus rotundifolia et ornus)
which flourish in the south of Europe. It has been ob¬
served to be frequently produced by the puncturing of the
Cicadae, which feed on the juices of those saccharine
trees. The largest insect of the genus in Europe is C.
plebeia of Linn. Its cry is very strong and shrill; and as
it is well known in Italy, there can be no doubt of its be¬
ing the species mentioned by Virgil. If identical with the
Athenian Cicada, its voice does certainly by no means cor¬
respond in musical intonation to what might be inferred
from its recorded character as a lyrist among the ancient
Greeks. The pleasure produced may however depend
upon association; for, as Cowper says,
Sounds inharmonious in themselves, and harsh, jj,
Yet heard in scenes where peace for ever reigns, j.
And only there, please highly for their sake.
It is said that the males alone are musical, which may ^
perhaps be one reason for their continued cheerfulness;
for, as the Rhodian Xenarchus has it,
Happy the Cicadas’ lives,
Since they all have voiceless wives.
The amount of species in the genus Cicada is consider¬
able. They are spread over almost all the regions of the
earth, especially in the warmer latitudes.1 2 The greater
number are foreign to Europe. Our bounds will not ad¬
mit of more than a brief notice of. a very limited number of
species. The Cicada Orni is a European insect, common
in France and Italy. It is about an inch long, yellowish,
paler beneath, but mixed with black on the upper portions.
The margins of the abdominal segments are reddish.
There are two rows of blackish spots on the upper wings,
those next the inner margin being the smallest. Its voice
is hoarse, and does not extend so far as that of several
other species. This is the kind which, by wounding the
tree from which it derives its specific name (a species of
wild ash), causes a peculiar and honey-like fluid to flow
from it. It afterwards dries and hardens, and in that state
is used medicinally under the name of manna. The C.
plebeia, Lin. (Tettigonia fraxini, Fab.), figured on Plate
CCXXIX. fig. 13, is the largest species found in France.
It is black, with some spots on the first segment of the
thorax, its posterior margin, the raised and arched por¬
tions of the scutellum, and several veins on the elytra,
reddish: Its cry is strong and shrill. The C. hcematodes
is black, with the front of the thorax and legs spotted.
The edges of the abdominal segments, and the reticula¬
tions of the elytra, are red. This species occurs in the
south of France, but is rare in the vicinity of Paris. Its
voice is weaker than that of the preceding species. Oli¬
vier has described sixty-six species in all/* We are in¬
debted to Stoll for a monograph of the Cicadae, already
referred to in a subjoined note.
2d, MuxiE.
Antennae with only three distinct articulations. Two
ocelli or simple eyes. Legs, in general, adapted for leap¬
ing. Neither sex provided with organs of sound. The
elytra are frequently coriaceous and opake, and the fe¬
males of many species are observed to envelope their eggs
in a white and cottony substance.
A. Fulgorellce.
Antennae inserted immediately beneath the eyes, and
the front frequently prolonged into a muzzle, of variable
figure according to the species.
Genus Fulgora.3 Front of the head prolonged or ex¬
panded into a muzzle. No appendages beneath the an¬
tennae. Thorax of two apparent segments,—the posterior
margin of the first straight, of the second triangular.
These insects are remarkable for the varied and beauti¬
ful markings of their elytra and wings, and for the singu¬
lar form of their expanded muzzles, from which a lumi¬
nous or phosphoric emanation proceeds during the night-
Hence several of the species are known (in common wit
Elater, Lampigris, and other coleopterous kinds) under
the name of fire-flies. The greater number of the species
are exotic, and inhabit the sultry regions of Cayenne>
Guadaloupe, Senegal, the East Indies, and China. They
1 Encyclopedic Methodique, t. v. p. 742. See also Stoll’s Representations exactement coloriee d'aprts nature des Cigales et dcs Punaisa-
2 In Encyclop. Method, v. 742. See also Latreille’s Gener. Crust, et Insect, iii. 154 ; and the Sust. Rhyng. of Fabricius, genus Tettigon^
3 From fulgor, splendour. J J *
ENTOMOLOGY.
203
min a dwell on trees, but their special manners are but slightly
0ni known. We shall here indicate a few of the more noted
tera
species.
F. laternaria, Linn, is a large and remarkable in¬
sect from South America, drawn and described in most
illustrated works on entomology. Its muzzle is nearly
straight as to its direction from the head, but it is vesi¬
cular and inflated, or swollen out and rounded, at the sides
and extremity. The ends of the under wings are plea¬
santly varied with black and yellow, in the form of an ex¬
panded spot, resembling the eye of a peacock’s feather.
Madame Merian informs us, that from the head or front
of this species a light is seen to shine during the darker
hours, so clear and brilliant that it is easy to read by its
rays. She adds, that during the day it is transparent as
a bladder, and radiated with red and green. The indefa¬
tigable and accurate Reaumur, desirous to ascertain by
anatomical investigation the proximate cause of this cu¬
rious phenomenon, opened one of these vesicular expan¬
sions, buthe found it empty, except of air, and containing
no organic structure. We must bear in mind, however,
that the individual examined was in a state of desicca¬
tion. The species is common at Guadaloupe and Cay¬
enne, where it is known by the name of fire-fly. It flies
well, and hovers habitually about the summits of the tall¬
est trees. Its luminous faculty has been sometimes called
in question, especially by M. Richard, who captured many
at Cayenne, but never saw them shine. Yet the testi¬
mony of Madame Merian, and the general application to
the species of the name of moxiche a feu, notwithstanding
the fruitless results of Reaumur’s examination, suffices to
establish that fact. It is probable, however, that the phos¬
phoric emanation from this and other species is only per¬
ceptible at certain seasons of the year, and this considera¬
tion may explain the discrepancy arising from M. Richard’s
observations. F. Candelaria, Fab. (Plate CCXXIX. fig.
12), is a native of China and other eastern countries, and
is very abundant in collections. It is known among us
by the name of Lantern fly, and may be easily recognised
by its long cylindrical snout, arched in an upward direc¬
tion, its greenish reticulated elytra, and orange-yellow
wings with black extremities. At night this insect glitters
by thousands among the dark recesses of the Banyan tree,
which
 to Indians known,
In Malabar or Deccan spreads her arms,
Branching so broad and long, that in the ground
The bended twigs take root, and daughters grow
About the mother-tree, a pillar’d shade
High overarch’d, and echoing walks between.
And they are likewise observed to dance in perpetual mo¬
tion around the outmost branches of the spreading tama¬
rind, producing a brilliant and singularly beautiful effect.
F. Europcea, Lat. (Stoll, Cigales, pi. xi. fig. 51), occurs in
the south of France, Italy, and the islands of the Medi¬
terranean. Its front assumes the form of a conical ad¬
vancement, with three raised lines above and five below,
file elytra and wings are transparent, with green reticu¬
lations. There are three raised lines on the thorax.1
Genus Otiocerus, Kirby. Muzzle advanced. Simple
eyes wanting. Two small appendages beneath each an¬
tenna.
Genus Lystra, Fab. Head transverse, and without
any prolongation in the form of muzzle. Two simple
eyes. Second articulation of the antennae granular, and Hemiptera
almost round. Homop-
The species of this genus at first sight resemble small t tera'
CicadrB. The extremity of the body, in the females, is ^
furnished with little bundles of cotton threads, beauti¬
fully white, with which, it is presumed, they surround their
eggs. We are acquainted with many species from China,
the East Indies, and South America. We shall here men¬
tion only L. lanata, Fab. (Cicada lanata, Lin.), of which
the sides of the front are red, and the extremities of the
elytra black, with points of blue. We receive it from
Cayenne and the Antilles.
We shall here indicate a few genera, into the detailed
history of which we cannot enter. The Cyxii of Latreille
resemble Lystrae, but the second joint of the antennae is
smooth and cylindrical. Under the appellation of Tetti-
gometra, Latreille has separated certain insects analo¬
gous to the preceding, but with the antennae lodged be¬
tween the posterior and lateral angles of the head, and
those of the anterior extremity of the thorax. The eyes
are not projecting.2 The preceding genera are provided
with simple eyes; but in such as follow, these organs are
wanting.
The species with large elytra, and the prothorax short¬
er in the middle than the mesothorax, compose the genus
PjECILoptera of Latreille and Germar (Plata of Fabri-
cius).3 In Issus, Fab. the prothorax is as long at least
as the mesothorax; and the elytra, scarcely longer, or some¬
times shorter, than the abdomen, are dilated at their base,
and then narrowed.4 Sometimes the antennae are at least
as long as the head, and are most frequently inserted in
an inferior emargination of the eyes. The genus Anoxia
of Kirby resembles Issus in the insertion of the antennae.5
In Asiraca of Lat. (Delphax of Fab.) the antennae are
inserted in an inferior emargination of the eyes, and are
as long as the head and thorax united. Their first joint
is usually longer than the second, and is compressed and
angular. In Delphax, as constituted by Latreille, the
antennae are similar in their insertion, but they are never
much longer than the head, and their first joint is much
shorter than the following one, and without ridges. The
simple eyes are apparent. The genus Derbe of Fab. is
allied to Anotia. The species are little known. They
are all exotic, and most of them come from South Ame¬
rica.
B. Cicadellce.
Antennae inserted between the eyes. Latreille subdi¬
vides this portion of the family of Cicadariae into the fol¬
lowing genera.
He commences with the species which, with the excep¬
tion of a few (the Ledr^e), formerly composed the genus
Membracis of Fabricius. The head is much inclined or
lowered anteriorly, and prolonged to an obtuse point, or
under the form of a clypeus, more or less semicircular.
The antennae are always very small, terminated by an
inarticulate seta, and inserted into a cavity beneath the
margin of the head. The prothorax is sometimes dilated
and horned on either side, prolonged and restricted pos¬
teriorly to a point or spine, either simple or compound,
sometimes elevated longitudinally along the back, com¬
pressed into a sharp edge or crest, and sometimes pro¬
jecting and pointed forwards. The legs are scarcely
spiny.
s ^or other species of this genus see the works of Stoll and Fabricius, last cited, and the Encyclop. Mtihod. article Fulgore.
’ Cxermar, Magazin der Entomologie, iv. 7-
Gener. Crust, et Insect, iii. 1G5; Mag. der Ent. iiL 219, iv. 103-4. * Systema Rhyngotorum, p. 199.
* L*nn' Trans, xiii. pi. i. figs. 9, 10, 11, 15.
204
Hemiptera
Homop-
tera.
ENTOMOLOGY.
The elytra are always entirely exposed, and the posterior h.
No apparent or exposed scutellum properly so called. tibiae bears the form of an irre- 1
Tibia, esneciallv the anterior, strongly compressed and gular hexagon, prolonged and narrowed posteriorly, and ^
f ^i/ flnner nart of the head always forming a kind terminated by a truncation, serving as a support to the
fohaceous. Upper pan or t y ° bage tiie scutellum, which it frequently receives into
0fGEmNUsrCMErMBRA^sS; Fab. Prothorax elevated, com- itself,-the truncated portion being concave or emargU
nre^sed and foHaceous along the middle of the back. nate. In the genus Lebra, hab the vertex >s triangu-
P Of thU pretty Numerous lenus we shall notice only M. lar, and bears the ocelh. 1 he antenna; are inserted upon
i2L. FXmate CCXXll fig. 14), which is of a black- or above an ideal drawn from one eye to n„oth
foliata, Fab. (Plate   0
ish brown, the front advanced, flattened, the thorax mark¬
ed by an arch and band of white. The latter part is
crreatly elevated, flattened laterally, forming a salient
crest, advancing over the head, which it almost entirely
The head is very flat before the eyes, in the form of a
transverse clypeus, arcuated and terminated in the centre
of its anterior margin by an obtuse angle. All the un¬
der parts of the head are plane, or on the same level. The
.Xd-XXed posteriorly by . point prolonged sides of tire protlmrex are raised i"
covers,  . . . .
beyond the abdomen. The elytra are oval, longer than
the wings. The legs are elongated, flattened, lather
broad. The anterior tibiae are shorter, of an oval form,
and flattened. The native country is Cayenne.
Genus Tragopa, Lat. Prothorax presenting on each
side a horn or salient point, without any intermediate ele¬
vation, and prolonging itself posteriorly into an arched
projection of the length of the abdomen, and occupying
the place of the scutellum.
This genus is composed of certain species from Brazil,
which M. Latreille regards as analogous to M. glabra,
albimacula, and xanthocephala of Germar.
* *
Tibiae of the ordinary form, not foliaceous.
Genus Darnis, Fab. Posterior prolongation of the
prothorax covering almost the whole, or the greater por¬
tion, of the upper part of the abdomen and elytra, and
forming an elongated and arched triangle.1
Genus Bocydium, Lat. Elytra entirely or in greater
part exposed, the posterior and scutellar prolongation of
the prothorax being narrow, and more or less lanceolate
or spiniform.
The Centrotus horridus, trifidus, globular is, clavatus,
and claviger, of Fabricius, belong to this genus.
b.
Scutellum partially exposed, even although the pro¬
thorax is prolonged;—the posterior extremity of the latter
offering a transverse suture, which distinguishes it from
the scutellum.
Genus Centrotus,2 Fab. Similar to Membracis, but
the thorax is dilated horizontally, and covers only a part
of the body.
C. cornutus, Fab. ( Cicada cornuta, Linn. Plate CCXXIX.
fig. 15), is of a blackish-brown, the thorax with a horn on
each side, and prolonged posteriorly to a sinuated point of
the length of the abdomen. This species measures about
four lines in length. It occurs in France, and other parts
of Europe, in woods, on ferns, &c. and is known by the
name of petit diable. C. genistce, Fab. is of an obscure
brown, the thorax without horns, but terminated poste¬
riorly by a straight sharp point, as long as the half of the
horns. The posterior tibiae are much compressed, and
as if margined exteriorly by a dentated membrane. The
Cicada aurita o? Linn., or grand diable as it is called by
Geoffroy, belongs to this genus. In the genus Cercopis,
Fab. the third joint of the antennae is conical, and termi¬
nated by an inarticulate seta. Of this genus C. sanguino-
lenta is a well-known and ornamental British species, as
is also C. spumaria, Linn, of which the larva inhabits a
white foam frequent on the leaves and stalks of various
plants, and called frog-spittle in England—gowk-spittk
in our northern parts of the kingdom. The latter species
is by some classed in the genus Tettigonia.
In other genera of Cicadariae, which terminate our pre¬
sent family, the prothorax is scarcely if at all prolonged,
posteriorly, and terminates, at the height of the origin ot
the elytra, by a nearly straight line, the length of which
is nearly equal to the breadth of the body. The scutel¬
lum, measured at the base, occupies a great proportion of
that breadth. Here are ranged the genera Eulopa, Eu-
pelix, Penthimia, Jassus, and Tettigonia properly so
called.3
FAMILY II—APHIDII.
These singular insects are distinguished from those of
the preceding family by the tarsi, which have only two
articulations, and by the antennae, filiform or setaceous,
longer than the head, and composed of from six to eleven
articulations. Such as possess organs of flight have al¬
ways two elytra and a pair of wings. The species are
usually very small,—their bodies generally of a soft con¬
sistence, the elytra and wings nearly alike, or differing
merely in size and thickness. They lay a prodigious
number of eggs, and their mode of production is in other
respects very remarkable.
in some the antennae consist of from ten to eleven ar¬
ticulations, of which the last is terminated by a couple of
setae. These are leaping insects, and compose the genus
Psylla of Geoffrey (Chermes, Linn.). They are known
_ ... c under the title oi faux-pucerons to the French naturalists,
abdomen. It is only half the size of the preceding, and as distinguished from the true Aphides after mentioned.
They live on trees and various plants, by the juices of
which they are nourished. Both sexes are winged. The
body of the larvae is usually very flat, the head large,
the abdomen rounded posteriorly. Their feet are termi¬
nated by a small membranous vesicle, furnished beneath
with a couple of hooks. The nymphs are distinguishable
occurs on the broom. It is called demi-diable by the
French.
M. Latreille now proceeds to those species of which
the head, if not upon a level with, is scarcely lower than,
the prothorax, and is horizontal or slightly inclined when
seen from above. The prothorax is neither elevated in
the centre, nor posteriorly prolonged, and offers at most by four broad flat dorsal portions, which constitute the
some lateral dilatations. The mesothorax presents itself sheaths of the incipient wings and elytra. Several spe-
under the form of an ordinary-sized triangular scutellum. cies are covered during both of those immature conditions
For the species see the Systerna Rhyngotornm of Fabricius. * From *sv™v, spine, and crv5, ear.
See the fourth volume of Germar s Magazin der Entomologie, and the Regne Animal, t. v. p. 222-3.
ENTOMOLOGY.
205
it by a white and cottony substance, disposed in flakes.
Their faeces form threads or masses of a gummy and sac¬
charine nature. Several species, by the wounds which
they occasion to plants while sucking their juices, occa¬
sion the growth of peculiar excrescences on the buds and
leaves, resembling gallnuts. Of these is Psylla buxi
(Ch. buxi, Linn.), which is green with yellowish-brown
wings. Mr Stephens has named a great many British
species as belonging to this genus.1 Latreille has founded
the genus Livia upon a species which dwells among
rushes (Plate CCXXIX. fig. 17). The antennae are much
thicker near the base than towards the extremity.
In other Aphidii the antennae have only from six to
eight articulations, of which the last is not terminated
by a couple of setae. .
Some have the elytra and wings linear, fringed with
hairs, and placed horizontally upon the body, which is of
an almost cylindrical form. The rostrum is very small or
indistinct. The tarsi are terminated by a vesicular ar¬
ticle, unfurnished with hooks. The antennae consist of
eight granular articulations. Such are the species which
form the genus Thrips of Linn. (Plate CCXXIX. fig.
18). These insects are very small, extremely active, and
seem to leap rather than fly. When teazed, they raise
and recurve the extremity of the abdomen, after the man¬
ner of the Staphylinidae. They live among flowers and
other parts of plants, and beneath the bark of trees. We
may add, that although Latreille did not perceive in the
organization of the mouth of these insects any characters
essentially different from such as distinguish that organ
among the other component parts of the homopterous
Hemiptera,—yet M. Straus, who has studied the subject
very laboriously, and with his wonted intelligence, is of
opinion that the genus Thrips belongs in fact to the or¬
thopterous order.
Others have the elytra and wings oval or triangular,
without fringe, and inclined or tectiform. The rostrum
is distinct. The tarsi are terminated by two hooks. The
antennae consist of from six to seven articulations. Such
are the species which compose the great genus Aphis of
Linn, which is now divisible as follows.
In the genus Aphis properly so called, the antennae
are longer than the thorax, of seven articulations, of
which the third is elongated. The eyes are entire, and
the abdomen is furnished with two horn-like projections
at its posterior extremity. The species dwell together in
society on various trees and plants, of which they suck the
juices. They walk very leisurely, and cannot leap. The
two horn-like processes just mentioned are hollow tubes,
from which a drop of transparent liquid frequently exudes.
It partakes of the property of sugar, and is much sought
after by ants, who suck it with avidity from the living
Aphides. This curious fact was first noticed by M. Bois-
sier de Sauvages, and has since been amply confirmed by
M. P. Huber. The desired liquor seems to be given out
voluntarily by the aphis, when solicited so to do by a
gentle tap from the ant’s antennae. A single aphis may
; be sometimes seen surrounded by three or four ants, all
m aC^ ^erivinS from it a plentiful and nectareous
meal.2 The congregations of the Aphides consist, in spring
and summer, of apterous individuals, and of nymphae with
undeveloped wings. All of these are females, which give Hemiptera
birth to living young, et sans accouplement prealable. The Homop-
males, which consist both of winged and apterous insects, tera'
are produced towards the end of summer, or during the
autumnal season. They fecundate the last broods pro¬
duced by the females first mentioned; which broods con¬
sist of apterous females, differing from their progenitors
in requiring impregnation prior to the continuance of their
kind. They lay eggs soon after the sexual intercourse,
and these remain in the crevices of trees, &c. throughout
the winter, and in spring produce the broods above allud¬
ed to, which are capable of producing living young, with¬
out assistance from each other. “ L’influence d’une pre¬
miere fecondation s’etend ainsi sur plusieurs generations
successives. Bonnet, auquel on doit le plus de faits sur
cet objet, a obtenu, par I’isolement des femelles, jusqu’a
neuf generations dans 1’espace de trois mois.”3 M. Du-
vau has recently added some observations to those of
Bonnet and Reaumur on this singular subject.4 By this
extraordinary process of production, vast multitudes are
brought forth during a favourable season, and the injury
to vegetation, by the absorption of the juices, and the
obstruction of the natural pores, is consequently great.
Reaumur calculates, that in the course of five genera¬
tions, a single mother may be the means of producing
5,904,900,000! But fortunately they7 are liable to the
attacks of numerous enemies, and are greedily devoured
by many other insects. The larvae of the genus Hemero-
bins, those of different dipterous species, and of the Cocci-
nellce or lady-birds, make the helpless Aphides their con¬
stant prey. We cannot here describe the species, but
shall content ourselves by naming a few familiar examples.
Aphis rosce (Plate CCXXIX. figs. 19 and 20) is a small
green species, very abundant on the younger shoots of
roses, the flowering of which it seems to damage or de¬
stroy. Its hordes may be killed by dipping the affected
branch into soapy water. A. quercus occurs on the oak,
and is remarkable for the great length of its beak, which
is at least three times as long as the body. It is of a
brown colour. A.fagi is attached to the beech tree, and
covers itself, as do many7 other species, with a white and
cotton-like down, which exudes from its body. Includ¬
ing the genus Eriosoma of Leach, we have above fifty
species of aphis in Britain. In the genus Aleyrodes,5
Lat. {Tinea, Linn.), the antennae are short, composed of
six articulations, and the eyes are emarginate. A. Cheli-
donii of Lat. ( T. proletella, Linn.) is found upon the celan¬
dine {Chelidonium majus), and other plants. It resem¬
bles a little moth. The larva is oval, flat, and shaped like a
small scale. The nymph is fixed and enclosed in an enve¬
lope, so that its transformations differ from those of its con¬
geners. Indeed the somewhat anomalous character of
this insect has been the cause of its being described un¬
der a great variety of names.6 Mr Stephens enumerates
five British species, including the one just mentioned.7
FAMILY III.—GALLINSECTA.
The insects of this family seem to have only one arti¬
culation to the tarsi, and are generally so described. It
s Systematic Catalogue, part ii. p. 361. ,
Ihe viscous drops so frequent on the foliage of many trees, and commonly known by the name of honey-dew, is this secretion
rom the Aphides. We have seen it falling from a willow tree like a gentle and continuous shower, and ascertained its origin by dis¬
covering at the same time millions of these insects incrusting the upper branches, and each giving out from time to time a minute
drop of nectareous fluid. ft
s -Ammcil, t. v. p. 227. 4 Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. v. p. 224.
e q rom, four, in allusion to the farinaceous powder by which these insects are often covered.
, "ee Geoffrey, Hist, des Insect, t. ii. p. I72; Reaumur, Mem. 1th, t. ii.; and Diet. Class. Hist. Nat. t. i. p. 211.
Systematic Catalogue, part ii. p. 367.
206
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hemiptera is the opinion, however, of M. Dalman, that those parts male is shown by figures 21 and 22). The male is less than I: p
Hon,op- consist of three joints, with a single hook at the extremity.1 the female, and more active, although it uses its wings very iL
tera. jjie maies want the rostrum, and have only two wings sparingly. As soon as it attains the perfect state, it sets i
''T'—^ jajj iloriZontally on the body; their abdomen is terminated off in search of the other sex, which still remains fixed in '
bv a pair of setse. The females are winged and provided the nest, as formerly mentioned. Ihe oviposition of the i
with a rostrum. The antenna are filiform or setaceous, female is another remarkable peculiarity in the history of
and consist, for the most part, of eleven articulations, these insects. Though excluded from the body, the eggs do
There are only nine in the males of the species described not appear externally, but are made to pass beneath the
by M Dalman. These creatures form the noted genus abdomen, and between it and the cotton tapestry above
Coccus of Linn, commonly called cochineal insects. They alluded to. In proportion as the insect becomes empty,
are also known by the name of Chermes? and their his- the lower surface of the abdomen approaches the upper
tory and attributes are sufficiently remarkable. one, so as to leave beneath the body a kind of arch or
We may frequently perceive on the branches of various cavity for the reception of the eggs. The perfect female
trees multitudes of small oval or rounded bodies resem- never stirs a step in the course of her life, but haying laid
bling scales, adhering closely to the wood, and present¬
ing no indications of any external organs. These are in¬
sects of the genus Coccus, the progallinsectes of Reau¬
mur. Their history was for a long period extremely ob¬
scure, and the species employed in commerce was even
at one time regarded as a kind of grain. It was only to¬
wards the termination of the seventeenth century that
M. Plumier clearly established their insect origin. We
are indebted to Reaumur for a complete history of the
life and transformations of the European kinds. The
larvae of both males and females, on first quitting the egg,
are tolerably active, and run about among the leaves and
her eggs she dies, and her body shyivels up and hardens,
and thus forms a cocoon or covering for the incipient
young. These, as soon as hatched, work their way from
beneath the dead body of their parent, making their
escape by its posterior extremity.
These curious insects are certainly hurtful to vegetation,
by causing a too abundant transudation of their juices ; and
they consequently excite the jealousy of those who culti¬
vate the finer trees, such as the peach, the orange, the
olive, and the fig. Certain species attack also the roots
of plants. But, upon the whole, the advantages which we
derive from this genus of insect amply counterbalance
branches. They are, however, so extremely small at that whatever injuries it may occasionally inflict upon us.
period, as not to be distinctly discernible without the aid ! ”u"11 1 '
of a microscope. They are flat, ovular, apterous, with
short and indistinctly articulated antennae. The males
have no apparent organs of manducation, although the
females are furnished with a small, extremely short, al¬
most conical beak, inserted between the first and second
pair of feet, nearly perpendicular in its direction, and com¬
posed of a four-jointed sheath containing a sucker of
three pieces. It is with this instrument that they pump
the juices of the leaves and tender stems. They also fix
themselves from time to time for the purpose of changing
their skin, and after arriving at a certain size, they be¬
come definitely fixed in some chosen spot, usually at the
bifurcation of a branch, where they form a little nest, pro¬
tected by a tapestry of cotton. They then attain the
The
species are very numerous. We shall here notice only a
few of the more remarkable.
Of the kind called Kermes, is that known to naturalists
by the name of Coccus Ilicis, of which the female attains
to the size and form of a pea. It is of a violet-black co¬
lour, covered by a whitish powder. This species is com¬
mon over the south of Europe on the evergreen oak, and
appears to be widely distributed over many of the south¬
eastern countries of the ancient world. It occurs abun¬
dantly in Spain, where it attaches itself chiefly to the
twigs and leaves of a small species of spiny-leaved oak,
frequent in the southern parts of that romantic kingdom,
especially on the slopes of the Sierra Morena. Many ot
the inhabitants of Murcia have no other means of sub¬
sistence than those procured by collecting the Kermes.
perfect state, and are apterous (we speak of the females) Women are usually so employed, and they scrape the ad-
even in that otherwise complete condition. Their bead hesive insects from the trees by means of their nails,
is semicircular, their mouth is still formed of the beak Though supplanted over the greater portion of Europe by
which existed in the larva state, and the eyes are small, the introduction of the more famous cochineal (Cocm
The thorax is not easily distinguished from the abdomen, cacti), which is an American species, it is still extensively
the segments of which are distinct. When the insect used in India and the Persian dominions.3 It has been
has attained its full growth, its abdomen is found filled
with a multitude of minute eggs. The larvae of the males,
though by no means rare, are much less numerous than
those of the other sex. Their mode of sustenance, owing
employed from time immemorial to impart a blood-red or
crimson dye to cloth, and was known to the Phoenicians
by the name of Thola. It was called coccus (Koxxog) by
the Greeks, and kermes or alkermes by the Arabians.
to the want of the sucker, is not distinctly known; but According to Beckman, the epithet vermiculatum was ap-
they increase in size, and after a time their skin hardens, plied to it during the middle ages, when its insect origin
and serves as a cocoon, in which they undergo their trans- came to be generally understood, and hence is derived
formation to the nympha state. In the latter condition they our English word vermilion. The French term crcwioisi
are remarkable for the anterior pair of legs being directed is evidently' from the Arabic. It is supposed to have been
forwards. Towards the beginning of spring these cocoons by means of this substance that the curtains of the taber-
open at their posterior portion, and the perfect male in- nacle (Exodus, xxvi. &c.) were dyed of a deep red (which
sect comes forth stern foremost. It is of a more elon- the word scarlet then implied, rather than the colour so
gated foim, with a round head furnished with two small named in more modern days, which was unknown in the
eyes and a pair of rather long antennae. I he thorax is reign of James I. when our Bible was translated);
rounded, and has attached to it a pair of long wings, folded from the same source have been derived the imperishable
horizontally one over the other, and very delicately'veined, reds of the Flemish tapestries. The scarlet afforded by
( or a male Coccus see I late CCXX1X. fig. 16; the fe- cochineal was unknown in its highest perfection till the
1 See his Memoir in Swedish,—Om nagra svenska arter of Coccus, Stockholm, 1826.
2 He it rememhered, however, that the genus Chermcs of Linn, corresponds to Psylla of Lat. already described, and not to our pre¬
sent species, which are the true Kermes of Geoffrey, Reaumur, and Olivier. ^ ’
* Kirby and Spence’s Introd. to Ent. and Bochart’s Hkrozoic.
ENTOMOLOGY.
207
emi
Ion,
ter
•rayear 1630, when the singular power of the oxide of tin in
. exalting its colours was discovered in Holland; it was
soon after communicated to one of the celebrated MM.
^ Gobelins of Paris, and may have contributed to the per¬
fection of their tapestries.1 Since the preparation of Mo¬
rocco leather has been established in this country, cochi¬
neal has been employed to produce the beautiful colour
of what is called red morocco; but in Persia, Armenia,
Barbary, and the Greek islands, a similar colour was ori¬
ginally produced by the use of either kermes or lac.2 The
colouring matter of kermes is regarded by Dr Bancroft
as identical with that of cochineal, but combined with
some astringent matter derived from the tree on which
it feeds.
The substance called lac is also the produce of an in¬
sect of the Coccus kind. It is collected from various trees
in India, where it is used in the fabrication of beads, rings,
and other ornaments of female attire. When mixed with
sand it forms grindstones; and, added to ivory black, and
previously dissolved in water with a little borax, it com¬
poses an ink which, when dry, is said to be capable of re¬
sisting a considerable degree of damp or moisture. In this
country, according to the different states in which it is im¬
ported, it is called stick-lac, seed-lac, lump-lac, or shell-lac.
It is chiefly used in the making of varnishes, japanned
ware, and sealing-wax, although during late years it has
been applied to a still more important purpose, as origi¬
nally suggested by Dr Roxburgh, that of a substitute for
cochineal in dyeing scarlet. The first preparations from
it with this view were made in consequence of a hint from
Dr Bancroft; and large quantities of a substance termed
lac-lake, consisting of the colouring matter of stick-lac,
precipitated from an alkaline lixivium by alum, were ma¬
nufactured at Calcutta, and sent to this country, where
at first the consumption was so considerable, that in the
three years previous to 1810 the sales at the India house
equalled in point of colouring matter half a million of
pounds weight of cochineal.3 “ More recently, however,
a new preparation of lac-colour, under the name of lac-dye,
has been imported from India, which has been substitut¬
ed for the lac-lake, and with such advantage, that the
East India Company are said to have saved in a few
months L.14,000 in the purchase of scarlet cloths dyed
with this colour and cochineal conjointly, and without
any inferiority in the colour obtained.”4 The only mor¬
dant formerly used with kermes was alum, and the co¬
lour communicated was blood-red; but Dr Bancroft as¬
certained, that with the solution of tin used with cochineal
it was capable of imparting as brilliant a scarlet as that
dye, and one perhaps more permanent. It must be borne
in mind, however, that as ten or twelve pounds of kermes
contain no more colouring matter than a single pound of
cochineal, the latter at its ordinary price is, after all, the
cheapest.
Several other curious and valuable products are obtain¬
ed from insects belonging to the genus Coccus, or to one
nearly allied in its natural character and attributes. The
ye-la, for example,, or white wax of the Chinese, is deriv¬
ed from an insect, apparently a Coccus, described by the
Abbe Grozier; and a non-descript Indian species produces
a wax analogous to pe la, first noticed by^ Dr Anderson
under the name of white lac. It is obtained in great
quantities in the vicinity of Madras ; but Dr Pearson’s ex¬
periments do not countenance the idea, at one time rather Hemiptera
sanguinely entertained, that it might be advantageously Homop-
used for making candles.5 Geoffroy long ago attributed t tera'
to a species of kermes the faculty of producing a sugary
substance, of a white colour, resembling manna ; and Cap¬
tain Frederick has described an article of that nature un¬
der the name of Gez, found in Persia and Armenia; but
he seems doubtful whether to attribute to it an animal
or a vegetable origin.0 More recently, however, General
Hardwicke has described an Indian insect, under the
name of Chermis mannifer, of the size of the domestic
bug, and of a flattened oval form, with a rounded tail.
From its abdomen a quantity of saccharine substance is
exuded, and assumes the form of a bunch of feathers,
with a consistence like that of snow. These insects are
found on the branches and leaves of trees in millions, and
they there produce this feather-like secretion, till it be¬
comes elongated, and, dropping on the leaves, hardens
upon them into a substance resembling the most beautiful
wax.7
Of the European species, in addition to C. Bids, al¬
ready described, we may mention C. adonidum, now na¬
turalized in our hot-houses, where it is very destructive,
and C. polonicus, which yields a colouring matter almost
as beautiful as the Mexican cochineal; it attacks the roots
of Scleranthus perennis, and other plants, and is still used
as a dye in Russia.
Before closing this branch of our subject, we must de¬
vote a few lines to the cochineal insect properly so call¬
ed, the Coccus cacti of naturalists (Plate CCXX1X. figs.
16, 21, 22). This species, so important in a commercial
point of view, and in relation to our arts and manufac¬
tures, is a native of Mexico, where it was assiduously
cultivated at a period long anterior to the European con¬
quest of that country. We shall not describe its appear¬
ance, as that will be better understood by an inspection
of the figures just referred to. There are several varie¬
ties, named in general from the provinces where they are
bred ; and of these, that called Mastique or Mesteque
is regarded as the best. It is cultivated on a tree called
Nopal by the Indians (Cactus cochenilifer, Linn.) and its
colour is by some attributed to the juices of that plant. It
is the female insect that is so highly valued for the in¬
comparable beautyr of its colour. It is imported to Eu¬
rope in the form of a little grain, convex on one side, con¬
cave on the other, and exhibiting traces of the abdominal
segments. In the year 1736 there was sent to Europe
about 700,000 pounds weight of this minute creature, a
quantity worth L.700,000 sterling. Humboldt states the
quantity imported about the period of his inquiries to have
been 32,000 arrobas, worth in South America L.500,040
sterling,8—“ a vast amount to arise from so small an in¬
sect, and well calculated to show us the absurdity of de¬
spising any animals on account of their minuteness.”9 Dr
Bancroft calculates the annual consumption of cochineal
in Great Britain at about 750 bags, or 150,000 pounds
weight,—worth L.375,000 sterling at recent prices. The
natives of those districts in which the cochineal is reared
form plantations of the nopal tree near their dwelling-
houses. It grows freely from cuttings, and the latter are
fit for the reception of the insect in eighteen months.
Eight or ten females are put into a small nest formed of tufts
of a thread-like substance collected from a species of palm,
l Quarterly Review, vol. ix. p. 210.
« .f^^rueutal Researches concerning the Philosophy of Permanent Colours, Slc- by Edward Bancroft, M. D. vol. ii. p. 167.
„ -“ancroft, ut supra. ■* Introd. to Ent. vol. i. p. 318. 5 Linn. Trans. 1794.
, ransactions of the Bombay Literary Society, vol. i.
s fsarlption of Gez or Manna, in the Asiatic Researches, vol. xiv. p. 182.
Political Essay on New Spain.
9 Introduct. to Ent. vol. i. p. 316.
208
Hemiptera
Homop-
tera.
entomology.
or of any other cottony matter. These nests are attached
to the spines of the nopal, upon the side facing the ns.ng
sun, and the insects are placed in them about the middle
of October, a period at. which good weather usually com¬
mences in Mexico after the rains. The eggs are soon
laid and hatched, and the progeny spread m vast numbers
over the plant, each female producing upwards ot a thou¬
sand young. According to M. Thierry de Menonville,1
six generations are produced in a year, and they might
be collected at all seasons, but for the destruction pro¬
duced among them by the periodical rains. Ihe hrst
collection takes place about the middle of December, and
the last in the month of May. 1 hey are detached by means
of a knife with the edge blunted, to prevent injury to the
nopal tree. When the first gathering is made, the nests are
taken away, and the dead females (those placed on the no¬
pal in October) are likewise picked off. These are lighter
and less valuable than such as are taken off alive and full
of young ; the former losing three fourths, the latter two
thirds, during the process of drying. As soon as dried,
however, both kinds may be kept for any length of time,
without any further loss of either weight or colour. They
are killed by different processes. Some put them m a
basket, which they dip in boiling water, and afterwards
dry them by exposure to the sun; others place them in
an oven, or on plates of heated iron. The various exter¬
nal colours of the insect, as we afterwards see it in Europe,
depend upon the mode of putting it to death. Those which
have been killed by being dipt in hot water (the method
regarded as the best), lose a portion of the white powder
with which they were previously invested, and acquire a
brownish-red colour. When so treated, they pass under
the name of renagrida. When killed in an oven they re¬
tain the white powder, remain externally of a grey colour,
and are caWeA jarpeada. Such as are placed on plates ot
heated iron become of a blackish hue, and are then named
negra. When cochineal insects are forced from the tree,
they speedily die, even if no further violence is offered
them; because their sucker, being fixed in the wood, is
unavoidably dislocated and broken off by the act of re¬
moval. It is necessary, however, to put them to death,
because they might otherwise live for a short time, and
meanwhile produce their young, the loss of which would
diminish the quantity of colouring matter.
The other most frequent variety of cochineal is called
Sylvester, on account of its being commonly collected from
a species of cafctus which grows wild, or without culture.
It is of smaller size, and much less valuable in relation
both to the amount and quality of the colour which it
yields. We have not yet ascertained to our own satisfac¬
tion whether it is a mere variety or a distinct species.
Although it occurs naturally upon a wild spiny cactus, it
is also cultivated upon the nopal or garden species, for the
sake of the greater facility of collection. So great indeed
is the difference in this point, that in one day a single la¬
bourer will gather from the latter a quantity which, when
dry, will amount to the weight of three pounds,—where¬
as from the former the most persevering hand will not
obtain in that time much more than a couple of ounces.
Moreover, when cultivated on the garden nopal, the Syl¬
vester cochineal attains to as large a size as the mastique.
Various attempts have been made to introduce the cul¬
ture of the cochineal into our eastern possessions, although
these, so far as we are informed, have not yet been at- i *
tended with any marked success. The old Spanish go- l
vernment manifested great jealousy on the subject; and'if
we are not aware that the true kind has been yet import-
ed, although the court of directors at one period offered
a reward of L.60Q0 to whoever should effect its introduc¬
tion to India. Colonel Bory St Vincent informs us that
attempts have recently been made, and with a fair pro¬
spect of success, to effect its cultivation near Malaga,
in Spain.2 We shall conclude our sketch by observing
that considerable care is requisite to preserve these in-
sects from the attacks of their natural enemies, of which
one of the chief is the larva of a species of Coccinella,
which sucks them to death, and leaves nothing but the
skin. A very destructive foe is also described as being
a caterpillar, of an inch in length, and the thickness of a
crow-quill, which, it is said, would soon destroy the race
if allowed to continue its attacks without any interference
on the part of the higher powers.3 It is said that a spe¬
cies of Ptinus also feeds upon them freely. Besides these
direct enemies, there is another insect, with the exact
nature of wdiich we are not acquainted, which lives in
common with the cochineal upon the juices of the nopal,
and by so doing greatly interferes with the health and
progress of the more valuable species. Among its larger,
if not more formidable enemies, we may mention a mouse,
which is said always to prefer the mastique or finer co¬
chineal to the Sylvester or wild species, because the cot¬
tony matter with which the latter is invested produces
discomfort by entangling in its teeth. Both kinds are
moreover subjected to the attacks of numerous birds.
Order IV.—NEUROPTERA.4
Distinguished by four naked or transparent wings, re¬
ticulated or interlaced by a delicate network, and usual¬
ly of the same size as well as texture. The mouth is
adapted for mastication, that is, furnished with mandibles
and true maxillae, and never assumes the tubular form.
The abdomen does not possess a sting, and is rarely pro¬
vided with an ovipositor. The antennae are usually seta¬
ceous, and composed of numerous articulations. The
head is furnished with two or three simple eyes. The
thorax is formed of thi’ee segments, intimately united to
each other, though perceptibly distinct from the abdo¬
men ; the first of these segments is usually very short,
and in the form of a collar. The number of joints of the
tarsi varies. The form of the body is for the most part
elongated, and its texture rather soft and delicate. The
abdomen is always sessile. Many of the species are car¬
nivorous, both in the larva and perfect state.
This beautiful and very varied order has been divided
into two by Mr Kirby, by the separation of the genus
Phryganea of Linn., which the English naturalist raises to
the rank of an order under the name Trichoptera. h
might also have simplified the characters of the order it
we had left in it only those which possess reticulated
wings; but as some of the latter exhibit a difference m
the texture of the organs of flight, it is difficult to assign
rigorous characters to the neuropterous tribes, if we at¬
tach a high importance to the wings. “ Of all the Lin-
naean orders,” says Mr Kirby, “ this appears to consist ot
1 Traitt de la Culture du Nopal, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris 1787- This author endeavoured to introduce the Spanish American cochineal
into St Domingo, but they perished for want of care.
2 Annal. des Sciences Nat. t. viii. p. 105. •
a We scarcely think that the creature above alluded to can be a caterpillar properly so called, that is, the larva of a lepidopterous
insect.
4 Odonata, and the majority of Synistat a, of Fabricius.
ENTOMOLOGY.
209
eur
ler,
the most discordant tribes; so that it seems next to im¬
possible to construct a definition that will include them
f g]] uniess indeed we admit M. Latreille’s idea, adopted
by Mr Macleay, that a varied metamorphosis is its es¬
sential character; or, to speak more largely, variety itself
seems the characteristic of the insects composing it in
every state, and there is scarcely a common distinctive cha¬
racter in their perfect state, upon detecting which in any
individual, you may exclaim—this is a neuropterous insect.”1
The neuropterous species, however, may be readily distin-
sruished from the orthopterous and hemipterous kinds
by the greater difference of consistence in the two lat¬
ter between the upper and under wings. The Hymen-
ontera, again, have generally much longer maxillae—serv¬
ing rather to suck the juices than to bruise .the more so¬
lid portions of the substances on which they feed. The
scale-covered wings of the lepidopterous order prevent
their being confounded with our present subjects ; while
the Diptera are easily distinguished by the absence of the
lower wings, and the different structure of the organs of
manducation.
The mouth in the neuropterous order is generally com¬
posed of a labrum and a labium, of two mandibles, and a
pair of maxillae. The latter organs are very sharp and
strong among the Libellulce, which prey on other insects,
but extremely small or almost imperceptible in the Ephe¬
mera, which, as their name implies, are very short-lived,
and take no nourishment in the perfect state. The palpi
are very short in the former tribes, but exceedingly long
among the Myrmeleones. Although the antennae, in the
majority, are filiform or setaceous, they are terminated
by an elongated club in those last named; while in the
genus Ascalaphus they are very long and slender, and
terminate in a little button, resembling those of many
Lepidoptera. The wings are sometimes tectiform or in¬
cumbent, sometimes stretched out horizontally, though
frequently alike in size, they occasionally differ from each
other, thus in the genus Nemoptera the under pair are
very long and narrow, while in some Ephemerae they are
almost obliterated.
In the larva and nympha states these insects are either
terrestrial or aquatic, according to their kinds. In the
former case some dwell beneath the bark of trees, others
move about on twigs and branches, making an unresisting
prey of Aphides; while a certain number inhabit sandy
soils, where they excavate insidious pit-falls, and seize
upon whatever insects venture within the circle of their
treacherous toils. The aquatic species dwell in their
earlier states in ponds and marshes, and in the shallower
and more sheltered parts of lakes and rivers. They then
respire by means of organs which exhibit a strong analogy
to the gills of fishes, hut which Latreille recognises only
as exterior tracheal appendages, named false branchia.
Many construct very ingenious cases of small stones,
shells, and twigs of water-plants, in which they move about
in their watery element.
The Neuroptera are, in general, insects of an extremely
elegant deportment. They fly with great facility, and
are not unfrequently adorned by agreeable and varied
colours. Though almost all carnivorous as larvae, their
habits differ greatly in the perfect state. Some undergo
a semi-metamorphosis,—others are completely changed,
—but all the larvae are provided with six-hooked feet,
which they usually employ in their search for food. La¬
treille divides the order into three families, which present
the following succession of natural affinities. ls£, Carni¬
vorous insects, subject to a semi-metamorphosis, with aqua¬
tic larvae ; 2d, carnivorous insects, subject to a complete Neurop-
metamorphosis, with terrestrial or aquatic larvae ; 3t/, car- tera.
nivorous or omnivorous insects, terrestrial, with semi-me-
tamorphosis ; \th, herbivorous insects, subject to a com¬
plete metamorphosis, with aquatic larvae, which construct
portable domicils. He terminates with such as have the
wings the least reticulated, and which bear a resemblance
to Phalenae or Tineites.
FAMILY L—SUBULICOItNES, Lat.
These consist of the Odonata of Fabricius, and the ge¬
nus Ephemera. The antennae are subulate or awl-shaped,
scarcely longer than the head, and consist at most of seven
articulations, of which the last is setiform. The mandibles
and maxillae are entirely covered by the labrum and la¬
bium, or by the anterior or prolonged portion of the head.
The wings are always much reticulated, separate, some¬
times horizontal, sometimes raised perpendicularly. The
inferior pair, though often as large as the superior, are in
some instances much less, or even entirely wanting. The
real eyes are large and projecting, and have from two to
three stemmatic eyes placed between them. They feed
on living prey, and pass their earlier states beneath the
waters. The larvae and nymphs exhibit a form somewhat
similar to that of the perfect insects, and respire by par¬
ticular organs placed along the sides or at least the ex¬
tremity of the abdomen. They creep up the stalks of
plants, or otherwise leave their moist abodes, before under¬
going their final transformation.
In the great genus Libellula of Linn. (Plate CCXXX.
figs. 1, 2, 3, 4, 6), the mandibles and maxillae are corneous
and very strong, and are covered by the labrum above and
by the labium below. The tarsi have three articulations.
The wings are nearly of equal size, and the posterior ex¬
tremity of the body is terminated simply by hooks or by •
foliaceous appendages.
The light and graceful form of these insects, their beau¬
tiful and varied colours, their large and lustrous wings,
and the hawk-like velocity with which they pursue their
flying prey, render them objects of our frequent attention,
and easy to be recognised. Our present observations ap¬
ply to all the component parts of the great and unrestrict¬
ed genus just named. We shall afterwards give the spe¬
cialities of the minor groups. The eyes of the Libellulse,
or dragon-flies in general, are large and lateral; the stem-
mata are placed upon the vertex. The antennae are in¬
serted on the front, behind a vesicular elevation, and are
composed in the greater number of from five to six arti¬
culations, or at least of three, of which the last is compo¬
site, and attenuated in the form of a style. The labrum
is arched and semicircular; the mandibles are of a scaly
texture, very strong and toothed; the maxillae are termi¬
nated by a piece of the same consistence, dentated, spi¬
nous, and ciliated on the inner side, with a palpus of one
articulation on its back, representing what is called the
galea in the orthopterous tribes. The labium is large,
arched, and trifoliate, the two lateral foliae being in fact
palpi. There exists a kind of epiglottis, or vesicular and
longitudinal tongue, in the interior of the mouth. The
abdomen, always considerably elongated, varies in its
contour, being in some cylindrical, in others compressed,
and occasionally flattened. It is terminated in the males
by two lamellar appendages, which likewise vary in form
according to the species. The legs are short, and direct¬
ed forwards. “ Le dessous du second anneau de fabdo-
2 D
VOL. IX.
1 Jntroduc. to Ent. vol. iv. p. 371.
210
Neurop-
tera.
E N T O M
men renferme, dans les miles, leurs organs sexuels, et,
comme ceux de la femelle sont situSs an dernier anneau,
I’accouplement de ces insectes s’opere differemment que
dans les autres. Le male, planant d’abord au-dessus de sa
femelle, la saisait par le col, au moyen des crochets de
I’extremite posterieure de son ventre, et s envole ainsi
avec elle. Au bout d’un temps, plus ou moins long, celle-
ci se pretant a ces desirs, courbe en dessous son abdomen,
et en applique I’extremite sur les parties du male, dont
le corps est alors courbe en forme de boucle. La copula¬
tion a souvent lieu dans les airs, et quelquefois encore sur
les corps ou ces insectes sont poses. 1 The female de¬
posits her eggs on aquatic plants, by plunging her poste¬
rior extremity beneath the water.
The larvae and nymphs are aquatic. The former have
no wings, the latter exhibit them in a rudimentary state
(Plate CCXXX. figs. 1, 3). The head in these early
stages is remarkable for the singular piece which corre¬
sponds to the labium. It assumes the form of a mask,
and covers the mandibles, the maxillae, and almost all the
under parts of the head. It is composed of, ls(, a prin¬
cipal triangular piece, sometimes arched, sometimes flat,
named mentonniere (or chin-cloth) by Reaumur, which
articulates by means of a hinge with a pedicle or kind of
handle attached to the head; 2d, of two other pieces in¬
serted at the lateral and inferior angles of the preceding,
moveable at their base, transverse, and either in the form
of wide and dentated plates, resembling shutters in their
nature, and the mode in which they close the mouth, or
analogous to little hooks or claws. To that portion of the
mask where the mentonniere is articulated with its pedicle,
or the knee, and which appears to terminate it inferiorly
when the mask is bent or folded upon itself, Reaumur
applied the term mentum. The insect unfolds and extends
this peculiar apparatus with great promptitude, and seizes
its prey with the pincers of the superior portion. These
creatures live for ten or eleven months in the water,
during which period they several times cast their skin.
When the nymphs are ready to assume their final change,
the form and position of the wing-cases undergo an altera¬
tion. They then leave the water, become dry and crisp,
the skin of the thorax bursts asundei’, and the winged in¬
sect issues forth under a different and much more orna¬
mental aspect. The name of Demoiselles, by which many
of them are known to our continental neighbours, attests
the impression produced by their graceful forms or elegant
movements. These Demoiselles always come out of the
water head foremost; but no sooner have they burst their
casements than they tmax themselves round, and hang
for a time with their head downwai'd, being prevented
from falling by the hinder segments of the abdomen being
still entangled in and adhering to the skin of the nymph.
After a time the young aspirant again turns round, and
seizing (he anterior portion of the cloven skin with its
claws, it finally succeeds in dragging itself forth fi'om its
former dwelling. The wings, however, are as yet nar¬
row, thick, and closely folded, just like a leaf during the
bursting spring. After another hour or two they become
firm, consistent, and extended both in length and breadth,
and the gay and gorgeous creature, launching buoyantly
into the air, becomes the tyrant of the insect world.
M. Poe, who paid particular attention to the entomology
O L O G Y.
of Cuba, informed Latreille that, at a certain season of
the year, the northern winds sweep an innumerable host a
of a species of dragon-fly into Havannah and its envi. ^ r*
rons.2
The Linnaean genus Libellula is now divided into i
three.3 In Libellula4 * 6 proper (Plate CCXXX. fig. 2), the i
wings are extended horizontally in repose, the head is al- ;
most globular, with the eyes contiguous or approximate.
There is a vesicular elevation, with a stemmatic eye on
each side upon the vertex; the other stemmatic eye is
larger, and placed anteriorly. The central division of the
labium is much smaller than the lateral ones, which unite
above by a longitudinal suture, and exactly close the
mouth. The abdomen is usually ensiform, and flattened.
The larvae and nymphs (ibid. fig. 1) have five appendages
to the posterior extremity of the abdomen, which com-
bine to form a pointed tail; their body is short, and the
part named mentonniere by Reaumur is arched in the
form of a helmet, with the two lateral pieces in the form
of shutters. We may mention L. depressa, Linn, (the
species figured), as a British example of the genus. In
iEsHNA, Fab. the species resemble the preceding in the
position of the wings and the form of the head, but the
posterior stemmatic eyes are placed upon a simple trans¬
verse elevation or keel. The intermediate lobe of the
labium is also larger, and the other two are distant, and
armed with a vei'y strong tooth, and a spinous appen¬
dage. The abdomen is always narrow and elongated. The
form of the larvae and nymphs is also more lengthened
than that of the same states in Libellulae. The mask is
flat, and the two pincers are narrow, with a moveable nail
at the end. The abdomen, in their early states, is also
terminated by five appendages, one of which, however, is
truncated at the point. L. grandis, Linn, the largest and
one of the swiftest and most powerful and pi'edaceous ot
the British species, belongs to this genus. In Agrion,'1
Fab. (Plate CCXXX. fig. 6), the wings are held perpen¬
dicularly in repose, the head is transversal, and the eyes
distant. The form of the labium is analogous to that of
^Eshna, but the middle lobe is divided into two as far as
its base. The third joint of the lateral lobes is in the
form of a membranous ligula. The antennae seem to be
composed of only four joints. The front presents no ve¬
sicle, and the stemmatic eyes are of neaxdy equal size, and
disposed triangularly on the vertex. The abdomen is
very slender or even filiform, and, in some foreign species,
of extraordinary length. TTxat of the female is furnished
with serrated laminae at its posterior extremity. The
form of the body in the larva and nympha states of this
genus is likewise long and slender, and the abdomen is
terminated by three fin-like plates (ibid. fig. 3). The
mask is flat, the upper extremity of the mentonniere being
raised to a point in some, and forked or sloped in others;
the pincers are narrow, but terminate in several denta¬
tions resembling hands. The species are very numerous.
A. virgo has dark-coloured wings, and a lustrous metallic
body, varying from golden green to greenish blue. Ls
flight is irregular and rather heavy. To this genus also
belong the small pale-coloui’ed kinds, annulated with
black, and presenting a considerable range of variation
even among individuals of the same species, besides tne
more fixed distinctions of a sexual character.
1 lltgne Animal, t. v. p. 237. _ 2 /M. t. v. p. 238.
3 The structure of the eyes in dragon-flies is described by Cuvier in the Mlm. de la Soc. d'Hist. Nat. de Paris, t. i. In addition to
the ordinary systematic works, the student of the species should attend particularly to a monograph on European Libelluke, published
in the Horae Entomological of M. Toussaint de Charpentier, another monograph on the same by M. Vander Linden, and a memoir by
the latter author on the species which occur in the territory of Bologna.
* Named^ probably from the Latin Libellus, a little book, on account of the page-like expansion of the wings.
6 x rom uy^tosf cruel ox ferocious. n
ENTOMOLOGY.
211
and by the banks of foreign waters, we have frequently Neurop-
had our fishing panier and the rims of our hat covered by tera.
a pearly layer of these ghost-like exuviae, and it proved
extremely interesting to witness what we had often pre¬
viously perused in the accurate pages of Reaumur. Swam¬
merdam, who had long ago observed and described this
singular moulting, seems to think that the male sex is
alone subjected to it. The manners and metamorphosis
of these insects have been minutely detailed by the labo¬
rious author just named, in his Biblia Natures, as well as
by Reaumur and Degeer, in their respective Memoires
on the natural history of insects. The angler recognises
them under the name of May-flies,—an imitation of which,
during the early part of the trouting season, is deemed a
lure not to be resisted by the finny race. We cannot
here describe the species in detail. We have figured se¬
veral different kinds on Plate CCXXX. Some have four
wings, figs. 5 and 9; others have only two, fig. 7. Of
the latter the eyes are sometimes very singularly con¬
structed, being double, or two on each side, one above
the other, as shown by fig. 8 of the same plate.
In the other Neuropteraof the family Subulicornes the
mouth is entirely membranous or very soft, and composed
of not very distinguishable parts. Their tarsi consist of
five joints. The inferior wings are much smaller than the
upper ones, and are even sometimes wanting. The abdo¬
men is terminated by two or three setae. They form the
old genus Ephemera1 of Linn., Plate CCXXX. figs. 5, 7,
and 9. ♦
In these frail and fleeting insects the body is very soft,
long, and tapering, and terminates as above mentioned.
Their antennae are very small, and composed of three ar¬
ticulations, of which the last is very long, and in the form
of a conical thread. The anterior portion of their head
projects in the manner of a clypeus, is frequently carinat-
ed and emarginate, and covers the mouth,-of which it is
difficult to distinguish the structure, on account of the
slight development of its parts, and the softness of their
texture. The Ephemerae in repose carry their wings al¬
most always in a perpendicular position, or a little inclin¬
ed backwards. The legs are slender, with very short
tibiae, frequently confounded with the tarsi, which often
exhibit only four joints, owing to the evanescence of the
first; the two hooks of the last are much compressed into
the form of a little pallet. The two anterior legs are
much longer than the others, inserted almost beneath the
head, and extended forwards. These insects usually
make their appearance in the winged state towards the
evening in fine summer weather, and sometimes in such
abundance, that in certain districts of France cart-loads of
them have been gathered from the ground, and employed
as manure. E. albipennis, in particular, a species, as its
name implies, remarkable for the whiteness of its wings,
sometimes rises and falls in such quantities by the banks
of rivers, as to thicken the air and whiten the surface of
the ground,—reminding one, even in the verdurous and
leafy summer, of
The flaky weight of winter’s purest snows.
The males are distinguished from the females by a pair
of articulated hooks, and their fore legs and caudal ap¬
pendages are likewise longer. Although strictly epheme¬
ral in their final state, they have rather a more extended
term of life than usual in their subaqueous abodes, where
they are said to live and prosper for two or three years.
In the larva state the antennae are longer than afterwards ;
the stemmatic eyes are wanting; the mouth presents two
horn-like projections, which are regarded as mandibles ;
the abdomen is furnished on each side with a range of
laminae or leaflets, usually united at the base in pairs.
These last-named parts are a kind of false branchia, on
which the tracheal ramifications are extended, and which
serve not only for the purposes of respiration, but also for
those of locomotion. The tarsi have only a single hook
at their extremity. The abdomen is terminated by setae,
of the same amount as in the perfect insect. The nymphs
differ from the larvae chiefly in being possessed of little
sheaths or wing-cases (Plate CCXXX. fig. 10). When
ripe, they leave the waters, and undergo their final trans¬
formation, pretty much after the manner of the Libellulae
already described, although more rapidly. One singular
characteristic, however, attends their winged condition,
from which the other tribes are free ; they cast off a com¬
plete envelope or skin, including that even of the limbs,
setae, and antennae, almost immediately after they have
attained the perfect state, or at least what Mr Curtis has
well named the pseudo-imago. While following the delight-
u pursuit of angling, both along our own unrivalled streams,
FAMILY II.—PLANIPENNES.
Latreille here includes those neuropterous species of
which the antennae, always composed of a great number
of articulations, are considerably longer than the head,
without being styliform or awl-shaped. The mandibles
are very distinct, and the under wings, almost equal to
the superior ones, are extended, or simply folded beneath
at their inner margin. The wings are very generally
much reticulated and naked, with the maxillary palpi for
the most part filiform, or a little larger at the extremity,
shorter than the head, and composed of from four to five
articulations. These insects are divisible into five sec¬
tions, which compose, in relation to their natural habits,
an equal number of small sub-families, as follows.
Section 1st, PANORPATiE.
Characterized by five articulations to all the tarsi, and
by having the anterior extremity of the head prolonged
and narrowed, in the form of a beak or proboscis. These
constitute the old genus Panorpa of Linn., commonly
called scorpion-flies, probably from the peculiar turning
up of their tails (Plate CCXXX. figs. 13 and 20). The
antennae are setaceous and inserted between the eyes.
The clypeus is prolonged into a corneous lamina, arched
beneath for the reception of the mouth. The mandibles,
maxillae, and labium, are almost linear (Plate CCXXX.
fig. 16). The palpi, varying in number from four to six,
are filiform ; those of the maxillae do not distinctly pre¬
sent more than four joints. The body is elongated, the
head vertical, the first segment of the thorax usually very
small, and in the form of a collar. The abdomen is coni¬
cal or almost cylindrical. In several species the sexes are
very dissimilar. Naturalists do not as yet appear to have
acquired any knowledge of their transformations. They
are now divided into the following genera : Nemoptera,2
(Plate CCXXX. fig. 11), Bittacus, Panorpa proper
(ibid. fig. 13), and Boreus. The type of the last-named
genus, and the only species known, is the Panorpa hyema-
lis of Linn, a small insect scarcely a line in length, of a
cupreous black colour. It lives among moss in the north¬
ern parts of Europe, and is also found in the Alps, not far
from the region of perpetual snow.
1 Named, in allusion to the seeming shortness of their lives, from that •which lasts a day.
7 From v^se, a thread, and vripa, wings.
212
ENTOMOLOGY.
Neurop-
tera.
Section 2d, Myrmeleonides, Lat.
These are also characterized by five articulations to all
the tarsi; but they differ from the preceding in not hay-
inS the head prolonged in the form of a beak or proboscis.
The antennae are gradually enlarged, or have a g o u ar
or button-like termination. The head
tical, and exhibits no stemmatic eyes. The ordmay ^
erans of vision are round and projecting,
furnished with six palpi, of which the kbia! are usua y
longer than the others, and somewhat mflated at the e^
tremity. The palate of the mouth is raised in the form
of an epiglottis. The first segment of the thorax is small.
The wings are equal, elongated, tectiform, or incumbent.
The abdomen is generally long and cylindrical, with two
projecting appendages at the extremity in the male sex.
The legs are short.  ,
These insects affect warm places, and are consequent y
more frequent in the southern countries of Europe than in
the chilly regions of the north. _ They rest on plants, and
generally remain quiescent during the day. Ihenympis
are inactive ; but the generality of the perfect insects are
well endowed with the power of flight- They form the
old genus Myrmeleon of Linn., which Fabncius and La-
treille have divided into two.
In Myrmeleon1 proper (Plate CCXXX. fig-12)» the
antennae are short, gradually thickened or almost fusiform,
and hooked at the extremity. The abdomen is long and
linear. The singular larva of one of these insects (ibid,
ficr. 14) has been attentively studied by Poupart, V a lis-
nferi, Roesel, Reaumur, and others. It is rather more than
half an inch in length, of an oval depressed form and grey¬
ish colour. It feeds chiefly on Solomon’s emblem of indus¬
try, and has hence received the name of Formica-Leo or
lion-ant. Its head is very small, but armed with two
strong and lengthened mandibles, serrated on the innei
side, and pointed at the end. These parts look rather like
a pair of horns than organs of manducation ; but it is with
them that the larva seizes upon its prey; and as they are
pierced at the extremity, they no doubt also act as suck¬
ers. As its form does not admit of active locomotion, na¬
ture has made amends by endowing this insect with admi¬
rable instinctive skill and cunning. It constructs, in a dry
or sandy soil, a funnel-shaped excavation, the sides and
edges of which are loose and crumbling, and at the bot¬
tom of which, with body closely covered, but with ever-
ready jaws projecting upwards, the insidious larva lies con¬
cealed. No sooner does an industrious ant, laden per¬
haps with its republican provision, approach the edge of
the unsuspected slope, to it as dangerous as a volcanic
crater or avalanche of snow, than the finely poised sand
immediately gives way, and the persevering citizen, rolling
to the bottom, is instantly seized and sucked to a shadow
by the lurking tyrant. The dead body is ere long tossed
by a jerk of the head beyond the immediate boundaries of
the dwelling, probably because it is by this time useless,
or, as some French naturalist has expressed it, “ pour que
son cadavre n’epouvante pas les autres fourmis qu’il at¬
tend.” There are tartars, however, among Myrmeleons
as well as men; and it sometimes happens that a large
and vigorous winged insect, such as a wasp, bee, or beetle,
tumbles head foremost into the pit. “ When Greek meets
Greek, then comes the tug of warand when a lion-ant
has the tail of a wasp in his mouth, there is no saying ex¬
actly how the combat may end. The one is furnished with
jaws tenacious as well as strong, but he bears no charm- ^
ed life;” while the other is armed with a weapon which i
the dews of heaven cannot rust, and compared with the ^ N
keenness of which the brightest sword in Damascus is as
a broken foil. In these doubtful, though, to one or other
of the parties, eventually disastrous circumstances, the
result at last is, that either the lion-ant is dragged out of
his den and stung to death, or dropped upon the ground
and left a prey 'to birds, or that the winged insect is
maimed, disabled, drawn into the sand, and slain. If an
insect incapable of flight, or from its situation unable to
use its wings, but of larger size than the Myrmeleon deems
it prudent at once to seize upon, chances to fall into the
snare, it is overwhelmed in its attempts to re-ascend, by
repeated showers of sand, which its enemy dnects upon
it with unerring aim. No sooner, however, is the strength
of the toiling and exasperated Sisyphus at least in part
exhausted, than he too is seized upon, and sucked to
death. The lion-ant makes use of its head as a catapult
or instrument of war, with which to shower the sand upon
its astonished prey. This singular larva is capable of en¬
during a very long-continued fast. hen it has attained to
the natural term of its increase, which requires the lapse,
it is said, of nearly a couple of years, it weaves a white co¬
coon, by means of two spinners placed at the posterior ex¬
tremity of the body, of a rounded form and satin lustre,
but covered with grains of sand. In this it undergoes its
transformation to the nympha state (Plate CCXXX. fig.
15). The perfect insect bursts from its silken tomb in
the course of from fifteen to twenty days. \\ e are ac¬
quainted with many species of the genus. Besides the
one of which we have just now sketched the history, and
which is the Myrmeleon formicarium of systematic writers,
another noted species, named Af. Libelluloides, occurs in
the south of France. It is a very large insect, measuring
from four to five inches between the tips of the extended
wings, and was described as a Hemerobius by Linnaeus.
It is the Libella turcica of old Petiver, and the Musca ra-
rissima of Ray. We were once nearly drowned in tiying
to capture ic by the side of a muddy stream. Lhe flight
of both of these insects, and of all belonging to the genus,
is slow and heavy. They seldom fly far, and seem to end
their lives near the places where they had their birth,
even to the last <£ loving the spots which once they glo¬
ried in.” They are unknown in Britain.2
In the genus Ascalaphus,3 Fab. (Plate CCXXX.
fig. 19), the antennae are very long, and terminate
somewhat abruptly in a club or expansion. The wings
are proportionably broader than those of Myrmeleon.
The flight of these insects is rapid and light. 1 hey oc¬
cur chiefly in the warmer parts of Africa and Amenca,
although a few are found in Europe. Of these A. Italkus
occurs in France as far north as the environs of Fontaine¬
bleau. We have no very precise knowledge of their trans¬
formations. They do not occur in Britain.
Section 3d, Hemerobini.
The component parts of this group resemble those of
the preceding in the general form of the body and wings,
but the antennae are filiform, and the palpi only four w
number. They form the old genus Hemerobius of Linn,
and Fab. which has since been subdivided as follows:—
In Hemerobius proper (of Lat.) the first segment o
the thorax is very small, the wings incumbent, and tie
last article of the palpi is the thickest, ovoid, and pointer
1 From an ant, and a lion.
* M. formicarium holds a nominal place as a British insect; but we have never felt assured of its existence as an indigenous specie •
3 Arxu/.uQes is the ancient mythological name of a bird. We do not know for what reason it was applied to the above genus.
. j
E N T O M
feui
tei
The larvae are terrestrial, that is, not aquatic. They
wander about from place to place, committing great
j havoc among Aphides, their favourite food,—for which
reason they are named lions des pucerons by Reaumur.
These they seize by means of their horn-like mandibles,
and speedily suck to death. Some of the perfect insects
are exceedingly beautiful, especially a well-known British
species called Hemerobius perla, which is of a pale yellow¬
ish green, with delicately transparent yet lustrous wings,
and brilliant golden eyes. Its flight is feeble. The fe¬
males lay their eggs on leaves, to the number of twelve
or sixteen in a group. They are whitish and oval, and
are supported and secured by a long hair-like stalk or pe¬
dicle, which some botanists, less versed in edible fungi
than Dr Greville, have mistaken for a species of mush-
room ! (See Plate CCXXX. fig. 21.)
Other allied species have the first segment of the tho¬
rax large, with the wings usually placed upon the body in
a horizontal position. The palpi are filiform, with the
last article conical, or almost cylindrical, and frequently
shorter than the preceding. The larvae are aquatic.
These insects were placed by Fabricius, along with the
species of the genus Perla of Geoffroy (from which, how¬
ever, they differ in the number of articulations of the tar¬
si), under the genus Semblis, which is itself composed of
Corydalis, Chauliodes, and Sialjs, of Latreille.1
Section 4th, Termitinje.
This group comprises such Neuroptera as are subject to
a semi-metamorphosis, and are active and carnivorous, or
rather omnivorous gnawers, in all their states. With the
exception of the Mantispse, which, in regard to their an¬
terior legs, resembling those of the Mantides, are pecu¬
liar in their order,—the tarsi have at most four articula¬
tions, in which they differ from the preceding genera of
the family with which we are still engaged. The man¬
dibles are always corneous and strong.
Some possess tarsi consisting of from five to three arti¬
culations, with very distinct and projecting labial palpi.
The antennae are generally composed of more than ten
j joints, the prothorax is large, in the form of a corselet,
and the wings are of equal size, and much reticulated.
In the genus Mantispa of Illiger (Rhaphidia, Scopoli,
Linn.; Mantis, Fab. Oliv.), all the tarsi have five articu¬
lations, and the anterior legs, like those of Mantis, are
adapted for prehension. The antennas are very short and
granose, the eyes large, the prothorax very long, thicken¬
ed anteriorly, and the wings incumbent. This genus con¬
sists of not more than five or six species, only one of
which, M. pagana, is found in Europe. In the genus
Raphidia,* Linn. Fab. (Plate CCXXX. fig. 24), the tarsi
have only four articulations. The wings are incumbent
when at rest, the head elongated, and narrowed posterior¬
ly, the thorax long, narrow, and almost cylindrical. The
abdomen of the female is terminated by a long exterior
oviduct, formed by a couple of laminae. The species
figured on the plate referred to is w’ell known in Britain.
It lives in woods. Both the larva and imago feed on other
insects. The former is lively in its movements when dis¬
turbed. It lives in the fissures of trees, and has the form
of a little serpent. In the genus Termes, which contains
the famous white ant (Plate CCXXX. figs. 17, 18, and
23), the tarsi are likewise composed of four joints, but the
wings are very long, and are horizontally spread upon the
body. The head is rounded, and the thorax almost square
or semicircular. The body of these insects is depressed,
and the antennae, at least in the females, are short, and
o L O G Y. 213
formed like a chaplet. The mouth resembles that of the Neurop-
orthopterous order, and the labium is quadrifid. There tera.
are three ocelli, one of which, placed upon the front, is
indistinct, and the other two are placed laterally, near
the internal margin of the ordinary eyes. The wings are
usually rather transparent, colourless, with fine and close-
set nervures, but not very distinctly reticulated. There
are two small conical biarticulated points at the extre¬
mity of the abdomen. The legs are short. A good mo¬
nograph of this singular and destructive genus is still a
desideratum in Entomology. Several species, inhabiting
widely distant countries, have been described under the
general name of Termes fatale, but we have still an insuf¬
ficient knowledge of their actual and distinguishing cha¬
racteristics. So confused was the acquaintance of our
immediate predecessors with these insects, that the larvae
of T. Jiavicolle, Fab. w ere placed by Linnaeus among his
Aptera, while the perfect insects formed a part of his
genus Hemerobius. These Termites are for the most part
peculiar to countries placed between or near the tropics.
The individuals named neuters or labourers among the
white ants (commonly so called) are the wingless larvae
(fig. 17), and in that state their powrers of destruction are
quite appalling. They live together in assemblages so
vast as almost to defy calculation, and excavate galleries
under ground, in trees, tables and all kinds of furniture,
as well as in the timber of dwelling-houses. Dr M‘Mur-
trie saw a beautiful edifice in the Isle of France that had
been abandoned within a few months after its completion,
on account of the attacks of these destructive creatures.
The whole building w'as a mere shell.3 Whatever ligneous
bodies are mined by them, retaining little but a superfi¬
cial bark, soon crumble into dust; and where the roof of
a house, or heavy lintel stone, depends on such support,
the insecurity may be as easily imagined as described.
They sometimes construct external tunnels or covered
ways, which conceal them from view while passing to and
from their subterranean dwellings. Sometimes their ha¬
bitations are raised pyramidally above the surface, in other
instances they resemble turrets, with an eave like expan¬
sion on the top. Some are broader and extremely solid;
and when constructed, as they often are, in groups, they
exhibit the appearance of a little village. They are so
strongly built, that when raised to only half their height,
they are capable of supporting such wild bulls as mount
upon them to act as sentinels while the rest of the flock
is feeding. When at their full height of ten or twelve
feet, they are used by men as stations from which to look
across the country, the grass itself being in those regions
of equal height. Smeathman, to whom we owe a curious
and often-quoted narrative of their history, has frequent¬
ly stood with four companions on the top of one of their
buildings, employing it as a watch-tower by the shore,
from which to obtain sight of whatever vessels might
heave in sight. Besides the larvae or workers, we find
another set of inhabitants, of which T;he nature is not
yet clearly known, although their functions are obvious.
They are known by the name of soldiers or neuters, and
were erroneously regarded by Fabricius as the nymphs.
They defend the habitation. When a breach is effected
with a pick-axe, they make their appearance, and snap
about in all directions with their mandibles,—apparently
in a state of considerable indignation. When the attack
has ceased, the soldiers retire, and are succeeded by the
labourers, who speedily repair the breach. They are still
attended, however, by a few soldiers, who seem to act as
superintendents of the work. The nymphs bear the rudi-
1 See Rtgne Animal, t. v. p. 252. 2 From oaQi; ih;, a needle.
3 Cuvier’s Animal Kingdom, American edition, vol. iv. p. 73-
214
ENTOMOLOGY.
Neurop-
tera.
The remaining Termitinse are characterized by their bi- ;,
articulate tarsi, and their short and indistinct labial palpi.
The antennae consist of about ten joints ; the anterior seg- M
ment of the thorax is very small; and the inferior wings
are less than the superior. They form the genus Psocus
of Latreille, which consists of very small species with short
soft bodies, often hunched or inflated, with a large head,
setaceous antennae, projecting maxillary palpi, and incum¬
bent wings, slightly reticulated or but simply veined.
These are active insects, living beneath the bark of trees,
in wood, straw, &c. Some occur among books and in
collections of plants and insects. They seem peculiar to
Europe. P. pulsatorius derives its name from the sound,
resembling the ticking of a watch, which, in common with
some other insects, it utters in our apartments. Its ana¬
tomy is described by Germar.2 We have many British
species.
Section 5th, Perlides.
Of these the tarsi are furnished with three articulations,
and the mandibles are almost always partly membranous
and small, with the inferior wings wider than the superior,
and doubled on themselves at their inner edge. The ge¬
nera are Perea of Geoffrey, and Nemoura3 of Latreille
(Phryganea, Linn.).4
FAMILY III—PLICIPENNES.
The insects of this family have no perceptible man¬
dibles. Their inferior wings are usually broader than
the upper ones, and longitudinally plaited. They com¬
pose the genus Phryganea5 of Linn, divided by Latreille
into Sericostoma6 and Phryganea proper (see Plate
CCXXX. fig. 26). In the larva state (figs. 22 and 25)
they live in tubes or cases of their own construction,
made of a great variety of substances, according to the
species. Latreille regards them as simply herbivorous,
although other authors maintain that, in addition to aqua¬
tic plants, they prey upon the larvae of gnats and dragon¬
flies.
We shall conclude our sketch of this order by observ¬
ing that the characters and habits of the genus Phry¬
ganea being very peculiar, the species have in recent
times been separated from the neuropterous tribes, and
erected into an additional order, Trichoptera, Kirby, so
called from hair, in allusion to the usual rough¬
ness of the wings. Both Reaumur and Degeer had pre¬
viously observed that they were allied to the lepidopterous
order. “ Although some other insects,” Mr Kirby has
remarked, “ (Myrmeleon and Hemerobius), placed in the
Neuroptera, do not agree with the rest in their metamor¬
phosis, yet in their perfect state they exhibit the princi¬
pal characters of the order, and therefore are properly re¬
tained in it; but Phryganea differs from the rest both in
metamorphosis and characters. Its metamorphosis is very
peculiar, the larva imitating many of the Tinece, in con¬
structing, of various materials, a kind of case for its habi¬
tation, from which circumstance they are commonly call¬
ed case-worms; and the pupa, which is incomplete, and
at first quiescent, just before its final change, by a won¬
derful provision of an all-wise Creator, becomes locomo¬
tive, that it may place itself in a situation of security out
1 Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxi. p. 169, note. The reader will find a good summary of their history in a more accessible work, “ Insect Ar¬
chitecture,” in the Library of Entertaining Knowledge.
2 Magazin der Entomologie, vol. iv. 3 From vs^a, a thread, and ov*a, tail.
4 See Gen. Crust, et Insect, t. iii. p. 210 ; lligne Animal, t. v. p. 258 ; Encyclop. Meth. art. Nemoube ; and Mcmoire sur let Larin
de Nemoures, par F. T. Pictet, in the Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. xxvi. p. 369.
5 From <pevyanov, a faggot, in allusion, we presume, to the usual aspect of their dwellings while aquatic larvae.
* From trri^inov, silk, and ariga, the mouth.
ments of wings; in other respects they resemble the
larvae. No sooner do they become perfect, by acquiring
the organs of flight, than they wing their way from then-
original dwellings, during the evening, or the stillness ot
night, and in incalculable numbers. At sunrise, however,
by*a singular law of nature, they lose their wings, which
dry up, become shrivelled, and fall to the ground. In this
defenceless state they become the prey of many reptiles,
and of insect-eating birds. Indeed they seem not to be de¬
spised in that respect even by man himself; for not only are
they greedily devoured by Hottentots and negroes, but
have been often eaten by Europeans with delight. Mr
Smeathman found them “ delicate, nourishing, and whole¬
some, without sauce or other help from cookery, than tner6-
ly roasting them in the manner of coffee.” He indeed dis¬
coursed with various friends on the taste of white ants,
and on comparing notes, they agreed that these insects
were “ delicious and delicate eating.” One gentleman
compared them to sugared marrow, while another thought
they tasted like “ sugared cream and a paste of sweet
almonds.”1 Although prodigious numbers perish in con¬
sequence of this migratory instinct, such are their vast
powers of fecundity, that old colonies are soon replenish¬
ed, or new ones formed. According to Smeathman, the
provident larvie seize upon all the winged couples they
can find, and shut them up in a roomy cell or nuptial
chamber, where they supply them with abundant food;
“ mais j’ai lieu de presumer,” says Latreille, “ que 1 ac-
couplement a lieu, comme celui des fourmis, dans 1 air
ou hors de 1’habitation, et que les femelles occupent
seules 1’attention des larves, dans le but de former une
nouvelle colonic.' Ihe abdomen of the pregnant female
(Plate CCXXX. fig. 23) becomes so greatly dilated as to
exceed the rest of her body by 1500 or 2000 times, and
she is then about a thousand times heavier than her hus¬
band. Indeed well she may, if, as is reported, she is
endowed with the power of laying thirty-one million Jive
hundred and thirty-six thousand eggs in the course of a
year. Those fond of arithmetic may try to discover how
many grandchildren she is likely to possess by the ter¬
mination of the ensuing season.
Certain Termites (T. arborum) live on trees, where
they build nests as large as sugar casks, and from seventy
to eighty feet above the ground. These are formed of
particles of gnawed wood cemented by a gluten either se¬
creted by themselves, as silk is by caterpillars, or gather¬
ed from gummiferous trees. They are so strongly attach¬
ed to their supporting branches as to resist the violence
even of those tornadoes which so often in tropical countries
level alike the palaces of kings, and “ huts where poor men
lie.” Indeed they cannot be detached except by being
hewn in pieces. The genus Termes is not unknown in
Europe. T. lucifugum of Rossi (Faun. Etrusci) occurs
in the southern provinces of France, where it dwells in
the interior of various trees. It has so greatly multiplied
in the workshops and storehouses of the navy-yard of
Rochefort that it cannot be extirpated, and is the cause
of constant damage. T. jlavicolle proves extremely inju¬
rious to the olive trees in Spain. Our “ favoured isle” is
fortunately free from these and many other continental
pests,—if an entomologist may so express himself regard¬
ing species which would no doubt be highly prized as
British by many a fond collector.
-^11
r i
ENTOMOLOGY.
215
of the water before it casts its exuviae ; and for this pur¬
pose the antennae and the four anterior legs are not con¬
fined under the general envelope, though each has its pe¬
culiar integument, so that the animal can use them when
the time comes for it to emerge from the water, and com¬
mence a denizen of the air. The imago exhibits few or
none of the characters of the other neuropterous genera.
The wings are veined in a peculiar manner, without reti¬
culations, in some degree like those of Lepidoptera. The
antennae resemble much those of the Tinea tribe, and the
tibise of many of them are armed with the two pair of spurs
observable in so many of the moths; but they have no
spiral tongue, the wings, though hairy, have no scales, the
under wings are folded longitudinally, and the head, be¬
sides the usual compound eyes, has three stemmata. If
these remarks appear to entomologists well founded, and
it be thought right to consider Phryganea as constituting
a new order, I think it might be distinguished, since the
names of all the known species are hairy, by the name of
Trichoptera”1
Order V.—HYMENOPTERA.2
This order, of more direct utility to man than many
others, in as far as it contains the species which yield us
wax and honey, is characterized, like the preceding one,
by the possession of four membranous and naked wings.
The mouth consists of mandibles, maxillae, and an under
and an upper lip. The organs of flight, however, differ
from those of the Neuroptera, in being simply veined
rather than reticulated; and the upper wings are always
somewhat larger than the under pair. The abdomen of
the female is terminated either by an ovipositor or sting.
Besides the ordinary visual organs, these insects are all
provided with three small stemmatic eyes. The antennae
are variable, not only in different genera, but in different
sexes of the same species. In the majority, however,
they are filiform or setaceous. The maxillae and the la¬
bium are generally long and narrow, fixed in a deep
, cavity of the head by lengthened muscles, semi-tubular
at their lower portion, often folded at their extremity,
and serving rather for the transmission of nutritive
juices than for mastication properly so called. Indeed
in several these parts unite to form a kind of trunk or Hymenop-
sucker. The ligula is membranous, whether widened at tera*
the extremity, or long and filiform, with the pharynx at its
anterior base, and frequently covered by a kind of sub-la-
brum or epipharynx. The palpi are four in number, two
labial and two maxillary. The thorax as usual consists of
three segments, of which the foremost is very short, and
the two remainder are intimately united. The wings cross
each other horizontally over the body, and the upper pair
have a little rounded convex knob at their base. The
abdomen is composed of from five to nine segments, the
number being frequently six in the females and seven in
the males. It is usually suspended, as it were, to the tho¬
rax by a small and slender pedicle; in which case its se¬
cond articulation seems to be the first, the latter being in
fact confounded with the metathorax. The ovipositor and
the sting (both being constructed on the same model) are
composed, in the generality, of three long and slender
pieces, two of which serve as a sheath for the third,
which is itself, when under the form of a sting, composed
of a pair of pieces joined in one The tarsi are composed
of five articulations, none of which is divided.
The structure of the wings of Hymenoptera has served
as the basis of a noted method for their classification,
made known by M. Jurine.3 This method is founded on
the nature and number of the nervures of the wings, and
of the cells or intermediate diaphanous spaces formed by
their ramification. The nature of our present treatise,
which we have already extended to the proposed limits
(and we are still far from our conclusion), will not, how¬
ever, admit of our entering fully into such details.4
The digestive system of Hymenoptera consists in ge¬
neral of two stomachs, of which the second is elongated;
of a short intestine, terminated by a widened cloaca ; and
of numerous biliary vessels, inserted near the pylorus. In
regard to their tracheal apparatus, M. Leon Dufour has
remarked, that all the Hymenoptera which he has exa¬
mined exhibit a greater degree of perfection in that part
of their structure than any other order of insects. In¬
stead of being composed of cylindrical and elastic vessels,
of which the diameter decreases by successive divarica¬
tions, they present constant dilatations, or determinate
vesicles, favourable to the greater or less continuance of
air, and capable of being distended or otherwise, accord-
1 Linn. Trans, xi. p. 87, note. 2 Piezata, Fab.
3 Nowelle Methode de cluster les Hymcnopteres et les Dipteres, 1 vol. in 4to, Geneva, 1807* See also, by the same author, Observations
stir les Aiks des Hymtnopteres, in the 24th vol. of the Mem.de VAcad. des Sciences de Turin.
4 When we examine a hymenopterous insect with a glass, or even by means of the unaided sight, we shall observe that the exter¬
nal or anterior margin of the upper wings presents two strong approximate parallel nervures, deriving their origin from the thorax,
and united by means of a strong expansion of the membrane of
the wing. The external nervure is called the radius, fig. 1, a ;
,a the internal the cubitus, fig. 1, b. Each of these terminates in
-6 a dark-coloured expansion called the stigma, fig. 1, c. Besides
these larger nervures, which some call primitive, several others
* spring likewise from the base of the wing, and are named bra¬
chial, fig. 1, g. All these principal branches give rise to shorter
intersecting nervures, the interlacement of which partitions the
wing as it were into membranaceous departments, designated by
the name of cells. Several of these, by reason of their constan¬
cy of disposition in each genus of hymenopterous insects, have
been used with advantage by Jurine for the purposes of classi¬
fication. A nervure, called the radial (fig. 3, a), usually springs
from the middle of the stigma, and attaining the tip or anterior
angle of the wing, leaves between itself and the anterior mar¬
gin a membranous space, known as the radial cell (fig. 4, a). If
there should, moreover, spring from the stigma a lesser nervure, dividing the cell into two parts, we recognise a pair of radial cells.
In this case, however, the larger nervure does not derive its origin from the central line of the stigma, but farther back, or from its
hasal portion (fig. 1, d). It sometimes also happens that the radial nervure, proceeding from the stigma, encounters, before it gams
ie margin of the wing, a small intersecting nervure, itself proceeding from that margin. I he radial cell is then sai o e pp
:laged {appendicee), fig. 2, a. , . , ,.
Another range of cells, of some importance, has received the name of cubital (fig. 1, e). It is formed by the posterior edge of the
adial nervure, and by another nervure named the cubital, which_springs from the extremity of the cubitus, near the stigma, and
216
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop-ing to the quantity of their contents. On each side of
tera. the base of the abdomen there is a large oval vesicle ot
   the kind alluded to, of a dull milky white, giving rise
here and there to radiating bundles of vascular tracheae,
which distribute themselves to the neighbouring organs.
On entering the thorax it becomes restricted, is again di¬
lated, and ends insensibly in a tube, of which the subdi¬
visions are lost in the head. Behind these two abdominal
vesicles the respiratory organ is prolonged m the shape
of two filiform tubes, which give off an infinity of little
air-bearing branches, and become confluent towards the
anal extremity.1
Hymenopterous insects undergo a complete metamor¬
phosis. Most of the larvae resemble little worms, unpro¬
vided with feet. At least those of the second and follow¬
ing families answer that description. Those of the first
family, however, have six feet, furnished with hooks ;
and besides these they frequently possess from twelve to
sixteen others of a simply membranous texture. ihese
latter larvae are named by the French fausses chenilles.
Both kinds are provided with a scaly head, with man¬
dibles, maxillae, and a labium, at the extremity ot which
is a spinner for the passage of that silky substance which
is ere long employed in the construction of the nymph s
cocoon. Some live on vegetable substances others, and
these are the footless or apodal kinds, feed on insects, with
which they are supplied by the provident attention of their
mothers, which either carry food to their admirably con¬
structed dwellings, or, as among the Ichneumonides, depo¬
sit their eggs at once on living larvae, of which the excluded
young soon become the tenacious and destructive paia-
sites. Among bees a vast number of individuals of ambi¬
guous or undeveloped sex are charged, among other ar¬
duous labours, with the sustenance of the helpless young,
a task performed with a propriety and precision which,
with their many additional attributes of instinctive skill,
render their proceedings worthy to be classed, if not as
standing miracles of nature, at least as deserving the care¬
ful contemplation of the wisest minds.
We can escape from custom’s idiot sway,
To serve the sovereign we were born to obey.
More sweet to muse upon his skill display’d
(.Infinite skill) in all that he has made !
To trace, in nature’s most minute design,
The signature and stamp of power divine.
Contrivance intricate, express’d with ease,
Where unassisted sight no beauty sees,
The shapely limb, the lubricated joint
Within the small dimensions of a point,
Muscle and nerve miraculously spun,
His mighty work, who speaks—and it is done,
The Invisible in things scarce seen reveal’d.
To whom an atom is an ample field :
To wonder at a thousand insect forms,
These hatch’d, and those resuscitated worms,
New life ordain’d and brighter scenes to share,
Once prone on earth, now buoyant upon air,
Whose shape would make them, had they bulk and size,
More hideous foes than fancy can devise ;
With helmet heads and dragon scales adorn’d,
The mighty myriads, now securely scorn’d,
Would mock the majesty of man’s high birth,
Despise his bulwarks, and unpeople earth.2
?
Happy if full of days—but happier far,
If, ere we yet discern life’s evening star,
Sick of the service of a world that feeds
Its patient drudges with dry chaff and weeds,
In the winged or perfect state, hymenopterous insects
generally occur on flowers, and they may be regarded as
more abundant in southern than in northern regions. We
shall not here dilate upon the generalities of the order, as it
is our intention to notice all the more remarkable historical
facts, in our sketch of the principal tribes and genera. We
shall merely remark, that notwithstanding the numerous
and always delightful observations of Reaumur, Degeer,
Huber, Latreille, Walkenaer, and others, the hymenopter¬
ous order still presents a vast and fruitful field of discovery
to the zealous cultivator of entomological science. Chris-
tus has combined in a special work3 a great deal of ex¬
cellent information ; but his labours are imperfect in rela¬
tion to the present condition of the subject. I he
ma Piezatorum of Fabricius is merely a descriptive cata¬
logue of species, assembled together without any precise
notion of sexual distinctions, not seldom inaccurate in the
exposition of generic characters, and extremely incom¬
plete in relation to the European species. Jurine has
carefully distinguished the sexes, and his groups are an
improvement on those of his predecessors. Lepelletier
de St-Fargeau,4 Serville, Klug,5 and, last though not least,
directs itself towards the tip of the wing (fig. 3, b). This range is frequently divided into two, three, or four lesser cells, by means of
intersecting nervures (fig. 4, e, and fig.' 1, e). If two of these cells are much developed, and the second one, on the contrary, is socir-
cumscribed that it cannot reach the margin of the radial nervure, we have then a peculiar character. The two developed cells, in¬
stead of being separated from each other by the entire interval of the second cell, are kept apart, for a space, only by a simple nervure,
the length of which is proportional to the curtailment of the second cell; and in this way the latter has no other connection with the
radial cell above it, than that it adheres to, or depends from it, as it were, by a kind of pedicle or stalk,—for which reason it is then
named petiolated by Jurine (fig. 2, b). If it happens that the cubital nervure does not attain to the extreme margin of the wing, the
spaces which it partly forms are regarded as incomplete. _ mil
It has been already stated that, besides the large nervures named cubitus and radius, Jurine has distinguished others, which also
spring from the base of the wing, as at fig. l,^. These produce others of a secondary kind, which mount towards the cubital ce s,
sometimes attaining to the first and second, sometimes to the second and third, and sometimes only to a single cell. These have re¬
ceived the name of recurrent nervures (fig. l,y)- By anastomosing among themselves, and with the cubitus, the brachial nerviires
and their branches form several cells, which Jurine has named the humeral (fig. 4, A, ft, ft, ft, ft). Of these Latreille distinguishes a>
discoidal, such as are situated in the centre of the wing (fig. 2, i, i). The recurrent nervures always concur in their formation.
Among lepidopterous insects, the cell situated in the centre of the wing is prolonged uninterruptedly as far as the base.
Since we have entered into these details, we may here also mention briefly a few additional particulars, relating chiefly to the no¬
menclature of the outline of the wings. The base is that part which articulates with the thorax (fig. 1, a, ft, £')• The point, sunm ■
or anterior angle, is that part which is most directly opposed to the base (fig. 1, ft). The external, anterior, or upper margin of 1C'
wing extends from the base to the summit (fig. 1, a, c, d, e, ft). The posterior, inner, or anal angle, is formed by the point of union
of the posterior and inner margins (fig. 1, i). The posterior margin commences at the anterior angle or summit, and ends at the pos-
rior angle to the base of the wing (fig. 1, ")•
terior or inner angle (fig. 1, ft,/, *). The internal margin extends from the posterior   — —„ v n -r i
In addition to the works mentioned in a preceding note, see also the article Axles in the Diction. Class. d'Hist. Nat-; the article K*-
diales in the Encyclop. Mtth.; and M. Chabrier’s elaborate Essai sur le Vol des Insectcs.
1 Journal de Physique, Sept. 1828. 2 Cowper’s Retirement. .
3 Naturgeschichtc, Klassification, und Nomcnclatnr, der Insecten vom Biencn, Vespcn, und Ameisengeschelecht, von J. L. Christ. rran '
fort, 1791-
* In various articles and treatises in the Encyclop. Mtth. , -
5 Monographia Siricum Germanice, atque Generum illis adnumeratorum, cum tab. ccn. col. Berlin, 1803; several memoirs regarding of
uienoptera, in the Recueil of the Society of Naturalists of Berlin ; a critical review' of the genera of Fabricius, derived from Jf,<0
Linn, in Illiger’s Magazinfiir Insectenkunde, &c.
ENTOMOLOGY.
217
)- ourown inestimable Kirby,1 have published valuable though
partial additions to our knowledge of the history and clas-
1,1- gification of the hymenopterous tribes.2
Latreille divides our present order into two primary
sections.
TEREBRANTLV
Ja which the Females are provided with an Ovipositor.
FAMILY I—SECURIFERA.4
Abdomen sessile, or united by the entire .breadth of its
base to the thorax, of which it appears a continuation,
without distinct or separate power of movement. The
females have an ovipositor (tariere), generally in the form
of a saw, and which serves not merely for the deposition
of the eirgs, but also for the construction of a proper place
for their reception. The larvae have always six scaly
feet, and frequently several others which are membra¬
nous. This family forms two tribes.
TJUBE 1ST, TENTHREDINETiE, OR SAW-FLIES.
Of these the mandibles are lengthened and compressed.
The ligula is divided into three, as if digitated. The ovi¬
positor is composed of two plates, toothed like a saw,
pointed, united, and lodged in a groove of the posterior
extremity. The maxillary palpi are always composed of
six articulations, and the labial of four. The latter are
always the shorter. Both pairs of wings are divided into
numerous cells. This tribe corresponds to the great ge¬
nus Tenthredo of Linnaeus.
The abdomen of these insects is cylindrical, rounded
posteriorly, composed of nine segments, and so united to
the thorax as to appear almost like a uniform continuation
of that part. The wings appear as if rumpled, and there
are two little grain-like coloured bodies behind the scu-
tellum. The form and composition of the antennae vary.
The mandibles are strong and toothed. The extremity
of the maxillae is almost membranous, or at least of a less
coriaceous consistence than the base. The palpi are fili¬
form, or nearly setaceous, and composed of six articula¬
tions. The ligula is straight, rounded, divided into three
parts, of which the central is the narrowest; its sheath is
usually short. The abdomen of the female is provided at its
lower extremity with a double moveable ovipositor, scaly,
serrated, pointed, and enclosed within two other concave
plates, which serve it as a sheath. It is by the action of
the teeth of this instrument that the insect perforates the
stalks and other parts of plants, in which she lays her
eggs. These she afterwards imbues with a peculiar frothy
liquor, which seems to prevent the parts of the plant from
reuniting, and even causes the formation of a concave
chamber, or of ligneous parts resembling galls, in which
the excluded larvae dwell, either in a state of solitude, or
jn company, according to their kind. After undergoing
its final metamorphosis, the perfect insect makes its es¬
cape by gnawing a circular overture. The larvae of many Hymenop-
species, however, live exposed upon the foliage of trees tera
and plants. They bear a great resemblance to caterpil- Terebran-
lars in their general form and colouring, but they present v ia'
either from eighteen to twenty-two feet, or only six;
whereas in caterpillars properly so called, these parts
range merely from ten to sixteen. They frequently con¬
tinue in the larva state for several months, or throughout
the winter, and remain but a short time in the nympha
state, previous to the assumption of which they spin a
cocoon. We shall briefly notice the principal genera into
which these insects are now divided.5
In Cimbex of Olivier and Fab. (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 1)
the antennae are alike in both sexes, and terminate in a but¬
ton-like expansion. The larvae have twenty-four feet, and
some of them when tormented will spout out a greenish
liquid to the distance of a foot. In Hylotoma, Lat. (ibid,
fig. 2), the antennae exhibit only three distinct articula¬
tions, of which the last is in the form of an elongated
prismatic or cylindrical club, more slender, ciliated, and
sometimes forked in the males. A well-known species
(figured as above), the Tenthredo rosce of Linn, belongs to
this genus. In the genus Tenthredo properly so called
(ibid. fig. 3), the antennae are composed of nine articu¬
lations, which are simple in both sexes. The larvae
have from eighteen to twenty-two feet. In the perfect
insects the number of teeth of the mandibles varies from
two to four. The amount of radial and cubital cells of
the wings also varies in diflerent species. Hence the for¬
mation of the genera Allantus, Dolerus, Nematus, &c. by
Jurine, Leach, and other naturalists. The genus Cladi-
us of Klug has also nine joints in the antennae, but those
parts are pectinated on one side in the males. In Atha-
lia of Leach the body is short and thick, as in Hylo¬
toma, but the antennae, simple in both sexes, have from
ten to fourteen articulations. The genus Pterygophorus
of Klug are remarkable for their antennae, composed at
least of sixteen articulations, being pectinated or fan¬
shaped in the males, and serrated in the females. In Lo-
phyrus of Lat. (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 4) the antennae are
doubly pectinated in the males, and resemble a triangular
plume (fig. 5); they are shortly serrated in the females
(fig. 6).6 In all the preceding genera the labrum is quite
apparent, and the four posterior tibiae are either unfurnish¬
ed on their inner side with spines, or exhibit only one.
But in the following the labrum is concealed, or but slight¬
ly projecting, and the inner side of the four posterior tibiae
exhibits before its extremity two, and frequently three
spines. Such are Megalodontes, Lat. in which the an¬
tennae are serrated or pectinated, and Pamphilus of the
same author, in which those organs are simple in both
sexes.
The concluding Tenthredinetas have the ovipositor pro¬
longed beyond the groove, and projecting posteriorly.
The antennae are simple, and always composed of a great
number of articulations. They constitute the genera Xye-
la, Dalm., Cephas, and Xiphydria, Lat. Of the last
named the antennae are inserted near the mouth, and be¬
come attenuated towards the termination (Plate CCXXXI.
fig. 7).
1 In his Monographia Apum Anglia;, “ ouvrage,” says Latreille, “ qui a immortalise son auteur.
2 Consult also the article Hymenopteb.es in the "Diction. Class, d'Hist. Nat. t. viii. pp. 458-62.
5 From terebro, to bore or pierce. . , , . , , . .  iinw
4 From securifer, a hatchet-bearer, in allusion to the wood-cutting instrument with which these insects aie ai , ’
5 For the details, see Lepelletier de St Fargeau’s Monographia Tenthredinetarum kynonymia Extricata, Klug s Entoinolobisc
graphien; Leach’s Zoological Miscellany, vol. iii.; and Regne Animal, t. v. p. 271, &c. . „
6 Lophyrus pini, the species figured on the plate referred to, has become much more common of late years in Scotland, since me
plantation and growth of larch forests.
VOL. ix.
2 E
218
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop- Tribe 2d, Urocerata.1
tera
Terebran- The jnsects 0f t^[s trJbe are distinguished from those
/ of the preceding by their mandibles, which are short and
thick, by their ligula, which is entire, and by the oviposi¬
tor of the female, which is sometimes projecting and com¬
posed of three thread-like parts, sometimes spirally roll¬
ed within the abdomen, and of a capillary form. They
compose the old genus Sirex of Linn.
The antennae of these insects are filiform or setaceous,
vibratory, and composed of from ten to twenty-five arti¬
culations. The head is rounded and nearly globular, the
labrum very small, the maxillary palpi filiform, consisting
of from three to five articulations, and the labial of three,
of which the last is largest. The body is almost cylindri¬
cal. The anterior or posterior tarsi, and in several spe¬
cies the colour of the abdomen, differ according to the
sexes. The females deposit their eggs in ancient trees,
generally in those of the pine tribe. The ovipositor is
lodged at the base of the abdomen, between two valves,
which form a protecting groove.
In the genus Oryssus, Lat. (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 9),
the antennae are inserted near the mouth, the mandibles
are without teeth, the maxillary palpi are long and five-
articulate, the posterior extremity of the body is almost
rounded and slightly prolonged, and the ovipositor is ca¬
pillary and spirally rolled in the interior of the abdomen.
There are only two species found in Europe, both of which
are exceedingly active, and occur on trees in spring. We
have figured O. coronatus, the sole British species. In
Sirex properly so called ( Urocerus, Geoff.), Plate CCXXXI.
fig. 8, the antennas, inserted near the front, consist of from
thirteen to twenty-five articulations, the mandibles are
toothed on their inner side, the maxillary palpi are very
small, almost conical, of two articulations, and the extre¬
mity of the last segment of the abdomen is prolonged in
the form of a tail. The ovipositor consists of three threads.
These insects are of rather large size. They inhabit
more particularly forests of pine and fir, in cold and
mountainous countries, and during flight produce a buzz¬
ing noise, like that of an humble-bee. The larvae have six
feet, with the posterior extremity of the body terminat¬
ing in a point. It lives in the interior of wood, where it
spins a cocoon, and undergoes its metamorphosis. Our
most noted species is the S. gigas of Linn. The male
has a yellow abdomen, with a black extremity; the fe¬
male is black, with a yellow spot behind each eye, and
the second and three terminal rings of the abdomen also
of the latter colour. Owing to the disparity of aspect of
the sexes, they have been not unfrequently described by
naturalists as distinct species.
FAMILY II—PUPIYORA.4
Ihe various groups which compose this family are dis¬
tinguished by the abdomen being attached to the thorax
by a simple portion of its transverse diameter, or even in
many instances merely by a slender thread or pedicle, so
that its mode of insertion is distinct and obvious, and ad¬
mits of a separate movement. The larvae are apodal, and
for the most part parasitical and carnivorous. Latreille
divides them into six tribes, as follows.
Tribe 1st, Evaniales.
■'Jem
In these the wings are raised, and the upper at least
are areolated. The antennae are filiform or setaceous,
and composed of from thirteen to fourteen articulations.
The mandibles are dentated on the inner side. The max¬
illary palpi consist of six, and the labial of four articula¬
tions. The abdomen is implanted on the thorax,—in
some, just beneath the scutellum. The ovipositor is usu¬
ally projecting, and composed of three setae.
The following are the principal genera: Evania, Fab,
(„$'/?/<£«,Linn.) Plate CCXXXI. figs. lOand 13; Pelecinus,
Lat., ibid. fig. 12; Fknus, Fab. {Ichneumon, Linn.) ibid,
fig. 14; Aulacus, Jur. and Paxylloma, Brebisson.
tein
fell!
tii
Tribe 2d, Ichneumonides.
In these the wings are also veined, and the superior
always exhibit on their disc closed or completed cells.
The abdomen takes its rise between the two posterior
legs. The antennae are generally filiform or setaceous
(very rarely clubbed), and composed of a great number
of articulations. In the majority the mandibles have no
tooth on the inner side, and terminate in a bifid point.
The maxillary palpi, always apparent or projecting, have
usually not more than five articulations. The ovipositor
consists of three threads or setae.
Such is a brief exposition of the technical characters of
a tribe of insects which embraces almost the whole of the
great genus Ichneumon of Linnaeus, and of which the na¬
tural economy and habits are so remarkable that we shall
here take leave to extend our observations on their his¬
tory. Perhaps we could not better illustrate the complex
nature of the modern science of Entomology than by stat¬
ing, that what we must here pass over in the space of a
few columns, and which, even in the publications of com¬
paratively recent writers, does not form a very important
or greatly enlarged feature, occupies, in a work to which
we have lately devoted our attention, upwards of 2800
pages.3
The general term Ichneumonides comprehends an ex¬
tensive series of insects, important on account of the pur¬
poses to which they are subservient in the economy of
nature, and deriving considerable interest from the pecu¬
liar manner in which these purposes are effected. They
differ from most of the other members of the class to which
they belong, in their mode of providing for their young,—
presenting this peculiarity, that they deposit their eggs in the
living bodies of other insects. In a tribe of such extent,
considerable variety of external appearance necessarily pre¬
vails; but a genuine Ichneumon may in general be known
by its elongated form, attenuated, and in most cases petio-
lated abdomen, terminated frequently in a long fissile seta;
and by its filiform, porrected, often recurved and annulated
antennae, to which a constant vibratory motion is impart¬
ed. The European species vary in size from a fraction of
a line to fifteen lines ; those of tropical countries, however,
greatly exceed these dimensions, a few of them ranking
even among the largest insects. Upwards of 1300 spe¬
cies have been described as natives of Europe, of which
number a great many hundreds exist in Britain.4 Ihe
frequency of their occurrence, and singular habits ot
life, which often force them unexpectedly on the no¬
tice of naturalists while engaged in the study of insect
1 From ov/m, tail, and xiaaj, horn.
I rom pupa, and voro, to devour, in allusion to their destruction of other insects by depositing eggs in their bodies, which usually
destroy the pupae. ^ & &&
3 uflude to the complete and careful Ichneumonologia Europcea of Professor Gravenhorst of Breslau, in three very thick volumes
Svo, 1829. - * • ■ J
* In the Systema Naiurce (12th edition), Linnreus describes only seventy-seven species of Ichneumon.
ENTOMOLOGY.
219
fir
transformations, have secured some degree of attention for
this tribe, even from the earliest periods. The word
Ichneumon occurs in the natural history of Aristotle, by
whom it is applied to a species of Sphex. Ray appears
to be the first who used it to designate the tribe of insects
to which it has ever since been restricted. Little, how¬
ever, was known regarding the structure or habits of these
creatures till the time of Frisch, who subjected them to
an anatomical examination, and described the parts ot the
mouth, and formation of the wings, with great accuracy
and minuteness. He was the first who employed the
form and relative position of the cells of the latter to as¬
sist in distinguishing genera. Much valuable information
resulted from the observations and experiments of Reau¬
mur, whose work may be referred to for many interesting
details regarding the manners and habits of the Ichneu-
monides.1& Degeer also contributed materially to eluci¬
date their history, and proposed a new arrangement of
the family, characterized by his usual accuracy of discrimi¬
nation.
In the numerous works on Entomology which appeared
during the latter half of the eighteenth century, our know¬
ledge of these insects kept pace with the increased zeal
manifested towards the study of natural history during
that important period. Linnaeus, Scopoli, Fabricius,
Schrank, Panzer, and others of inferior name, applied
themselves successfully to investigate their history—re¬
ducing the information derived from their predecessors to
a more systematic form, and greatly increasing the amount
ofknown species. In 1807 Jurine published his new method
for the classification of Hymenoptera, already mentioned.
The application of his principles to the Ichneumonides
afforded less satisfactory results than in most of the other
tribes. Like all systems founded on a partial view of or¬
ganic structure, it led, in many instances, to the violation
of natural order, by separating cognate species, and asso¬
ciating others having no positive affinity. But though
Jurine failed to establish an efficient mode of arrange¬
ment, he rendered important service to subsequent inquir¬
ers, by describing minutely, and furnishing with a suitable
terminology, the variously modified forms of the organs
of flight, which are found to afford characters of consi¬
derable value for the discrimination of genera. Latreille
at different times published arrangements of this tribe,
and by the number of his sectional divisions, generally
founded on obvious characters, greatly facilitated the iden¬
tifying of species.2 But the amount of these had increas¬
ed to such an extent, and they were found to approximate
so closely to each other in external characters, that a
comprehensive division, and a more detailed description of
specific difference, became indispensable. This desidera¬
tum has recently been supplied by the publication of an
extensive and elaborate work on the Ichneumonides by7
Professor Gravenhorst; an individual eminently qualified
to unravel the complexities of this difficult tribe. An ex¬
tensive intercourse with men of science enabled him to
amass a large collection of these insects from all parts of
Europe; while habits of minute observation and patient
research, combined with just views of systematic arrange¬
ment, and an accurate perception of the affinities ot con¬
secutive groups, qualified him to employ to the best ad¬
vantage the ample materials thus obtained. The result
of his labours appeared in 1829, as specified in a note on
our preceding page. The arrangement adopted is funda¬
mentally the same as that previously published by him¬
self and Nees ab Esenbeck.3
The body of the Ichneumons is more or less elongated, Hymenop-
and in most instances naked and shining, seldom rough Te^jj^an
or impressed with punctures. It is occasionally covered, ^
particularly on the head and thorax, with a pubescence
composed of slender erect hairs, or it is somewhat seri¬
ceous and opaque, with a soft decumbent pubescence.
The prevailing colours are rufous, black, and yellow, va¬
riously intermingled with lines and patches of white. In
the great majority of species, there are one or two spots
of the latter colour on the thorax, at the insertion of the
wings. The scuteilum is most frequently white. The
feet are very often of a reddish colour, at times red and
black; but they are never entirely black, the anterior fe¬
mora being always, pale on the under side. The head is
prominent, generally orbiculate or subovate anteriorly, in
many instances a little narrowed towards the neck, and
nearly of the same breadth as the thorax. I he forehead
is sometimes armed with one or two short erect horns,
placed between the antennae and stemmata. ihe latter
are three in number, and disposed in a triangular form.
The antennae in the greater number of species are shorter
than the body; in a few they are of the same length, very
rarely longer, porrected, generally curved or involuted
after death, especially in the females, filiform or setaceous,
sometimes slightly compressed at the middle, as in some
species of Phygadeuon, distinctly compressed in the Bary-
cerotes, much compressed and dilated in the Eucerotes, and
clavate in the Hellioigiae. They consist ot from eigh¬
teen to sixty articulations, of which the first or radicle is
small, globose, and sunk in the head ; the second or scape
sub-cylindrical or sub-clavate, rarely ovate, very rarely
sub-globose, always thicker than the rest (except in the
antennae of the Baiycerates the Eucerotes), and longer
than the two following; the third and fourth very short,
rather stout, and often so closely united that they may be
regarded as one joint; the fourth always shorter than the
third, which is at times very inconspicuous; the fifth long,
cylindrical; the remainder gradually decreasing in length,
so that the apical joints often appear transverse. Such is
the general appearance of the antennae; but they are lia¬
ble to numerous modifications. Ihe mandibles are cor¬
neous, more or less arcuate, generally broadest at the
base, and narrowed towards the apex; in a lew instances
they are straight, and in others linear, or even dilated at
the extremity, where they are furnished with two teeth,
except in a very few species, which have the apex^ entire
or tridentate. The maxillae consist of two parts, of which
the basal portion, or stipes as it has been called, is usually
of a corneous consistence and somewdiat lanceolate form;
the other portion (mala) is of a membranaceous substance,
and bifid or bipartite. The palpi are four in number, elon¬
gate, filiform, and unequal; the maxillary are rather long,
and consist of five joints, very rarely ot four. Ibey have
been described by Fabricius and Panzer as having six
joints. The third joint is generally the longest; the
first, second, and fourth, very short; sometimes, however, ,
one or other of these, or the fifth, is longest, and in a
very few cases the third is shortest; in some species all
the articulations are of equal length. Ihe labial palpi
are rather short, and consist of five joints, very rarely of
three.
The Ichneumonides, like the rest of the Hymenoptera,
are provided with four wings, composed of thin mem¬
brane, and of corneous ribs. These ribs are generally deno¬
minated nerves or nervures; and the various spaces into
which the wing is divided by their intersection are called
2 mlZe’N^urelk, ^rale'etparticuli'ere, des CrustacZs et dcs Insectes, tom. hi. et xiii.; see,als° ^
* The arrangement alluded to appeared in. 1818, in the 9th volume of Novorum Actorum Academu* Nature Curio,orum.
220
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop- cells or areolets. The base of the wing (radix), or that
tera portion of it which is inserted into the thorax, is of asub-
Terebran- glance intermediate between corneous and membranaceous,
and is always more or less coloured. It is partially co-
vered with a hard convex scale (squamula), which, how¬
ever, may more properly be regarded as an appendage of
the thorax. The anterior wings (fig. A) are longer than
the posterior, narrow throughout a considerable portion
of their length, and gradually dilated towards the extre¬
mity. The stigma (a) is distinctly marked, and varies
much in size. The thick rib of the anterior margin, ex¬
tending between the stigma and the dorsal angle of the
wing, is called the radius (b). By the anastomosing of
the nerves, ten or eleven cells are formed, of which the
three at the base of the wing are named humeral (hume-
rales), 1, 2, 3; one radial (radialis), 4; two or three cu¬
bital (cubitales), 5, 6, 7; two lying under these discoidal
(discoidales), 8, 9; and two towards the margin posterior
(posticce), 10, 11. When the cells are viewed in relation to
the breadth of the wing, the three situate at the apex or
posterior margin are said to be external (5, 8, 10) ; those
next the humeral cells internal (7, 11); and those be¬
tween the external and internal cells intermediate (6, 9).
Of the humeral cells, that which lies next the radius is
named the external (1), that next the margin the inter¬
nal (3), and that which lies between these two the inter¬
mediate (2). The intermediate cubital cell (6) is gene¬
rally denominated the areolet, and is important on account
of the distinctive characters it affords. The interior cu¬
bital cell (7) is very large, in consequence of the nerve
which ought to divide it into two parts, at least which
does so in the other Hymenoptera, having become obso¬
lete. In many species, however, a portion of this nerve
is visible (z); and in some instances it extends nearly to
the centre of the cell; but it is usually very short, or a
projecting angle alone indicates the point whence it
ought to issue ; and in the less typical species all traces of
are obliterated. The areolet likewise is occasionally
it
awanting; different individuals of the same species have
it or have it not; and examples occur in which it is dis¬
tinctly formed in one wing and awanting in the other. In
general, however, it is present, and may readily be dis¬
tinguished from the other cells by its inferior size and an¬
gular form. It is either five-angled or quadrangular, tri¬
angular or orbiculate. But all these forms are liable to
numerous modifications, and one passes into another. The
posterior wings (B) are shorter and narrower than the an¬
terior, and nearly of equal breadth throughout. By the
anastomosing of the nerves, seven cells are formed, of
which the three at the base of the wing are named inter-
nal (1, 2, 3), and four at the posterior margin external^ era™
(4, 5, 6, 7). In the sub-genus Pezomachus the wings are" ^
generally absent, and when present are extremely ini- la’
perfect, and usually unfit for the purposes of flight, al-
though their structure, as far as it can be traced, exactly
corresponds to that of the more perfect species. The
abdomen, which is very variable in form, is composed of
seven or eight segments, the eighth being more or less
concealed, and often entirely obsolete. This imperfect
development of some of the segments has led authors to
give various accounts of their number. In addition to
the seven usually enumerated, Audouin is of opinion that
there is another of very small size, which unites the ab¬
domen to the thorax. According to Blainville, there are
never fewer than ten segments, of which the two at the
apex are always concealed. The first or basal segment
bears on each side of it a small tubercle, more or less dis¬
tinct, which forms the outlet to a spiracle. When the
tubercles are placed very near the base, and the anterior
part of the basal segment is not much narrower than the
following segments, and these nearly correspond to the
breadth of the thorax, the abdomen is said to be sessile;
the posterior part of the first segment being so short that
it can with difficulty be distinguished, and the anterior
part consequently appearing to adhere immediately to
the thorax. If this segment, or the posterior part of it,
be gradually contracted towards the base, the abdomen
is said to be sub-sessile or sub-petiolate. When the poste¬
rior part is narrow and elongated, linear or filiform, that
part is called the petiole or footstalk, and the abdomen is
said to be petiolate.
The sexes of these insects can with difficulty be dis¬
tinguished,-—few species affording any permanent exter¬
nal marks of sexual difference. The males in some in¬
stances differ from the females in having a more slender
abdomen, in others the antennse are thicker, and in some
species they are more slender than in the females. Many
of the latter are distinguished by having a white ring
round the antennae,1 which after death become curved or
spirally convoluted. The males may frequently be known
by having the colours with which they are adorned clear¬
er and more distinctly defined than in the opposite sex.
But the most certain, and often the most obvious mark
of sexual distinction, is the ovipositor with which the fe¬
males are provided. This remarkable appendage varies
in its form, in fine accordance with the varied economy
of different species. Some Ichneumons deposit their eggs
on the bodies of caterpillars; an operation which they
accomplish by merely piercing the skin. Others, in order
to lodge their eggs in a proper receptacle, are obliged to
perforate the nests of insects, and to penetrate to the bot¬
tom of crevices too narrow to admit of the whole body.
The former are furnished with a short, retractile oviposi¬
tor, seldom exserted, and lodged in a groove on the under
side of the abdomen. But the ovipositor of the latter is
often of considerable length, exceeding in some instances
that of the whole body. It is composed of three parts;
that in the centre is a slender flexile seta, of a corneous
substance, very smooth and shining, generally straight and
rounded, rarely arcuate and compressed, and most com¬
monly of a rufous or castaneous colour. It is provided
with a longitudinal central canal, through which the eggs
are propelled. The apex is often compressed and dilated,
and impressed with transverse inequalities; it is frequent¬
ly compressed throughout its whole length, and occasion-
Urum U‘e SeX“’ observeS in hi, preface (page 10)_" ..annul-
ENTOMOLOGY.
221
[yn; >P'
’te
'ere1 j n-
|ti
j
1
|
I ii
■
II
• !
J
ij
:
i
i i
j.
i
i
kP
■
:
t
-ally bent upwards at the extremity. On each side of this
central seta is placed another, adapted, by the concavity
■ of the inner surface, to enclose it as in a sheath. These
lateral appendages are generally punctate and pubescent
externally, and somewhat incrassate towards the apex.
They issue from the terminal segment of the abdomen ;
but the central tube or oviduct originates in the interior,
and must necessarily be connected with the viscera, to
whose contents it forms the outlet.
When a female Ichneumon, furnished with an appara¬
tus of the kind just described, has discovered the retreat
of a larva or pupa, in which she wishes to deposit her eggs,
she stations herself immediately over the spot, and raising
her abdomen to a vertical position, bends the ovipositor
under her belly, and thrusts it into the aperture. This
operation is much facilitated by the great flexibility of
the instrument, and the ease with which it can be accom¬
modated to any circumstances in which it requires to be
employed. It penetrates to a considerable depth into the
body of the larva, lest the eggs, by being placed near the
surface, should be thrown off when the skin is changed.
Upon their exclusion from the egg, the parasitical young
make their way still farther into the interior of the larva,
consuming the fat that surrounds the muscles and viscera,
but carefully abstaining from doing injury to the vital or¬
gans. In this state they are gregarious, and were found
by Reaumur (who has given a figure of a caterpillar so in¬
fested) to be arranged in regular rows in the interior of
the caterpillar. When they have arrived at maturity,
they undergo their destined change either in the body of
the larva which served them as a matrix, or, gnawing a
passage through its skin, they construct externally their silk
cocoons, and are then converted into pupae, from which,
after a longer or shorter period, they emerge in their de¬
clared or perfect form.
A still more remarkable method of rearing its offspring
is adopted by the Ophion luteus, and probably by all the
other species belonging to that genus.1 The eggs of
this insect are deposited on the caterpillar of the Puss
Moth (Cerura vinula), to which they firmly adhere by
means of an elongated pedicle or foot-stalk. When the
larvae are evolved, they do not enter the body of the ca¬
terpillar, but remain attached to the columnar appendage,
through which they extract, by suction, the juices neces¬
sary for their sustenance. The caterpillar dies before it
assumes the pupa state, but this event in no case proves
fatal to the larvae, as it either does not occur till they re¬
quire no further nourishment, or they avail themselves of
tiat principle of accommodation to existing circumstan¬
ces, which insects possess in such a remarkable degree,
and undergo their destined changes as soon as their sup¬
ply of food begins to be withdrawn.
Ichneumons are generally active and rapid in their mo¬
tions ; many of them, particularly those belonging to the
gyneia Ichneumon proper, and Cryptus, continually vi¬
brate their antennae, a circumstance which induced the
o ^ enters to ca\\ them Muscce vibratorice ; others, such
as t ie Ophiones, are of slower habits, and have not been
° served to exhibit this peculiarity in the movements
0 their antennae. The larger species fly with con-
si erab e celerity, and cannot very readily be approach-
e > unless when engaged in depositing their eggs; an
peration with which they are so entirely engrossed, that
regard for their own safety appears to abandon them.
icy occur in flowers, on the trunks of trees, and on
L n s ’ *}lso on walls and in houses; but their favourite
ces o resort are the flowers of umbelliferous plants.
The species furnished with a long ovipositor usually fre- Hymenop-
quent walls and the trunks of trees, for it is in these situa- tera
tions that they find the larvae on which a singular instinct ^ e rebran-
leads them to deposit their eggs. ^la*
Our knowledge is obscure regarding the food of these
insects in the perfect state; but it appears to be derived
from the vegetable rather than the animal kingdom. We
kept one alive, however, during the greater part of a
winter on calf-foot jelly'. They have often been observed
to examine carefully with their mouths the pollen of
plants; and it is probable that the pollen, or rather the
honey, of flowers, affords them nourishment. Indeed it
is expressly affirmed by Fabricius, that it is this material
which forms their food. They do not seem to attack or
devour other insects, or larvae, or spiders, but associate
with them without offering the least annoyance. It is
likely', therefore, that those authors who assert that they
are of predatory habits, mistook for Ichneumons certain
species of an allied group (Spheges), to which they bear
resemblance. Whenever they attack a larvae, it is not for
the purpose of employing it as food, but to convert it into
a matrix for the reception of their young. But, though
they do not devour spiders, as has been asserted, that in¬
sidious tribe of creatures is by no means exempted from
their destructive visits,—for they oviposit either on the
spiders’ eggs, or on the dense silky web in which these are
frequently enveloped; and the larvae when excluded con¬
sume the substance of the eggs, and are then changed
into ny'mphs and perfect insects within that silken cham¬
ber, so carefully constructed for a far different purpose.
The larvae of the Ichneumonides are without feet. The
tissue of their cocoons is of fine silk, usually of a beauti¬
ful yellow, or pure white, according to the species. Some,
however, are banded with brown and yellow. We have
already stated that their positions are various. A remark¬
able instance is occasionally met with of a suspended co¬
coon. It hangs to the leaves or twigs of the oak-tree,
fastened at one extremity by a silken cord. This cocoon
is farther remarkable for the manner in which it executes
little springs, several inches in height. These are no doubt
occasioned by the enclosed larva, which probably has
space enough within to admit of its body' being bent and
retorted, after the fashion of the little worms which we
sometimes see vaulting within the hollow walls of an old
cheese.
Several Ichneumons are apterous. These Linnaeus
placed with the Mutillae. Degeer describes one which
proceeded from a ligneous gall which he found upon the
stalk of a species of Potentilla. It first attracted his no¬
tice by two inflated conical pieces, pointed at the end, at¬
tached to the upper and posterior portion of the thorax,
and directed backwards. They were moveable at the
base, and the insect worked them about in all directions
w hile itself in motion. It was extremely small, and leapt
with great activity. As its hinder thighs were not en¬
larged, Degeer inferred that its springs were produced by
curving its abdomen, and then pressing that part forcibly
against the plane of its position.
In regard to the situations most favourable for collect¬
ing Ichneumonides, we may observe, that wherever other
insects, especially in the larva state, abound, there also
we may expect to find multitudes of these parasitical de¬
predators. Having so greatly extended our general ob¬
servations on this interesting tribe, our limits will less
easily admit of our entering into descriptive details of
genera and species. For these the reader must consult
the wmrks to which we have alluded. We shall however
1 Degeer, ii. p. 850, pi. xxix. fig. 15.
222
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop-enumerate the genera adopted by Latreille. They are
tera as follows: Stephanus, Jur. (Plate CCXXXI. fig. lo and
Terebran- jqn . Xorides, Lat.; Pimpla (ibid. fig. 19); Cryptus,
t tia* Ophion, and Banchus, Fab., Helw.; Joppa, Fab. (ibid.
21); Ichneumon proper (ibid. fig. 17); Alomya,
Fab.- Peltastes, Illiger (ibid. fig. 18); Ac^nitus and
Agathis, Lat.; Bracon, Jur.; Microgaster, Lat.;
Helcon, Neesd’Es.; Sigalphus, Lat.; Chelonus, Jur.;
Alysia, Lat.1
We shall now exhibit a few examples of Gravenhorst s
systematic exposition of the Ichneumonides, and these we
shall select from British species.
Genus Ichneumon, Grav. Abdomen petiolate, con¬
vex ; head transverse ; scutellum flat or convex; areolet in
most instances pentagonal; (ovipositor concealed or su
This genus includes a great many sub-genera, of which
we shall choose the first, or that which bears the same
name as its principal, viz. ,
Sub-qenm Ichneumon. Abdomen oblong or sub-ovate ;
the first segment globose, rough, the petiole long, linear,
arcuate; areolet pentagonal; antennae and feet ot mode¬
rate or medium size; (ovipositor concealed or sub-ex-
serted).
Section Ith of Gravenhorst.
Scutellum pale; the abdomen either with pale markings,
or some of the segments entirely yellow, the apical segment
black.
sometimes blackish. Abdomen of the male elongated,!
longer sometimes by one half than the head and thorax,
of the same breadth or a little narrower than the thorax,
from the second to the third segments nearly of equal
breadth, the following gradually narrowed towards the ex¬
tremity ; that of the female oblongo-ovate, a little longer
than the head and thorax, and of the same breadth, the apex
acute; the second and third segments yellow, in some
females mixed with ferruginous and the margins fusces-
cent; the second segment of the males occasionally with
a lateral abbreviated fuscous line, the third with a trans¬
verse line or two fuscous spots at the base ; the fourth
generally with a fulvous or rufous spot in the angles at
the base, and more rarely the outer margin, or the base,
or a lateral mark, rufescent or yellowish; the fifth verj
rarely with the outer margin yellowish.
The males of this species occur in considerable profu¬
sion in Britain, and throughout the greater part of Eu¬
rope ; the females are very rare.2 They frequent sides of
fields, and open places irr woods, and are often to be found
on umbelliferous plants during the autumnal months.
They are liable to great variation both in size and co¬
louring. Roxburghshire, and near Edinburgh, in consi¬
derable plenty.
Genus Tryphon, Grav. Abdomen convex, petiolate, or
sub-sessile; head transverse; scutellum flat or convex;
areolet triangular, or irregular, or absent; (ovipositor con¬
cealed, or sub-exserted).
Sub-genus Tryphon. Abdomen oblong, sub-sessile, or
sub-petiolate ; antennae slender or middle-sized; feet of
moderate length.
‘ebr®
tii,
I. luctatorius. Fab. Linn. Lat. Grav. Length of the male
from five to nine, of the female from five to seven and
a half lines. The head of the male, with the mouth and
face, yellow; of the female, either entirely black, or,
with the interior orbits of the eyes, a lateral spot on the
clypeus, the palpi and mandibles, yellow-, the apex of the
latter fuscous. Antennae of the male porrect, setaceous,
half the length of the body, or a little longer, the first
joint yellow beneath ; those of the female half the length
of the body, curved at the tip, from the ninth to the thir¬
teenth, or from the twelfth to the fourteenth joints, white
above, the basal joint sometimes ferruginous beneath.
Thorax gibbous; with a yellow line or spot before the
wings, and another beneath them, one of which is occa¬
sionally awanting; the anterior line, in the female, as¬
cending as far as the neck, of which the upper margin, in
the male, is at times yellow; the male has sometimes a
yellow spot beneath the scutellum. Scutellum yellow.
Wings of moderate size, or rather ample, silaceo-hya-
line; the stigma fulvous or ferruginous, rarely fusces-
cent, the radius fuscous or ferruginous; the radix yel¬
low or ferruginous, rarely fuscous; the squamula either
yellow or fuscous, with a whitish or rufescent spot; the
areolet pentagonal. The feet of moderate size ; the an¬
terior femora on the under side, and for the most part
at the apex also, yellow, black towards the base, and
sometimes entirely black : the intermediate femora, with
the apex, sometimes as far as the middle, and in a few
cases the whole under surface, yellow; tibiae yellow, the
posterior black or fuscous at the apex ; tarsi yellow, or
flavo-ferruginous, the posterior with the tips of the joints
Section kth of Gravenhorst.
Scutellum black, abdomen either entirely rufous, or rufous
and black, or yellow and black.
T. elongator, Grav. Fab. Length from two and a half
to five lines. The mouth generally rufescent, the apex
of the mandibles black, or entirely black. The fore¬
head with an erect horn, variable in length, but never
exceeding that of the basal joint of the antennae. An¬
tennae setaceous, shorter than the body; the first joint
black, very rarely ferruginous beneath ; the following ge¬
nerally fulvous or ferruginous, fuscous above,. some¬
times entirely fulvous or ferruginous. Thorax gibbous.
Wings most commonly yellow-hyaline; the stigma and
radius ferruginous, or pitchy straw-coloured, the ra¬
dix straw-coloured, the squamula either black or pale
ferruginous ; areolet irregular or sub-triangular, sub-pe¬
tiolate or sessile. Feet rather stout, the coxae and tro¬
chanters black; the anterior femora yellowr or testaceous,
black externally towards the base ; the intermediate
femora black, with the apex yellow or testaceous, some¬
times almost entirely testaceous on the under side,
the posterior femora entirely black; the tibise yellow,
rarely testaceous, the hinder with the apex and base
black; the tarsi rufous or rufo-ferruginous, claws fus¬
cous. Abdomen sub-petiolate, generally longer than the
head and thorax, and nearly of the same breadth, sub-
clavate, or sub-ovate, or fusiform ; first segment canalicu¬
late, gradually dilated towards the apex, about one ha
longer than broad, generally black, with the margin iu-
For their characters, see Regne Animal, t. v. pp. 285-90.
2 It is probable that the predominance in number of one sex over the other, so often alluded to by authors as an anomalous
the history of Ichneumons, is more apparent than real, and arises, in some instances, from the distinctive marks of sex being^so
as to elude observation, while in others the sexes are so dissimilar that each of them is received as a different species. ine
mination of the sexes is impeded by the difficulty of observing their intercourse. “ Nunquam mihi successit,” says Graven
“ par copula junctum aut copulam parans invenire, licet forsan centum millia individua viva Ichneumonidum, in statu eorum i
naturali, viderim, et per triginta annos omnem operam dederim ut copulam viderem.” (Yol. i. page 98.)
ENTOMOLOGY.
op-fous or fulvous, sometimes almost entirely rufous or ful¬
vous, with the base black; the second, third, and fourth
n" segments, sometimes also the base of the fifth, yellow or
fulvous. Ovipositor very short, black, generally con¬
cealed.
This species abounds in most parts of Europe. It is
plentiful in England, and is not unfrequent in Roxburgh¬
shire and other southern counties of Scotland. It like¬
wise occurs near Edinburgh.
Genus Alomya, Grav. Abdomen petiolate, convex ;
head globose ; areolet triangular.
A. ovator, Grav.; Ich. ovator, Fab. Lat.; Ich. elongator,
Gmel. Oliv. Length from five and a half to seven and a
half lines. Head sub-globose, somewhat quadrate when
viewed from above, with the angles obtuse, sub-transverse ;
the face sometimes with a slightly elevated tubercle. An¬
tennas of the male setaceous, shorter than the body, or
nearly of the same length, porrect, entirely black ; those
of the female moniliform, not half the length of the body,
incurved at the apex, from the third to the thirteenth or
fourteenth joints, ferruginous or testaceous, gradually be¬
coming paler. Thorax very slightly gibbous. Scutellum
triangular, flat. Wings of moderate size, hyaline or smoky-
hyaline, the stigma ferruginous or fulvous, the radius
piceous, the radix piceous or fuscous or ferruginous, the
squamula black or fuscous ; areolet pentagonal. The feet
of the male with the coxae and trochanters black; the
femora of the fore legs ferruginous or fulvous, generally
with the apex sub-testaceous and the base black; those
of the middle legs generally black, with the apex ferru¬
ginous ; those of the hind legs entirely black; the tibiae
yellow or testaceous, the hinder occasionally with the
apex fuscous; the tarsi testaceo-ferruginous. The legs
of the female are shorter and thicker than in the male,
the coxa?, trochanters, and femora black, the latter, in the
fore legs, for the most part almost entirely, or the apex
only, rufous or ferruginous; the tibiae either entirely fer-
rugino-testaceous, or testaceous with the apex ferrugi¬
nous; tarsi fusco-ferruginous. Abdomen petiolate, convex,
elongate; that of the male rather more than one half
longer than the thorax, and nearly of the same breadth,
the segments from the second to the sixth equally broad;
the petiole linear and slender ; the colour black and Tu-
fous, variously intermingled. Ovipositor concealed.
This species is of frequent occurrence both on the
continent of Europe and in Britain. Gravenhorst is of
opinion that Alomya victor, Curtis, Ent. Brit. 120, is a va¬
riety of this species.
Genus Cryptus, Grav. Abdomen petiolate, convex ;
lead transverse; scutellum flat or convex; (ovipositor
exserted.) v 1
Sub-genus Pezomachus, from a fghter on foot,
because the species, from the imperfect development of
e organs of flight, are unable to attack larvae on the
ng. ody small; abdomen petiolate; wings awanting
length^ ’ oviPositor exserted, short, or of ordinary
T on’ ^rav- Supplement a Partis ii. vol. i. p. 715.
and a fourth t0 two ancl a half lines,
thpr w, 30 ’ Pa P1. r”fous. Antenna? slender, curved, ra-
firstfnG6 .'ad t^le teagth of the body; from the
seventli f6 1 *L01nt ruP°us> the sixth or the sixth and
rufous . uscous’ h’om the eighth to the eleventh white,
Thorav en,eat ’ 116 remainder rufous, fuscous above,
short „ufn scut.ehurn rufous; metathorax with two very
us^ sPlnes. Wings shorter than the thorax.
basal segments rufous; the fourth, with the sides and
sometimes the base, also rufous ; the fifth and sixth black ;
the seventh white. Ovipositor rather more than half the
length of the abdomen, the sheath black, the tube ru¬
fous.
This insect, hitherto found in Britain only, occurs not
unfrequently in oak coppices in Roxburghshire, near Min-
to, Cavers, &c. It is named by Gravenhorst after a dis¬
tinguished English collector, our honoured correspondent,
the Rev. F. W. Hope, by whose effective practical re¬
searches the Ichneumonologia has been enriched by many
new species. y
Genus Pimpla, Grav. Abdomen convex, sessile; scu¬
tellum triangular or sub-orbicular; (ovipositor exserted).
Sub-genus Lissonota, from Ktschg, smooth, and vurog, the
back, in allusion to the smooth upper surface of the abdo¬
men. The abdomen in most smooth, shining; the apical
segments of the female entire on the under side; areolet
either awanting or triangular; (ovipositor long).
Section \st of Gravenhorst.
Scutellum and abdomen black ; the latter sometimes with
the apical margin of the segments caslaneous.
\j. seiosa, Grav.; Ich. setosus, Oliv.; Ich. immaculatus,
Gmel.? Length from seven to nine lines. Labrum sometimes
obscurely ferruginous. Antenna? subfiliform, somewhat in¬
curved and tapering towards the apex, half the length of the
body, at times nearly of the same length. Thorax slight¬
ly gibbous. Wings of moderate size, smoky-hyaline,"the
stigma and radius nigro-fuscous, the radix piceo-fuscous or
piceo-ferruginous, the squamula black or fusco-ferruginous;
areolet sessile or sub-petiolate, triangular. Feet elongate,
fulvous, the coxae black, the posterior tarsi for the most
part black or fuscous. Abdomen a little longer and nar¬
rower than the head and thorax, or of the same breadth,
punctate; that of the male sub-cylindric, somewhat nar¬
rowed towards the apex; that of the female oblong or
sub-cylindric; the margins of the segments elevated, shin¬
ing ; the first segment sub-canaliculate; the third some¬
times fuscous. Ovipositor the length of the body; the
tube black or fusco-castaneous, rarely fulvous.
This insect is pretty widely distributed over the north
of Europe, and is found occasionally in England.
Sub-genus Pimpla. The segments for the most part
transversely impressed, the intermediate ones broader
than long, those at the apex having, in the females, a lon¬
gitudinal groove or fissure on the under side; the areolet
triangular; (ovipositor of moderate size, rarely long).
223
Hymenop-
tera
Terebran-
tia.
Fppt * , wings shorte
feUrr"7hat sl.ender’ ruf,°us; the apex of the hinder
latter whiV v.0016!^68 t^'£e’ black, the base of the
and tbm-JS * Abdomen scarcely longer than the head
, and a httle broader, oblong-ovate; the three
Section 6th of Gravenhorst.
Scutellum, thorax, and abdomen black; the latter some¬
times with rufous bands; posterior coxae black.
P. examinator, Grav.; Cryptus examinator, Fab.; Ich.
rufescens, Gmel. Length of the male from one and two
thirds to four and a half, of the female from two and a half
to six lines. Palpi of the male whitish or yellowish, rarely
piceous. Antennae of the male either entirely black, or fer¬
ruginous on the under side towards the tip, with the first
and second joints, or the first only, whitish. Thorax of
the female, rarely that of the male also, with a whitish or
straw-coloured line or spot, sometimes obsolete, before
the wings. Wings smoky-hyaline ; the stigma and radius
black or fuscous, rarely piceous ; the radix straw-colour¬
ed, in the females for the most part ferruginous or fus¬
cous; the squamula of the male straw-coloured or fus¬
cous, of the female ferruginous or fuscous, generally with
a whitish spot, seldom entirely whitish; the areolet irre¬
gular, sessile or sub-sessile. Anterior feet rufous or ful-
entomology.
, i „ »->ir»rin<T nn nil siflps. When they had selected a hole, they Hvim
vous, the coxse and trochanters black, in the male som - P S themse]ves with the four anterior legs over it, tej
times yellow beneath, the tibiae generally with a pa e rin ; j th botiy as high as possible, and the abdomen Ter''
near the base; the posterior legs, with the coxae black, ^ularly ben^ the ovipositor downward in such a J
having very rarely a rufous mark, oi the outei feU c JLaner that it passed under the belly and thorax, and 1
tirely rufous ; trochanters black, the apex in the ma g - , the hole over which they stood. It not unfre-
nerally rufous ; femora rufous or rufo-fulvous, t le n , happened, when the hole was sufficiently large,
sometimes black, the whole outer side in some cma q ^ l^P abdomen was inserted, and the head, feet,
black; tibiae blackish, with a whitish ring near the ba e and were the only parts of the insects which re¬
in the male sometimes rufous near the apex; tarsi of the ^nd Vaho a contest took place be-
male black, of the female fuscous or fusco-ferruginous ^f^^^X t^e possession of a hole; but they
Abdomen of the male longer, and rather narrow employ their mandibles on these occasions, their
the head and thorax, sub-cylindrical; that of the female ^^^^Sin" endrely of violent concussions of their
a little longer than the head and thorax, sometimes tw,ce 0f thereof, till the weaker party re-
the length of the thorax, and of the ^Xt^crobicu- treated. When a female had obtained full possession of
cylindrical or oblongo-ovate; the first seamen attack could displace her; but she retained
late at the base, the rest with their apical margins some- assailed by a more powerful anta-
what elevated, shining, and generally obsobtely castane- her seat even though y P
ous, in the male sometimes fe"“f1|n0“,*- ®V,p0S1 01 ‘ 8 Genus Metopius, Gray. Abdomen sessile, convey
thVhisnped^u"eposfts£ eggs on the larva of the 8piCal an8teaCUtC1
some kind of moth, and specimens have been obtained (ovipositor concealed;
some K111U 111 1UW111, -vj  - T •
from the pupa of Tinea padella, and Bombyxfuhginosa
It is not a scarce insect on the continent of Europe, and
it occurs both in England and Scotland. Near Cavers,
Roxburghshire, and in the vicinity of Edinburgh.
Sub-genus Ephialtes. Abdomen long, in most instances
tuberculated ; the anterior segments, and generally the
M. necatorius, Grav.; Peltastes necatovius^ Illiger, Cur¬
tis, Brit. Ent.; Ichn. vespoides, Panz. Lat. Length from
five to seven lines. Face concave, the margins elevat¬
ed, either entirely or the sides only yellow, sometimes
with a broad black line or spot in the middle; palpi at
times yellow or ferruginous. Antennae filiform, a little
tuberculated; the anterior segments, anc g ‘ } i t ti,„n t|ie body, seldom entirely black, with the
intermediate ones also, longer than broac, lose . • , a tbe third to the fourteenth ferruginous be-
apex with a longitudinal groove on the under s.de tn the jomte f‘™ t“dcot“in7 ^ dusky. f„rg,he most
females : areolet triangulai . (ovipositor ong). f however all of them are ferruginous beneath, ex-
E. manifestator, Grav.; Ich. mamfestator, Linn. . & P‘ 5 which is either entirely black or yellow on
length of the body, or a aCtwo ’spots on ?he’ back of the metathoray
terior tarsi and tibiae, and sometimes the knees, fuscous, ruginous or fulvous , radix black, rarely p
[he tibia) for the most part ferruginous towards tbe base, squamula black ; areolet transversely tnangu ,
especialTy on the inner side. Abdomen more than one what irregular, sessi e or sub-petiolate. Feet of mode
ralf or Three times longer than the head and thorax, of rate size, the posterior femora incrassate; coxae black,
tbe same breadth as the thorax, or a little narrower, cy- trochanters generally black, ^ TXfThrsides more or
lindrical black, very rarely fuscous; tbe first segment tenor femora usually black, with one of the Sltl^ .
canaliculate the restmore shining, with an obsolete late- less yellow or ferruginous; the middle femora som ^
ral tubercle and elevated margins, the length of the seg- with the apex only ^"J^^XXiora generally yel-
ments from the first to the fifth exceeding their breadth base and apex yellow ; the hinde; ^ entirelv
often by one half. Ovipositor longer than tbe body, low at the base, with the apex black, very rarely e ^
rarely of the same length, the sheath somewhat pilose; black; the tibia) yellow or ferrugmous, the ante„ ^
the tube fuscous or rufo-castaneous, rarely black or straw- ly fuscescent on the outer ^’iv black wi h the inner
coloured, the apex sub-compressed, lanceolate, faintly im- apex more or less blackish, rarely black, witu t
, • i * -i• clferrap-inous • tliG t3.rsi fl3.vO“f6rru£jinouSj or &
pressed with transverse lines. siue mrruginous. me iaihi uavu « b , the
This insect, which is the largest of the European Ich- nous, the posterior with the joints from the secon ,
neumonides, occurs not unfrequently in many parts of fifth dusky. Abdomen twice the length of the h
Europe. It is found in England ; and in Scotland it has scarcely narrower, cylindnc, punctate ; first se«m J
been observed in Roxburghshire, and near Edinburgh, for^ ow? and so^et^enhva;ij0^ spot on
“ On the first of October,” says Gravenhorst, “ I observ- line in the middle, black; the second with a )el 0 ffrom
ed many females of this species on the decaying trunk both sides in the apical angle, sometimes obsoiei , ^
of a willow, about to deposit their eggs. They tra- the third to the fifth, and very rarely the six a ,
versed with much assiduity the barkless trunk, which was the margins, yellow ; the terminal segments occa
perforated with numerous holes, inhabited no doubt by somewhat blackish-blue. tributed.
the larvae of other insects; and so free were they from This species appears, to be pretty generally clis_ ^
apprehension, that when I touched them with my finger It is not unfrequent in England, where it nas . ^
they did not fly off, but only slightly averted their bodies, served to issue from the pupa of Stauropus r y ^
They searched out and examined the holes by means of Curtis conceives this insect to be one of the sexe
their antennae, which were vibrating incessantly, and ex- dentatus.
E N T O M O L O G Y.
pmei
ten:
■rebr
tia.
- Genus Bassus, Grav. Abdomen sessile, depressed;
the first segment flat, of equal breadth ; the terminal seg-
' ments in the female sometimes compressed.
Sub-genus Bassus. Areolet either absent or triangular ;
antennae and feet of moderate size or slender; (ovipositor
sub-exserted, sub-erect).
¥>.flavolineatus, Grav. Length three lines. The head
with a facial spot, the palpi and mandibles yellow, the
latter with the apex black. Antennae porrect, rather
longer than the body. Thorax with the suture before
the wings, and the lateral one between the prothorax and
metathorax, together with a transverse line beneath the
scutellum, yellow. Scutellum with the apex yellow.
Wings smoky-hyaline, iridescent, the stigma and radius
black-fuscous, the radius and squamula yellow. Feet ru¬
fous; the fore legs yellowish beneath, the base of the
coxae black; the hind legs with the tarsi and tibiae black,
the latter white at the base. Abdomen slightly depressed,
the length of the head and thorax, and a little narrower;
the first segment of equal breadth, one half longer than
broad; the remainder transverse. Ovipositor very short,
sub-exserted.
This species has been taken in England by the Rev.
F. W. Hope, near Netley.
Genus Banchus, Grav. Abdomen compressed or sub¬
compressed, sessile or sub-petiolate.
Sub-genus Banchus. Abdomen sessile, rarely sub-
sessile ; areolet sub-rhomboidal, the lower external nerve
of the interior cell sub-arcuate. (Ovipositor conceal¬
ed).
B. falcatorj Grav.; Ich. Venator, Fab.; Ich. falcatorius,
Fab. Gmel. Oliv. Panzer. Length from five and three
fourths to seven lines. Mouth ferruginous, mandibles black
at the base and apex, the external orbits of the eyes,
rarely the internal also, yellow or ferruginous. Antennae
half the length of the body, or a little longer, slender and
incurved towards the apex, beneath rufous or ferruginous,
rarely fusco-ferruginous. Thorax gibbous, generally with
a short sub-testaceous line below the insertion of the
wings. Scutellum tuberculate, rarely sub-acuminate, some¬
times ferruginous, very rarely yellow. Wings middle
sized, fulvo-hyaline or somewhat smoke coloured; the
stigma, radius, radix, and squamula fulvous, rarely ferru¬
ginous, the latter sometimes with a fuscous spot. Feet
elongate, fulvous, for the most part yellow beneath, the
coxse black, occasionally with a ferruginous mark; the
hinder tibiae black at the apex, the tarsi ferruginous or
ferrugino-fuscous. Abdomen longer than the head and
thorax; the first segment gradually a little narrowed to¬
wards the apex, nearly one half longer than broad ; from
the first to the fourth segment narrower than the thorax,
the back fusiform, the belly compressed; from the fifth
to the seventh angular, the back, sides, and belly com¬
pressed ; the first segment seldom wholly black, the apex
being generally brown or rufous or fulvous; tbe second
seldom wholly rufous, or black with a dorsal rufous spot,
but most commonly brown or rufous with the base black,
tlm base rufo-ferruginous, the apex fulvous-yellow ;
t e third with the back either entirely rufous, or the base
or the apex yellow, but more commonly black, with
e base and a point at the apex rufous ; the fourth some-
imes, rarely also the fifth, sixth, and seventh, with the
apex of the back, rufous.
The female of this species differs considerably from the
a^a e, particularly in the markings of the head and tho-
rax. Neither of the sexes is rare, as they have been
a en abundantly both on the continent and in England.
enus Ophion, Grav. Abdomen compressed or sub-
ompressed, petiolate ; antennae filiform.
v u '9e^us Paniscus. Abdomen sub-petiolate compress-
225
ed, the back carinate; areolet triangular; the feet and Hymen op-
antennae somewhat slender ; (ovipositor short). tera
P. testaceus. Length of the male from three to nine, Tere.bran-
of the female from three and three fourths to eight lines.  .
The mandibles black at the apex, the face sometimes yel- "
lowish ; the eyes and ocelli, sometimes also the hinder
part of the head, fuscous or black. The antennae for the
most part obscure or fuscescent at the tip; in the male
rarely fuscous or blackish, the base testaceous-ferrugi¬
nous. Thorax sometimes with longitudinal fuscescent
lines on the back. Wings hyaline or somewhat yellow-
hyaline ; the stigma testaceous or straw-coloured, in the
male sometimes fuscescent, the radius fuscous or testa¬
ceous, the radix and squamula testaceous; areolet irre¬
gular sub-sessile, generally semi-complete, the lower por¬
tion of the exterior nerve obsolete. Feet fulvous, rarely
ferruginous in the male, the hinder tarsi at times of a
paler hue. Abdomen longer, sometimes by one half, than
the head and thorax, compressed, the apex in the male
obtuse, in the female truncate; testaceous, often fusces¬
cent towards the apex, or somewhat fusco-fulvous to¬
wards the base; the sixth, seventh, and apex of the fifth
segment, very rarely black-fuscous ; the first segment gra¬
dually dilated towards the apex, five or six times longer
than broad, the anterior portion nearly one half longer
than the petiole. Ovipositor the length of a fifth or sixth
part of the abdomen, black, the tube castaneous or fus¬
cous. '
This insect is of frequent occurrence throughout the
south of Scotland in the autumn. It is likewise plenti¬
ful in England, and on the continent. It deposits its eggs
on the larvas of various moths, and occasionally on those
of the genus Tenthredo.
Sub-genus Ophion. Abdomen petiolate, compressed,
the back carinate ; areolet absent, the interior cell re¬
ceiving the two recurrent nerves ; feet and antennae slen¬
der, long; (ovipositor scarcely sub-exserted).
O. luteus, Grav. Fab.; Ich. luteus, Linn. Lat. Length of
the male from six to nine, of the female from four to nine
lines. The head in most individuals entirely rufous, or
the internal orbits of the eyes yellow ; rarely yellow, with
the mouth and face, excepting the internal orbits of the
eyes, rufous ; very rarely entirely yellow ; mandibles black
at the apex : eyes and stemmata fuscous or blackish.
Antennae either a little longer or a little shorter than
the body. Thorax testaceous or rufous, very seldom
rufo-ferruginous, the prothorax with two longitudinal
pale lines. Scutellum for the most part pale, sometimes
3rellow. Wings hyaline or somewhat smoky-hyaline;
the stigma, radius, radix, and squamula fulvous or testa¬
ceous, the upper exterior nerve of the interior cell very
seldom incrassate towards the stigma; in most instan¬
ces, however, the rudiment of the nerve dividing the in¬
terior cell is observable, and it is sometimes produced
as far as the middle, rarely beyond the middle of the
cell. Abdomen testaceous, seldom rufous, the belly ge¬
nerally fuscescent, sometimes also fuscescent or black¬
ish towards the apex. Ovipositor scarcely sub-exserted,
blackish.
This species is pretty generally distributed over the
western parts of Europe, and occurs not unfrequently in
England. The female deposits her eggs on the larvas of
Cerura vinula, Noctua prcecox, and other moths. “ Us
y sont fixes,” says Latreille, “ au moyen d’un pedicule
long et delie. Les larves y vivent, ayant 1’extremite pos-
terieure de leur corps engagee dans les pellicules des ceufs
d’ou elle sont sorties, y croissent, sans empecher la che¬
nille de faires sa coque; mais elles finissent par la tuer,
en consumant sa substance interieure, se filent ensuite des
coques, les unes aupres des autres, et en sortent sous la
2 F
226
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop. forme d’ichneumonsf’1 Tlie larvae of another species, O.
' tera moderator, Fab. destroy those of its ally Pimpla strobitellce.
Genus Hellwigia. Abdomen petiolate, compressed ;
antennae clavate.
H. elegaiis. Grav. Length from five to six lines.
Head thick and closely punctate, with two deep irre¬
gular foveae on the forehead, and a longitudinal groove
between the antennae; that of the male yellow, the oc¬
ciput, foveae, and apex of the mandibles black; that of
the female black, the external orbits of the eyes yellow.
Antennae porrect, dilated at the apex a little more than
half the length of the body, and composed of about
thirty joints ; in the male fulvous, yellowish on the un¬
der side towards the base, the first joint fuscous above;
in the female rufous, the fifst three joints black. Thorax
short, gibbous ; two simple or hook-shaped spots before the
neck, a short line under the anterior wings, two points or
a single one under the posterior wings, a perpendicular
line or point at the sides of the thorax, a point under the
scutellum, a large semilunar spot on the metathorax, and
another on each side of it, yellow : all these markings in
the male are larger and more contiguous. Scutellum
yellow. Wings middle-sized, hyaline, the stigma stiaw-
coloured, the radius and nervures piceous or fuscous, the
radix and squamula yellow, beet middle-sized, sub-elon¬
gate ; those of tlie male entirely yellow, the posterior
tarsi rufescent towards the apex, the joints from, the se¬
cond to the fourth black at the base; the anterior feet of
the female yellow, the coxje black, with a small apical
yellow spot, the trochanters black at the base ; the hinder
feet fulvous, the coxa? black, with a yellow spot, the tro¬
chanters yellow, the base black. Abdomen nearly one
half longer than the head and thorax; the first segment
flaggon-shaped, shining, very smooth, the anterior part
scarcely longer than broad, shorter, and one half broader
than the petiole; in the male the first segment black, the
apex yellow, from the second to the fourth testaceous-
rufous or yellow, with the base sub-rufescent, from the
fifth to the seventh yellow, the fifth, and sometimes the
sixth also, with the base, blackish at the side; in the fe¬
male the first, fifth, sixth, and seventh segments black,
with the margin yellow, the intermediate segments ful¬
vous or rufous, with the margin for the most part yellow.
Ovipositor scarcely sub-exserted, black.
The preceding examples will suffice to illustrate Graven-
horst’s mode of treating the Ichneumonides. We shall
now proceed to
Tribe 3d, Gallicol^e.2
These have only a single nervure on the lower wings;
the upper pair offer a few areolets or cells, viz. two at the
base—the brachial, of which the internal is usually incom¬
plete or slightly marked,—one radial and triangular,—
and two or three cubital,—of which the second, in such
as have three, is always very small, and the third very
large, triangular, and closed by the posterior margin of the
wing. The antennae are either of equal thickness, or in¬
crease towards the termination, but not club-shaped, and
are composed of from thirteen to fifteen articulations, the
number when different in the sexes being generally great¬
er in the males. These insects form the old genus Cynips
of Linnaeus (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 20).
Their general form is humped or gibbous, with the head Hyrr;
small, and the thorax thick and elevated. The abdomen
is compressed, carinated, or cutting inferiorly, and trun- Tr¬
eated obliquely, or obtuse, at the extremity. It is furnish- ^
ed in the females with an ovipositor, which seems to con¬
sist of only a single piece, long and delicate, or capillary,
spirally rolled at its base, and attached near the origin
of the abdomen. It is minutely described by Reaumur.3
With this admirable instrument it deposits its eggs in the
leaves and stems of various plants, and on these its punc¬
tures produce those peculiar excrescences known by the
name of gallnuts, so useful when employed along with a
solution of green vitriol, or sulphate of iron, in dyeing
blacks. Some of these insects are apterous. “ Une
espece,” says Latreille, “ depose ses ceufs dans la semence
du figuier sauvage le plus precoce. Les Grecs modernes,
suivant a cet egard une methode que 1’antiquite leur a
transmise, enfilent plusieurs de ces fruits, et les placent
sur les figuiers tardifs ; les Cynips sortent charges de pous-
siere fecondante, s’introduisent dans I’ceil des Agues de
ces derniers, en fecondent les graines et provoquent la
maturite du fruit.”4 This is the process known abroad
by the name of caprification.
The genera of this tribe are Ibalia and Figites, Lat.
and Cynips proper (Diplolepis of Geoff.). Of the genus
last named we have figured C. rosce, its larvae, and the
gall in which the latter dwell (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 20,
22, 23, 26, 27, 28).
Tribe 4th, Chalcidi^:.
These do not differ very materially from the preceding,
except in the antennae, which, with the exception of Eu-
charis, -are geniculate, and form, subsequent to the bend,
an elongated or fusiform club, of which the first articula¬
tion is not unfrequently lodged in a groove. The palpi
are extremely short. The radial cell is usually wranting, and
there is never more than a single cubital cell, which is not
closed. The antennae have not more than twelve articula¬
tions. The modern genera are very numerous, though all
related to the genus Chalcis of Fab. The species are
extremely small, brilliantly ornamented with metallic co¬
lours. Many of them are leapers. The ovipositor is ge¬
nerally composed of three threads, like that of the Ichneu¬
mons, and is salient. The larvae likewise resemble those
of that tribe in being parasitical, and some of them are so
minute as to be able to dwell at large in the interior of in¬
sect eggs, themselves scarcely visible to the naked eye.
We shall here mention only two genera of the tribe, of
each of w hich we have figured an example. Chalcis minuta
(Plate CCXXXI. fig. 25), synonymous with Vespa minuta
of Linn., is extremely common on umbelliferous flowers.
It is black, w ith yellow feet. Another species, C. annulate.
Fab., inhabits the nest of the pasteboard wasp of South
America ( V. nidulans), and appears to have been mistaken
by Reaumur for the female of that insect. Our other re¬
presentative, Leucospis dorsigera (ibid. fig. 24), is black,
with the abdomen almost as long again as the thorax,^ and
marked with three bands and two spots of yellow. Ihere
is a transverse yellow7 line upon the scutellum, and two
others of the same colour on the anterior portion of the
thorax. The female deposits her eggs in the nests of ma¬
son-bees.5 *
1 Regnc Animal, t. v. p. 287- 3 Mem. sur les Inscctes, t. iii. p. 483, et seq.
2 We now resume the system of Latreille. 4 Regne Animal, t. v. p. 292.
5 For the other genera and species, see, besides, Regne Animal (t. v. pp. 295-9), Latreille’s Genera Crust, et Insect, t. iv.; Klugs^”'
tomologische Monographien ; Dal man’s Analecta Entomologica, and the Monographs and Memoirs of the same author; Maximilian P
nola’s Merrunre sur les DiploUpaires; Mr Westwood on Parasitic Hymenoptera {Phil. Mag. 3d series, No. 3); Mr Halliday’s Essay o
the same subject in Entom. Mag. No. 3 ; Mr Walker’s Monographic Chalcidum, published in the initiatory numbers of the last-nam
periodical; and a similar Monograph by M. Boyer de Foscolombe, in the Ann. des Sciences Nat. for July 1832.
yme
'ten
;rebi
tia.
ENTOMOLOGY.
227
?■ Tribe 5th, Oxiuri, Lat.
This tribe resembles the preceding so far as concerns
, the want of nervures in the lower wings, but the abdomen
of the female is terminated by a tubular and conical ovipo¬
sitor, sometimes internal and exsertile, proceeding like a
sting from the anal extremity, sometimes permanently ex¬
ternal, and forming a kind of tail. The antennae are com¬
posed of from ten to fifteen articulations, and are in some
cases filiform or slightly enlarged towards the extremity,
in others clubbed in the females. The maxillary palpi in
several are long and pendant.
The minor genera which compose this tribe are all more
or less related to the genus Bethylus of Fabricius and
Latreille. The only example we have here adduced is
that of Diapria elegans (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 1), an in¬
sect belonging to a genus in which the wings have no
cells. The maxillary palpi are projecting, and the anteh-
nse have fourteen joints in the male, and only twelve in
the female.1
Tribe 6th, Chrysides, Lat.
This tribe agrees with the three preceding in the want
of nervures in the lower wings ; but the ovipositor of the
female is formed by the terminal segments of the abdo¬
men, which somewhat resemble in their construction the
tubes of a telescope, and are terminated by a little sting.2
The abdomen, which in the female seems to be compos¬
ed of only three or four segments, is arched or plain be¬
neath, and is capable of being applied against the chest,—
in which attitude the insect assumes the form of a ball.
This tribe includes the old genus Chrysis of Linnaeus, and
is remarkable for the extreme richness and brilliant lustre
displayed by the colouring of many species. In these re¬
spects they rival the gorgeous humming-birds, and are
known under the name of gilded wasps,—the guepes dories
of our continental neighbours. They are lovers of the
cheerful sunshine, and during the bright days of early sum¬
mer may be seen moving about in a state of great vivacity,
almost of agitation, on walls, old timber, and other objects
exposed to the gladdening influence of heat and light.
They are also found on flowers, “ beautifying the beauti-
iul,” and adding to their gorgeous petals all that is want¬
ing to complete the glory of the “ lilies of the field,”—a
burnished or metallic lustre.3
The body of these insects is covered by a very solid in¬
tegument. Their antennae are filiform, geniculate, vibra-
file, and composed of thirteen articulations in both sexes,
d he mandibles are arched, narrow, and pointed. The
maxillary palpi are usually longer than the labial, filiform,
and composed of five unequal articulations;—the labial
consist of three. The ligula is for the most part emargi-
nate. The thorax is semicylindrical, and exhibits several
impressed and transverse lines. The abdomen in the
gi eater number is semi-oval, truncated at the base, and
appears at first sight as if attached to the thorax by its en-
ire breadth. The terminal segment is frequently marked
v large punctures, and terminates in dentations.
these beautiful creatures deposit their eggs in the nests
o the solitary mason-bees, and in those of other Hymenop-
eia. Their larvae sustain themselves by devouring the
lawful inhabitants.
rrYYYTr’ „suc\ as the genus Parnopes, Lat. (PlateHymenop-
LLXXX1I. fig. 2), the maxillae and labrum are very long, tera
and form a kind of false proboscis, bent underneath. The -^culeata.
palpi are small and biarticulate. The example figured,
-P. carnea, deposits its eggs in the nest of JBembex rostrata.
In Chrysis proper there is no false proboscis. The
maxillary palpi are of medium size, or elongated, and com¬
posed of five articulations ; the labial consist of three. Se¬
veral analogous genera are recognised by naturalists, such
as Hedychrum, Lat. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 3), in which
the maxillary palpi are much longer than the labial, the
ligula emarginate, and the abdomen rounded and entire at
the extremity.4
ACULEATA.*
This, the second primary section of the hymenopterous
order, is distinguished from the preceding by the want of an
ovipositor. That organ is represented by a sting composed of
three parts, concealed and retractile. It is characteristic of
the females, and likewise exists in those individuals (imper¬
fect in a sexual point of view) commonly called neuters,
which constitute so important a feature in the social union of
the gregarious kinds. It is, however, wanting in several of
the ant tribe,—in which case the insect defends itself by
ejecting an acid liquid, elaborated and contained in special
reservoirs.0 Our present Hymenoptera have always simple
antennae, composed of a constant number of articulations,
that is, thirteen in the males and twelve in the females.
The palpi are usually filiform ; those of the maxillae, which
are frequently the longer, have six articulations,—the la¬
bial only four. The mandibles of the males are smaller,
and generally less toothed, than in the others-. All the
wings are veined. The abdomen, united to the thorax by
a thread or pedicle, is composed of seven segments in the
males, and of six in the females.
The larvae in this family are never furnished wfith feet.
Their food is supplied to them by females or neuters, and
varies in its nature according to the different kinds. La¬
treille divides the section into four families.
FAMILY I.—HETEROGYNA.T
The species of this family consist of individuals which
differ from each other not only in their sexual characters,
but in the presence or absence of the wings, and in other
particulars. In all, the antennae are geniculate, and the
ligula small, rounded and hollowed, or spoon-shaped.
Some live in society, and consist of three kinds of in¬
dividuals, of which two, that is, the males and females,
are winged, and the third or neuters are apterous. In
the two latter kinds the antennae gradually increase in
thickness, and the length of the first articulation equals at
least the third part of their total extent; the second is al¬
most as long as the third, and has the form of a reversed
cone. The labrum of the neuters is large and corneous,
and falls perpendicularly beneath the mandibles. These
Hymenoptera comprise the genus Formica of Linnaeus.
As a separate treatise under the article Ant8 has been
already devoted in this work to the elucidation of the his-
F or the other genera, see Reffne Animal, t. v. pp. 300-2; Genera Crust, et Insect, t. iv.; Dalman’s Analecta Eniomol. ; and Jurine’s
uymenoptercs.
3 details are given by Degeer in his Mem. sur les Insectes, t. ii. p. 834, pi. 28.
idorn ^ • 38 We are coinPetent to judge, plants and the mammalia seldom seem to exhibit a metallic surface. But that glowing
4 ment is frequent among foreign birds, and the subjects of our present treatise.
s ee a Monograph of the Chrysides, by Pelletier de St Fargeau, in the Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. vii. p. 115.
, ^rorn aculeus, a sting. ’ From tripos, other or different, and yum, female.
Journal de Physique, September 1828. 8 See vol. iii. p. 239.
228
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hymenop- tory and habits of these admirable insects, so long noted
for their foresight and industry, we shall not occupy our
tera
Aculeata. remaining space by repetition, but shall proceed to a brief
sketch of the classification of the species, as promised at
the conclusion of the article just referred to. Latreille di¬
vides the genus Formica as follows :—
ls£, The genus Formica properly so called. These want
the sting; the antennae are inserted near the front; the
mandibles are triangular, dentated, and incisive; and the
pedicle of the abdomen is never composed but of a single
squama or knot.
Of the European species we may mention F. rufa, Lat.,
of which the workers measure about four lines in length,
and are of a blackish colour, with a great part of the head,
the thorax, and the knot, fulvous. The thorax is uneven.
The stemmatic eyes are discernible. This species builds
in woods, and forms a dome-like or sugar-loaf shaped ha¬
bitation of considerable size, composed of earth and frag¬
ments of wood, &c. Formic acid is obtained chiefly from
this insect. The winged individuals make their appear¬
ance in spring. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 4.) F. sanguined,
Lat., resembles the preceding in its workers; but the co¬
lour is sanguine red, with an ashy-black abdomen. It like¬
wise dwells in woods, and is one of the species named
Amazons or legionnaires by M. Huber. I1 • cunicularia,
Lat., has the head and abdomen of the workers black.
Around the mouth, the under parts of the head, the first
joint of the antennae, the thorax, and feet, pale fulvous.
The worker of F.fusca, Linn., is of an ashy-black, shining,
with the base of the antennae and the feet reddish. The
squama or knot is large, almost triangular, and there is an
appearance of three stemmatic eyes. Both these species
are attacked by the Amazons, carried off, and enslaved.
2d, The genus Polyergus, Lat. In these the sting is
likewise wanting ; but the antennae are inserted near the
mouth, and the mandibles are narrow, arcuated, or strong¬
ly hooked. In this genus is placed the F. roussatre of Lat.
so common in France. It is this species which is more
particularly named Amazon by M. Huber the younger.
. Qd, The genus Ponera, Lat. In these the workers and
the females are armed with a sting. The pedicle of the ab¬
domen is formed of a single scale or knot; the antennae of
the individuals just mentioned are thickened towards the
extremity; the mandibles are triangular, and the head is
also nearly of that form, without remarkable emargination
at its posterior extremity. F. contracta of Lat., A.vhich oc¬
curs near Paris, belongs to this division. The worker seems
scarcely provided with eyes, and lives under stones in not
very numerous groups. It is very small, black, nearly cy¬
lindrical, with the antennae and feet of a yellowish brown.
kth, The genus Myrmica, Lat. In these there is also a
sting; but the pedicle of the abdomen is formed of two
knots. The antennae are exposed, the maxillary palpi are
long, with six distinct articulations, and the mandibles are
triangular. Such is the fourmis rouge of Latreille, of
which the worker is reddish, finely chagrined, with the ab¬
domen smooth and shining. There is a spine upon the
first knot of the pedicle, and the third segment is brown¬
ish. This species occurs in woods, and bites sharply.
bih, The genus Atta of Fabricius, which scarcely differs
from Myrmica, except by its very short palpi, of which the
maxillary are composed of less than six articulations. The
head of the workers is usually very large. The species
which serves as the type of the genus in the works of Fa¬
bricius, Jurine, and Latreille, is the fourmis de visite, or
Atta cephalotes of systematic writers. It is a foreign in-
sect, and seems to agree with that figured by Madame Me-
rian.1 This creature burrows in the earth, to the extent, it
is said, of six or eight feet. It however leaves its subter¬
ranean dwelling for a time once a year, and enters dwelling-
houses, where it attacks and destroys every other kind of
inconvenient insect. If during these predatory incursions
they find an intervening space which they cannot cross, a
party volunteer to form a chain of their own bodies linked
together, over which, as by abridge, the main body passes.
6th, The genus Cryptocerus of Lat., of which the spe¬
cies are also furnished with a sting, and have the abdomen
of the pedicle formed of two knots ; but the head, which is
large and flat, has a groove on each side for the reception
of a part of the antennae. They are peculiar to South
America.2
The other Heterogyna live in solitude, and each species
is composed of only two kinds of individuals, winged males
and apterous females,—the latter always provided with a
strong sting. The antennae are filiform or setaceous, vi-
bratile, with the first and third articulations elongated;
the length of the former, however, never equalling that of
the third part of the total length of the antennae. They
form the genus Mutilla of Linnaeus, which has been sub¬
divided into Dorylus, Fab. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 6), pe¬
culiar to Africa and the East Indies ; Labidus, Jurine, pro¬
per to South' America; and Mutilla properly so called
(ibid. fig. 5). Of the latter, M. Europcea, Linn., is black,
with a red thorax, and three white bands on the abdomen.
The female is armed with a powerful sting. The manners
of the Mutillae seem little known. We are not ourselves ac¬
quainted with the nature of their metamorphosis. They
love warm sunny places, and sandy soils. The females being
apterous, are always found pon the ground, concealed
under stones, or lurking in little holes. The males are
seen on flowers, or by the sides of dusty paths, and other
places frequented by the females. The genus is exten¬
sive, Olivier and Klug having described a great many spe-
Hjf
A*
cies.3
FAMILY II—FOSSORES.4
This family comprises such of the stinging Hymenop-
tera as are winged in both sexes, and of solitary habits. The
legs of several are adapted for digging. The ligula is always
more or less widened at the extremity, and never filiform or
sectaceous. The wings are alwyays extended. The old genus
Sphex is the principal representative of this family.
The females of these insects deposit their eggs in little
prepared chambers in the earth or in wood, and place along¬
side of them a supply of insects or their larvae. 1 hey also
pierce spiders with their stings, and close them up as pro¬
vision for their young. The larvae are without feet, an
spin a cocoon before passing into the nympha state. |he
perfect insects are in general extremely active, and hve
among flowers. The maxilla and the labium are elongate ,
and assume in several the form of a trunk. The numerous
minor genera derived in recent times from the genus just
named, are distributed by Latreille into seven principal
tribes.
1 Insectes de Surinam, ed. of 1726, p. 18, tab. 18.
2 Besides the article Ant of this work, see the noted volume by Huber the younger, entitled Recherches sur les Mceurs des Fourma
indigenes, and Latreille’s Histoire Naturclle des Fourmis.
3 In Encyclop. Meth. and Act. Phys. Med. Acad. Ccesar. Leopold, t. x. pars 2. Latreille has also publislied a monograph of the French
ecies in the Actes de la Soc. d'JIist. JVat. de Paris, and a great numbe:
species
* Yromfossor, a digger,
great number are figured by Coquebert in his Iconographia Insectorum.
rm
O L O G Y. 229
The legs are always short, or of moderate length. The Hymenop-
head, seen from above, appears transverse, and the eyes tera
extend as far as the exterior border. The abdomen forms Aculeata.
an elongated semi-cone, rounded on the sides, near the
base. I he labrum is entirely exposed, or very salient. *
Of this tribe the species are characteristic of the warm¬
er countries of the earth. Their body is elongated, point¬
ed posteriorly, almost always varied with black and yellow,
or reddish, and smooth. The antennae are approximate at
the base, slightly geniculate at the second article, and en¬
larged towards the extremity. The mandibles are narrow,
lengthened, dentated on the inner side, and crossed. The
tibiae and tarsi are provided with little spines or cilia, which
are particularly obvious on the anterior tarsi of the females.
There are frequently one or two raised teeth beneath the
abdomen of the male. The flight of these insects is ex¬
tremely rapid, and they dart from flower to flower with a
sharp and interrupted sound. Several species smell of the
odour of roses.
In a certain number we find a false trunk, bent under¬
neath, with the labrum in the form of an elongated tri¬
angle.
Of these, some have the palpi very short; the maxillary
possessing four, the labial two articulations. Such is Bem-
bex rostrata, Fab. {Apis rostrata, Linn.), Plate CCXXXII.
fig. 11, a large black insect, with transverse bands of citron
yellow upon the abdomen. This is a well-known Euro¬
pean species. The female digs deep holes in a sandy soil,
in which she places the carcasses of other insects, especially
Syrphi, and other two-winged flies. Among these she lays
her eggs, and then places a plug in the hole. Another
hymenopterous insect, however, Parnopes earned, possesses
a strong instinctive desire to deposit her eggs in the sub¬
terraneous nest of the Bembex. As soon as the latter per¬
ceives its natural enemy hovering around its dwelling, it
attacks it with the greatest fierceness, and endeavours to
thrust its sting through its body,—an attempt, however,
which is seldom successful, owing to the hardness of the
Parnopes’s skin. Others have the maxillary palpi elongat¬
ed, and with six articulations,—the labial with four. Such
is the genus Monedula of Lat.
In the remainder of this family there is no false trunk,
and the labrum is short and rounded, e. g. the genus Sti-
zus of Jurine.
E N T o M
In the first two the eyes are often emarginate. The
[ body of the males is usually narrow, elongated, and termi-
r nated posteriorly, in a great number, by three spinous points
'' or dentations.
Tribe 1st, Scolietes, Lat.
The first segment of the thorax is sometimes in the form
of a bow, and prolonged laterally as far as the wings, some¬
times of a transverse square, or resembling a knot or arti¬
culation. The legs are short, thick, very spiny or ciliated,
with the thighs arched near the knee. The antennae are
sensibly shorter than the head and thorax in the females.
The genera are Tiphia, Fab. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 7) ;
Myzine, Lat.; Meria, Illiger; and Scolia, Fab. (ibid.
fig. sy
Tribe 2d, Sapigytes.
The first segment of the thorax is formed like that of
the preceding group, and the legs are also short, but slen¬
der, and neither spiny nor strongly ciliated. The antennae
in both sexes are at least as long as the head and thorax.
The body is usually either smooth, or but slightly pubes¬
cent. The genera are Thynnus, Fab.; Polochrum, Spi-
nola; and Sapyga, Lat.
Tribe 3d, Sphegides, Lat.
These still resemble the preceding in the extent and
form of the first segment of the thorax ; but the posterior
legs are at least once again as long as the head and thorax.
The antennae are often slender, formed of lengthened arti¬
culations, lax, or not compactly set, and curved or arcu¬
ated, at least in the males.
Of this tribe a certain number have the first segment of
the thorax of a square form, whether transverse or longitu-
I dinal, and the abdomen is attached by a very short pedi¬
cle. The inner side of the posterior tibiae is usually fur¬
nished with a brush or pellet of hairs. The upper wings
have three or two complete or closed cubital cells, and a
terminal one which is imperfect. The genera are Pepsis,
Fab. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 9), of which the species, abun¬
dant in South America and the Antilles, are large, with
coloured wings ; Ceropales, Lat.; Pompilus, Fab. (ibid,
fig. 10), of which the species feed their young with spiders ;
Planiceps, Lat.; and Aporus, Spinola.
Others of the same tribe have the first segment of the
thorax narrowed in front, in the form of a knot or joint;
and the first segment of the abdomen, and sometimes even
a portion of the second, narrowed into an elongated pe¬
dicle. The upper wings always exhibit three complete
cubital cells, and the commencement of a fourth. The
genera are, Ammophilus, Kirby, of which we may men¬
tion, as an example, Sphex sabulosa, Linn., the female of
which digs holes in the earth by the sides of paths and
highways, in which she deposits a caterpillar mortally
wounded, and then lays an egg beside it,—the said egg
soon producing another larva, which, though much smaller,
being in good health, immediately eats the sick one ; Sphex,
Projgeus, Chlorion,2 and Dolichurus, Lat.; Ampulex,
Jur.; Podium and Pelop^us, Lat.
Tribe 4th, Bembecides, Lat.
In these the first segment of the thorax forms only a
inear and transverse border, of which the two lateral ex¬
tremities are distant from the origin of the upper wings.
Tribe 5th, Larrates, Lat.
These in their general aspect resemble the preceding,
but their labrum is either entirely or in great part conceal¬
ed, and there is a deep emargination on the inner side of
the mandibles,—a character which distinguishes them both
from those which precede and those which follow.
In some the upper wings have three closed cubital cells,
of which the second receives the two recurrent nervures.
Such are the genera Palarus, Lat., Lyrops, Illiger, and
Larra, Fab. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 13). In others the
upper wings have only two closed cubital cells, each of
which receives a recurrent nervure. Such are Dinetus
and Miscopus, Jurine.
Tribe 6th, Nyssones, Lat.
In this family the labrum is likewise entirely or in great
part concealed. The maxillae and labium do not form a
trunk, and the mandibles have no emargination on the in¬
ner side. The head is of ordinary size, and the abdomen
is triangular or ovoid-conical, becoming gradually narrower
‘ the anatomy of the Scolia;, see Dufour’s Observations in the Journal de September 1818. „ , roa , es tQ
2 lor the singular habits of C. cumpressum, common in the Isle of France, where it attac s, s ays, . ^
hs young, see Sonnerat’s Voyage aux Indes Orientates ; Iteaumur’s Memoires, t. vi. p. 280; 01 ie .
230 E N T O M
Hymenop-from the base towards the extremity, and never borne upon
tera. a long pedicle. The antennae are filiform, with the first
Aculeata. articulation slightly elongated.
In the genera Astata, Nysson, Oxybelus,1 andNiTE-
la, Lat., the eyes are entire ; in Pison of Spinola they are
emarginate.
Tribe 7th, Crabronites, Lat.
In this, the concluding tribe of Fossores, the head is
usually very large, and when viewed from above seems al¬
most square. The antenna; are often enlarged towards
the extremity, or club-shaped. The abdomen is either oval
or elliptical, and broadest about the middle,—or narrowed
at the base into a lengthened pedicle, and as if terminated
’ by a club.
In some the antennae are inserted beneath the middle of
the anterior part of the head, and the chaperon is short and
broad. In the genus Trypoxylon, Lat. the eyes are emar¬
ginate. Of these, one of the most remarkable is T.figulus
(Sphex figulus of Linn.), Plate CCXXXII. fig. 13. The
female deposits her eggs in holes in old timber, along with
a supply of little spiders, which she closes up with moist
earth. In the remainder the eyes are entire. In the genus
Crabro of Fab. (ibid. fig. 15) many of the males are re¬
markable for a. peculiar dilatation of the anterior tibiae, re¬
sembling a slender shell, convex without and concave with¬
in, and pervaded by a multitude of little holes, or rather of
transparent points. They somewhat resemble the well-
known expansions on the fore-feet of the male Dytisci, and
probably serve for the same end.2 In the perfect state these
insects seem to feed on the nectareous juices of flowers; but
the larvae are extremely greedy of animal food. The female
parent forms holes in the earth, in each of which she depo¬
sits an egg along with the body of a captured insect. She
then, as usual, closes up the orifice, and the entombed prey,
whether dead or alive, is soon attacked and eaten by the
young larva to which the egg gives birth. Dipterous in¬
sects form their most frequent food, although C. cribrarius
is observed to seize upon the caterpillar of a Pyralis which
inhabits the oak. Walckenaer observed several species
hovering incessantly around the nests of a solitary bee
named Halictus terebrator, which they seemed much in¬
clined to enter.3 The remaining genera of this division of
the Crabronites are Stigmus, Jur.; Pemphedron, Lat., of
which P. unicolor feeds its young on Aphides ; Mellinus,
Fab. (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 16) ; and Alyson, Jurine.
In other Crabronites the antennae are inserted higher up
or towards the middle of the face, and are usually enlarged
towards the termination, or even club-shaped. In the
genus Psen of Lat. the clypeus is almost square, and the
abdomen is borne upon an abruptly formed and elongated
pedicle, composed of the first segment. The mandibles
terminate in two teeth. In Philanthus of Fab. the cly¬
peus is trilobed, and the first segment of the body is at
most restricted in the manner of a knot. The mandibles
terminate in a simple point. The females of this genus
dig holes in the sand, in which they bury the carcasses of
bees, Andrenae, and even of Curculionides, for the nourish¬
ment of their young.4 5
O L O G Y.
FAMILY III.—DIPLOPTERA.*
This is the only family of the section in which the up¬
per wings are longitudinally folded.6 The antennae are
generally geniculate, and clubbed, or enlarged towards the
extremity. The eyes are emarginate. The prothorax is
prolonged posteriorly on each side to the origin of the
wings, of which the superior have three or two closed cu¬
bital cells, the second of which receives the two recurrent
nervures. The body is smooth, or nearly so, black, and
more or less spotted with yellow or fawn colour. Many
of the species dwell in temporary societies, composed of
three kinds of individuals, males, females, and workers or
neuters. A few females which have withstood the rigour
of the winter season commence the building of the nest,
and attend to the young first produced, which are usually
neuters—and these speedily aid their parent in all matters
of household management. The family is composed of
two tribes.
Tribe 1st, Masarides.
In these the antenna; seem at first sight to be composed
of only eight articulations; the eighth forming with the
ensuing ones an almost solid mass, rounded or obtuse at
the end, with the articulations indistinct. The ligula is
terminated by two threads capable of being withdrawn
within a tube formed by its base. The upper wings have
only two complete cubital cells. The middle of the ante¬
rior margin of the clypeus is emarginate, and receives the
labrum in that emargination. The genera are few in num¬
ber. In Masaris proper (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 17), the
antennae, a little longer than the head and thorax, have the
first article lengthened, and the eighth forming an obconic
club, rounded at the extremity. The abdomen is long.
In Celonites, Lat. the antennae are scarcely longer than
the head, and their first two articulations are much shorter
than the third; the eighth and following form an almost
globular body. The abdomen is scarcely longer than the
thorax.
Tribe 2d, Vespiari^.
In these the antennae always exhibit distinctly thirteen
articulations in the male and twelve in the female, and
terminate in an elongated mass, pointed, and sometimes
hooked (in the males) at the end; they are always geni¬
culate, at least in the females and neuters. The ligula is
sometimes divided into four plumose filaments, sometimes
into three lobes, having four glandular points at the end,
one on each lateral lobe, and the two others on the inter¬
mediate one, which is larger, widened, and emarginate or
bifid at the extremity. The mandibles are strong and
dentated. The clypeus is large. Beneath the labrum
there is a little piece in the form of a ligula, analogous to
that which Reaumur observed in certain bees (bourdons),
and which M. Savigny names epipharynx. With the ex¬
ception of a small amount of species, the upper wings have
three complete cubital cells. The females and neuters are
armed with a very strong and venomous sting. Several
1 The Oxybeli lay their eggs in little nests in sandy soils exposed to the sun. They store up a collection of dead flies for the use
of their young.
2 See Degeer, Memoircs, t. ii. p. 810, pi. 28. 3 Memoires pour servir a VHistoire Naturelledes Abcilks solitaires.^
4 Me have been under the necessity of doing little more than indicate the names of the generic groups in the family of Fossores.
For the details the reader is referred to the corresponding articles in the Encyclop. Mith. and the Diction. Class. A'Hist. Nat; to the
Jtcgne Animal, t. v. pp. 316-32, and more particularly to M. Van der Linden’s Observations sur les Hymenopteres d'Europe de la FamiM
des Fouisseurs.
5 From double, and a-rs^a, •wings, in reference to the folding of these organs.
s fhe character however is not universal,—the genus Ceramius, Lat. of which Klug has published a monograph, forming eX‘
ception.
ii i
ENTOMOLOGY.
lym 'P'
| te
Icul |.a.
species live in societies composed of three kinds of indi¬
viduals.
The larvae of these insects are without feet, and each is
enclosed in a cell where it is fed, according to its kind,
either on the bodies of insects carried thither by the mo¬
ther at the period of oviposition, or on the nectar of
flowers, the juices of fruits and of animal matter, elaborat¬
ed in the stomach of the parent, or in that of the workers,
and carefully supplied from day to day. This tribe cor¬
responds to the genus Vespa of Linn.
The genus Ceramius of Lat. differs from all the others
in having the superior wings stretched or extended, and
in the amount of the cubital cells, of which there are only
two. The labial palpi are moreover longer than those of
the maxillae. The species occur in South Africa, and the
warmer regions of Europe.1
In all the following genera the superior wings are fold¬
ed, and present three complete cubital cells.
Sometimes the mandibles are much longer than broad,
and approximate anteriorly in the form of a rostrum. The
ligula is narrow and elongate. The clypeus is nearly
heart-shaped or oval, with the point anterior, and more or
less truncate. All the species are solitary, and each is
composed of only males and females. The latter provision
their young both before their birth and during the con¬
tinuance of the larva state. Their nests are usually form¬
ed of earth, and are either concealed in the holes of walls,
beneath the ground, in old wood, or are external, and
placed on plants. Each nest contains a supply of cater¬
pillars or other larvae, which the female piles up in a circu¬
lar form. She sometimes also stores up spiders, which she
has the precaution previously to pierce with her sting.
In the genus Synagris, Lat. the ligula is divided into
four long plumose filaments, without glandular points at
their extremity. The mandibles of some of the males are
very large. The species are few in number, and charac¬
teristic of Africa. In Eumenes, Lat. the ligula is divided
into three portions, glandular at their extremity. The ab¬
domen in some is ovoid or conical, and thicker at the
base. Such are Pterochile of Klug, remarkable for the
great length of the labium and maxillae, and for their la¬
bial palpi beset with long hairs, and composed of only three
distinct articulations. In Odynerus, Lat. those parts of
the mouth are much shorter, the labial palpi are nearly
smooth, and consist of four perceptible divisions. Vespa
muraria of Linn, belongs to this genus. It is described
oy Reaumur.2 The female perforates deep holes in sand,
or in the plaster of walls, at the orifice of w hich she forms
an outer tube, at first straight, afterwards recurved, and
™mP°sed of an earthy paste, arranged in thick contorted
reads. In the cavity of the interior cell she heaps up
rom eight to twelve little green larvae of the same age,
isposing them in beds one above another, in a circular
orm. After depositing her egg, she closes the mouth of
. e 10l?> and destroys the outward scaffolding. The ab-
omen in others has its first segment narrow and elongat-
• !n the 10rm of a pear, and the second bell-shaped. Such
If &enus Eumenes proper, of which E. coarctata, Fab.
n, ns,ruc*;* a spherical nest of fine earth on the stems of
k n k ^ le fill® it with honey, according to Geoffroy, and
then deposits an egg.
havpm^mfiS ^ mancfibles, scarcely longer than wide,
lien] ^ r?aC °fifi(lue truncation at their extremity. The
iL™*18 S IOrt’ or l)ut slightly elongated. The clypeus is
>r wn SClUare‘ These insects constitute the genus Vespa,
•0 • ‘ Ps Properly so called. They unite in numerous as-
°ns, composed of males, females, and neuters. The
231
ast two kinds detach particles of old wood or bark with Hvmenop-
leir mandibles, reduce and moisten them to the con- tera
sistence of a paste resembling paper or pasteboard in its Aculeata.
nature, and construct nests containing horizontal combs
suspended from above by one or more pedicles; on the
m error side there is a range of vertical cells in the form
of hexagonal and truncated pyramids. These cells serve
solely as lodgings for the isolated larvae and nymphs. The
amount of combs forming the same nest varies ; and the nest
itself is sometimes open or exposed, sometimes surrounded
by an envelope, pierced by a common and almost always
central opening, which corresponds with a string of holes
for the purposes of internal communication, if the edges of
the combs adhere to the inner side of the external cover-
ing. I hese singular constructions are sometimes sus¬
pended to the branches of plants in the open air, some¬
times concealed beneath the earth or in the hollows of old
tiees. Their form likewise varies according to the species.
The females commence their labours in spring, and in
the first place in a state of solitude. In a nest of small
dimensions they deposit the eggs of neuters or workers,
which, as soon as they are hatched and attain maturity, en¬
large the dwelling, and assist in rearing additional mem¬
bers of the body politic. For a considerable time the so¬
ciety consists only of the original founder of the colony,
that is, the female parent, and of neuters. Towards the
end of summer or beginning of autumn, young males are
hatched, along with additional females. But all such larvae
and nymphs as have not completed their final metamor¬
phosis before the month of November are murdered by
the neuters, and torn from their cells. These destroyers
are themselves ere long destroyed, in common with the
males, by the first frosts of winter. The latter sex never
work. A few females alone survive the rigours of the win¬
ter season, and these again, on the return of spring, be¬
come each the founder of a new but equally transitory em¬
pire. Of the death and desolation which is so soon to
overtake their busy race, the genus irritabile is, however,
all unconscious during the glad summer days, or those of
the fruitful autumn, in which they ply their never-ceasing
labours:—
So fails, so languishes, grows dim, and dies,
All that this world is proud of;
and hymenopterous and human kingdoms, alike decay and
perish. The polity of wasps, we may observe, is not so
exclusively monarchical as that of bees. It partakes ra¬
ther of the republican order, as many females dwell toge¬
ther in amity during the autumnal season. These Vespae
are almost omnivorous. They prey on other insects, on
flesh and fruits of every kind, especially when ripe and
sweet. They appear to an uninstructed eye as very glut¬
tonous ; but their apparent greed becomes more excusable,
when we consider that they are catering, not for them¬
selves, but for a numerous and otherwise unprovided off¬
spring. The larvae, in consequence of the peculiar posi¬
tion of the opening of their cells, lie in a reversed posi¬
tion, with their heads dowmwards. When about to pass
into the nympha state, they shut up their cells, and fabri¬
cate a cocoon.
In several species, that portion of the inner margin of
the mandibles which is beyond the angle, and terminates
it, is shorter than that which precedes the angle. The
central part of the front of the clypeus is pointed. These
belong to the genus Polistes of Lat. and Fab. in which
we class P. morio from Cayenne. Its nest is large, in the
form of a truncated cone, pierced inferiorly and at one side.
It is composed of very thick pasteboard. Here also are
See Klug’s Entomologische Monographien, p. 219, et seq.
2 Memoires, vi. xxxvi. 1-10.
232
ENTOMOLOGY.
ten
Hymenop-placed the Vespa gallica of Linn, and the V. nidvlans of
tera Fab. P. ZeeAe^wana1 is a species whic we owe to . ug. Deaeer, the Andrenae of Fabricius, and the Me-jW
Aculeata. gt Hilaire, who brought it trom the interior of Brazil. Its mur ana pegeer, uie xx tZl
than the sheath, and bent upwards in some, almost straight;
in others. They correspond to the Pro-abeilles of Reau-
combs contain an excellent honey, resembling in consist¬
ence that of our own domestic species, but possessing at
times the singular quality of rendering those who eat it
furious, or void of reason. It has been known from an¬
cient times that common honey is occasionally possessed
of very deleterious properties, arising probably from the
nature or condition of the flowers from which it is co -
lected. The naturalist just named, and two men by whoin
he was accompanied, nearly perished in consequence of
eating of the Brazilian honey in its poisonous state.
In other wasps the superior portion of the inner margin
of the mandibles, or that which succeeds the angle, is as
long if not longer than the other portion of that margin.
The central part of the front of the clypeus is widely trun¬
cated. The abdomen is always ovoid or conical. j;^ese
constitute the genus Vespa properly so called, of La-
treille. The French entomologist here places the K cm-
bro, Linn., which we call the hornet. (I late CLXAXli.
fig. 18.) It builds its nest in sheltered places, such as
barns, old walls, wooden posts, and hollow trees. It is
of a roundish shape, composed of coarse materials, and re¬
sembles an old leaf in colour. This species devours other
insects, and robs bees of their honey. Though a well-
known English insect, it has not yet been found in bcot-
land. The common wasp, V. vulgaris (ibid. fig. 19),
forms a somewhat similar nest; but it is composed of finer
paper, contains a greater number of combs, and is shelteied
in a hole in the earth. V. media, Lat. is intermediate as
to size between the two preceding. It hangs its paper
dwelling beneath the branch of a bush or tree. The nest
of V. holsatica, Fab. is worthy of a brief record. It is al¬
most globular, pierced at the top, and enclosed beneath
in a kind of saucer. It is sometimes observed abroad, in
barns, or attached to the beams of garrets, and has even
been found in hives. It is not unknown in Britain.
FAMILY IV.-t-ANTHOPHILA,2 Lat.
In this, the last family of the stinging Hymenoptera, we
find a peculiar power existing in the two posterior legs,
that of collecting the pollen of flowers.3 This character
distinguishes our present groups fi-om those of every other
family of insects. The first articulation of the tarsi of the
hinder legs is very large, compressed, and in the form of a
square pallet, or of a reversed triangle. The maxillae and
the labium are usually very long, and constitute a kind of
trunk. The ligula is generally shaped like the head of a
lance, or resembles a lengthened filament, of which the ex¬
tremity is silken or hairy. The larvae are fed exclusively
on honey, or the fecundating pollen of flowers, dhe per¬
fect insects restrict their own diet to the nectareous juices
of flowers, and (when Flora’s kingdom has fallen before
the approach of winter) to the secretion which they form
from these, which we call honey. These Hymenoptera, em¬
bracing the great genus Apis of Linnaeus, are divided by
Latreille into two sections.
littae of Kirby.4 .
The Andrenetae are solitary insects, and consist of onl •
males and females. Their mandibles are simple, or termi
nated at most by two dentations. I he labial palpi resem
ble the maxillary, and the latter have six articulations.
The ligula is divided into three portions, of which the la
teral are short, and in the form of auricles. The majorit;
of the females collect the pollen of plants by means of the
hairs of their hinder legs, and mixing it with a little honey
they thus form a paste for the nourishment of their young
They form holes in the ground, frequently even in firmly-]
trodden places by the sides of roads, or in fields, and o
considerable depth. In these they place their paste, anc|
depositing an egg along with it, they7 close up the enhance
with earth. „ , , .. ,
Some have the middle division of the ligula widened at
the extremity, almost heart-shaped, and doubled in repose.
Such is the genus Hyljeus, Fab. which is now partitioned
into two. In the first, or Hylajus properly so calico
(Plate CCXXXII. fig. 20), the body is smooth, the second;
and third joints of the antennae of almost equal length, and the
upper wings present only two complete cubital cells. The
species being hairless, do not collect pollen, and seem to
deposit their eggs in the nests of other Hymenoptera of this
family. In the second genus, Colletes, Lat. the body is
hairy, the third article of the antennae exceeds the second
in length, and the upper wings present three complete cu¬
bital cells. The females collect their stores from flowers.:
Such is the Apis succincta of Linn.—“ 1 abeille dont le
nid est fait d’especes de membranes soyeuses,” of Reau¬
mur.5 The male is distinguishable by his more lengthen¬
ed antennae. The female forms in the earth a cylindrical
hole, of which the walls are endued with a gummy liquid,
which has been compared to the viscous and shining slime
left by slugs on the places over which they have passed.
She then forms a number of thimble-shaped cells, appa¬
rently composed of the same material, placed end to en ,
and in a string, and each containing an egg and a suitable
portion of paste.
Other Andrenetae are distinguished from the preceding
by the form of the ligula, which is lanceolate. In some
of these, that part is folded on the superior side of tlie
sheath, as in the genera Andrena and Dasypoda of Lat.
(Plate CCXXXII. fig. 21). The females of the lat er
have the first joint of the tarsi very long, beset with length¬
ened hairs after the manner of a little feather. T e uPFr
wings in both these genera have only two cubital ce
The Andrena Jlessce of Panzer, common in the environs oi
Paris, secretes a peculiar kind of honey, black an oi y
like the grease (cambois) used for carriage-wheels. 1 -
a narcotic odour. In others the ligula is straig »
slightly bent underwards at its extremity. Such are
genera Sphecodes, Halictus, and Nomia, of Latreiue.
PyV
Section 1st, Andrenet^e, Lat.
The genera of this section have the intermediate divi
sion of the ligula heart-shaped or lance-shaped
Section 2d, Apiari.®, Lat.
In this second section of the honey-making Hymenop
tera the genera are characterized by the middle division ^
the ligula being at least as long as the mentum or i 8
bular sheath, and setiform or filamentary. The maxi
bular sneatn, ana setuorm or iinuneuuii j. - ,
and labium are greatly elongated, and form a sorto in >
• , , , Y. . \ iU „-n:i^ In nr'tinil. tuc
shorter geniculate and bent beneath while not in action.
1 Ann. des Sciences Nat. t. iv. p. 339.
8 Latreille remarks that the parasitical species are not possessed of this faculty
same, those parts being merely destitute of the hairs or brushes.
4 Monographia Apurn Anglia.
- From aAas, flower, and (fuXos, lover. ,
;—but the form of their legs is essentia }
s Memoires, vi. xii.
ENTOMOLOGY.
5.1,'i
op-two first articulations of the labial palpi have generally the
Ji form of a scaly and compressed seta, which embraces the
i £a- sides of the ligula; the two others are very small, and the
H third is usually inserted near the exterior extremity of the
preceding, which terminates in a point.
The Apiariae are either solitary, or united in society.
A.
In the former, which constitute the first principal di¬
vision, the species consist of only two kinds of indivi¬
duals, of the ordinary nature of male and female. Each
female provides, by her own unassisted efforts, for the
preservation of her posterity. The posterior legs are un¬
provided with the silky down (la brosse) on the inner face
of the first articulation of the tarsi; neither do we per¬
ceive that particular depression on the outer side of the
tibiae, which the French naturalists distinguish as la cor-
beille, or the basket, and which is so useful in the economy
of the workers in certain other genera. That outer side, as
well as the corresponding part of the first articulation of
the tarsi, is usually furnished with numerous close-set hairs.
a.
The first subdivision of these solitary Apiariae consists of
species in which the second articulation of the posterior
tarsi of the females is inserted in the centre of the extre¬
mity of the preceding one; the exterior and terminal
angle of the latter does not appear dilated or more advan¬
ced than the interior.
*
We shall first signalise a group of genera which have
been named Andrenoides, no doubt from the resemblance
which they bear to the latest of the preceding genera in
their labial palpi, composed of slender linear joints, placed
end to end, almost entirely similar to those of the maxil¬
lary palpi, and which are six in number. The labrum is
always short. The females have no brush on the abdo¬
men ; but their posterior legs are clothed or garnished
with tufts of hair, which serve them to collect the pollen
of flowers. Some have the mandibles narrow, contracted
towards the extremity, terminated in a point, and, in com¬
mon with the labrum, smooth. Such are the genera Sys-
tropha, Illig. Rophites, Spinola, and Panurgus, Pan¬
zer. Others have the mandibles, in the females, almost
spoon-shaped, very obtuse, carinated or grooved, and bi-
dentated at the end. The labrum is very hard, and ciliat¬
ed above. The antennae are strongly geniculate and fili¬
form. The upper wings have three complete cubital cells,
the first intersected by a little transparent line, the second
triangular, the third the largest, and receiving the two re¬
current nervures. The genus Xylocopa, Lat. (Plate
CCXXXII. fig. 22), resemble large humble-bees. Their
body is usually black, sometimes covered in part with a
yellow down, and the wings are frequently adorned by
brilliant tints of violet, copper, and green. The males of
Several species differ greatly from the females. Their eyes
are large, and more approximated superiorly. Their an-
legs are dilated and ciliated. The species figured,
, ich is the Apis violacea, Linn, is one of the best known
m European countries. The female excavates holes in
<) d wood, divided into several cells, in each of which she
eposits an egg, and a portion of paste for the sustenance
0 the future grub. The species are very numerous in fo¬
reign countries, and seem to spread over many regions of
e 8*°be. Comparatively few occur in Europe.
» * *
n other genera the labial palpi appear under the form
SCR i S£tae ’ t^le ^rst two articulations are very large, or
me engthened, compared to the last two, of a scaly con-
h s ence, with the margins membranous or transparent. The
maxillary palpi are always very short, and have not un- Hymenop-
frequently fewer than six articulations. The labrum in a tera
great number is lengthened, inclined upon the mandibles, Aculeata-
sometimes in the form of an elongated square, sometimes ^
of a lengthened triangle.
1 he group named DasygastreB by Latreille are remark¬
able, as their name implies, in this, that the abdomen of
the female is almost always furnished with numerous short,
close-set hairs, which form as it were a silky brush. The
labrum is as long or longer than broad, and of a square
form. The iqandibles of the females are strong, incisive,
triangular, and toothed. The paraglossae are always very
short, in the form of scales, pointed at the end. Of all the
genera which compose this group, that called Ceratina
approaches most closely to that of which we last figured
an example ; and, according to Maximilian Spinola, the ha¬
bits of the females are identical with those of the Xylocopee.1
We have several species in Britain. All the remaining
Dasygastrce have at most only four articulations to the maxil¬
lary palpi, and two complete cubital cells. In the six genera
next ensuing, the abdomen is obviously furnished beneath
with a silky brush. The species belonging to Chelosto-
ma, Lat. and Heriades, Spin, form their habitations in
the hollows of ancient trees. In the genus Megachile,
Lat. the maxillary palpi are composed of only two articu¬
lations, the abdomen is plain above, and susceptible of
being raised upwards,—thereby enabling the female to use
her sting over her body. This genus contains several sin¬
gular insects, of which the habits have been well describ¬
ed by Reaumur and other observers.2 M. muraria is one
of the largest of the genus. The female is black, with
dark wings tinted with violet; the male is covered with
reddish hairs, the terminal segments of the abdomen be¬
ing black. The former sex constructs her little nest on
walls and stones in sunny places. It is made of fine earth
worked into a kind of mortar, which drying, becomes very
hard and durable. On this account the term mason-bee is
applied to this insect, and to several other species of ana¬
logous habits. The interior of these nests contains about
a dozen cells, in each of which the provident parent depo¬
sits an egg and a piece of paste. The perfect insect is not
produced till the spring of the ensuing year. Another
species, M. sicula, Lat. is black and hairy, with the front,
the upper part of the thorax, and the legs, bright yellow.
The female constructs a hard and spherical nest, of rather
more than an inch in diameter, which she attaches to the
branches of heath and other plants. This insect occurs
both in Egypt and the south of Europe, and was lately
noticed in Corsica by M. Payraudeau. The habits of other
species of the genus Megachile are very different from those
just noted. They are known by the name of leaf-eating
bees (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 23), on account of their em¬
ploying in the construction of their nests perfectly oval or
circular pieces of leaves, which they cut out with the most
remarkable dexterity. These pieces are conveyed to then-
straight cylindrical holes, which they previously excavate
in the earth, or sometimes in walls, or the decayed trunk
of an old tree. They line the bottom of the cavity with
these cuttings, and form a thimble-shaped cell (ibid. fig.
27), in which they deposit the honeyed provision on which
the larva is destined to feed. After laying an egg, they
close the cell by means of a flattish or slightly concave lid,
also formed of a portion of leaf. These little cells are re¬
peated one over the other till the hole is filled up. To this
division of the genus belongs the M. du rosier of Lat. {Apis
centuncularis, Linn.). The genus Lithurgus, Lat. is fur¬
nished with four articulations to the maxillary palpi, and
the abdomen is depressed above. All the articulations of
See the article Cerutine. in the 2d edition of the Nouv. Diet- d'Hist. Nat.
V0L. ix.
» Mtvioiret, t. iv.
2 G
ENTOMOLOGY.
234
Hymenop- the labial palpi are placed end to end. The females have
tera a rounded projection in the middle of the head. Such are
Aculeata. Centris cornuta, Fab. and an unpublished species from the
isie of France, alluded to by Latreille. In the genus Os-
mia of Panzer the maxillary palpi consist of four articula¬
tions, or at least of three very distinct ones, and the abdo¬
men is convex above. The habits of the species have
been observed by Reaumur, Degeer, Spinola, and other
naturalists. Several are masons, and have frequently two
or three horns on the clypeus, which are probably of use in
the construction of their nests. These are concealed in
the earth, in chinks of walls, door-posts, and old wood, and
sometimes even in the shells of snails {Helices). One of
the most interesting of the genus is the Osmia papaveris,
which lines its subterranean dwelling with the gorgeous
petals of the scarlet poppy. Another, O. gallarum, takes
possession of a fungous gallnut formed by a kind of Cy-
nips which inhabits the oak. The hollow space left by the
Cynips being too small, the little bee enlarges it consider¬
ably, and polishes the interior. The genus is composed of
about thirty species, which seem almost peculiar to Europe.
A considerable number occur in Britain. The other ge¬
nera of this group are Anthidium, Fab., Stelis, Panzer,
and Coelioxys, Lat.1 The two last-named genera of
Dasygastrse resemble the ensuing group in wanting the
silky brush, from which it has been presumed that they
also coincide with them in being parasitical; but their la-
brum is parallelogramic, and the mandibles are triangular
and dentated. The maxillary palpi are very short and bi-
articulate.
* * *
A third group of genera in this subdivision of the (solitary)
Apiariae is named Cuculince. They resemble the preceding
in the posterior tarsi, and agree with the concluding genera
in the labial palpi being in the form of squamous setae ; they
also resemble the genera Stelis and Coelioxys in the abdo¬
men being destitute of a silky brush. They are parasiti¬
cal, and their bodies are almost smooth and coloured like
those of wasps, sometimes partially clothed or hairy. The
labrum assumes the form of a lengthened and truncated
triangle, or is short and almost semicircular. The man¬
dibles are narrow, ending in a point, and at most uni-
dentated on the inner side. The paraglossae are often long,
narrow, and setiform. The scutellum in several is emar-
ginate or bidentated ; in others it is tubercular. These in¬
sects correspond to the Nomadce of Fabricius. Several ap¬
pear in those countries to which they are indigenous, flit¬
ting about in spring partly near the ground, or on walls
exposed to sunshine. They are then employed in search¬
ing for the nests of other Apiarise, in which they, cuckoo¬
like, deposit their eggs. It was in reference to this habit
that Latreille named them Cuculinae. The genera are
Ammobates, Phileremus, Epeolus, Lat., Nomada, Fab.
(Plate CCXXXII. fig. 24), Pasites, Jur., Melecta, Lat.,
Crocisa, Jur., OxiEA, Klug.2 Of these, Nomada is the
richest in British species. The genus occurs in Asia,
Africa, and America, although the majority are characte¬
ristic of, if not peculiar to, Europe. The genus Melecta is
not unknown in Britain.
b.
The concluding subdivision of the solitary bees is charac¬
terized by the first article of the posterior tarsi being dilated
inferiorly on the outer side, so that the following articula¬
tion is inserted nearer to the internal angle of its extre¬
mity than to the opposite one. The outer side of thatriJ
first angle, as well as the corresponding part of the tibiae, ^
is furnished with thick and close-set hairs, forming, espe- & eatt
cially in several exotic species, a sort of brush or tuft,— ^
and thence the name of Scopulipedes, bestowed on this
division by Latreille. The under part of the abdomen is
naked, or at least unprovided with a silken brush. The
number of cubital cells is three, with few exceptions, and
each of the last two cells receives a recurrent nervure.
Sometimes the maxillary palpi consist of from four to
six articulations.
In a certain number the mandibles exhibit only a single
tooth on the inner side. These species fly with great ra¬
pidity from flower to flower, and with a buzzing sound.
They construct their nests either under ground, or in the
clefts of old walls. Several prefer ground which has been
cut perpendicularly, and exposed to the sun. Those spe¬
cies in which the two lateral portions of the ligula are as
long as the labial palpi, and setaceous, and of which the
antennae of the males are lengthened, form the genus Eu-
cera properly so called (Plate CCXXXII. fig. 25). The
male of a British species (Apis longicornis, Linn.) is black,
with the labrum and the anterior extremity of the head
yellow; its upper portion, thorax, and two first segments
of the abdomen, are covered by a reddish down. The fe¬
male (at one time described by Fabricius as a distinct spe¬
cies, under the name of Apis tuberculata) has short an¬
tennae. The maxilla and labium form at their base a
slight projection. The abdomen is marked by grey stripes,
with a reddish termination. Several other species occur
in Britain. Spinola has detached certain species, of which
the maxillary palpi have only five distinct articulations,
and the superior wings only two cubital cells. These he
names Macrocera.1 * 3 The Melipodes of Lat. may be
defined as American Eucerae, with but four joints to the
maxillary palpi, and three cubital cells to the superior
wings. In the other Apiarise of this subdivision, the pa¬
raglossae are much shorter than the ligula, and always ex¬
hibit three cubital cells. In Melitturga and Antho-
phora, Lat. (of both of which several species are indige¬
nous to Britain), the maxillary palpi have six articulations.
In Saropoda, Lat., likewise known among ourselves, the
maxillary palpi have only five articulations, and those of
the labium are continuous. Lastly, in the genus Ancy-
loscelis, Lat., of which the species are native to Brazil,
the maxillary palpi offer only four articulations.
In others the mandibles have several dentations on the
inner side, and the maxillary palpi, as in the preceding ge¬
nus, have four articulations. Such is the American genus
Centris of Fab.
Sometimes the maxillary palpi consist of only a single
very small articulation, which even becomes impercep¬
tible in certain species. The paraglossae are very short,
and the mandibles dentated. Such are the genera Epi-
charis and Acanthopus of Klug.4
B.
Our second principal division of the Apiariae is constitut¬
ed by many interesting insects, such as the garden and hum¬
ble bees, so remarkable for their peculiar regime, and the
gregarious habits of the species, each of which consists ol
three kinds of individuals—males, females, and neuters, as
the workers are often called. The posterior tibiae of these last
named are furnished on their external face with a smooth
depression called the basket, in which they place the pollen
1 See Regne Animal, t. v. p. 350.
I ,r?.r.the^uaraCte-S °f the ab°7e Sfner,a’ see Animal, t. v. p. 352-3 ; and Kirby’s Monoaraphia Apum Anglice. The haunts
and habits of the species are noted under their generic titles in the Encyclop. Mith., and the Diction. Class. d'Hist. Nat.
The name is olyectionable, either on Spinola’s part or Meigen’s (according to whoever used it last), as we observe that the Ger*
man author, in his Zwetflugehgen Insecten, applies the same title to a dipterous genus.
4 See Encyclop. Meth. and other works already named. n
ENTOMOLOGY.
,p. collected from flowers by means of the silky down or brush
with which the inner face of the first joint of the posterior
i'a- tarsi is provided. The maxillary palpi are very small, and
t<*/ consist of a single articulation. The antennae are geniculate.
Sometimes the posterior tibias are terminated by two
spines, as in the genus Euglossa, Lat. (Plate CCXXXII.
fig. 26), which has the labrum square, and the false pro¬
boscis, or prolonged parts of the mouth, as long as the
body. The labial palpi terminate in a point formed by the
two other articulations. The species are peculiar to South
America. Latreille supposes that we owe to the one which
we have here figured {E. dentata), and to that called E. cor-
data, the green honey so much esteemed in the Antilles.
We are still ignorant of the habits of these insects. In the
genus Bombus (ibid. fig. 29), the species of which we recog¬
nise in this country as humble-bees, the labrum is trans¬
verse, and the proboscis obviously shorter than the body.
The second articulation of the labial palpi terminates in a
point, bearing the two others on its outer side. There
are few associations of our childhood more deep and last¬
ing than those connected with the pursuit and capture of
these beautiful creatures, some of which are remarkable for
their size, and the rich contrast which they exhibit of vel¬
vet black and crimson, with bars of brilliant yellow. This
splendid attire, however, saves them not from being rude¬
ly handled; and we remember the day when an artificial
bink, that is, a little box made of clay, with a piece of
glass at one end, and a sprinkling of sugar at the other,
contained as many captives in proportion to its size, as the
black-hole of Calcutta. But the practice of blobbing was
one we never patronized, although we know it is pursued
in this country, just as it seems to be, judging from the fol¬
lowing quotation, by the youth of the Great Nation:—“ Ils
sont bien connus des enfans, qui les privent souvent de la
vie pour avoir le miel renferme dans leur corps, et le
sucer.1 The exciteable genius of a great English poet is
roused to a wider range of sentiment and association by
the sight of one of these industrious beings.
And is she brought within the power
Of vision ?—o’er this tempting flower
Hovering until the petals stay
Her flight, and take its voice away !
Observe each wing—a tiny van ! 
The structure of her laden thigh,
How fragile !—yet of ancestry
Mysteriously remote and high,
High as the imperial front of man,
The roseate bloom on woman’s cheek ;
The soaring eagle’s curved beak ;
The white plumes of the floating swan ;
Old as the tiger’s paw, the lion’s mane
Ere shaken by that mood of stern disdain,
At which the desert trembles Humming-Bee !
Thy sting was needless then, perchance unknown ;
The seeds of malice were not sown ;
All creatures met in peace, from fierceness free.
And no pride blended with their dignity.
--Tears had not broken from their source,
Aor anguish strayed from her Tartarian den ;
The golden years maintained a course
Aot undiversified, tho’ smooth and even ;
We were not mocked with glimpse and shadow, then
Bright seraphs mixed familiarly with men,
And earth and stars composed a universal heaven.1
Be this as it may, the species of the genus Bombus inhabit
subterranean dwellings, assembled together in social groups
amounting to from fifty to sixty individuals, or even in cer-
ain cases to between two and three hundred. These unions,
owever, differ from those of the honey or garden-bee in
1S> that they are dissolved, like those of wasps, on the ap¬
235
proach of winter. They consist of males, distinguished byHymenop.
the smallness of their size, their feebler heads, their narl Tera P
ower mandibles, terminated by two dentations, and beard- Aculeata.
ed, as well as by their frequent difference of colour; of'    
females, which are larger than the other individuals, and
have spoon-shaped mandibles; and of workers, of which
the mandibles are likewise spoon-shaped, and the size in¬
termediate between the two preceding kinds. Of these
workers, Reaumur was the first to distinguish two varie¬
ties,—one comparatively large and strong, the other
smaller, but more lively and active. This curious fact was
af terwards verified by Huber the younger. According to
tne observations of the Genevese observer, several of the
workers born in spring couple during the month of June
with males sprung from a common mother, and soon after¬
wards deposit eggs, from which, however, males alone are
produced. These latter couple with the females which
are born towards the end of the season, and which continu¬
ing through the winter in a pregnant state, become each
the founder of a colony in spring. In the mean time, all
the others perish, without excepting even the smaller fe¬
males. The workers, then, though, in common with those
of the garden-bee, often called neuters, are in fact females,
but of smaller size than the more regular mothers, and
with the productive faculty imperfectly developed. No
sooner has the genial influence of spring penetrated the
mossy cells where these more ponderous matrons have
enjoyed their winter sleep, than they rouse themselves
from their repose, and wing their dubious flight in search
of the first opening crocus, or other garden flower ; or, if
remote from man, and destined to boom amid wild up¬
lands or other pastoral wastes, the flowering saughs (Salix
capred), which so often skirt the edges of our mountain
streams, and beautify the crystal waters by the reflec¬
tion of their golden blossoms, afford them a sufficing food.
The lover of nature knows how, even among sterile soli¬
tudes, a few bright sunny days call into life and beauty
many fragrant flowers, not long unvisited by these glad
labourers, who ere long settle in some fit abode, and lay
the foundations of a future city.
The nefets of humble-bees are generally formed beneath
the earth, and at a depth of one or two feet. Dry plains,
fields, sloping banks, and the sides of hills, are their com¬
mon localities. These subterranean cavities are of consi¬
derable extent, wider than high, and in the form of a dome.
The ceiling is constructed of earth and carded moss, car¬
ried thither fibre by fibre. The inner walls are plastered
over by a coating of coarse wax. Sometimes a simple
opening serves as a passage to the foot of the nest; some¬
times a tortuous road, of one or two feet in length, leads
to the habitation. The bottom of the cavity is lined with
a layer of leaves, for the reception of the brood. The fe¬
male first places in it masses of brown irregular wax, call¬
ed pdtee by Reaumur, and compared to truffles by that na¬
turalist, on account of their shape and colour. Their ca¬
vities are destined to contain the eggs and larvae. The
latter live together in society until such time as they are
ready to assume the nympha state; they then separate and
spin ovoid silken cocoons, vertically fixed against each other.
The nymph is always found in a reversed position, or with
the head downwards, like those of the females of the ho¬
ney-bee ; and the cocoons are uniformly pierced at their
lower end when the perfect insect escapes from its prison.
Reaumur asserted that the larvae fed upon the wax which
formed the walls of their habitations ; but these, according
to M. Huber, merely serve as a protection from cold and
moisture ; and the actual food consists of an ample provi-
1 Rigne Animal, t. v. p. 357-
a Wordsworth’s Vernal Ode.
236
ENTOMOLOGY.
Hyrnenop- sion of pollen moistened with honey, which the labourers
tera provide for the helpless objects of their instinctive affec-
Aculeata. tjon- When the supply is exhausted, they pierce the cover
of the cells, put. in an additional supply, and re-close the
protecting habitation. We may truly observe, in relation
to these delightful labours, that it is not alone in the “ great
waters” that man may behold the wonderful works of an
omnipotent Creator ; for literally the earth is “ full of his
goodness.” These affectionate labourers, so pervaded by
the instincts of maternity, though themselves for the most
part barren, watch like rejoicing mothers over the destiny
of the future citizens ; and as soon as they perceive that a
generous diet has increased their dimensions, they enlarge
the size of their habitations. We find moreover in these
nests three or four small bodies resembling goblets, com¬
posed of brown wax, or of the same consistence as the pdtee,
always open, and more or less filled with good honey. I he
exact situation in the hive of these honey jars is by no
means constant. It has been said that the workers make
use of the empty cocoons for the same purpose ; but their
doing so is deemed very doubtful by Latreille, in as far as
these cocoons are not only formed of a silky substance, but
are perforated on the under side.
The larvae are hatched in about five days after the de¬
position of the eggs, and accomplish their metamorphoses
in the months of May and June. It was formerly supposed
that labourers alone were produced at this period; but we
have already alluded to the simultaneous production of a
certain number of males. The labourers immediately pro¬
ceed to assist the female founder in her operations; and
from this period the number of cells which serve as habi¬
tations for the larvae and nymphs is greatly augmented.
They form irregular combs, rising in stages, on the edges
of which the patee of Reaumur is particularly observable.
According to Huber, the workers are extremely greedy of
the eggs of the female, and sometimes in her absence open
the cells in which they are deposited, in order to suck the
milky fluid they contain ! a most extraordinary fact, as La¬
treille observes, and one which seems to belie the noted
attachment which they entertain for the germs of that race
of which they are the natural and appointed guardians.
The wax secreted by humble-bees is elaborated by the
same peculiar process as that which produces the more
beautiful material with which the garden species constructs
its honeyed cells. It in fact results from honey, transuded
through the intervals of the rings of the abdomen.1 Se¬
veral females dwell together in unity, and do not exhibit
that instinctive aversion towards each other so remarkable
among our domesticated species.
Yet these bees, however humble, have enemies, nume¬
rous and of various kinds. Their habitations are uprooted
or otherwise attacked by foxes, badgers, weasels, polecats,
rats, field-mice, ants, and moths. Certain Volucellce {Syr-
phi of Fab.) deposit their eggs in their nests, the larvae
proceeding from which devour the eggs of the legal occu¬
pants. The larvae of a species of Conops, described by MM.
Lachat and Audouin, live, like intestinal worms or the
grubs of Strepsiptera, within the abdomen of the perfect
bee ; and after acquiring wings, they make their escape
from between the segments.2
The species of the genus Bombus are extremely nume¬
rous, and seem extended over almost all the regions of the
earth. “ Scarcely any genus of the insect creation,” ob¬
serves Mr Kirby, “ has so large a range as this of Bombus. I
It is found in the old world and in the new; and from the
limits of phsenogamous vegetation to the equator; but its1
metropolis appears to be within the temperate zone.”3 We '
cannot here enter into descriptive details. In Great Bri¬
tain alone we have above forty different kinds. Of these,
the B. muscorum (Apis muscorum, Linn.), called Foggie
by the Scottish schoolboy, is recognisable by its reddish
colour, uniform in the males, females, and neuters. In B.
lapidarius the female is black, the abdomen with a red ter¬
mination ; the male (which is the B. arbustorum of Fab.)
has the front of the head and both ends of the thorax yel¬
low,—the abdomen having likewise a red extremity. This
species differs from the others in its habit of forming its
nest under stones. Hence its Latin trivial name. The B.
terrestris is a very common and very beautiful species,
widely distributed. It is black, with the posterior extre¬
mity of the thorax and the base of the abdomen yellow.
The termination of the latter part is white. The B. arc-
ticus of Kirby is black, with the base and apex of the tho¬
rax, and the anterior half of the abdomen, pale yellow.
This insect is the Apis alpina of Otho Fabricius ;4 S but not
the species so called by Linnaeus, which the former author
supposed it to be. “ The insect before us,” says Mr Kirby,
“ differs so slightly from the description which O. Fabricius
has given of that which he mistook for the Apis alpina of
Linne, that there can be little or no doubt of their identity.
He confesses that his specimens (and this bee appears to
have abounded in West Greenland, as it was also observed
to do in Melville Island, and wherever the expedition land¬
ed within the arctic circle) did not in all things agree with
the characters assigned to that species. But he states,
that as Linne had seen only a single specimen, he did not
think himself at liberty to make a new species on account
of an insignificant difference. Although, however, Linne
had seen this bee only once, it has since been more fre¬
quently taken ; and having received specimens of it from
Sweden, through the kindness of Major Gyllenhal, which
agree with the Linnaean description in every point but size
(a circumstance easily explained, by supposing the original
specimen a queen and those sent to me neuters), I can ven¬
ture to assert that the two insects are perfectly distinct.
Bombus alpinus is entirely black, with the upper side of
the abdomen, all but the base, covered with orange-colour¬
ed or ferruginous hairs. The antennae also of the female
or neuter (an important distinction in a genus the species
of which are usually only distinguished by the colour of
their hirsuties) are proportionally shorter; and the short
hairs that cover the tarsi are black.”6 The range of the
true B. arcticus seems limited by the arctic circle, and
extends from Greenland only in a westerly direction,—at
least the species does not appear to have been observed in
Lapland, Iceland,6 or other eastern portions of that chilly
zone. A Fmropean species, named B. Lapponicus, is said
to be well known in North America, and to extend as far
north as Nova Scotia.7 Dr Richardson, the intrepid arc¬
tic traveller, informed the author of the present treatise,
that in the course of the northern land expedition he saw
some bees in very high latitudes, resembling our common
humble-bee (B. terrestris ?), but that he did not at the time
ascertain the precise species; and the circumstances under
which he was then placed unfortunately prevented his pre¬
serving specimens of the softer kinds of insects.8
«!1(|
era
1 Memoires du Mus. d'Hist. Nat. t. vii-i. p. I47.
2 Journal de Physique, Mars 1819.
3 Supplement to the App. to Capt. Parry’s First Voyage, p. 217.
4 Fauna Grcenlandica, 155.
s Supplement to the App. to Capt. Parry’s First Voyage, p. 217-
6 Hooker’s Recollections of Iceland, 1st edit. p. 34.
7 Diet. Class. d'Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 451.
severMsneofernfAhr^1’7 gtenUS B,omb.us’the rea/er may consult, in addition to the works already named, “ Observations on
S T’Srvol vil pflu! PlS’ 7 the name °f Humble-Bees, and called Bombinatrices by Linnaeus,” by Mr P. Huber, in
entomology.
Hyn op- The remainder of our social Apiariae are not character-
t ized, like the preceding, by spines at the extremity of their
Aci| ta. pOSterior tibiae. They form two genera.
^ In the genus Apis, Lat., or honey-bees par excellence,
the workers have the first articulation of the posterior tarsi
in the form of a lengthened square, and furnished on its
interior face with a silky down, or divided into transverse
or striated bands. We here place our invaluable garden
species Apis mellifica, Linn, (of which we have repre¬
sented the worker, the female, and the drone, on Plate
CCXXXII. figs. 28, 30, and 31), on the wonderful history
and attributes of which we could dilate with pleasure to
ourselves, if not with satisfaction to our readers, had not
the subject been already here treated of at length, and by
an abler hand.1 We shall merely here remark, that all the
species of the genus Apis properly so called are peculiar to
the ancient countries of the world, and that the domestic
culture of the honey-bee is of an origin so remote as to be
lost in the depth of ages. It served among the Egyptians
as the hieroglyphical emblem of royalty, and has been
more or less attended to by all civilized nations of whom
we have any record ; for innumerable in all but the darkest
times are the writers who have told—
Of treasure suck’d from buds and bells,
For the pure keeping of those waxen cells,
Where she, a statist prudent to confer
Upon the public weal, a warrior bold,
Radiant all over with unburnished gold,
And armed with living spear for mortal fight,
A cunning forager
That spreads no waste,—a social builder, one
In whom all busy offices unite,
With all fine functions that afford delight,
Safe through the winter storm in quiet dwells!
Our honey-bee (A. mellijica'), though now well known
in America, is in that country not an indigenous, but an
imported species. Our land expeditions did not observe
its occurrence to the north of Canada. The Americans
have now settled the Missouri, as far as the 95th meridian ;
and it is probable that the New England men, in their
journey westward, carried hives along with them. Accord-
i ing to Mr Warden, the hive-bee was not found to the west¬
ward of the Mississippi prior to the year 1797; but it is
now well known, and has been so for a considerable time,
as high up the Missouri as the Maka nation,—having pro¬
ceeded westward six hundred miles in fourteen years.2
Such a distance seems great for these tiny creatures to ad¬
vance by the ordinary process of swarming, even supposing
that the flight of the new colonies was invariably in a wes¬
tern direction. It is at the rate of forty-three miles a year ;
but they have perhaps been smitten by the Yankee passion
for settling beyond the clearings.3
Besides the species above named, various other honey¬
bees are found in different regions of the earth. The Apis
umcolor of Lat. occurs in Madagascar and the Isle of France,
of ^hrAntmes68'Th ^°n7/ a ^een C°loUr’ Hke that
Ll/fur / Apts Indlca of Fab. is found in Ben¬
gal and at Pondicherry. The Apis fasciata of Lat. is do-
f E?TP!’ and 18 carried at certain seasons, for
the sake of a double harvest, from Lower into Upper Egypt
just as we transport our own species, when the “ flower-ena¬
melled meads are on the wane, to the blooming heather
of the mountain solitudes. The Apis Adansonii is a spe¬
cies found m Senegal ; and the Apis Peronii is native to
the island of Timor, from whence it was first brought bv
the enterprising navigator whose name it bears. In rela
turn to the European kinds, we have no other British spe¬
cies than the one so frequent in our garden-hives; but the
Italians cultivate with success the Apis Ligustica of Spi-
nola, which is by some entomologists supposed to occur in
the wild state, and unimported, in the Morea and the Me¬
diterranean Archipelago.4
The terminal genus of the social bees (and with it we
conclude the hymenopterous order) is that called Melipona
by Illiger and Latreille. It is distinguished from the pre¬
ceding genus by the form of the first articulation of the
posterior tarsi, which is narrower at the base, or in the
shape of a reversed triangle, and without striae on the silky
brush of its interior face. The upper wings have only
two complete cubital cells, while there are three in the ge¬
nus Apis. These Hymenoptera inhabit South America,
and build their nests, which resemble bagpipes, on the
tops of trees, or in their cavities. Their honey is extreme¬
ly sweet and agreeable, but very liquid, and apt to corrupt.
T’he Indians form from it a favourite spirituous liquor.
These details apply to M. amalthea, of which M. Cordier
possesses a specimen enclosed in amber. The species in
general have been observed by many travellers, but by few
naturalists ; and it is therefore not very easy to refer the
recorded observations on their history to the proper species.
Some nearly allied insects form the genus Trigones of
Lat.5
Order VI.—LEP1DOPTERA, Linn.6
This splendid and much-admired order is characterized
by the possession of four membranous and veined wings,
covered by close-set scales, which frequently present the
most brilliant and richly varied colours. The mouth con¬
sists of lengthened filaments or threads, the union of which
forms an extensile spiral trunk or tongue, with which the
nectareous juices of flowers are absorbed. Two palpi (cor¬
responding to the labial palpi of masticating insects), con¬
sisting of three articulations, act as a sheath or guard on
either side of the tongue when rolled up. The superior or
maxillary palpi are usually very small, inconspicuous, or
obsolete. The chrysalis is oblected, that is, covered over or
237
Lepidop-
tera.
See the article Bee of this work, vol. iv. p. 518. We shall merely observe, in regard to the conversion of the neuter or working
bee into a queen-mother, that a great degree of obscurity seems still to pervade the writings of all entomologists, whenever that singu-
ar subject is touched upon. Nothing in the history of these creatures has been more clearly demonstrated than the fact of such con¬
version,—but how a change of food should operate in the course of a few days a determinate change in the organic form and instinc-
we character of an insect, is as yet a mystery. We are more willing to believe than competent to understand several of M. Huber’s
alt S' eas^ ^ conceive a greater development of particular organs, the germs of which previously existed,—but the positive
slruc'lure °f the feet and maxillae is not so readily accounted for. We still require some more precise and detailed
1 arm^10,n regarding this mysterious transmutation than the observations even of the Hubers have furnished. It would tend great-
^ ° the subject if a series of comparisons could be made at different periods of their development, between the larvae,
ytnp s, and perfect insects of the two kinds of queen-bees,—namely, those which were deposited originally in the royal cells (the legi-
raa es)i ar>d those whose condition has been altered by the bees themselves in consequence of a failure in the royal line (the citizen-
liIThi ^ ^as no1 Jet been ascertained at what periods or in what manner these singular changes of form take place, further than
a e coalmen maggot or bee-worm, on which the change is to be effected, must not exceed the age of three days.
, Mistical, Political, and Historical Account of the United States of America, vol. iii. p. 139.
4 “Mnburgh Cabinet Library, vol. ix. p. 387. x
d'A , addlt,on to the numerous works already cited, see a Monograph of the genus by Latreille, in the Observations de ZooL ct
no- .omp. du Voyage de MM. Humboldt et Bonpland.
wnera Crustac. et Insect, t. iv. p. 182. c GlossaTA, Fabricius.
I!
ENTOMOLOGY.
I^epidop- concealed by a crustaceous envelope, which however exhi-
tera. bits to a certain extent the external traces of the limbs,
thorax, and abdomen.
The Lepidoptera are the most beautiful of all insects,
and exhibit in their colouring every imaginable hue. It is
not the mere brilliancy of the broader masses of colour, or
their gorgeous combination, which alone delights our eyes,
—but the exquisitely varied markings by which the hand
of nature has traced her enigmatical characters on the
“ sail broad vans” of these fairy and fantastic creatures.
What are the forms
Painted on rich men’s floors for one feast night,
or the most elaborate Mosaic pavement, when compared
with the imbricated surface of a butterfly’s wing I1 It was
probably the highly ornamental nature of this order that
induced Degeer and Olivier to place it at the head of the
class of insects.
The mouth of the Lepidoptera does not differ essentially
in its structure from the same organ in the masticating or
mandibulated orders.2 Savigny and Latreille have shown,
in a manner at once precise and philosophical, that it is
composed of the same pieces, and that these pieces are pe¬
culiarly appropriated to the functions which they are re¬
quired to perform; thus some parts of little use exist in a
merely rudimentary condition, while others of a more in¬
dispensable nature have gained an increase of develop¬
ment. The component parts are : a labrum, often nearly
invisible, conical, or subulated; two corneous mandibles,
very small, rudimentary, hairy, or garnished with small
scales, and fixed, or apparently useless ; two corneous max¬
illae, in the form of tubular threads, generally much extend¬
ed, and soldered together as far as the origin of the palpi,
and forming by the union of their inner edges the trunk
or sucker, of which the interior presents three canals ; two
maxillary palpi, often almost imperceptible, consisting of
from one to three articulations, and inserted near the bend
of the maxillae ; two labial or inferior palpi of three articu¬
lations, closely set with hairs or scales, and rising on each
side of the trunk, of which they form a kind of sheath. The
labium is composed of a single piece, flat, and triangular.
The antennae vary in the different groups, but they are
always composed of a great number of articulations. In
the diurnal tribes they are simple, and generally terminat¬
ed by a small inflation or knob ; in the crepuscular they
assume the form of an elongated or fusiform mass; in the
nocturnal they are filiform or setaceous, whether pectinat¬
ed or simple, and often plumose, especially in the males.
In many species we find a pair of stemmatic eyes conceal¬
ed among the scales, and placed between the ordinary eyes
or organs of vision. The latter are hemispherical, of con¬
siderable size, and composed of innumerable facettes. The
trunk is either ineffective or altogether wanting in some of
the crepuscular and nocturnal tribes. The three seg¬
ments of which the thorax of many other hexapod insects
is visibly composed, seem here united into one,—the an¬
terior being very short and transversal, as in the hymenop-
terous and dipterous orders. The form of the thorax is
extremely uniform, and any apparent variety of aspect is
caused chiefly by the extension of its hairy or scaly cover¬
ing, which sometimes assumes the shape of a crest. The
abdomen is composed of from six to seven segments. It
is attached to the thorax by a very small portion of its dia¬
meter, and never offers either sting or ovipositor, although li 4.
in a few females (as in Cossus) the terminal rings are nar- a
row, and lengthened into the form of a pointed and retrac- ^
tile oviduct. The scales of the w ings, on which their gor¬
geous beauty depends, are implanted by means of a small
pedicle. Their figure is variable. They are usually some¬
what elongated, rounded at the base from the side of the
pedicle, and truncated at the outer extremity, which is ge¬
nerally toothed or serrated. The under wings frequently
form on their inner margins a kind of canal for the recep¬
tion of the abdomen. Among many of the diurnal kinds,
the four wings, in a state of repose, are raised perpendicu¬
larly, so as to meet above the back ; in the two other great
sections they are horizontal or inclined ; and in these there
is often a strong spine or bristle on the anterior margin of
the inferior wings, which being received by a buckle-like
process of the under surface of the superior pair, maintains
them in their position.
The legs of the Lepidoptera are as usual six in number,
and the tarsi are composed of five articulations, and are
terminated by a pair of hooks. In several diurnal genera
the anterior pair are much shorter than the others, are
useless as locomotive organs, and are folded on the sides
of the chest; their tarsi being large, indistinctly articulat¬
ed, and destitute of apparent hooks. The existence of the
sense of smell in the class of insects is clearly demonstrat¬
ed by the habits of many species of this order. The males
of many nocturnal Lepidoptera discover the females of
their own kind at a great distance, even when the latter
are carefully and intentionally concealed from sight. The
female is generally for the most part perceptibly, and in
many instances considerably, larger than the males. They
deposit their eggs, by an admirable and wisely granted in¬
stinct, not on the plants which they themselves affect during
their first buoyant courses, but on such as are best adapted
for the future nourishment of their crawling and wingless
offspring.
The larvae of Lepidoptera, usually known under the
name of Caterpillars, are composed of twelve annular seg¬
ments, exclusive of the head. They are furnished with
nine stigmatic openings on each side, and the three ante¬
rior segments of the body are respectively furnished with
a pair of short legs of a scaly consistence, terminated by a
hook, and corresponding to the true legs of the perfect insect.
There are, besides, from four to ten membranous or false
feet upon the other segments. The body of caterpillars is
generally elongated, soft, almost cylindrical, and frequent¬
ly adorned by bright or beautiful colours, besides being
variously provided with spines, hairs, or tubercles. Many
are however naked, or unprotected by any other than a
cutaneous covering. The head is harder than the other
parts, and is covered by a corneous or scaly skin. It pre¬
sents on each side six small shining grains, which are re¬
garded as simple or stemmatic eyes; and two very short
conical antennae are likewise perceptible. The mouth is
composed of tw^o strong mandibles, a pair of maxillae, a
labium, and four palpi. The food of caterpillars consist¬
ing not of vegetable juices alone, but of the actual sub¬
stance of the leaves and roots, and even of the well-ma¬
tured woody fibres of timber trees, the masticating organs
are beautifully adapted to their functions. But no sooner
is the creeping and voracious larva about to transform it¬
self into the “ angelic butterfly,” which floats on gaudy
1 We find the foll™g ™emoranda among some notes illustrating the difference between the works of art and nature:
The Sussex pavement q
A modern mosaic picture 
The wing of a butterfly expanded.!.".." f contains
The same in the Aurelia state..
“I
8?0 1 tessellse or separate pieces
100,736 f
931,808 J
in one inch square.
8 See Plate CCXX. figs. 5 and 8, with the detailed description given in the’ note to page 68 of this volume.
;)p. pinions from flower to flower, and sustains itself only on
i the most ethereal of their nectareous juices, than the parts
of the mouth undergo a change not less remarkable than
that of the general form and aspect, and the long tubular
proboscis above described is developed, in subservience
to the habits of a new existence. The change, however,
is by no means sudden or immediate, but is effected
through the transitionary state of chrysalis, of which we
have already said perhaps more than enough in our at¬
tempted exposition of the mysteries of transformation. We
cannot, however, here avoid to notice the elaboration of
that silky substance which, towards the termination of the
caterpillar’s career, becomes so singular a feature in its na¬
tural economy, and one of such vast importance in the ar¬
tificial habits of the human race. It is formed in two long
tortuous interior vessels, which, becoming gradually more
slender at their upper extremities, terminate in a small co¬
nical spinner at the end of the labium. Had these insig¬
nificant secreting organs not existed in the silk-worm, or
other allied species, what a difference of character would
have been manifested in the lustrous aspect of baronial
halls, and even of the courts of kings ! It is curious, in¬
deed, to consider how the breeding of a few millions of
caterpillars should occasion such a disparity at different
times in the circumstances of different tribes of the human
race. When the wife and empress of Aurelian was refused
a garment of silk, on account of its extreme costliness, the
most ordinary classes of the Chinese were clad in that ma¬
terial from top to toe; and although among ourselves
week-day and holiday are now alike profaned by uncouth
forms, whose vast circumference is clothed “ in silk attire,”
yet our own James the Sixth was forced to borrow a pair
of silken hose from the Earl of Mar, that his state and
bearing might be more effective in the presence of the
ambassador of England,—“ for ye would not, sure,” said the
royal pedant, “ that your king should appear as a scrub be¬
fore strangers.”1 King Henry the Eighth was the first of
the English sovereigns who wore silk stockings.
Many caterpillars, in walking, fix the anterior feet on the
plane of their position, and, bending their body upwards,
they advance and fix their anal feet, assuming for a time
the form of a loop. They then unfix their anterior hold,
and stretching forward their bodies, proceed as it were by
spanning the ground. They are hence called surveyors
(arpenteuses) by the French naturalists. Others, known
under the name of Batons, fix themselves, in repose, to
twigs and branches by their hinder feet, and thus hold them¬
selves out stiff and immoveable for many successive hours.
It may easily be supposed that this extraordinary attitude
must require the exercise of, comparatively speaking, most
enormous strength. No vertebrated animal, not in a state
of catalepsy, could sustain it even for a few seconds. We
nd accordingly (through the laborious investigations of a
great interpreter of nature, Lyonnet) that even in the ca¬
terpillar of Cossus ligniperda, a species which lives in trees,
ut does not exercise itself in the way alluded to, there are
above 4000 muscles. Many move along the ground rapid-
y y the successive motion of each segment, as if a wave
were flowing over or pervading their bodies. The intes-
ines of caterpillars consist of a large canal without inflec-
ons, the anterior portion being sometimes slightly sepa¬
rate in the form of a stomach, and the posterior forming
a wrinkled cloaca. There are also four very long biliary
vessels, usually inserted pretty far back.
he habits of caterpillars are very various in the diffe-
en ^inds. Although a great majority feed on vegetable
entomology.
239
substances, many of the smaller kinds are extremely de- Lenidon
Thev wdr0^ t ed^S’ and 311 kinds of tPera!P'
ihey wi even devour leather, lard, wax, wafers, and all
suhT™? terS‘viMany Confine themselves to one particular
sodetv T are P^Phagous. Somi unite in
society, and form a silken tent to screen themselves from
len natural enemies, and the extremes of heat and cold:
others are independent and solitary. As they increase in
size they cast their skins, and this process of sloughing; ge¬
nerally takes place about four times. A great proportion,
before assuming the chrysalis state, spin around them a
web or cocoon, more or less compact according to their
kind. In some (as in Bombyx mori, or the silk-worm) it
is of a rich saffron colour, and of exquisite fineness; in
others it is of a membranous texture, from being originally
more compactly glutinous, instead of consisting of distinct
threads. Many mingle with their funeral web or winding-
sheet, particles of earth or decayed vegetable substances,
which greatly increase the size of their cocoons. The
chi ysalids of the diurnal Lepidoptera are, however, naked or
exposed, and are usually suspended by the posterior extremi¬
ty, or fastened by a silken cord or girth around the middle
of the body. They are also angular in their forms, while
those of moths are rounded or cylindrical. In one or two
of the crepuscular kinds, or Sphingides, the proboscis pro¬
jects, and is encircled by a separate envelope, even in the
chrysalis state. All the other parts are, however, swathed
in a coriaceous covering, although the form of the wings
and other members may be traced externally, in slight
though distinct relief. The abdominal segments are capa¬
ble of motion, like the “ thews and sinews” of a warrior in
plaited mail. The period of repose varies from a few weeks
to one or two years. Such as assume the chrysalis state
late in autumn, do not appear in the winged condition till
the ensuing spring. Many remain in the egg state all win¬
ter ; and such diurnal Lepidoptera as have two flights in the
year are generally produced in the first place in spring from
chrysalids which have lain torpid all winter, and become
themselves the parents of another flight, which make their
appearance at a later period of the same season. Thou¬
sands perish before attaining the perfect state, not only as
the natural food of most passerine birds, but as the living
bed of the Ichneumonides, which deposit their eggs in the
fatty substance of the caterpillar, and thus by degrees de¬
prive it of the source of life.
The observance of these and of other singularities, which
we cannot here detail, will afford a never-failing source of
interest to the student of nature’s mysteries, and will as¬
suredly yield an ampler and more enduring recompense
than “ Pyrrhos’ maze or Epicurus’ stye.” In spite, how¬
ever, of all that has been said and written of the wonders
of entomology (and the subject, to be understood, must ra¬
ther be seen than listened to, or even reflected on through
the pages of the best instructed author), we fear that many
continue to regard it with very inadequate notions. But
how may not piety itself revolt at the thought of the most
numerous works of an Almighty Creator’s hand being re¬
garded as trifling or unworthy of a deep and most reveren¬
tial consideration. When Solomon, whose earthly glory
never equalled the lustre of the “ lilies of the field,” desired
us to ponder on a meet emblem of diligence and wisdom,
it was not from what we consider as the most important
parts of the creation that he drew his example:—“ Go to
the ant, thou sluggard ; consider her ways, and be wise.” So
spake, and under a divine impulse, he who is himself em¬
phatically called the “ wisest of men.” Yet in many a high-
1 Edinburgh Cabinet Library, viii. p. 154.
240
ENTOMOLOGY.
liepidop- flown moral and (pseudo) religious declamation, folly and
tera ignorance not seldom combine to illustrate whatever is
Diurna. mean? insignificant, or worthless, by a reference to some
unfortunate form of insect life. Even the pious Newton (not
Sir Isaac, but the author of Cardiphonia, whose name was
John) somewhere likens the extremest act of thoughtless¬
ness and folly to a person breaking off from some worldly and
important presence to “ pursue a butterfly.” Did the excel¬
lent author forget, or never know, that a butterfly is not only
in itself a creature of such exquisite beauty that neither the
“ sea of light,” nor any other of the most famous gems
which ever from the brow of an eastern tyrant dazzled the
dark eye of a trembling slave, can compare with it in va¬
ried and gorgeous lustre;—or did he expunge from his re¬
collection that the same divine hand which formed man
after his own likeness, also created every other thing which
breathes the breath of life, and that all were declared good
when seen by that eye, before whose brightness even the
angels veil their faces ? Compared with the eternal inte¬
rests of man, we admit that all earthly pursuits, including
even the best and purest—those of science—are as dust
in the balance; but, bearing in mind our higher destiny,
and yet believing that as there are celestial bodies and bo¬
dies terrestrial, so we cannot be better occupied than in
devoting a convenient season to study (without which we
cannot understand) the works of God,—for “ the glory of
the celestial is one, and the glory of the terrestrial is an¬
other,” and both, though differing from each other in
brightness, co-exist in divinest harmony, simply because
The hand that made them is itself divine.
Therefore, though ourselves among the most loyal of
liege subjects, we should not hesitate to pursue a butterfly,
if wanting to our collection, “ even in the presence of a
crowned king.” But this, we fear, is a digression.
In lepidopterous insects in the perfect state, we find a
first lateral stomach or crop,—a second, inflated or turgid,
—a small intestine, tolerably long,—and a caecum near the
cloaca.
The order is naturally divisible into three families, viz.
Diurna, Crepuscularia, and Nocturna.
FAMILY L—DIURNA.
The insects of this family, commonly called Butterflies,
are never seen on the wing except during the day, and in
a state of repose usually hold their wings erect. Their an¬
tennae are capitated, or terminated by a club or knob, with
a few exceptions, such as the splendid genus Morpho, in
which they are almost filiform, and the Fabrician genus
Urania, in which they become more slender towards their
extremities. The caterpillars have always sixteen feet,
and the chrysalids are naked and angular. These are the
only lepidopterous insects in which we never find the exte¬
rior margin of the inferior wings presenting a rigid seta
or bristle, for the retention of the superior pair.
The genus Papilio of Linnaeus, divided into certain
sections, contained the whole of that splendid and infinite¬
ly-varied tribe which we call Butterflies, of which the spe¬
cies are so numerous and diversified that naturalists soon
felt the necessity of multiplying the genera, both because
it was right so to do, and for the mere convenience of re¬
stricting the amount of species contained in each. In the
later editions of the Systema Natures, Butterflies, or diur¬
nal Lepidoptera, were divided into six phalanges. The UkJ
first, called Equites (which now correspond to the true ge- ra
nus Papilio, as restricted by Latreille), was divided into 1 mv
Troes and Achivi, a division since ascertained to be rather ^ N
unfortunate in some respects, in as far as it occasionally
separates the males and females of the same species; the
second was named Heliconii; the third Parnassii; the fourth
Danai, subdivided into Candidi and Festivi; the fifth
Nymphales, also subdivided into Gemmati and Phalerati;
the sixth Plebeii, again divided into Rurales and Urbicolce.
Geoffrey (in his Histoire abregee des Insectes) follows
the Linnaean system, and improves it chiefly by applying
the principles previously established by Reaumur in his
Memoires. Degeer and Olivier likewise so far follow Lin¬
naeus as to retain the name Papilio as a generic term; but,
in order to facilitate the labours of the student, they have
introduced additional sections and subdivisions. The la¬
bours of Scopoli, as we have elsewhere observed,1 are de¬
fective in relation to these insects, in consequence of his
generic characters being drawn from the presence or ab¬
sence of spots on the wings, and other distinctions which
are of little or no value, except for the formation of artifi¬
cial sections, or the discrimination of species. In the earlier
works of Fabricius, scarcely any alterations were made in the
arrangement of the Linnaean Papiliones. But in the En-
tomologia Systematica of that author, and still more in his
Systema Glossata (left unfinished at the period of his death,
a great number of genera were eventually created.2 La¬
treille, in his numerous works, has constituted various generic
groups, which appear to have been very generally adopted.
Of the chief of these we shall speedily give account. Denis
and Schiffermuller (in the Catalogue des Lepidopteres de Vi¬
enne) had previously benefited this branch of Entomology,
by assuming the form and metamorphosis of the caterpillar
as principal bases of their divisions; and Ochsenheimer has
since successfully applied the same method to all the Euro¬
pean species. Our ignorance of the history of the greater
proportion of exotic groups has unfortunately retarded the
more general application of the principles of an improved
system, although Dr Horsfield’s admirable Lepidoptera Ja-
vanica has done much to complete our knowledge of many
fine Javanese species. Dumeril and Lamarck have also,
each after his own manner, endeavoured to amend the
classification of diurnal Lepidoptera; and in regard to
pictorial works in this department, Clerk, Cramer, Engra-
melle, Hubner, Ernst, Esper, Stoll, Herbst, Jablonsky,
Godart, and others, have published collections of coloured
figures, some of which stand unrivalled in extent and mag¬
nificence by the most costly productions of those who have
most successfully endeavoured to illustrate any of the kin¬
dred branches of natural science. Even in our own coun¬
try, where natural history is so sparingly patronised, and
so lightly valued, this beautiful branch of zoology has been
rather sumptuously exhibited, and the names of Drury,
Abbot, Wilkes, Shaw, Donovan, Lewin, Leach, Swain-
son, Stephens, Curtis, and Horsfield, will readily occur to
the grateful recollection of the reader.
Indeed, on account of the exquisite beauty of their forms
and colours, Butterflies have, from the earliest periods of
natural history, greatly excited the zeal and admiration of
collectors. They occur in all quarters of the world,—from
the frozen shores of Greenland and Spitzbergen, to high
southern latitudes ; but the tropical regions of Asia and
America are the most productive of large and splendidly-
coloured species.
1 Illustrations of Zoology, letter-press preceding plate xxviii.
2 Illiger has given an extract from the last-named work, in
Children, Esq. in the Phil. Mag. and Annals for February 1830.
his Magazin; and the English reader will find it exhibited by
J.
G.
he >P-
i
MJoa.
M. Latreille divides the Linnaean Papiliones into two
sections.
Section 1st,
Contains all those butterflies which have but a single
pair of spurs or spines to their tibiae, and placed at the pos¬
terior extremity of these parts. When in a state of repose
they raise their wings perpendicularly, joining them at the
tips. Their antennae are usually clubbed or inflated at the
extremity, sometimes almost filiform. In this section are
included the genus Papilio and the Hesperiae ruricolca of
Fabricius. It is itself divisible as follows.
ENTOMOLOGY.
241
Third joint of the inferior palpi sometimes almost want¬
ing, sometimes very distinct, but equally well clothed
with scales as that which precedes it. Hooks of the
tarsi apparent or projecting.
Some of the genera of this subdivision are hexapod or
six-footed, that is, all the feet are formed for walking, and
are almost identical in both sexes. Their chrysalids, in ad¬
dition to the common attachment by the posterior extre¬
mity, are fixed by the passing of a silken thread across the
body, A few are enclosed in a rude cocoon. The central
cell of the lower wing is closed inferiorly.
In Papilio (proper) of Latreille (Plate CCXXXIII.
fig. 2), the inferior palpi are extremely short, scarcely
reaching the clypeus with their upper extremity; their
third joint is indistinct. The species of this genus are re¬
markable both for elegance of shape and beauty of colour¬
ing. Those spotted with red on the breast form the divi¬
sion of Eguites Troes of Linn.; those destitute of such
marks he styled Achivi or Greeks. They abound in the
tropical countries of both hemispheres, but are rare in
more northern countries. Indeed we are not aware that
more than three exist in Europe, viz. P. Madia on, Po-
dalirius, and Alexanor, of which the first is a well-known
native of some of the southern counties of England. The
caterpillars of this genus are naked, and when alarmed
protrude from the superior part of the neck a soft forked
horn, that usually diffuses a penetrating and unpleasant
odour. I he chrysalis is exposed, and is supported by
means of a silken band. In the genus Parnassius ofLat.
(Doritis, lab.), Plate CCXXXIII. fig. 3, the inferior palpi
evidently extend above the clypeus, taper to a point, and
are distinctly triarticulated. The terminal button of the
antennae is short, almost ovoid and straight. The females
are provided with a kind of corneous boat-shaped sack at
t e posterior extremity of the abdomen. The species of
t is interesting genus seem peculiar to the alpine or sub-
alpme countries of Europe and the north of Asia. Their
caterpillars possess a retractile tentaculum, like those of
e Preceding genus ; but they form, prior to their transfor¬
mation, a cocoon of leaves united by filaments of silk. The
species which we have figured in the present work is a
r 0 ? Swiss insect, P. Apollo. It inhabits alpine valleys.
is said, however, to occur on plains near Upsal, and
fPW n/v^lern countries* In the genus Thais of Fab.
n 3 j. ^XiXIIL fig. 5), the palpi resemble those of the
prece ing, but the terminal button of the antennae is elon-
ga e and curved, and there is no corneous pouch at the
i rernity of the abdomen of the female. The species are
^aractenstic of the south of Europe. A few occur on
ountams. In the preceding genera the internal margin
low• i ^ Win^S is concave or folded. In the two fol-
anr/'p’ tle *n^er'or wings project beneath the abdomen,
0, ,?rfVa ^anal for its reception. The caterpillars, many
sdpp’ 1C ee^ °n t^le f'rucifer£E> have no tentaculum. The
ics correspond to the Danai candidi of Linn, and in-
tpttTvT'"0* ',hlte,Butterffa- In Pieris, Lat. Lepidop-
Phte CrxxSmT a„ “f.the EnSlish entomologists), ter.
Hmlrio 1 6’ the inferior palpi are almost cy- Diurna.
J ?!, ; fnd sllghtlY compressed, with the last articulation L 
at least almost as long as the preceding. The club of the
fnrfT6 18 T0ld* We11have nine or ten British species,
ncludmg what are usually called cabbage-butterflies, such
as P. brassictB, napi, &c.; also the more richly attired
Orange lip, or Lady of the Woods, P. cardaminesl Mr
Stephens confines the generic title of Pieris to the haw¬
thorn butterfly, P. cratagi, a species as yet unknown in
Scotland. In the genus Colias of Fab. (Plate CCXXXIIL
fig. 4), the club of the antennae forms an elongated and
reversed cone, and the inferior palpi are greatly compress¬
ed, with the last joint much shorter than that which pre¬
cedes it. The indigenous species are in general more
warmly coloured than those of the preceding genus.
Other genera of this subdivision (Tetrapoda) have the
anterior pair of feet much shorter than the others, folded
on the breast, and unfit for walking; sometimes in both
sexes, sometimes only in the males. The chrysalis is sim¬
ply attached by its posterior extremity, and hangs with its
head downwards. The genus Danais (Evplcea, Fab.),
part of the Danai festivi of Linn. (Plate CCXXXIII. fig. 4),
are distinguished by their triangular wings, and antenna?
terminated by a kind of elongated and curved button. In
Idea, Fab. the wings are almost oval and elongated, and
the antennae nearly filiform. In Heliconius, Lat. (P. He-
liconii, Linn.) (Plate CCXXXIII. fig. 7), the antennae are
twice the length of the head and thorax, and increase in¬
sensibly towards the extremity. In Acrtea, Fab. the an¬
tennae are shorter, and terminate in a more abrupt button.*
Those in which the inferior palpi are but slightly com¬
pressed, distant throughout their length, or at least at
their extremity, and terminated abruptly by a slender and
acicular joint, and in which the under surface of the wings
is frequently ornamented by silvery spots, or by yellow
ones upon a fulvous ground, form the genera Cetosia and
Argynnis (Plate CCXXXIV. fig. 2) of Fabricius and La¬
treille. The caterpillars (ibid. fig. 3) are beset with spines
or tubercles. In the former, of which several species have
the wings elevated and elongated, the inferior palpi are dis¬
tant throughout their entire length, the hooks of the tarsi
are simple, and the club of the antennae oblong. In the
latter the club is short and abrupt, the hooks of the tarsi
are unidentated, and the inferior palpi are distant only at
their extremity. The inferior wings are often rounded.
These butterflies are remarkable for the silvery spots upon
their under surface. They are called Fritillaries by the
English collectors. There are four or five indigenous spe¬
cies. The caterpillars have a pair of spines upon the
neck, longer than the rest. Such as fall under the genus
Melitcea of Fab. have yellow spots on the under surface,
and the general markings above are more disposed in
squares, like a chess-board. In M. Seleni and Enphrosyne,
however, the upper surface is very similar to that of the
preceding species, and there is an appearance of pearly or
silvery lustre on the under surface of the lower wings. La¬
treille, we think wisely, unites the whole under the genus
Argynnis.
In the five following genera the inferior palpi are conti¬
guous in their whole length, terminate gradually in a point,
and are much compressed. The genus Vanessa (Plate
CCXXXIII. fig. 9, and CCXXXIV. fig. 1) differs from the
others in the antennae, which are terminated abruptly by
a short turbinated or ovoid button. 4 he caterpillars are
densely spinous (Plate CCXXXIII. fig. 10). Here is pla¬
ced the common tortoise-shell (known in Scotland as the
2 H
vOL. IX.
1 For the indigenous species, see Naturalist's Magazine, voL ii. p. 224
r 1
242
We have figured the li
Lepidop- Devits Butterfly\^ UrvSand chrysalis on Plate CCXXXV. figs. 1 and 8 All
ENTOMOLOGY.
V. urlkce, and several other British the genus Amathusia of Fabncms
ten, snecies such as the Camberwell Beauty, V. Antiopa, and larva and chrysalis on Plate LCXX
Diurna. th^Peacock Eye, V. lo (ibid. fig. 9). The Painted Lady, the rest belong to the new world. Those wh ch follow ,
—o— remarkable for the vast extent of its geographi- have also the discmdal cell of the lower wings closed pos- '•
cal distribution, being fully more widely dispersed than teriorly. Such are Bhassouis, hab. (ibid. hg. 3), Eume-
any other form of animal life with which we are ac¬
quainted, belongs to our present genus. It is, however,
placed in the genus Cynthia by Mr Stephens. In the
four following genera the antennae terminate in an elon¬
gated club, or are almost filiform. In Libythia of Fab.
the males alone have the anterior pair.ot feet extremely
short, and tippet-like. The inferior palpi project observably
in the manner of a beak. The upper wings are very an¬
gular. In Biblis, Fab. the palpi are also longer than the
head, but more obtuse, and curved a little at their extre¬
mity. The anterior legs are abbreviated in both sexes,
and the antennae terminate in a much smaller club. I he
nerves of the superior wings seem strongly inflated at their
origin. In Nymphalis, Lat. (Plate CCXXXIV. figs. 5,
nia, Godart (do. fig. 5), Eurybia, Illiger (do. fig. 10),
and Satyrus, Lat. (do. fig. 6). The caterpillars of the
last-named genus are naked, or nearly so, and the poste¬
rior extremity of their body is narrowed into a furcated
point. The chrysalids are bifid anteriorly, and their back
is tuberculated.
Inferior palpi with three distinct joints, of which the
third is almost naked, or much less thickly covered
with scales than the preceding ones. The hooks of the
tarsi are very small, and scarcely if at all projecting.
The discoidal cell of the posterior wings is open pos¬
teriorly.
The caterpillars of this subdivision are oval, or resem-
7 9) the legs resemble those of the preceding, but the ble Onisci in their forms. The chrysalids are short, con.
inferior palpi are shorter. The club of the antennae is tracted, smooth, and always fixed, like the genus Papilio
more elongated than in Vanessa, from which they are not properly so called, by a silken thread across their bodies.
jLa.: r»ofovrYill'jvc hnwpver. These butterflies w
strongly distinguished. Their caterpillars are, however, These butterflies were classed by Linnaeus among his Pie-
different (ibid. fig. 4), being less spiny, and more elongated bei, in the division of Huricolce, and Fabricius placed them
towards the posterior extremity, which is slightly forked, in a corresponding section of his Hesperia:. They form
The species of this genus (of which, as a British example, the genus Argus of M. Lamarck, and contain, among other
we may name the Purple Emperor, placed in the genus species, all our beautiful little Blues, which in bright sum-
Apatura by Mr Stephens) are frequently ornamented by mer days so enliven our grassy downs, and almost all other
brilliant and varied colours, and, when in prime condition, spots of open sunshine.
are highly prized by collectors. They are distinguished Sometimes the antennae terminate, as usual, in a small
by the strength and thickness of their wings, which enable and solid button-like inflation. In the genus Erycina,
them to exercise a smooth, powerful, and sustained flight. Lat. (Plate CCXXXV. figs. 2 and 4), the anterior pair of
Their motions are .consequently not of that zigzag nature
observable in many species, but steady and continuous,
like the soaring of a bird of prey. They frequently haunt
the summits of forest trees, and other elevated stations,
feet are much shorter than the others, at least in the males.
They belong to America. In the rest all the legs are alike
in both sexes. In Myrina of Fab. (ibid. fig. 11) the in¬
ferior palpi are long and projecting. In Polyommatus
and are therefore difficult to capture. This disadvantage, (ibid. fig. 12) the palpi do not extend much beyond the
however, is to a certain extent obviated by the boldness
of their disposition ; for, when their situation is accessible,
they are not deterred by an unsuccessful attack from set¬
tling again on the spot where they were first observed.
The European species, such as the Purple Emperor above
epistoma.jn These beautiful little insects receive their name
fi’om the number of small eye-like spots with which their
under surface is ornamented. We have a considerable
amount of indigenous species, most of which are blue above,
the females of some being brown. In the Scotch Argus
named {N. Iris), are taken by means of bag-nets, fixed to (P. Artaxerxes), so common near Edinburgh in June and
poles thirty feet high. They are said to be attracted by July, at the base of Arthur’s Seat, above the line of the
the odour of acrid or fermenting substances, and such are Railway, both sexes are blackish-brown above, with a
sometimes used by entomologists to induce them to de- variable white spot on the disk of the upper wings, and
scend from their inaccessible positions. The genus is very some lunated red spots, more or less distinct, on the under,
extensive. M. Godart1 describes 267 different kinds. The splendid little butterflies called Coppers are placed
Nymphalis Jasius, the species which we have selected for by our collectors in the genus Lycjena of Fabricius.
illustration on the plate last referred to (figs. 7 and 9), is A few Lepidoptera of our present subdivision are re-
one of the most beautiful of European insects. We re- markable for the peculiar form of their antennae. Those
ceived it from M. Case-Nuove of Lyons. The genus Mor- of one of the sexes of the genus Barbicornis, Godart,
pho, Fab. (Plate CCXXXIV. fig. 8), differs from Nym- are setaceous and plumy,—those of Zephyrius, Dalman
phalis in its almost filiform antennae, which are feebly and
insensibly enlarged towards the extremities, but not club¬
bed. All the species are peculiar to South America, and
are well deserving the special attention of those who de¬
sire to form a just notion of the splendour and magnifi¬
cence of many lepidopterous insects. We could describe
them with great pleasure did our limits admit of such de¬
tails. M. Godart has separated, under the name of Pavo-
nia (ibid. fig. 10), certain species, of which the central
(Plate CXXXXV. fig. 7), are terminated by ten or twelve
globular joints, separated like the beads of a rosary.
Section 2d.
The second section of diurnal Lepidoptera contains
those species of which the posterior tibiae are furnished
with tw o pair of spines, viz. a pair at their extremity, an
another above. The lowTer wings are usually retained in a
Y / /   [ — '■'7 ^ ~ X*. A A v A VAX VaX Itl/V/ T V_» JLAA\_> A V/ T T V- A t-t » Va »-« •'A «-■» wx » a.   
cell of the lower wings is closed, and the most internal horizontal position, even when the insect is at rest, an
nerve of the upper pair is curved in the form of the letter the extremity of the antenna? very often forms a distinctly
S, in place of being straight or slightly arched. A species hooked point. Their caterpillars, judging from the fe"
found in the East Indies, of which the lower wings are with which we are acquainted, bend together the leaves o
prolonged into a tail (/k Phidippus), forms the type of plants for a protecting covering, and spin within that leafy
1 Encyclopedic Mtthodique, art. Papillon.
2 @
Lop P-
I 1;
PreP 'U'
. la.
chamber an extremely thin cocoon of silk, in which they
are transformed into chrysalids. The latter are smooth,
and without angular elevations. These Lepidoptera form
the Plebei Urbicolce of Linnaeus, with the addition, by La-
treille, of those rare and splendid insects placed by Fabri-
cius in the genus Urania.
The former belong to the genus Hesperia of Fab.
(Plate CCXXXV. fig. 13), and are characterized by the
distinctly clavate termination of the antennae, and by the
inferior palpi being short, broad, and thickly covered an¬
teriorly with scales. Here are placed H. alveolus, malvce,
and tages (for chrysalis and larva see fig. 15), among the
British species. In the genus Urania of Fab. just al¬
luded to (ibid. figs. 9 and IT), the antennae, at first fili¬
form, become attenuated or setaceous at the extremity,
and the inferior palpi are slender and elongated, with the
second article greatly compressed, and the last much more
attenuated, almost cylindrical, and naked. “ The butter¬
flies,” says Mr Swainson, “ comprising this remarkable
genus, are perhaps the most splendid insects in creation.
No art can effectually represent the changeable and re¬
splendent green which relieves the velvet black of the
wings, and which varies with every change of light. The
typical species are found in Tropical America, where they
fly with amazing rapidity, and perform, like their proto¬
types the swallows, annual migrations. When at rest, the
anterior wings are flat or horizontal, but only slightly
spread.”1 U. Leilus is found in Surinam, and is figured
in Madame Merian’s work on the insects of that country.
U. llipheus of Cramer {Leilus Orientalis, Swainson) was
originally figured from a specimen taken at Chandernagor,
in Bengal, and belonged to the rich cabinet of M. Gigot
d’Orcy. We perceive, however, the following notice of
its locality in a recent work : “ Cette espece, que 1’on pent
considerer comme le plus beau Lepidoptere connu, habite
Madagascar. File a ete prise une seule fois a Bourbon,
ou la chenille avoit peut-etre transportee accidentelle-
ment.”2 The synonymy of this exquisite insect has been
greatly embroiled on account of Cramer supposing the
species represented by his figure, which has six tails, to be
identical with Drury’s, which has none. Mr Swainson
has shown that the latter insect, having clavated instead of
filiform antennae, is not only specifically distinct, but per¬
tains to a different genus. He has named it Rhipheus da-
sycephalus? In the Nouv. Ann. quoted below, the reader
nill find an account of the larva of U. rhipheus, which, in
common with the caterpillars of the other species, has
been hitherto unknown to naturalists. Mr Swainson has
represented, with his usual elegance and accuracy, almost
all the known species of these rare and beautiful insects.
That which we have figured in illustration of our present
article is a new species ( U. Roisduvalii), lately published
family II—crepuscularia.
I
The most prominent species of this family are know n
7 ^ | name of Sphinxes or Hawk-moths. They are fur¬
nished with a spine or strong bristle on the anterior margin
°f r *n^erior wings, which being received by a process
0 the under surface of the superior pair, maintains them
in a horizontal or somewhat inclined position in repose.5
ie character just mentioned is indeed perceptible also
among the nocturnal tribes; but our present family is dis-
mguished by the antennae, which are prismatic or fusi-
entomology.
243
form, usually thickest in the middle. These insects flv
firm c^nAteiengtf tT' Celerity’ owinS to extent and teraP'
wWh t 0t I10"' WinSs’ the powerful muscles by Crepuscu-
which they are moved, and the bird-like manner in which laria-
then- taper bodies are poised. From their name, we would V ^
naturally infer that they are observed chiefly during the
morning and evening twilight; but many species may be
seen darting from flower to flower even at mid-day. y As
their capture is difficult, and their rearing from the cater¬
pillar precarious, they are in general highly prized by col-
iectors. In the larva state they have always sixteen feet,
ihe chrysalis is cylindrical, blunt-headed, with a conical
abdomen, and destitute of those points or angular promi¬
nences observable in so many of the diurnal Lepidoptera.
Ihey are usually enclosed in a cocoon, or concealed either
in the earth or under some protecting body. They are
supposed to derive the name of Sphinx from the peculiar
attitude assumed by several of their caterpillars, which in
some respects bear a resemblance to the fabled monster of
antiquity. A few produce a humming sound. Latreille
divides the iamily into four sections, which, in correspond¬
ing order, answer to the genera Castnia and Sphinx of
Fabricius, and to those which he at first named Sesia and
Zygcena.
The first section, named Hesperi-Sphinges, is com¬
posed of those species which connect the Hesperides of the
preceding family with the Sphinges properly so called.
I he antennae are always simple, thickened towards the
middle, or at the extremity, which forms a hook, narrowed
to a point, without any tuft of scales, at the end. They
are all furnished with a distinct proboscis, and the inferior
palpi are composed of three very apparent joints.
In the genus Agarista, Leach (Plate CCXXXYI. fig.
1), the inferior palpi are elongated, with the second joint
strongly compressed, and the last slender and almost
naked; the antennae are simple, gradually thickened to¬
wards the middle, and then becoming attenuated, termi¬
nate in an elongated hook. In the genus Coronis, Lat.
(ibid. fig. 2), the club of the antennae is more developed.
In the genus Castnia of Fabricius (ibid. fig. 3), all of
which are from the new world, the antennae resemble those
of Agarista; but the palpi are shorter, broad, and cylin¬
drical.
The second section, named Sphingides, have the antennae
always terminated by a little flake of scales; the inferior
palpi are broad, or transversely compressed, thickly clothed
with scales, and the third article generally indistinct. Most
of the caterpillars have a smooth body, elongated, thickest
towards the posterior extremity, which is furnished with a
horn, the sides obliquely or longitudinally striped. They
feed on leaves, and undergo their metamorphoses under
ground, w ithout spinning a cocoon. Many seem, however,
to form a little vaulted chamber, with agglutinated walls,
which protects them from the circumjacent earth. Here are
arranged many fine insects belonging to the genus Sphinx
properly so called (Plate CCXXXVI. figs. 5 and 6), of
which the antennae, from about their centre, form a kind of
prismatic mass, either simply ciliated, or transversely stri¬
ated on one side, in the manner of a rasp. The trunk is
very distinct. These insects fly with great velocity, some¬
times giving utterance to a humming noise, occasioned no
doubt by the rapid vibration of their wings. Instead of
settling upon flowers like bees and other insects, they are
frequently observed merely to hover over or before them,
and to extend their long tubular trunks towards the nec¬
taries. This peculiar motion has probably obtained for
* ^!°Sl,C,al IllnstTatinng-> second series, fol. 125.
uvellet Annales du Museum d'Hist. Nat. t. ii. p. 261
3 Zoological Illustrations, second series, plate 131.
4 Iconugraphie du Regne Animal, pi. 82 {Insectes).
muict au museum d Hist. Nat. t. u. p. 261. 4 Iconugraphie du Regne Animat
* Ibis character, according to M. Godart, is wanting in some species of the genus Smerinthus.
Y 1
244
Lepidop-
tera
Crepuscu-
laria.
Wv '
E N T O M
them the appellation hawk-moths. S. Atropos, commonly
called the death’s-head moth, is one of the finest of the Eu¬
ropean species. W hen seized it sometimes utters a shrill
cry, caused, according to Reaumur, by the friction of the
palpi on the trunk,—in the opinion of M. Lorey, by the
escape of air from two cavities in the abdomen. It makes its
appearance in the perfect state during autumn. The cater¬
pillar, at least in Britain, feeds voraciously on potato-leaves.
It is difficult to rear beyond the chrysalis state. We had
six specimens alive at one time during the summer of
1826, all of which entombed themselves after a time be¬
neath the earth, but never made their appearance in the
perfect state. On being examined after the lapse of ten
or twelve months, they were found lying some inches be¬
low the surface, in the state of chrysalis, each in an egg-
shaped hollow, formed by the caterpillar. They were quite
light and stiff, and of course dead and unproductive of the
desired Imago. The death’s-head moth, in common with
several others of the genus, is very widely distributed.
We have received it from Africa and the East Indies ; and
M. Boisduval informs us that it is well known in the Isle
of France. The natives of the latter country believe that
the dust which it casts from its wings in flying through an
apartment, is productive of blindness to the visual organs
on which it falls. It is difficult to trace the origin of this
fable, recorded by St Pierre in his Voyage to the Isle of
France. We have many other native species, which we
cannot here enumerate.1 One of the rarest and most
beautiful of the European species, Sphinx Nerii (genus
Deilephila, Ochs.), occurs in Madagascar and the Mauri¬
tius. It likewise inhabits Asia Minor, Bengal, and the
whole of Africa. We received it from the vicinity of
Genoa. It has recently been captured in England.
Other genera of the Sphingides have the abdomen ter¬
minated by a broad tuft of scales. Such is our humming¬
bird hawk-moth, Macroglossa Stellatarum, Ochs. Some
nearly allied species, to which Fabricius latterly applied
the generic name of Sesia (such as S. fusiformis, Bomby-
liformis, &c.), are distinguished by the clear consistence of
the greater portion of their w ings. In the genus Smerin-
thus of Eat. (Plate CCXXXVI. fig. 11), the antennae are
toothed or serrated.
The third section, named Sesiades by Latreille, con¬
tains those species of which the antennae are always simple,
fusiform, and elongated, and frequently terminated, as in
the preceding genera, by a little bundle of scales; the in¬
ferior palpi are narrow, slender, and distinctly triarticulate,
the last tapering to a point. The posterior legs are fur¬
nished with very strong spurs. The abdomen is generally
terminated by a kind of brush. The caterpillars live by
gnawing the interior of the stalks and roots of plants, like
those of the nocturnal kinds (such as Hepialus and Cos-
sus); they are naked, have no posterior horn, and con¬
struct, with the debris of the substances on which they are
nourished, a cocoon, in which they undergo their final me¬
tamorphoses.
In the genus Sesia of Latreille {AEgeria, Fab. Plate
CCXXXVI. figs. 7, 12, and 13), the antennae terminate in
a little tuft of scales. The wings are horizontal, and com¬
posed of clearer vitreous portions, interrupted by darker
coloured veins. The posterior extremity of the body is
brush-like. Several species exhibit to a casual observer
rather the appearance of wasps or flies, than of lepidop-
terous insects. The genus Thyris of Hoffmansegg (ibid,
fig. 8) resembles iSesia; but the antennae are more slen¬
der, almost setaceous, and without any terminal tuft. The
O L O G Y.
wings are angular and indented. The abdomen terminates ]Lj4
in a point. In ASgocera of Eat. (ibid. fig. 9), the antennae ^
also want the tuft, but they are evidently thickened to- f ura
wards the middle, and fusiform; the second joint of the v rv
inferior palpi is furnished with a bundle of hairs, which
project in a beak-like fashion. The abdomen likewise ter¬
minates in a simple point. The wings are inclined, and
entirely covered with scales.
The fourth and final section of our present family is that
of the ZvciENiDES. It consists of Lepidoptera in which
the antennae, always terminated by a point destitute of a
tuft, are sometimes simple in both sexes, fusiform, or re¬
sembling the horn of a ram, sometimes thickened towards
the middle, almost setaceous, pectinated in both sexes, or
at least in the males ; the inferior palpi of medium size, or
small, nearly cylindrical, and always formed of three dis¬
tinct articulations. The wings, when at rest, are inclined;
that is, sloped down laterally like the roof of a house, and
present vitreous spots in many species. The abdomen is
not brush-tike at the extremity. The spurs of the poste¬
rior legs are usually small. The larvae of these insects live
exposed on various Leguminosae, and other plants. They
are short, inflated about the middle, and attenuated to¬
wards either end. Their bodies are smooth, or but slight¬
ly haired. In the course of their transformations they
spin a pretty solid and coriaceous cocoon, attached to the
stalk of a plant. The perfect insect issues from the chry¬
salis in a few weeks. The flight is somewhat heavy, and
both sexes may frequently be taken together, reposing on
the plants on which the female lays her eggs.
In the genus Zyg^na of Eat. (Plate CCXXXVI. figs.
4 and 10), which appears to be as yet unknown in the new
world, the antennae are simple in both sexes, and termi¬
nate abruptly in a fusiform mass, or one like a ram’s horn.
The inferior palpi rise above the clypeus, and are pointed
at the end. This genus contains the Burnet moths of the
English collectors, of which L. loti and Jilipendulce are well-
known examples. The genus Syntomis of Illiger differs
from Zygaena chiefly in the antennae, which are not so
thick, but slender, or insensibly fusiform. The inferior
palpi are short and obtuse. In the genus Atychia of
Hoffm. (ibid. fig. 16), the antennae are simple in the fe¬
males, and bipectinated in the males. The inferior palpi
are very hairy, and extend obviously beyond the clypeus.
The wings are short. The spurs at the extremity of the
posterior legs are strong. The genus Procris of Lat.
(ibid. fig. 17) approaches the preceding so far as respects
the antennae, but the inferior palpi are shorter and less
hairy. An ornamental insect, the Sphinx Statices of Linn,
affords a good example of this genus. It is called the
green forester by Harris, and forms with another species
the genus Ino of Leach and Stephens. Other Lepidop¬
tera of this section have the antennae in both sexes bipec¬
tinated, or furnished with a double row of elongated teeth.
Such of them as have a distinct trunk form the genus
Glaucopis of Fab. (ibid. fig. 18)—those in which that or¬
gan is wanting or indistinct compose the genus Aglaopf.
(ibid. fig. 15).
FAMILY III.—NOCTURNA.
The vast assemblage of species of which this great divi¬
sion is composed, are known under the familiar name ot
Moths, and correspond to the old and undivided genus
Phalaina of Linnaeus. Their wings, with a few exceptions,
1 Mr Rennie’s Conspectus of the Butterflies and Moths found in Britain will prove useful to those who cannot obtain access to the
rarer or more costly works from which it is compiled.
ENTOMOLOGY.
t
Noc na.
jp- are bridled, in repose, by means of a bundle of setae, or the
corneous bristle before mentioned in our generalities of the
preceding family. Their position is either horizontal or in¬
clined; sometimes they embrace the sides and upper surface
of the abdomen. The antennae are setaceous, or become
gradually narrower towards the extremity. They are fre¬
quently feathered or pectinated, especially in the males,
and are usually more ample in that sex than in the females.
The legs of the larvae vary from ten to sixteen in number.
In certain species both sexes seem to want the tongue;
and the females of a few have no wings, or but the merest
rudiments of those organs. The chrysalids are always
rounded, or without angular points.
These insects, as their family name imports, are seldom
seen on the wing till after sunset. They continue their
flight, throughout the mild and dewy nights of summer, till
the morning twilight. During the brightness of the day
season they conceal themselves in tangled vegetation, on
the shady side of walls and buildings, on the under side of
large leaves, or in the crevices of the gnarled bark of an¬
cient forest-trees, and other sombre places. So astounded
indeed are the greater number by the “ garish eye of day,”
that when discovered by the sharp-sighted entomologist,
they allow themselves to be taken prisoner without an effort
to escape. A few, however, present exceptions to the
general rule. Such, for example, are the males of Bombyx
zigzag, which fly throughout the whole day, and fear not
the brightest beams of “ glorious Apollo.” This same
species presents a remarkable confirmation of what we have
formerly stated, in the introductory portion of the present
article, regarding the sense of smell in insects. The fe¬
male of the moth just named is extremely sluggish, and
seems seldom, if ever, to use her wings. When placed at
an open window or elsewhere in an observable position,
she will be speedily seen to receive the visits of the males,
which fly swiftly towards her from all directions, undoubt¬
edly guided by the sense of smell.
The classification of this family presents great difficulties
to the entomologist in the way of a natural division into
sections and sub-genera, and to it applies with peculiar
force an observation made by Latreille regarding the en¬
tire order,—Lepidopterorum ordo Entomologorum Scapu¬
las. In fact, the parts of the mouth, from the complex
and greatly varied, yet clearly defined structure of which,
in the masticating insects, so many excellent and available
characters have been deduced, are among the lepidopte-
rous tribes in general restricted in number, simple in form,
and very similar in composition. The antennae, too, espe¬
cially among the nocturnal tribes, become rather sexual
than generic distinctions ;—and as the metamorphosis and
general habits and history of many of the exotic species,
which form the finest features in the richly stored cabinets
of Europe, are almost entirely unknown, recourse cannot be
had to such excellent and indeed indispensable aids towards
a more natural and consistent classification. An accurate,
perspicuous, and philosophical arrangement of the Lepidop-
tera, is therefore still a desideratum in our science.
Latreille, in his latest work (Regne Animal, second edi-
hon), divides the nocturnal Lepidoptera into ten sections,
the species of which the wings are entire, or without fis¬
sures or digitations, compose the first nine. All those
which, under the form of larva, live almost entirely expos¬
ed) or in fixed retreats, and of which many have less than
sixteen feet, and which in their perfect state are charac-
enzed by very small or concealed upper palpi, more or
ess triangular wings, horizontal or decumbent, and not
o ling around the body, compose the first eight. The
e!g th itself is the only one of which the caterpillars have
ourteen feet, of which two are anal. If in certain others
e same number exists, the anal are wanting.
245
The first four sections correspond to the divisions At- Lepidop-
tacus and Bombyx of the genus Phalaena of Linmeus. The tera1
trunk is usually rudimentary or very small, and its two Nocturna.
filaments are not united. The inferior palpi, with a few ' ^
exceptions, are small and almost cylindrical. The antenna?
at least in the males, are pectinated or serrated. The
wings are horizontal or decumbent, and in several the
lower project, in a state of repose, beyond the upper pair.
In some, also, the buckle-like process formerly mentioned
as fixing the wings together, is here wanting. The thorax
is smooth or uniform, as well as the abdomen, and woolly.
The latter portion is for the greater part very voluminous in
the females. The cocoon of the chrysalis is generally what
may be called well felted, and of pretty solid consistence.
Although the Nocturna of Latreille’s fourth section {Apo-
sura) bear a close relation to those which precede them,
their caterpillars nevertheless offer a character unique and
unexampled in the lepidopterous order,—the absence of
the anal feet. W e shall here give a brief sketch of the
general characters of the nocturnal tribes, in accordance
with the system of Latreille.
Section 1st, Hepialites.
We may here name as types the genera Hepialus and
Cossus of Fabricius. The caterpillars are rarely met with,
as they conceal themselves in the interior of the plants on
which they feed. The cocoons which they form are com¬
posed in great part of particles of those same plants. The
edges'of the abdominal rings or segments of the chrysalis
are toothed or spinous. The antennae of the perfect insect
are always short, and most generally present only one kind
of small, short, rounded, and close-set teeth. Those of
some others terminate always in a simple thread, but are
furnished inferiorly in the males with a double row of
barbs. The trunk is always very short, and not very ob¬
vious. The wings are decumbent, and generally elon¬
gated. The last rings of the abdomen in the female form
a kind of oviduct or tail. In the larva state these insects
are very destructive to trees, edible plants, and other use¬
ful products of the vegetable kingdom.
Sometimes the antennae, almost conformable in both
sexes, have only very short teeth disposed in one or two
rows. Such are the three following genera. In Uepialus
of Fab. the antennae are almost granular, and much shorter
than the thorax. The under wings are usually destitute of
the curb or spine. The caterpillars dwell in the earth, and
gnaw the roots of plants (Plate CCXXXVI. fig. 27). A
very abundant species, called the Ghost-moth, H. humuli.
Fab., is characterized by the upper wings of the males be¬
ing of a silvery white, without spots,—those of the female
reddish yellow, with spots of a deeper hue. The larva is
extremely destructive to hops, and also exists in great quan¬
tities in districts where that useful plant is unknown. It is
often seen hovering over churchyards with a short pendu¬
lous motion to and fro, and is also frequently observed in
pasture-fields, and plots of grass in garden grounds. In
the genus Cossus of Fab. (ibid. fig. 14), the antennae are
at least as long as the thorax, and present on their inner
side a range of small lamellar teeth, short and rounded at
the end. The caterpillars live in the interior of trees, and
make use of the saw-dust produced by the action of their
mandibles in the formation of their cocoons. The chrysa¬
lids advance by a peculiar and instinctive motion to the ex¬
ternal apertures of their ligneous dwellings, just at the mo¬
ment of their final development, when their wings are about
to expand. We doubt not that the little spinous projections
with which the sides of the abdomen are armed, aid them
greatly in that progressive motion. A wriggling movement
would naturally produce an advance upwards or forwards,
246
ENTOMOLOGY.
Lepidop- but retreat would be impossible. The Cossus ligniperda is
tera a noted example of the genus. In the larva state (ibid. fig.
Nocturna. 19) it is extremely destructive to elm trees, which it per-
forates almost to the core, and by degrees produces first
an unhealthy condition, rendered visible by a peculiar co¬
lour of the leaves, and finally decay and death. In the
company of an honoured friend, the Rev. John Fleming
of Rairigg, Windermere, we lately witnessed the hewing
down of an old elm tree, which had braved the blasts of
many stern winters, but had evidently become paralysed
in its vital functions by the inroads of some insidious foe.
By accident the large scaly head of a caterpillar was one
day seen protruding from the rugged bark; and some
other circumstances led to the belief that the tree was in¬
fested. To ascertain the cause of the disease with certain¬
ty, and to stay if possible its progress through the neigh¬
bouring groves, the sylvan monarch was consigned to the
tender mercies of the woodmen of Bowness; and on be¬
ing felled and hewn in different parts, we discovered se¬
veral dozens of very large caterpillars of Cossus ligniper¬
da, chiefly in the thickest part of the tree, a few feet above
the ground, and several inches within the bark. They
gave out, as we extracted them, a very peculiar odour, of
an oily nature, and sufficiently repelling, we should sup¬
pose, to render it improbable that these larvae were eaten
by the ancients. It is however a well-received opinion,
that the Cossus described by Pliny, and regarded by the
Romans as a most delicious fare, was the caterpillar in
question. It is frequently found in the willow as well as
in the elm, and may possibly extend its ravages to the oak,
the nidus assigned by Pliny to his edible worm. The
latter, however, was most likely the larva of Prionus co-
riarius, or some other of the larger long-horned beetles;
the more especially as we know from Madame Merian and
other writers, that the grub of a congener, Cerambyx da-
tnicornis, is eaten in Surinam and the West Indies, both
by slaves and freemen. The perfect insect of the Cossus
ligniperda is of an ashy grey, with numerous small black
lines on the upper wings. The posterior extremity of the
thorax is yellowish, with a black line. We forgot to men¬
tion, that the oily odour of the caterpillar is by some consi¬
dered to proceed from a reservoir of a peculiar fluid which
the insect disgorges, for the purpose, it is believed, of soft¬
ening the timber on which it feeds, and in which, as it in¬
creases in size, it perforates its hidden chambers. It is
also remarkable as having afforded the subject of an ex¬
traordinary anatomical investigation by Lyonnet, detailed
in his famous Traite Anatornique de la Chenille du Saule.
The enthusiasm of a French writer has induced him, while
lauding the merits of that signal publication, to allude to
its subject-matter under the dignifying appellation of “ the
immortal worm!” The reader may satisfy his curiosity as
to its external aspect, by inspecting the 19th figure of our
236th plate. On the same plate, fig. 14, we have repre¬
sented the winged state of an American species, C. Mac-
murtrei of Boisduval. The genus Stygia of Draparnaud
(ibid. fig. 24), placed by some writers among the Zygce-
nides, is ranked by Latreille where we now introduce it.
T. he antenna;; have a double row throughout their whole
length, of small, short, straight teeth, dilated and rounded
at the end.1
Sometimes (and this character distinguishes the follow-
fjCnus f 1 om those enumerated in the preceding para¬
graph) the antennae differ peatly in the sexes; those of
the males being furnished inferiorly with a double row of
barbs, and terminated by a filament; those of the females
being entirely simple, but cottony at the base. Such are
the species of the genus Zeuzera of Lat. (Plate CCXXXVI.
fig. 20), of which Z. cesculi is a beautiful indigenous exam¬
ple. Its larva dwells in the interior of the sweet chesnut
tree, and in that of pear and apple trees. The body of the
perfect insect is of a beautiful white, with blue rings on
the abdomen, and numerous little spots of the same colour
on the upper wings. It is not a common species.
E Jin
Section 2d, Bombycites.
mi
rv
This section may be distinguished, both from that which
precedes and that which follows it, by the following cha¬
racters : The trunk is always very short, and merely rudi¬
mentary ; the wings are either extended and horizontal,
or decumbent, but the inferior wings extend laterally be¬
yond the upper ones ; the antennae of the males are pec¬
tinated.
The caterpillars live exposed, and devour the more ten¬
der parts of vegetables. They usually spin a cocoon of
pure silk. The chrysalids have no spiny processes or den¬
tations on the edges of the rings of the abdomen.
The species with horizontal and extended wings (the
Phalaenae Attaci of Linn.) form the genus Saturnia of
Schrank (Plate CCXXXVI. fig. 25), with which Latreille
combines Aglia {Bombyx tau) of Ochsenheimer. It com¬
prehends many magnificent species, such as S. atlas of
China, called porte-miroir by the French, on account of
the transparent or vitreous portions of the wings. S. luna,
of a fine and delicate green colour, is an American species,
remarkable for the extended tail-like appendages of the
under wings.2 The cocoons of two other species of this
division, JBombyx mylitta of Fab. and Phalcena cynthia of
Drury, have been employed for their silk from time imme¬
morial in Bengal. The first of these species appears to be
identical with the Ph. paphia of Dr Roxburgh. It occurs
in great abundance in Bengal, and in many parts of the ad¬
joining country, and affords a plentiful supply of a very du¬
rable though coarse and dark-coloured silk called Tusseh,
much used by the Brahmins and other sects of Hindoos.
This species cannot be domesticated ; but the hill people
go into the jungles, and when they perceive the dung of
the caterpillars under a tree, they immediately search for
them among the branches, and carry off whatever they re¬
quire. These they distribute on the asseen trees (Termi-
nalia alata glabrata of Roxb.), and as long as they conti¬
nue in the caterpillar state, the Pariahs guard them from
birds by day and from bats by night. The natural food
of this species is the Byer tree of the Hindoos, called Rham-
nus jujuba by botanists. The Jaroo cocoons are pro¬
duced from a mere variety, not a distinct species, of this
insect. The Arrindy silk-worm, however, belongs to an en¬
tirely different species, the Phalcena cynihia above named.
It appears peculiar to two districts in the interior of Ben¬
gal, viz. Rungpore and Dinagepore, where it is reared in a
domestic state. The food of this caterpillar consists en¬
tirely of the leaves of the common Ricinus, or PalM
Christi, which the natives call arrindy, and hence the name
by which the insect is itself distinguished.3 The cocoons
are in general about two inches in length and three inches
nm i^our figure^re/we fear^not^uite accuratel^renre^nte^ ^ ^ de 1(1 Soc‘ Unn- de Paris> v’ 4?3- The ante"'
dart, Papil. de France, iii. pi. 22, fig. 29 ; and Guerin,a4SPeClmen’ COrreCt them• C°mpare ^
larva onVlat^CCXXXVIA^^1101111 ^ Mr Zlncken von Somraer> from eggs imported from America. We have figured the
* Edinburgh Cabinet Library, British India, vol. iii. p. 155.
in circumference, pointed at either end ; they are of a
white or yellowish colour, and their texture is extremely soft
a- and delicate. The filament indeed is so remarkably fine,
/ that this silk cannot be wound off, but is spun like cotton.
The yarn is wove into a kind of coarse white cloth, of a
seemingly loose texture; but of such extreme durability
that the life of one person is seldom sufficient to wear out
a garment of it, so that the same piece frequently de¬
scends from parent to child. It must always be washed in
cold water.1
The principal European species of the genus Saturnia
are known under the names of peacock and emperor moths,
&c. such as S. pavonia major and minor. The former is
the largest moth in Europe, and has been known to remain
in the chrysalis state for three years.
Other Bombycites have the superior wings decumbent,
with the exterior margin of the inferior pair projecting al¬
most horizontally beyond them,—alee reversae. In the
genus Lasiocampa (Plate CCXXXVI. fig. 26), the palpi
project in the form of a rostrum, and the inferior wings are
frequently dentated; some of the species bear a resemblance
to little bundles of dried leaves ; such are L. quercifolia and
others. In the genus Bombyx properly so called (ibid,
fig. 21) the inferior palpi exhibit no remarkable projection.
Here is placed the famous Bombyx mori, or true silk-worm
moth, of a whitish colour, with two or three obscure and
transverse streaks, and a lunate spot on the superior wings.
The caterpillar feeds on the leaves of the mulberry, and
spins an oval cocoon of a close tissue of the finest silk,
usually of a yellow colour, but sometimes white. A varie¬
ty is now preferred abroad, which always yields the latter
colour. Although this sumptuous product is now “ familiar
as household words,” its nature and origin were but ob¬
scurely, if at all, known in ancient times; and even in the
days of Aurelian it was valued at its weight in gold. This
was probably owing to the mode in which the material was
procured by the merchants of Alexandria, who had no di¬
rect intercourse with China, the only country in which the
silk-worm was at that time reared. According to Latreille,
the city of Turfan, in Little Bucharia, was for a long time
the rendezvous of the western caravans, and the chief en¬
trepot of the Chinese silks. It was the metropolis of the
Seres of Upper Asia, or of the Serica of Ptolemy, placed,
according to that author, between the Ganges and the East¬
ern Ocean. Hence the Serica vestis of the Romans, and
tlie word Sericum, their name for silk. Driven from their
country by the Huns, the Seres established themselves in
! ureat Bucharia and in India. It was from one of their
colonies, Ser-hend (Ser-indi), that certain Greek mission¬
aries, in the reign of Justinian, carried the eggs of the silk-
worm to Constantinople. Its cultivation spread, at the
period of the first Crusades, from the Morea into Sicily, the
ngdom of Naples, and, several centuries afterwards, under
e administration of Sully more especially, into France, to
H, 1C1 country if is now a source of great wealth. Silks were
a so anciently obtained by sea or land from the kingdoms of
egu and Ava, or the Oriental Seres, most frequently men-
jone m the writings of the earlier geographers.2 Though
, (.e, manufactures of silk were lauded in terms of the
g est admiration both by Greek and Roman writers,
CpJ -W^re ^n, i're4uent usc for some centuries before any
I thp m .now et^e aPPears to have been obtained, either of
or nf^C1Se c°untries from which the material was derived,
sunn ^i "T by which if was produced. By some it was
ppose to be a fine down adhering to the leaves of trees
entomology. 0„
rj 24/
or flowers, by others it was regarded as a delicate kind nf r 0 -a
woo or cotton and even thofe who had aoteldea „f S
insect origin were incorrectly informed'oTthellatS mode NoSna.
of rts formation The court of the Greek emperors, which '
surpassed even those of the Asiatic sovereigns in splendour
and magnificence, became profuse in its display of this
,St y .l/xury ; kut. as the Persians, from the advantages
which their local situation gave them over the merchants
from the Arabian Gulf, were enabled to supplant them in
a those marts of India to which silk was brought by sea
rom the East, and as they had it in their power to cut off
the caravans which travelled by land from China through
their own northern provinces, Constantinople thus became
dependent on a rival power for an article which its sump-
tuous nobles deemed essential to the enjoyment of refined
me. Of course the Persians, with the usual rapacity of
monopolists, raised the price to an exorbitant height, and
many attempts were made by Justinian to free his subjects
fiom such exaction. An accidental circumstance is said to
have accomplished what the wisdom of the great legislator
was unable to achieve. Two Persian monks, who had been
employed as missionaries in one of the Christian churches
established in India, had penetrated into the country of the
Seres, that is, to China, where they observed the natural
operations of the silk-worm, and acquired a knowledge of
the arts of man in working up its produce into so many
lich and costly fabrics. The love of lucre, mingled per¬
haps with a feeling of indignation that so valuable a branch
of commerce should be enjoyed by unbelieving nations,
induced them to repair to Constantinople, where they ex¬
plained to the emperor the true origin of silk, and the va¬
rious modes by which it was prepared and manufactured.
Encouraged by the most liberal promises, they undertook
to transport a sufficient supply of these extraordinary worms
to Constantinople, which they effected by conveying the
eggs in the interior of a hollow cane. They were hatched,
it is said, by the heat of a dunghill, and the larvae were fed
with the leaves of wild mulberry.4 They grew and pros¬
pered, worked their webs, underwent their accustomed me¬
tamorphosis, and multiplied their kind according to use
and wont; and thus, as already .intimated, becoming ex¬
tensively cultivated throughout all the southern countries
of our continent, they effected an important change in the
commercial relations which had so long existed between
Europe and the East.5
Another curious species of the genus Bombyx is the
processionnary moth, B. processionnea, Fab. The cater¬
pillars of this insect live in society on oak trees, where,
when young, they spin in common a silken tent, in which
they dwell together in unity. They frequently change
their domicil until after the third casting of their skins,
on which they remain more stationary, forming a new ha¬
bitation resembling a kind of sack, divided interiorly into
several cells. They usually issue forth in the evening, in
a very singular order of procession. A single individual
takes the lead, and serves as guide, two others follow,
forming the second line, then three abreast, next four, and
so on for many ensuing columns, each regularly augment¬
ed by the addition of a single larva, and all following the
course of their first adventurous leader. After a certain
time each spins a cocoon alongside that of its neighbour,
mingling the hairs of its body with the silken tissue.
These hairs, Latreille remarks, are, in common with those
of several other kinds, extremely small and fine; and some¬
times working their way into the human skin, occasion
4 nC'C°Unt °f^le Tusseh and Arrindy Si/k-Worms of Bengal, by William Roxburgh, M.D. &c. Linn. Trans, vol. yii. p. 33.
* v" P- 402. 3 'Robertson's Historical Disquisition concerning Ancient India. * Procopius, Dc Bello t/othico.
ee Gibbon s Decline and Fall, &c. Reign of Justinian ; also Edinburgh Cabinet Library, British India, vol. iii. p. 152-3.
248
ENTOMOLOGY.
Lepidop- violent itchings, accompanied by swelling. The inhabi-
tera tants of Madagascar are known to employ for economical
Nocturna. purposes the silk of a caterpillar which likewise dwells in
great communities,—a commonwealth of worms. Their
nest is sometimes three feet high, and so closely packed
with cocoons (500 have been counted in a single mass)
that not the smallest hiatus is to be found. The species,
however, belongs to the genus Sericaria of the ensuing
section.
Section 3d, Pseudo-Bombyces.
These consist of Lepidoptera in which the inferior wings
(in common with those of all the remaining nocturnal
tribes) are provided with a curb, which attaches them to
the superior when at rest. They are then entirely cover¬
ed by the latter, and both are decumbent or horizontal,
but with the inner edges overlapped (en recouvrement, Lat.).
The trunk among the concluding members of the section
begins to lengthen, and scarcely differs in the final genera
from that of other Lepidoptera, except that it is somewhat
shorter. The antennae are entirely pectinated or serrated,
at least in the males. The caterpillars live on the ex¬
terior parts of vegetation.
Latreille distinguishes first those species in which the
trunk is very short, and apparently unadapted to the pur¬
poses of suction.
In some, and these are the greater number, the cater¬
pillars live exposed or uncovered, and do not fabricate port¬
able dwellings. Of these, some are elongated, furnished
with ordinary feet, well adapted for walking; the rings of
the body not soldered above. In the genera Sericaria of
Lat. (Plate CCXXXVI. fig. 22), and Notodonta of Ochs.
(Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 1), both sexes have well-develop¬
ed wings. In the former, which contains the B. dispar of
Fab. so remarkable for the great size of the female, and
the difference of her general aspect when compared with
the male, the upper wings exhibit no dentations on their
inner border. In the latter, which contains Ph. zigzag of
Linn, that border is dentated. In the genus Orgyia of
Ochs. (ibid. fig. 2), the females are almost apterous (fig. 3),
and the caterpillars (fig. 4) are beautifully adorned with
aigrettes, or little plumes or tufts of hair. In others of the
same tribe the caterpillars creep rather than walk, their
feet being extremely short, and even the scaly ones retrac¬
tile ; the body is oval like that of an oniscus, with the skin
soldered above from the second ring, so as to form a kind
of arch, beneath which the head is withdrawn. These
compose the genus Limacodes, Lat. of which the cater¬
pillars seem to represent, in this section of the Nocturna,
those of certain diurnal Lepidootera, such as the genus
Polyommatus.
Other genera. of Pseudo-Bombyces are distinguished
from the preceding by the possession of a very distinct
trunk, which, when unrolled, extends far beyond the head.
The disposition of their colours somewhat resembles that
of those diurnal species called chess-boards (damiers) by
the French. Many of them are extremely rich and beau¬
tiful in their adornment. In Chelonia of Godart (Arctia,
Schr.) Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 5, the wings are decumbent
in repose, the antennae pectinated in the males, the infe¬
rior palpi very hairy, and the trunk short. To this genus
belongs that common but superb species commonly called
the Tiger-moth {B.caja, Fab.). It is produced from the
blackish-brown creeping caterpillar usually known in
Scotland as “ the hairy worm.” In Callimorpha, Lat.
(ibid. fig. 6), the wings are also decumbent, but the anten¬
nae are at most only ciliated in the males ; the inferior
palpi are merely covered by little scales, and the trunk is
long. C. Jacobcca is an ornamental British species, known
to our older writers under the names of Pink-underwing,
and Cinnabar-moth. The upper wings are brown, with a
streak and two spots of carmine. The under pair are car-;
mine, with a blackish border. The caterpillar is hairy and
black, and feeds on the flowers of the rag-wort. In Li-
thosia of Fab. the wings are laid as it were horizontally
upon the body.
Section 4th, Aposura, Lat.
The insects of this division are characterized by a peculia¬
rity already alluded to,—the want of feet on the anal segment
of the body of the larvae. They derive their name from that
circumstance. The posterior extremity of the body ter¬
minates in a point, which in several is forked, or even ex¬
hibits two articulated appendages, long and flexile, and
forming a kind of tail. The perfect insects differ but lit¬
tle from the preceding in regard to their trunk, palpi, and
antennae. Some, such as Dicranoura of Godart (Plate
CCXXXVII. fig. 7), have the external aspect of Serica¬
ria and Chelonia, with the antennae of the males termi¬
nating in a small simple curved thread. The posterior
extremity of the larva is forked (ibid. fig. 8). Others,
such as Platypterix, Lat. bear a great resemblance to
the Phalaenae properly so called. Their wings are broad,
and the superior angle of the posterior extremity of the an¬
terior pair is somewhat prolonged or falcated. The body
is slender. That of the caterpillar terminates in a simple
truncated point. In that state they bend over the edges
of the leaves of plants, and fix them down by silken cords,
so as to form a protecting habitation, which at the same
time they partly consume as their natural food. The co¬
coon of the chrysalis is very bare.
Section 5th, NocTUiELiTES, Lat.
The species of this extensive section are similar to tlie pre¬
ceding insects in the figure and relative proportion of their
wings, and their position in repose; but they present the two
following distinguishing characters : A horny, spirally rol¬
led, and generally elongated trunk; inferior palpi, termi¬
nated abruptly by a very small article, much more slender
than that which precedes it,—the latter being broader and
compressed. These genera have the body more covered
by scales than by a woolly down. Their antennae are
usually simple. The thorax is frequently crested above,
and the abdomen assumes the form of an elongated cone.
Their flight is rapid, and some of the species make their
appearance during the day. The caterpillars have usually
sixteen feet. Some have only twelve or fourteen, but
the posterior or anal pair are never wanting; and in those
which present but twelve the anterior pair of the membra¬
nous ones are as long as the next ensuing. The greater
proportion spin a cocoon, in w hich they undergo their me¬
tamorphosis. These Lepidoptera correspond to the divi¬
sion named JYoctiue -of the genus Phalaina of Linn.
All the' generic groups recently established, and ot which
the characters are derived rather from the caterpillar than
the perfect insect, are referred by Latreille to the two ge¬
nera which follow. In the genus Erebus of Lat. (Plate
CCXXXVII. figs. 10 and 14), the wings are always extend¬
ed and horizontal, and the terminal joint of the palpi is
elongated, elevated, cylindrical, or slightly compressed,
and naked. With the exception of a single species, Op*"
usa scapulosa of Ochsenheimer, which occurs in Spain, all
these insects are of exotic origin. We have figured a su¬
perb example, “ the glory of the Noctuidae,” as it is ytII
named by Mr Kirby, on the fourth plate of the first vo¬
lume of our Illustrations of Zoology. It is the Erebus
strix of Latreille, and is known also under the title of the
Hit
ENTOMOLOGY.
Koe I m
tnp
great owl moth of Brazil. It measures nearly a foot in
breadth from tip to tip of the extended upper wings. In
the genus Noctua of Fab. and Lat. (ibid. fig. 9) the ter¬
minal joint of the inferior palpi is short, and covered with
scales, like that which precedes it.1 Of those with six feet,
which are the greater number, we may mention as a Bri¬
tish species N. sponsa, Fab. The caterpillar lives upon
the oak, is of a greyish colour, and obscurely and irregu¬
larly spotted. It is marked with small tubercles, and the
eighth ring bears a projection, on which there is a yellow
plate. This larva, and some other nearly allied kinds, are
called lichenees by the French naturalists, on account of
their resemblance to, and the difficulty with which they are
sometimes distinguished from, various kinds of bark-sup¬
ported lichens.2 The anterior four of the membranous feet
are shorter than the others, and they walk like the survey¬
ors. Many other well-known species are arranged with
that just mentioned. The caterpillars of certain others
have only twelve feet, and the perfect insects are frequent¬
ly ornamented with golden or silvery spots upon the upper
wings. Such are two well-known British species, N.
gamma and chrysitis. The former of these receives its
name from a character resembling the Greek letter y in¬
scribed in gold upon its upper wings. “ This creature,”
say Messrs Kirby and Spence, speaking of the larva, “ af¬
fords a pregnant instance of the power of Providence to let
loose an animal to the work of destruction and punishment.
Though common with us, it is seldom the cause of more
than trivial injury ; but in the year 1735 it was so incre¬
dibly multiplied in France as to infest the whole country.
On the great roads, wherever you cast your eyes, you
might see vast numbers traversing them in all directions
to pass from field to field ; but their ravages were particu¬
larly felt in the kitchen gardens, where they devoured
every thing, whether pulse or pot-herbs, so that nothing
was left besides the stalks and veins of the leaves. The
credulous multitude thought they were poisonous, report af¬
firming that in some instances the eating of them had been
followed by fatal effects. In consequence of this alarming
mea, herbs were banished for several weeks from the soups
of Paris. Fortunately these destroyers did not meddle
with the corn, or famine would have follow ed in their train,
neaumur has proved that a single pair of these insects
might in one season produce 80,000; so that, were the
iriendly Ichneumons removed, to which the mercy of Hea¬
ven as given it in charge to keep their numbers within
249
the plants on which they dwell. The antennte ofTiin
kinds are pectinated, such as iV. graminis, an insect which
has sometimes proved extremely destructive to the^neadows
in Sweden. We may conclude by observing that caterpillars
believed to belong to this genus have been seen to exer-
SstincrZ’v" ’ ^ ^ it, an unnatural
instinct,—they seize upon other larvae, even of their own
species, transfix them by the middle, and sucking out their
interior juices, leave them nothing but their own skins.
When we mention that Olivier (in Encyclopedic Metho-
dique) describes 4a9 species of the Fabrician genus Noctua,
the reader will readily admit that many of the new generic
groups, to which we have been unable to do more than al¬
lude, are extremely desirable, were it for nothing else than
mere convenience, independent of any higher reasons re¬
sulting from the nature of things.
Section 6th, Tortrices, Linn.
These are very nearly allied to the Lepidoptera of the
two preceding sections. The upper wings, of which the
posterior margin is arcuated at the base and then restrict-
eel, and their short and broad contour, forming a truncat-
ed oval, bestow s a peculiar physiognomy upon the species
in question. They are named by the French Phalenes d
larges epaides, Phalenes chappes, &c. They are all provid¬
ed with a distinct trunk, and the inferior palpi are gene-
lally very like those of Noctua, but somewhat projecting.
They are of smallish size, agreeably coloured, with the
wings decumbent, but flatfish, or almost horizontal, and
covering the body,—the inner margins of the upper pair
even overlapping each other a little in a state of repose.
The caterpillars have sixteen feet, a smooth body, or but
slightly haired, and dwell in leaves, which they roll up or
convert into tunnels by means of silken cordage. They
live upon the parenchyma of their own leafy dwellings,
which thus serve them both for food and clothing. Others
form their dwellings by uniting several leaves together,
while a few are found in different kinds of fruits. Several
have the posterior part of their body narrower than the
others, and these were named chenilles en forme des pois-
son by Reaumur. Their cocoons are boat-shaped, and
t. v. p. 409, is, in Ochsenheimer’s
These are constituted in great part
MrmiernvZU^0pU& of ,Fa.b.ri(:ius’ as observed by Latreille in his note to the RZgne Animal,
by the conversion in^w/pn fto for.t-v‘two genera, from Acronita to Eudidia inclusive. m Hicul pan.
Their insertion in ti • fra ° >, f sectlons previously indicated in the “ Systematic Catalogue of the Lepidoptera of Vienna.”
from which their • 1Is.ar lc f woukl however be still more incompatible with our own limits than with those of the Rlgne Animal,
parallel series re exclu<led. The Noctuae, according to Latreille, exclusive of Erebus, are resolvable into two great
which the caternifi ° .1CVS/elat,ed to tbese latter Lepidoptera, the other to the Notodontoe. The first is composed of those of
or four of the ars 1T!artb al''er the manner of the surveyors or Geometrae. Some have sixteen feet, of which the anterior two
distinguished G en(lletiate membranous ones are the shortest; others have only twelve feet, such as Plusia and Chrysoptera, genera
mences with sn °1'n - c Pr.e<jetYn£ by the size of the inferior palpi, which are recurved upon the head. The second series com-
donte mlnina w , . the palpi are proportionally larger, the antennae pectinated, and the trunk smaller;—such are Noto-
those Noctum in °”h'Fat") an(^ tbe genus Calyptra of Ochsenheimer. Then follow the genera Xylena and CuculHa,
ed, and those in 1 6 l)ostenor margin of the anterior wings are angular or dentated, those in which the antennae are pectinat-
to the genus f1 "r 1C” 1 ie-V a^e ^mpl0. The latter species are terminated by such as have an even thorax, some of which, belonging
membranous ^ Seerrj ^eat^ to the Pyralites. All the caterpillars of this second series have sixteen feet, with the intermediate
lomo/r. de la .,nes 0 . e<lual size ; their mode of progression is rectigrade. The genus Chrysoptera (Plusia concha of Fischer, in En-
series seem t USSie' 1' ^cpidop. iv. j, with which Latreille concludes the other series, is related to Herminia and Pyralis. Thus both
which as w >11 con^’erge towards the latter section. The Lichcnice, or Catacolcc, of Ochs., are large species, with almost horizontal wings,
series'they destroy^re^l0*‘> <^c‘ aPI)ear to approximate naturally to Erebus. Latreille is of opinion that if placed in the other
two posterior! Kalman (Analcct. Entom. 102) ought to form a new sub-genus, and of a remarkable nature, in so far as the
has the anten ^ ^ • 6 ma^e ar.e shorter than the others, unarmed, and almost useless for the purposes of locomotion. This insect
dus Cahmtm 'Jj’lPf^mated, a distinct trunk, and the palpi as long again as the head, and ought therefore to be placed near the ge-
s A beautfi?^8' °r Herminia °f Latreille- - 8
alga:. Fab. 'is '..I* T' Providential change has been rendered natural to some of these species in relation to their food. The larva of N.
Lichen saxatilis WE^S Tefiow when it feeds on Lichen juniperinus, which is itself of that colour; but it becomes grey while pasturing on
V0Zr> 327 ; Introduc. to Entom. i
189.
2 l
250
entomology.
Lepidop- are in some kinds formed of pure silk, in others of mixed
r materials. These insects compose the genus Fykalis ot
tera
Nocturna. Fab. (Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 16). Many of the species are
destructive to fruit-trees and vines. P. pomona in the
caterpillar state lives in the interior of apples, of which it
eats the pippins. We may name as a British species P.
prasinaria, which is the largest known. It measures about
two inches in extent. The upper wings are pure green
with two oblique streaks in the centre, the thorax is green,
the under wings white. This species, with that which we
have figured, form the genus -Chloephora of Stephens.
Section 7th, Phal^nites, Lat.
Here are comprised a numerous assemblage of nocturnal
Lepidoptera, in which the body is usually slender, with the
trunk either apparently wanting, or generally but slightly
lengthened, and almost membranous; the inferior palpi
are small and nearly cylindrical; the wings ample, extend¬
ed, and almost horizontal, or flatly decumbent. The an¬
tennae are pectinated in several males. The thorax is al¬
ways even, or without a crest. The caterpillars have in
general only ten legs, though some (Ph. margantana)
have twelve ; the anal pair are always present. '1 hese in¬
sects correspond to the GeometrcB ot Linn., and their pe¬
culiar mode of progression, already described in our obser¬
vations introductory to the lepidopterous order, has ob¬
tained for them the name of surveyors. Their attitude in
repose, also before described, is still more extraordinary.1
They then resemble little broken twigs of the plant on
which they rest; and their colours, and the inequalities^ of
their surface, aid the deception. They thus no doubt fre¬
quently escape the observation of their natural foes. Iloe-
sel states that his gardener, mistaking one of these ligne¬
ous-looking larvae for a dead twig, the brittleness ot which
he no doubt expected would admit of his instantly snap¬
ping it asunder, started back in the greatest alarm when
he found by its consistence and motion that it was a living
creature. The chrysalids are almost naked, their cocoons
being thin and poorly supplied with silk.
According to Latreille’s views, by which we are at pre¬
sent guided, this section, when considered in relation to
the perfect insects alone, contains but a single genus, that
of PaALiENA properly so called (Plate CCXXXVII. figs.
13 and 15) of which the characters consequently agree with
those just assigned to the section itself. A very different
view, however, has been taken by the greater mass of en¬
tomologists, foreign and indigenous ; and a roll of names of
fearful length and deep construction, has been received
by many as constituting a proper portion of our scientific
nomenclature. Thus Mr Stephens’ family Geometridce,
corresponding to the Phalcenites of Latreille, contains
above eighty British genera. The number is precisely
eighty-three in Mr Rennie’s Conspectus. Many naturalists
believe that no such divisions as genera exist in nature,
and consequently that all our generic distinctions are arti¬
ficial, and constructed merely for convenience, as a help¬
ing instrument for ourselves, and an easier mode of mutual
communication between ourselves and others. But all
naturalists admit that there is a difference in the value of
the characters chosen, and that such as are selected as ge¬
neric should be pervading and influential over a pretty ob¬
vious group, not chosen arbitrarily or at hazard from the
examination of the limited productions of any one confin¬
ed insular region, but on mature deliberation, and after a
kindly and extended study of the analogous productions
of foreign lands. Characters drawn from form and struc¬
ture are much less liable to accidental variation, and are
likewise of more comprehensive application, than such as are
derived from colour;—the former have consequently been
used to distinguish the greater groups, including genera,
 the latter are chiefly available in the discrimination of
species, and their mode, range, and frequency of varia¬
tion, of themselves afford most interesting subjects of
study and reflection, in relation to the varieties of each
particular kind. It is doubtful, however, whether the
use of the evanescent shades of so superficial a charac¬
ter as colour, is advisable in the distinction of genera.
The great test of a good generic character consists in its
being in some way connected with or influential over the
natural habits of the species which it is assumed to dis¬
tinguish,—so that it may fairly be presupposed to exist in
other species of similar instinctive modes of life. These
traits are no doubt difficult to obtain in the insect creation,
where the species are so numerous, and the gradations so
often insensible from one group to another. But still we
know that colour, though occasionally extremely charac¬
teristic of natural groups, is a distinction too flighty and
fantastical to be generally applied with advantage, other¬
wise than for artificial combinations. For these and other
reasons not necessary to be here adduced, we have hither¬
to failed to see the propriety of such characters as “ first
pair of wings somewhat rufous, with darker streaks,” “ se¬
cond pair pale, with a red streak,” “ wings banded with
green,” “ the first pair greenish, spotted with black, the
second pair dull,” &c. being adopted as generic distinctions,
—the more especially as they would prove not very effi¬
cient even for the purposes of specific discrimination.
There is no doubt, however, that the great extent of the
genus in question requires that it should be reduced by
subdivision within manageable bounds ; and if determinate
and distinctive characters of sufficient value can be attach¬
ed to each, a generic name may as well be used as a sec-
tiopal mark. Hubner has described and figured above
4CKJ European species, and MM. Lepelletier de Saint
Fargeau and Serville have formed numerous divisions
among the species described by them in the Encyclopedic
Methodique. Modern entomologists have adopted a me¬
thod of distinguishing by the specific name alone, whether
the male of a phalaena has the antennae pectinated or seta¬
ceous. The names of such as exhibit the former structure
always end in aria, those characterized by the latter in
ata. A very common species is Ph. Grossulariata, white,
with some yellow streaks, and spotted with black. The
caterpillar is also richly coloured. It feeds on the leaves
of the currant and gooseberry. The chrysalis is of a shin¬
ing black, with yellow rings. It is known in England by
the name of Magpie. Ph. idmata, or the clouded Magpiq
is a scarcer species. In Scotland at least it is rare. Boti
these belong to the sub-genus Abraxas of Leach. A rather
large and elegant species, called the swallow-tailed mot ,
Ph. sambucaria, is of a pale sulphur colour, with two trans¬
verse streaks upon the upper, and one upon the under
wings. It forms the sub-genus Ourapteryx ot Leach, an
resembles in its form the beautiful Phalcena machaonaria
of Boisduval, which, with Ph. guttaria, ibid, we have re¬
presented by the figures last referred to. The females o
a few present only the rudiments of wings. Such is r n
brumata, which makes its appearance during the winter
season, and belongs, for that reason, to the sub-genus tiy-
hernia of Latreille.
ten
Section 8th, Deltoides, Lat.
This section consists of species very analogous to the
true Phalaenae, but the caterpillars have fourteen legs, an
1 See page 239.
E N T O M
. live in rolled up leaves. The inferior palpi are elongated
LetF( > and recurved in the perfect insect. The wings form with
Nod 'a. the body, on the sides of which they spread horizontally, a
^ K kind of delta, with a re-entering angle in the middle of
the posterior edge, producing a forked aspect. The an-
tennee are usually pectinated or ciliated. Our present sec¬
tion comprised, in the first edition of the Regne Animal, all
the Pfod. Pyralides of Linn. But, as Latreille has more
recently observed, a complication of characters resulted
from that arrangement, which is obviated by only com¬
prising in this division the genus Herminia (Plate
CCXXXVTI. fig. 17), which belonged to Pyralides of
Linnaeus, and is composed of the genus Hybleea of Fab.
and several species of his genus Crambus. These Lepi-
doptera are generally of a greyish hue, without much bril¬
liancy of colouring. Several species are remarkable for
tufts of hairs upon the upper portion of their legs, the use
of which in their natural economy has not yet been ascer¬
tained. Indeed we know little of the history of the spe¬
cies, although they sometimes attract our notice by the
length of their palpi. They have been named snouts,
fan-feet, &c. by the English collectors.
Section 9th, Tineites, Lat.
Latreille here comprehends the Phal. Tinece of Linn,
and the greater part of the Phal. Pyralides of the Swedish
naturalist. They consist of the smallest species of the le-
pidopterous order,—among others, of our common house-
moths, so well known for their destructive propensities in
the larva state, and the ravages they commit among ne¬
glected garments. These larvae are smooth, have always
at least sixteen feet, and live concealed either in fixed or
moveable habitations, of their own construction. In some
the wings form a kind of elongated triangle, almost flatten¬
ed, and terminated by a re-entering angle;—such are the
Phalceme Pyralides of Linn. They have four distinct and
usually exposed palpi. In others the superior wings are
long and narrow, sometimes moulded on the body, and
! forming over it a rounded roof,—sometimes inclined al¬
most perpendicularly, applied close to the sides, and fre¬
quently elevated posteriorly after the manner of a cock’s
tail in miniature. In either case the inferior wings are
always broad and plaited. The latter kinds also have not
unfrequently four exposed palpi.
All nocturnal Lepidoptera, the caterpillars of which lived
in sheaths or cases, received from Reaumur the name of
Teignes proprement dites or of Teignes fausses, according
as their habitations were detached and portable by the
contained creature, or fixed and immoveable.1 This prin¬
ciple ot arrangement, though sufficient for the purposes
which the admirable author had in view, is not philosophi¬
cally founded, and, if strictly applied, would require our in¬
cluding among the Tineites the genus Pyralis and others
belonging to preceding sections. In the Linnaean system,
our present insects composed the seventh division of' the
great genus Phalaena, and were briefly characterized as fol-
!|nv's:—Wings almost cylindrically rolled, front projecting.
They constitute a generic group in Geoffroy’s work.2 Fol¬
lowing the example of Linnaeus, Degeer did not separate
these small creatures from the general mass of Phalaenae,
but satisfied himself by forming them into different sec¬
tions of his fourth and following family. Indeed his ar-
rangement of the Phalaenae is extremely artificial.-
The fineites, although they are the pygmies of the lepi-
O L O G Y.
251
dopterous order (what a vast disparity in size between a small Lepidon
clothes-moth and the great owl-moth of Brazil!) are much tera
more richly attired than most of their larger brethren. In- Nocturna.
deed, when minutely examined, not many created things VT'W
will be found more worthy of our admiration ; and it is not
without reason that Scopoli has observed,—4L Tinearum
copia, parvitas, pulchritudo stupenda, ut in his potissimum
natura thesauros suos effudisse videatur, tantaque in mini¬
mis hisce majestas, ut admirari potius earn liceat, quam
aptis verbis indicare.”3 The wings frequently combine,
with extreme beauty of colouring, the most brilliant little
stripes and masses of shining silver and burnished gold,
which under the microscope exhibit a most radiant rich¬
ness. This lustrous aspect of many species is however but
a poor recompense for the injury which we receive from
many more while in the larva state. These clothe them¬
selves at our expense in the warmest woollen garments,
which they traverse in all directions, leaving behind a
gnawed and worn-out path, so thin and bare as to yield to
the slightest pressure. They also destroy furs, hair, fea¬
thers, and many other articles of domestic economy, and
are the exterminating pests of zoological museums. To
them we no doubt owe the destruction of the famous Dodo,
once preserved in the Ashmolean Museum of Oxford, and
never since seen by human eyes. By means of their max¬
illae these little larvae shear dowrn the surface of various
substances, and uniting the particles by means of their glu¬
tinous silk, they thus form protecting habitations, which
partake of the nature of the woollen or other stuffs on which
the foresight of their parents has placed them. When they
themselves increase in bulk, so as to find their abodes as
inconvenient as a strait waistcoat, they split them down
the middle, and interpose a piece, proportioned no doubt
to their expected as well as actual increase. They add to
the length also by fresh materials to the anterior end.
These observations are easily made by removing the young
larva in its first restricted case, from a piece of white to a
piece of scarlet or other coloured flannel. When about to
undergo their transformations they close up the apertures
with silk. Another larva of this section ( Teigne des bles),
which Olivier makes an Alucita and Latreille an CEcophora,
is still more destructive on account of its ravages among
corn, and its prodigious powers of multiplication. Our
grain is also liable to great damage from the larvae of other
Tineae, such as the fausse chenille des bids, described by
Reaumur, which, by means of its silken web, connects to¬
gether several grains in the form of a tunnel, from which
it issues forth to feed on the neighbouring heaps. It is a
somewhat analogous species which in bee-hives pierces the
waxen cells on which it feeds; and by thus causing the
honey to flow out, occasions great loss to the apiarian. Our
readers must have frequently observed the leaves of many
plants and trees pervaded by numerous tortuous windings,
of a paler colour than the rest. These are the sub-cutane¬
ous galleries of certain very small larvae of garden-moths,
many of them extremely beautiful, and so minute as to
dwell at ease between the upper and under surface of the
leaf. Others dwell and feed upon the surface, but screen¬
ed from immediate observation by a covered way of silk,
which they spin along their devious courses. Referring
the curious reader to the works of Reaumur, Roesel, and
Degeer, for a more ample history of these truly singular
and interesting tribes, w e shall here briefly notice a few of
the principal genera.
In the following groups the four palpi are always dis-
1 The Teignet aqmtiques of Reaumur are the larvse of Phryganetr; and those to which he applies the ancient name of Libn j
^ arvae of the genus now called Psyche, belonging to the section Pseudo-Bumbycitcs. . 9
* HUMre do Insectet des Environs do Paris. * Entomology Carmoltca, p. 243.
252 E N T O M
Lepidop. tinct,1 exposed, or simply concealed (the upper ones), in
tera part by the scales of the epistoma, and are advanced, of
Nocturna. medium size, and analogous to those of the P. pyralides of
Linn. Their wings are decumbent, generally flattened,
or but slightly raised, and form a kind of delta or elongat¬
ed triangle. In the ensuing genera the trunk is apparent,
and serves for the performance of the usual functions. 1 he
larvae live on various plants. In Botys, Lat. (CCXXXVII.
fig. 11), the larvae roll up leaves, and do not differ exter¬
nally from the others except in the respiratory organs. In
Hydrocampe, Lat. (ibid. fig. 12), the species are analogous
to the preceding, but the caterpillars are aquatic, and are
usually furnished with filiform appendages, the interior of
which contain tracheae. They fabricate tunnels or cover¬
ed ways with the leaves of various aquatic plants. Such
are H. potamogata, paludata, lemnata, &c. In the genus
Aglossa of Lat. (ibid. fig. 19) the trunk is wanting, or
nearly so. The four palpi are exposed, and the wings form
a flattened triangle,—the upper having no emargination at
their extremity. A. pinguinalis, Ileaum. iii. xx. 5-11, oc¬
curs on walls in houses. The caterpillar is smooth or short-
haired, of a brownish black, and shining. It feeds on va¬
rious fatty substances, and also attacks leather,—on which
account it is called fcmsse-teigne des cuirs by Reaumur. It
is destructive to the binding of books, and is therefore an
inconvenient companion in a library. Its case consists of
a long tunnel, applied close to the substance on which it
lives, and covered by particles of excrementitious matter.
According to Linnaeus, it occurs, though rarely, in the hu¬
man stomach, where it occasions effects much more dan¬
gerous and alarming than those caused by ordinary intes¬
tinal worms. “ Un medecin eclaire, “ says Latreille, “ et
dont je ne puis revoquer en doute la veracite, m’a envoye
des chenilles de cette espece, qu’une jeune famille avait
vomies.” Another species, P. farinalis, feeds on flour. In
the genus Galleria of Fab. the scales of the clypeus or
epistoma form a projection which covers the palpi. The
upper wings, proportionally narrower than those of Aglossa,
and emarginate on the posterior border, are, in common
with the inferior, very decumbent, and raised posteriorly
like a cock’s tail, as in many species of the ensuing genera.
G. cereana, Fab. is the species the larva of which is de¬
signated fausse-teigne de la cire by Reaumur. It is ex¬
tremely destructive in bee-hives, in which it pierces the
honey cells, and constructs as it advances a silken tunnel
covered with excrementitious particles composed of the wax
which it has devoured. The cocoons of the chrysalids are
sometimes found assembled in heaps.
In other groups of Tineites the superior palpi are not
always very distinct. The upper wings are long, narrow,
sometimes moulded or rolled upon the body, sometimes
applied perpendicularly to the sides. In this state the in¬
sect has always an elongated and narrow form, approaching
that of a little cylinder or cone, when the wings are closed.
In the next-named four genera the inferior palpi, always
large, are borne, as it were, in advance, the last joint at
most being raised. The palpi are apparent. Crambus,
Fab. (Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 20), has a distinct trunk. The
inferior palpi project straight forwards like a beak. These
Lepidoptera occur in dry pastures and on various plants.
Alocita, Lat. (ibid. fig. 22), has also a distinct trunk, but
the inferior palpi are raised. The antennas are simple.
O L O G Y.
In Euplocampus, Lat. (ibid. fig. 18), the trunk is short andUj
inconspicuous, and the last article of the inferior palpi is ter?
likewise raised, the scales of the preceding one forming a Ptfwn
faisceau. The antennae of the males are furnished with a Vv
double row of little barbs. The genus Phycis of Fab. h
closely allied to Euplocampus, but the antennae at most art
merely ciliated.
In the following genera the inferior palpi are entire
ly raised, and even recurved over the head in several
Sometimes the inferior palpi are very apparent, and oi
medium size. The antennae and the eyes are distinct.
In the two following genera the inferior palpi scarcelj
surpass the front. In Tinea (ibid. fig. 21) the trunk is
very short, and formed of little membranous disjointed
threads. The head is erected. The species of this genus,
which has been greatly restricted since the time of Fabri-
cius, are particularly destructive among our clothes and
other household concerns. We shall here notice a few of
the principal kinds. Tinea tapezana. Fab. and Lat., has
the upper wings black on the basal portion, their posterior
part being wdiite. This is the species represented by our
figure.2 Its caterpillar feeds on woollens, on which it forms
an arched gallery, lengthening as it advances. T. sard-
tella is of a silvery-grey colour, with a white spot on each
side of the thorax. Though very abundant and extremely
destructive in most parts of Europe, its synonymy and con¬
sequent history are somewhat confused. The figures given
by Reaumur,3 and cited by many authors, appear (at least
if we judge from the eleventh) to belong to another ge¬
nus. The inferior palpi are large, recurved and pointed,
a character which rather allies it to the genus Volucra of
Lat.4 and to the T. vestianella of Scopoli and Linn. It is
even suspected that these two insects are the same. Ac¬
cording to the last-named authority, the T. sarcitella is of
a silvery grey, as above described. In T. vestianella the
upper part of the head, of the thorax, and even the base of
the superior wings, are white. The inferior palpi, recurved
in the manner of horns, are of the same colour, ringed with
black. The wings lie horizontally on the body, are whit¬
ish, and shining, and the upper surface of the superior pair
presents some blackish spots of different sizes. The infe¬
rior are of a uniform colour, bordered posteriorly, as is also
the internal margin of the upper pair, with long fringes.
This species is extremely common, and it has been pre¬
sumed that Linnaeus having given an inadequate descrip¬
tion from a defective specimen, its identity became difficult
to recognise, and that thus Scopoli bestowed a new name,
that of vestianella, upon an old species.5 However this may
be, the T. sarcitella is extremely pernicious among all
woollen substances. It forms and inhabits a silky case,
usually spindle-shaped, which it covers with detached hairs
or particles of wool. T. pellionella, Fab. has the upper
wings of a silvery grey, wdth one or two black points on
each. Its caterpillar forms a felted case or tunnel, and
lives on furs, which it destroys with ease and satisfaction
to itself, by gnaw ing off the hairs at the base. The wings
of T. granella are elevated behind, and marbled w ith grey,
brown, and black. Its larva is very injurious to grain. T-
jlavifrontella, Fab. has a toupee of a more lively colour than
the other parts, approaching to reddish. Its larva forms a
silken case, and is extremely hurtful in museums, among
birds, insects, &c.
* The genera Iponomeuta (with one or two exceptions), (Ecophora, and sldela, are, according to Latreille, the only Tineites of
la H'Uir' n SUpCrrTOT • ar)r.P‘l P1 aie I1lo4 distinctly perceptible ; but as they mav be concealed by the inferior or labial palpi, it
baa not P°mt’estabJlsh a Axed and rigorous line of demarcation. For this reason the French entomologist
niven ficmrea^in wl tl 1 3 aCti°r ln" 0 16 nu,T'ber of the palpi. M. Savigny, in his Memoires sar les Animaux sans Vertebres, has
gwen figures, m which these parts are represented in their various proportions. (Re^ne Animal, v. p. 4170
It is identical with T. tapetzeUa of Linn, and the lamented Mr Haworth. ’Ey
* Memoires, iii. vi.
* See Diet. Classique d'Hist, Nat, xvi. p. 87.
Regne Animal, t. v. p. 412, note.
E N T O M
We may conclude by observing, that the most efficient
means of preventing or removing moths are care and
ictljia. cleanliness. Let articles of such a nature as may be
',J liable to their injurious inroads be frequently examined,
handled, and exposed to light and air. These tiny crea¬
tures are lovers of darkness, and of undisturbed repose.
The instinct of the mother (and that providential percep¬
tion is never more unerring than when manifested in rela¬
tion to the welfare of a future offspring) teaches her to dis¬
tinguish whatever is neglected or cast aside,—and in like
manner she becomes sensible that whatever is used or often
handled would form an unsafe nidus for her tender young.
In depositing her eggs she therefore selects the one and
rejects the other ; and hence a careful housewife, who feels
a lively interest in her own concerns, and frequently ex¬
amines and refolds or arranges her household gear, may
live for half a century and never see a moth. At the same
time, if articles are rolled up in a perfectly close and well-
ordered tissue, they are safe from these destructive crea¬
tures, which are certainly never bred from the things they
consume, however old or ill-conditioned. But if a single
unsuspected crevice should chance to admit one solitary
female moth, “ the spinster’s occupation’s gone,” and a
colony of worms is suddenly produced from innumerable
eggs, which would strike horror into the heart of a Mal¬
thusian. Where things must be left unexposed to changes
of light and air, and yet cannot be hermetically closed, the
use of camphor, spirit of turpentine absorbed upon pieces of
sponge or cotton, and other preventives, are tried with
more or less success. Exposure to a brisk fire is the most
effectual means of expelling the larvae from stuffed birds,
quadrupeds, &c.
In the genus IuTHYiA,'Lat. (Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 23),
the inferior palpi resemble those of the preceding genus,
but the trunk is distinct, and of the ordinary size, and the
last article of the inferior palpi is obviously shorter than
the preceding. In Iponomeuta, Lat. (ibid. fig. 24), the
trunk is also distinct, and of tolerable size, but the termi¬
nal article of the inferior palpi is at least as long as the
I preceding one. These insects, according to Latreille, are
related to Lithosia. Y. evonymella (Tinea of Fab.) has
the upper wings of a shining white spotted with black, the
inferior pair lead colour. Y. padella, Lat. has the upper
wings of a greyish-lead colour, and very numerously spot¬
ted with black, the under pair lead coloured, with thick
fringes. The caterpillars of both these kinds live in large
congregations, beneath a dusky web, which they stretch
out upon our fruit-trees, of which they devour the leaves.
When they have eaten all within their reach at one place,
they make a start to another, enclose themselves under a
new and more extended canopy, and recommence their
ravages, which are found to be extremely injurious to the
health of the tree, and its productive pow ers. The branches
seem as if covered with patches of dusty and discoloured
crape. In the genus (Ecophora, Lat. the inferior palpi
are recurved above the head, in the manner of horns, pro¬
ceeding to a point, and reaching as far backwards as the
back of the thorax.
Lastly, in a few species, such as those of the genus
Adela, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 25), the inferior palpi
are very small and clothed, the antennae are almost al¬
ways extremely long, and the eyes approximate. These
O JL O G Y.
253
beautiful little creatures occur in woods, and are said to Lemdon
briffiT t7 116 leafil]g °7tlie oak- TheY are frequently tera
brilliantly ornamented with metallic scales. The snecies Nocturna.
w uch we have figured is A. Degeerella, remarkable for its
antennae being many times the length of its body. These
delicately articulated organs are whitish, the posterior por¬
tion black. The upper wings are of a gilded yellow on a
dark ground, forming longitudinal streaks, with a broad
transverse golden-yellow band bordered with violet.1
Section 10th, Pterophorites, Lat.
This, our concluding section of the nocturnal Lepidop-
tera, exhibits many relations to the preceding, in respect
to the narrow and elongated form of the body and upper
wings; but it differs from it, as well as from all the other
sections, in this, that a pair, if not all, of the ^wings, are as
it were split or cloven throughout their whole length, so
as to present a branched or digitated appearance, bearded
on the edges. The parts look like feathers, so that the
wdngs of these fantastically formed creatures somewhat re¬
semble those of birds. They formed the division of P/ia-
l(B7i(T. alucitcE of Linnaeus, and were named Phalenes-tipules
by Degeer. Geoffroy, Fabricius, and Latreille include
them under the genus Pterophorus. Their larvae have
sixteen feet, live on leaves and flowers, and construct
no cases. The chrysalids of the greater number are na¬
ked, coloured, and suspended by a thread. In others they
are enclosed in a translucent cocoon. The genus has been
lately subdivided. In some the inferior palpi are recurved
from their origin, entirely garnished with small scales,
and do not exceed the length of the head; these consti¬
tute the genus Pterophorus properly so called, of La¬
treille (Plate CCXXXVII. fig. 26). Their chrysalids are
exposed, beset with hairs or small tubercles, and are some¬
times suspended by a thread, sometimes fixed by means of
hooks at the posterior extremity to a little bed of silk, im¬
posed upon a leaf or other vegetable body. P. pentadac-
tylus, Fab. is an example of this division. The w ings are
of an almost snowy whiteness, the upper pair being divided
into two, the lower into three parts. In others the infe¬
rior palpi are projected, longer than the head, with the
second article thickly covered with scales, and the termi¬
nal one almost naked, and turned up. The chrysalis is
enclosed in a cocoon of silk. To these Latreille has ap¬
plied the generic name of Orneodes (ibid. fig. 27). The
O. hexadactylus measures about six lines in length. It is
of an ash-coloured grey, with a tinge of brown. The wings,
especially the upper ones, are traversed by obscure or
blackish bands, with some spots of a paler grey ; and each
wing is divided to its base into three principal parts, of
which the first is subdivided into two radii, and the second
into three: the third is simple. The caterpillar of this
species has sixteen feet, and lives on the honeysuckle, Lo~
nicera xylosteum. The perfect insect is often found on
walls and windows, and in the interior of houses. It is
widely spread over Europe.
We here take leave of the lepidopterous order, and shall
only further remark, that wTe seek in vain to express by
words the splendid colours, the elegant and varied forms,
and the exquisite pencilling, by which they are adorned.
Even the most richly illumined pages of natural history
1 In the arrangement of these insects, given by Latreille in the second edition of the Re.gne Animal, and by which we have been
guided above, he has apparently, with the view of approximating to the nomenclature of Reaumur, combined the Pyrahdes and Tinettes.
in one section. He has however elsewhere indicated the propriety of their being disjoined, and in this event the lo owing genera
will compose the Tineites : I. Inferior or labial palpi advanced; the terminal articulation at most elevated; superior palpi appa-
',^,.enera Galleria, Crambus, Alucita, Euplocamrus, and Piivcis. II. Inferior palpi altogether elevate , or e\en re¬
curved, in several, over the head. A. Inferior palpi of medium size, and very obvious ; eyes distant: Genera Iinea, ilithiia,
onomeuta, CEcophora. B. Inferior palpi very small and hairy; eyes approximate ; Gen. Adela.
1
E N T O M
convey but a meagre image of their gorgeous attire. That
must be sought for—where ulone it can be found, in those
far more brilliant and inimitable pages of the book of na¬
ture, in which the most successful effort of art is transcend¬
ed by a feeble insect’s wing. The imagination of poet and
of painter cannot boast,
Amid their gay creation, hues like these.
Order VII STREPSIPTERA, Kirby.1
The singular insects which constitute our present order
are parasitical species, which dwell, while in the larva state,^
between the plates of the abdomen in different kinds of
wasps and bees. Their characters were first given by Mr
Kirby {Linn. Trans, vol. xi. p. 109), who bestowed upon
them the name above adopted, and which was subsequently
altered, without sufficient reason, by Latreille. The defini¬
tion given by the former author, in his later work, is as fol¬
lows: Metamorphosis sub-incomplete ? Pseudelytra twisted,
attached to the anterior leg. Wings not covered by the
elytra, longitudinally folded, forming nearly the quadrant
of a circle : neuration simple. Anus styliferous.2 On each
side of the anterior extremity of the thorax, near the neck
and the exterior base of the first pair of legs, are inserted
two small crustaceous bodies, like rudimentary elytra,
stretching backwards, curved, dilated, and terminating near
the origin of the true wings. These are the pseudelytra
just named, called prebalanciers by Latreille. The great
French entomologist is of opinion, that, as elytra properly
so called always cover the totality of the base of the mem¬
branaceous wings, and derive their origin from the second
segment of the thorax, the parts in question are not ge¬
nuine wing-cases, but rather analogous to the tippets {pte-
rygoda), observable at the base of the upper wings in the
lepidopterous order. The actual wings of Strepsiptera are
large, membranaceous, divided by longitudinal nervures,
proceeding like rays from the shoulder or point of union
with the body. They fold lengthways like a fan.3 The
mouth is composed of four pieces, of which the shorter
two appear to be biarticulate palpi, the others, inserted
near their base, have the form of little linear laminae,
pointed, and crossing at the extremity, like the mandibles
of various insects, but resembling rather the lancets of the
sucker of the dipterous tribes, than true mandibles.4 Ac¬
cording to Savigny’s views, the mouth consists of a labrum,
two mandibles, a pair of maxillae, each bearing a very
small uniarticulate palpus, and a labium without palpi.
The head presents two large eyes, hemispherical, granose,
and slightly pediculated ; two antennae, approximate at the
base, placed upon an elevation in common, almost filiform,
short, and composed of three articulations, of which the
first two are very short, and the third, greatly elongated,
is divided from its origin into two long compressed lanceo¬
late branches, applied against each other. The stemmatic
eyes are wanting. The thorax, in its peculiar form and
divisions, resembles that of several Cicadariae, Psyllae, and
Chrysides. The abdomen is nearly cylindrical, composed
of eight or nine segments, and is terminated by pieces
which seem to bear an analogy with those which we find
at the posterior extremity of the Hemiptera above named.
The six legs are almost membranous, compressed, nearly
equal, and terminate in filiform tarsi, composed of four
membranous articulations, which appear vesicular at their
extremity, and of which the terminal one, somewhat lar¬
ger than the others, is unfurnished with hooks. The four
254
Strepsip¬
tera.
O L O G Y.
anterior legs are approximate, the posterior pair being i
thrown pretty far back by themselves. The space com¬
prised between the latter pair is ample, and divided into v
two by a longitudinal groove or furrow. The posterior
extremity of the metathorax is prolonged over the abdo¬
men in the manner of a large scutellum, and its sides,
which serve as points of insertion to the posterior legs, are
much dilated backwards, and form a kind of inflated buck¬
ler, which defends the exterior and lateral base of the
abdomen.
These singular insects were first observed by Rossi, who
concluded, because they were parasitical, that they must
belong to the hymenopterous order, to which they cer¬
tainly bear a greater affinity than to any of the dipterous
tribes, among which they were arranged by M. Lamarck.
Latreille inclines to consider them as related (although at
the same time differing in various ways) to certain hy¬
menopterous species, such as those of the genus Eulo-
phus. In the larva state they live between the abdominal
plates of hymenopterous insects belonging to the genera
Andrena and Polistes. It has been supposed that the
elytra-like portions, already described, serve to disengage
the perfect injects with greater facility from the living
chambers in which they are incased. They are said to
frisk about with a simultaneous motion of these organs and
the true wings. Latreille calls them the CEstri of insects.
We know that a species of Conops likewise undergoes its
transformations in the interior of a Bombus, or wild bee.
This order contains only two genera,—Xenos of Rossi,
and Stylops of Kirby. Their exact nature is still of dif¬
ficult determination, as will be perceived from the follow¬
ing quotation :—“ The true place in nature,” says Mr Mac-
leay, “ of the singular genera Xenos and Stylops, is indeed
very difficult to determine; and what remarks, therefore,
I am now about to offer on them ought to be received by
the reader with great caution, as well because it has hi¬
therto been out of my power to become acquainted with
them, except through the medium of the works of Kirby,
Latreille, Savigny, and Lamarck, as because the total va¬
riance in the statements of these authors respecting them
demonstrates that their true nature is as yet by no means
ascertained.
“ Professor Peck and Savigny, however, have both most
satisfactorily shown that the Strepsiptera are provided with
true mandibles and palpigerous maxillae; and therefore
have completely set aside the opinion of MM. Lamarck
and Latreille as to their affinity with the Diptera. Pro¬
ceeding, then, on the fact that they belong to the Mandi-
bidata, which, by the by, appears at last to be admitted by
Latreille, we necessarily make inquiry as to the particular
part of this class in which they ought to be placed. Now,
the only chasms of importance which we have noticed m
the column, are one between the Trichoptera of Kirby and
the Tenthredines, and the other between the Ifytnenopteni
and the Coleoptera. The deficiency of ocelli, the struc¬
ture of the whole insect, but particularly that of the wings,
prove that the Strepsiptera cannot occupy any vacancy
near the Trichoptera. It therefore only remains fof us
to place them between the Hymenoptera and Coleoptera.
But this appears to be nearly the situation originally given
to the Strepsiptera by Mr Kirby ; for, in his very remark¬
able paper on those insects, in the eleventh volume of the
Linncean Transactions, he says, ‘ With respect to the place
of Strepsiptera in the system, it seems to me that this or¬
der should follow Coleoptera ; for its metamorphosis being
different from that of Orthoptera and Hemiptera, and ncar-
psi|>
n
1 Rhipipteba, Lat. 2 Introduc. to Entomology, iv. 370.
3 Hence the name of RMpiptera, bestowed upon them by Latreille, from a fan, and ittsjk, wings.
4 Regne Animal, v. 425.
o L O G Y. 9S-
vesparum, now called X. Rossii, in compliment to its dis- Strepsip.
coverer. It inhabits, and is frequently found in, a European tera.1
hymenopterousinsectorwaspcalled Vespa (Polistes)gallica.   
1 he individuals ot the latter kind infested by the Xenos are
readily known by the unnatural swelling of the fourth seg¬
ment of the abdomen, from which the insect in the perfect
state is usually found to emerge. Sometimes one, not sel¬
dom two, and occasionally three, are seen to escape from
the same wasp. They generally come forth in the winged
state in August and September; and if during that period
the pupa be extracted with a needle from the abdomen of
the wasp, the covering broken open, and the white tunic
carefully stripped away, living specimens may be obtained.
The mode in which these parasites are originally placed on
their living prey is not yet known. It is possible that the
egg may be laid in the larva of the wasp before its cell is
closed. Rossi at least seems to be of this opinion, although
Mr Kirby, reasoning from analogy, thinks it unlikely that
it should be deposited on the wasp in its first state, while
the larva feeds on it in its last. It has been a subject of
wonder to naturalists that these Vespae, after supporting
one or more parasites, should survive; yet we know that
they are often met with in a most active and vigorous con¬
dition, with only the exuviae of the Xenos remaining in
them. It has been stated as an explanation of this, that
the time during which the insect remains in the larva state
is very short; and as it does not attack the thorax of the
wasp, the muscular energy and general vital powers of the
latter thus escape destruction. The other species to which
we alluded is the X. Peckii (Plate CCXXXI. figs. 30 and
31), so named after an American naturalist, Professor
Peck, by whom it was made known to Mr Kirby. This
species measures one and a half lines in length. It is of
a blackish-brown colour, the legs livid, the tarsi brown.
The branches of the antennae are subdiaphanous, and spot¬
ted with white. The larva inhabits a North American
wasp called Polistes fuscata, of which it so distorts the ab¬
domen that, according to Professor Peck, there is no diffi¬
culty in distinguishing the infested individuals even on the
wing. “ Taking them,” he observes, “ with the gauze for¬
ceps, bringing them into a close room, and permitting
them to fly to the windows, I caught them again with a
wine glass and a card, fed them with sugar, and thus pre¬
served them till their parasites were disclosed. I had not
the pleasure to see them emerge, but found them soon
after.” “ In the feeding state the head of the larva is near
the abdomen of the wasp, as I found by dissection. When
the feeding state is passed, it is easy to conceive that it
turns, and with its flattened head separates the membrane
which connects the abdominal scuta, and protrudes itself
a little way, accurately closing the aperture, which is but
just large enough to admit it. All this time the wasp is ac¬
tive, and associates with its companions. When just pro¬
truded, the head of the larva is of a pale-brownish colour ;
by degrees it assumes a rounder form, and becomes almost
black. The chrysalis state ensues ; but I suspect that only
the part exposed to the air, and that immediately under
the pressure of the abdominal rings, becomes hard.”4
We shall now pass from this limited order to one of much
greater extent and more ancient constitution.
E N T o M
er to that of the Coleoptera, this seems its most natural
station, considered as an elytrophorous order, especially
v since, if it be inserted between Orthoptera and Herniptera,
with both of which it has some affinity, it would interrupt
the series of semicomplete metamorphosis, by which, besides
other characters, these two orders are so closely united.’
He had previously noticed a circumstance which at once
distinguishes them from all Coleoptera and Orthoptera, and
gives them an affinity with the Hymenoptera, namely, a
narrow collar instead of an ample thoracic shield. And it
is worthy of remark that Rossi, in the work which informed
naturalists of their existence, placed them among the Hy¬
menoptera, induced to this, as Mr Kirby supposes, by the
economy of their larvae. Such, then, is in all probability
their true place in nature, though certainly my opinion on
the subject, for the reasons already stated, ought to be re¬
ceived, as it is advanced, with great caution. The Xenos,
beyond a doubt, is, with the Stylops, the most puzzling in¬
sect to place naturally that we know; it is truly ‘ animal
animum excruciansand no better proof of this can be
given than that when Lamarck and Latreille make the
Strepsiptera a division of Diptera, they seem absolutely to
have pitched on the most artificial situation for them which
they could have chosen. Latreille has remarked that the
body of the Strepsiptera bears a striking relation to that of
some Homoptera ; and to judge from the descriptions given
by Mr Kirby of these insects, their wings are folded like
those of Orthoptera, while the form of their head resembles
that of some Neuropier a. To the Diptera they have no
visible affinity, and scarcely any analogy, except such as
we might expect from their proximity to the Hymenop-
tera. How far I am right in adopting Mr Kirby’s opinion
as to their real affinities, remains yet to be seen ; but it is
no weak argument in support of its accuracy, that they
possess the very precise kind of metamorphosis which in¬
sects in the hiatus between the Coleoptera and Hymenop¬
tera ought to have from analogy.
“ The Strepsiptera ought probably to be considered as
an osculant order; and they undoubtedly form a group
I which is apparently of much greater importance, and is
marked with much stronger characters, than the Dictuop-
tera. These can scarcely be said to afford a type of any
very peculiar construction, and may therefore, perhaps,
with more propriety, be viewed as an annectent tribe fall¬
ing into the extensive order of Orthoptera.”J
In the genus Stylops, the last portion of the antennae
is composed of three small articulations. The abdomen is
fleshy and retractile. S. Melittce, Kirby, measures about
a line and a half in length, and is quite black, with brown
legs. The wings are longer than the body. The larva is
soft, almost cylindrical, and whitish. Its head is advanced,
horny, heart-shaped, a little flattened, of a reddish colour,
black posteriorly, and somewhat concave beneath. It lives
m the bodies of Andrence, and when about to be trans¬
formed to a chrysalis or pupa (Plate CCXXXI. fig. 29),
it Axes itself more outwardly, between the abdominal plates.
It occurs in Britain and the continent of Europe. Addi¬
tional species have been lately discovered by Mr Dale and
others, and will be found described in the works of Messrs
furtis and Stephens.
In the genus Xenos established by Rossi,2 and so ex¬
cel ently illustrated by Mr Kirby,3 the terminal branches
0 the antennae are not articulated. The abdomen is cor¬
neous with the exception of the termination, which is
eshy and retractile. We are acquainted as yet with the
(e ailed history of only two species. The first is the Xenos
Order VIII.—DIPTERA.5
The numerous order of dipterous or two-winged in¬
sects, of which the common house-fly affords a familiar
1 Horce. Ent. p. 370. 2 Faun. Etrusc. Muni. Append, p 114.
In kis essay On a new Order of Insects, Linn. Trans, vol. xi. p. 86. 4 Linn. Trans, vol. xi. p. JO.
s Anti. 1 at a, Fabricius.
256
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera.
example, is characterized by possessing a pair of veined and
membranous wings, with two moveable bodies called ba¬
lancers (halteres) placed a little behind them. The mouth
consists of from two to six setaceous pieces of a scaly tex¬
ture, and its parts are either enclosed in the upper groove
of a probosciform sheath, terminated by two lips, or co¬
vered by one or two inarticulate laminae, which form the
sheath.1
Dipterous species, like all other hexapod insects, are
Composed of three principal portions. The head is more
or less globular or hemispherical, often concave posteriorly,
so as to fit better on the front of the thorax, and is sus¬
ceptible of turning on itself, as on a pivot, from right to
left, and vice versa. The greater part of its surface,
especially in the males, is generally occupied by the eyes,
which are often very beautiful, being composed of a vast
number of facettes, lighted up as it were with a metallic
splendour. When ocelli or stemmatic eyes exist in this
order, they are always three in number, and placed upon
the vertex. When the mouth (which is not adapted for
chewing or bruising solid substances, but only for ex¬
tracting and transmitting fluids) consists of six pieces,
it then exhibits all the parts analogous to those of mas¬
ticating insects. Of these parts a single superior por¬
tion represents the labrum, and a single inferior portion
the ligula properly so called, of the coleopterous and orthop¬
terous orders. The four other parts are disposed in pairs ;
the upper pair corresponding to the mandibles, the lower
to the terminal portion of the maxillae of the masticating
orders. The basal portion of the maxillae also exists, but
it is always very short, and confounded with the fleshy
mass, which serves as the base of the trunk, and precedes
its first geniculation. Thus in the Muscides, for example,
the sucker consists of only two setae, and is yet accompa¬
nied by a pair of palpi, which, according to analogy, can
only be those of the maxillae. Seeing that the piece re¬
presenting the labrum is inserted, with the other portions
of the sucker, near the geniculation of the trunk, and at
some distance from the anterior margin of the head,—and
that, in other insects, the labrum is always fixed to that
margin,—it becomes necessary that a portion of the base of
the clypeus, or epistoma as it is now called, should be in¬
corporated with the support of the sucker. We have just
stated that the inferior portions of the maxillae are like¬
wise united with the supporting part, which, when not in
action, is withdrawn into the oral cavity. It is not thus
with the Lepidoptera and Hemiptera,—the corresponding
portion of the maxillae in these orders being fixed and im¬
moveable, and the labrum always preserving its relative
position. In some Diptera the sucker is composed of only
tour pieces, and then the mandibular setae are wanting or
imperceptible. Indeed in a great number we perceive
only two pieces, and in that case it is the single pieces
only (impaires), that is, the labrum and ligula, which are
cognisable. The reduction in the number of these parts
is, according to Latreille, a proof of the inferiority of the
dipterous order, when compared with the generality of in¬
sects. The sucker in our present order performs the of¬
fice of a lancet, by piercing the envelope of vegetable
fluids, or the vessels which contain the juices of animals.
These liquids, by pressure of the parts, are then forced to
ascend the internal canal to the pharynx, situate at the
inner base of the sucker. The lancets are often grooved
or furrowed, by which they become more compactly en¬
closed, and act in common. The sheath or external part
merely serves to maintain the lancet in situ, and seems to
represent the lower lip of the triturating orders. It is;
frequently bent upon itself, at an angle more or less acute,
when the insect is using the sucker. This becomes obvious;
when we examine a gnat or mosquito in the act of pumping:
our blood.
The antennae of the Diptera are usually inserted on the
front, and are approximate at their base. In the famih
called Nemocera by Latreille (Culex and Tipula, Linn.)
these organs resemble those of the nocturnal Lepidoptera
in form and position, but in his other families they seldom
consist of more than two or three articulations, the last of
which is fusiform, or shaped like a lenticular or prismatic
pallet, provided either with a little styliform appendage
or a thickish hair or seta, itself sometimes simple, some¬
times pilose.
The thorax appears as if composed of only a single seg¬
ment, the first, or prothorax, being very short, or some¬
times evanescent, and the metathorax being also very
short, and occupying only the posterior extremity, situate
beneath the scutellum. The mesothorax, or intermediate
portion, thus becomes the principal apparent segment
It bears on each side a pair of stigmata, of which, how¬
ever, the anterior is frequently alone distinguishable.
The neuration of the veins of the wings is simple.
These parts are usually horizontal. Meigen’s figures of
the wings (of which we have availed ourselves in the plates
connected with this article) are extremely exact. He
confines himself, however, chiefly to the antennae in the
formation of his generic characters, without having re¬
course to Jurine’s method of employing the neuration of
the organs of flight,—a method, indeed, the application
of which in the dipterous tribes is attended with greater
difficulties than among the hymenopterous order. It has,
however, been used in relation to the Diptera by Fallen,
and other systematic authors.
Above the true wings, and a little behind them, are
two small moveable bodies, almost membranous or slightly
corneous, usually pale in colour, nearly linear in the greater
part of their extent, but with a knob or button-like mass
at the extremity, capable of dilatation. These are the
balancers or halteres, of the nature and supposed uses of
which we have already spoken at sufficient length in our
general introductory observations.2
Above the balancers we find two membranous or papy¬
raceous pieces, usually white or yellowish, ciliated, unit¬
ed together by one of their sides, and having the form of
two valves of a shell applied upon each other. These are
the winglets, or ailerons of the French writers.3 Their
■ size seems to be in an inverse proportion to the length of
the balancers, which to a certain extent they cover and
protect. One of them is attached to each of the corre¬
sponding wings, and participates in its movements,—but
during flight the valves are held in separation, or nearly
on the same plane.
The abdomen of dipterous insects is frequently attach¬
ed to the thorax by a portion only of its transverse dia¬
meter. It is composed of from five to nine apparent seg¬
ments, and in the females usually terminates in a point;
in those, however, in which the segments are fewer, the
terminal ones form a kind of ovipositor, presenting a sue-
' cession of small tubes which slip into each other somewhat
after the fashion of the different portions of a telescope.
It results from this conformation that several of the hinder
stigmata are by no means distinctly perceptible.
The legs are usually long and slender, and are terminat¬
ed by five-articulate tarsi, with two hooks at the extre-
1 See Plate CCXX. fig. 7, a, 6, c, d,—and the detailed description given at page G9, note 4.
8 See page 75, note 2. i & c & >
3 e name them wing-scales in the ensuing portion of this treatise, from the German word schuppschen, used by Meigen.
i J
ENTOMOLOGY.
Di -a. mity, besides, in many instances, two or three small cu- downward, to glass defective in nnliot. r i -i i
^shion-Jike expansions, either membranous or vesicular. This and other fhcts plainly indicated thaffl^s7 ^ ^
257
It is by means of these last-mentioned parts, according to supported on the vertical .V1?1 es ,are not
certain^aa.hors, that fliea are enabled to creep up®,he
smoothest perpend,cular surfaces, or to walk on codings nous secretion (as conjectured by some au ho,° 1 hf bv
with their backs downwards.1 means strictly mechanical as f u 1 , y
Dr Derham had long ago observed that “diverse flies It has been found, in fact, ’that thfhouse-fly, whifo hre"’
and other insects, besides their sharp-hook d nails, have tains its vital powers unimpaired, can not only Javerse the
also skinny palms to their feet, to enable them to stick on upright sides, but even the interior of the dome of an pv
glass and other smooth bodies, by means of the pressure hausted receiver; and that the cause of its relaxing £
of the atmosphere. 2 This opinion very generally adopt- hold, and ultimately falling from the station it occupies
ed by entomologists, derived additional weight from Sir is a diminution of muscular force attributable to imneded
Everard Home s papers on the subject, illustrated by respiration.? impeded
drawings from the always admirable pen of Mr Bauer.3 In regard to the anatomical structure of the dinterous
The structure of the parts however, has been variously order, the following is the substance of the observations
described by different authors, and by some in such a on the subject given by M. Marcel de Serres in his ad
manner as (supposing their descriptions accurate) to ren- mirable memoir Sur le Vaisseau dorsal des Insectes The
der the organs unfit for the uses supposed, or at least for dorsal vessel (now regarded as the heart) is itself narrow
the particular mode of action assigned by Derham and and its pulsations frequent. The respiratory system con’
Home, and coincided in by Messrs Kirby and Spence.4 sists of vesicular tracheae, communicating with each other
Thus Dr Hooke described the house-fly as having the by tubular tracheae, and unfurnished with those cartilagi-
soles of its feet beset underneath with small bristles or nous hoops which we find in the Orthoptera. The nerv-
tenters, like the wire teeth of a card for working wool, ous system is generally composed of a small cerebriform
and which he conceived to give them a strong hold upon ganglion with approximated lobes, from which proceed
any object having irregular or yielding surfaces. In re- large optic nerves; two medullary cords of the ordinary
gard to glass, which is neither yielding nor irregular, he kind (already described in our preceding general intro-
imagined that it bore upon it a kind of smoky substance, duction) form from space to space about nine ganglia, of
penetrable by the points of the bristles.5 The want of which three belong to the thorax and six to the abdomen,
accordance in these accounts lately induced Mr Blackwall Ihe intestinal tube presents, ls£, an oesophagus extending
to the base of the abdomen; 2</, a rather elongated sto¬
mach, somewhat narrow, and furnished at its origin with
a considerable number of hepatic vessels; 3d, a cylindri¬
cal duodenum, also accompanied by hepatic vessels, but
of narrower dimensions; ido, a short and muscular rec¬
tum.
All the Diptera dissected by M. Dufour were provided
with salivary glands, a character which that accurate ob¬
server regards as being common to all insects furnished
with a sucker. The structure, however, of those parts
varies according to the genus.8 They no doubt serve to
increase the fluidity of the nutritive juices absorbed by
the sucker. We may add, that both Dufour and Dutro-
chet have observed that the stomach of many Diptera is
accompanied by a kind of paunch, in which a portion of
the aliments is deposited.
Many tribes of this extensive order, if not decidedly
noxious, at least occasion us great annoyance, not only by
sucking our own blood, but by laying their eggs on the
bodies of our living domestic animals, and on whatever
uncooked fleshy viands they can attain to, especially dur¬
ing sultry weather, when the process of corruption is the
most speedy, and the insects themselves are in their prime
of strength and vigour. On the other hand, they may be
regarded as serviceable, on account of the rapid consump¬
tion, by their most gluttonous larvae, of all animal and se¬
veral vegetable substances in a state of putridity. Their
term of life in the perfect state is but of short duration.
A few months or even weeks elapse, and their merry
course is run. Such as contrive to fight their way to the
conclusion of the ambiguous autumn, perish on the first
approach of frost. A few half-benumbed house-flies in¬
deed are generally seen in our apartments till Christmas
time; and the delusive gleam of a sunny winter day not
to inspect the parts minutely under a good compound mi¬
croscope, when he immediately became convinced that the
function assigned by the writers we have first named was
incompatible with the actual organization. “Minute hairs,”
he observes, “ very closely set, and directed downwards,
so completely cover the inferior surface of the expanded
membranes, improperly denominated suckers, with which
the terminal joint of the tarsi of flies is provided, that it
cannot be brought into contact with the objects on which
those insects move, by any muscular force they are capa¬
ble of exerting. The production of a vacuum between
each membrane and the plane of position is therefore clear¬
ly impracticable, unless the numerous hairs on the under
side of these organs individually perform the office of
suckers; and there does not appear to be any thing in
their mechanism which in the slightest degree counte¬
nances such a hypothesis.”6 Mr Blackwall then procured
living specimens of the house-fly, Musca domestica, and of
the large flesh-fly, Musca vomitoria, and enclosed them in
clear jars and phials of transparent glass, the interior sur¬
face of which they traversed in every direction with the
greatest facility, even walking upon it with their backs
downward, while they remained in full vigour; but when
enfeebled either by exposure to cold or by the fatigue of
over exertion, the identical individuals ascended the sides
o the same jars and phials with difficulty (falling from
t lem frequently), and were altogether incapable of ad-
lenng in an inverted position. No sooner, however, were
t iey recruited by repose or an increase of temperature,
ian they again repeated those extraordinary feats, to
Jhich custom makes us callous, with all their original
extenty. He likewise found, that flies which are un-
8 e to maintain an inverted position on highly polished
ones, will frequently adhere firmly, with their backs
dippery^i ^ans‘ An analogous structure, according to Sir Everard Home, enables the walrus to ascend the inclined plane of a
j P'lyslco-Theology, p. 3G3, note 6. 4 Micrographia, p. 170.
4 t' llL Tra.ns. for 1816. « On the Pulvilli of Insects, Linn. Trans, vol. xvi. part iii. p.
s i?r0ffuc‘ Tint- vol. ii. letter xxiii. ’ Ibid. p. 490.
cc erches Anatomiques sur VHippobosque des Chevaux, Annalcs des Sciences NaU vi. 301.
VOL. IX. rr i 1 2 K
, 48a
258
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera. seldom re-animates their feeble forms so far as to produce
a dubious buzz about our windows; but such as show them¬
selves in open places are speedily snapped up by red¬
breasts and other feathered epicures, greedy of insect food
at that unaccustomed season ; and it is probable that few
survive till spring. As their eggs, however, are generally
deposited in a putrescent nidus, adapted to the propensi¬
ties of the incipient young ; and as that nidus is not ot a
nature to remain for a length of time unconsumed, it may
be fairly inferred that our summer swarms are produced
originally from a few individuals, which in some snug cor¬
ner have survived the most inclement season of the year,
and are not the result (as happens in the case of many
lepidopterous kinds) of eggs which have been laid dur¬
ing the preceding autumn. It is possible that such as as¬
sume the pupa state towards the close of summer under
ground, may rest secure in that condition, till called into
their winged existence by the returning warmth of the
enlivening spring.
All these insects undergo a complete metamorphosis,
and are remarkable in this, that the larvae do not change
their skins except at the period of their passing into the
nympha state. Some form a kind of cocoon; but others
remain uncovered, and can scarcely be even said to change
their skin, which seems to harden over them, so as to form
an egg-like case for the enclosed pupa. Dipterous larvae
are apodal or without feet, although some which belong
to the family Nemocera of Lat. are provided with appen¬
dages which serve the same purpose. The head is some¬
times projected and Constantin its form, sometimes vai ia-
ble in figure, capable of being withdrawn into the body,
and undistinguishable from the other segments except by
its anterior position, and the existence of the parts of the
mouth. This soft and changeable form of the head is, we
conceive, peculiar to the larvae of the present order. It is
generally furnished with one or two retractile hooks, and
some nipple-like projections. The principal orifices ot
respiration are almost always placed at the posterior ex¬
tremity ; and in many species there is also a pair of stig-
matic openings on the segment next the head. Such as
dwell in water, or inhabit corrupt and fluid matters, have
their bodies terminated posteriorly by a tail-like prolon¬
gation, susceptible of being lengthened or withdrawn
according to circumstances, and ending in a radiated
expansion, which communicates with internal tracheae.
There are few pieces of natural mechanism so ingenious
and admirable as the respiratory systems of the rat-tailed
worm, and of the larvae of gnats and other aquatic Dip¬
tera.
We have already alluded to the peculiar transformation
of these insects. The skin of the larva seems to harden
over and enclose the nymph. The body of the contained
insect first detaches itself to a certain extent from the
outer skin, leaving on its inner surface the exuviae of its
external organs. In its early state it presents only a soft
or gelatinous mass, without distinct characters; but after
a time the parts of the perfect insect begin to be deve¬
loped, and it finally escapes from its prison by butting
with its head against the upper part of the case, which
ere long opens as it were upon a hinge, like the lid of a
cylindrical snuff-box.
The general characteristics of this order are obvious to
the eye of an ordinary observer, and are designated in
the works even of the most ancient naturalists. Yet Fa-
bricius, by placing with the Diptera certain Arachnides,
and the parasitical species of the genus Pediculus, falsi¬
fied the essential nature of the order. It cannot be de¬
nied, however, that here, as in all other great natural
groups, there are anomalous or aberrant genera, which
depart in a great measure from the ordinary conditions of
their kind. Thus, among the pupiparous tribes, the wings,
the balancers, and the usual sheath of the sucker, show a
tendency to disappear in many species ; and in Nycteribia
and Melophagm the organs of flight are entirely wanting.1
Jten
; 'bosj,
' w
DIVISION I.—PROBOSCIDEAN.
The apex of the proboscis with a fleshy labium, and the
haustellum covered by a horny labrum ; before these are
placed two jointed palpi.
A. The antennae consisting of many joints.
FAMILY I—TIPULARIiE.
Antennae extended forwards, consisting of six or more
distinct joints. Palpi standing out, jointed. Halteres
naked. Abdomen with seven or eight segments.
a. Culiciformes.
Eyes lunate : ocelli wanting: antennae of the males plu¬
mose, of the females pubescent: mouth not elongate:
palpi five-jointed: thorax without a cross suture: abdo¬
men consisting of eight segments.
*
Proboscis extending forwards, longer than the anten¬
nae ; palpi straight; wings with the nervures and margin
covered with scales.
Genus Culex, Linn. Antennae porrect, or extending
forwards, filiform, fourteen-jointed ; plumose in the male,
pilose in the female; palpi porrect, five-jointed, longer
than the proboscis in the male, very short in the female;
proboscis porrect, the length of the thorax: wings scaly,
incumbent. Meig. Zw. pi. i. fig. 1-10.
The species of this and of some nearly allied genera
are extremely troublesome towards evening, especially in
the neighbourhood of moist or marshy places. They are
greedy of blood, and under the well-known names of Gnats,
Mosquitoes, &c. they persecute man and beast, not only
sucking our “ life-stream,” but instilling a poison which,
though feeble from its minute quantity, yet often produces
pain and inflammation. Although abundant in Italy and
all the warmer countries of the earth, they are nowhere
more troublesome than amid the barren wastes of Lapland.
They feed also on vegetable juices. The female deposits
her eggs in the water to the amount of several hundreds,
and the larvae are consequently very frequent in all stag¬
nant pools in spring and summer, where they may be seen
when undisturbed, suspended from the surface, with their
heads downwards. At this time they breathe by the cau¬
dal extremity; but in the nympha state, during which the)
are still aquatic, the respiratory organs are placed upon the
thorax. On assuming the perfect state, the light exuvise
of the nymph serve as a support, by means of which the
imago sustains itself for a time on the surface of the wa¬
ters. The whole of these transformations are pass®
through in the course of three or four weeks. It is sai
that the females alone annoy us as blood-suckers. Their
1 The principal works on this order are, Fallen’s Diptera Suecica, 4to, 1814-17 ; Meigen’s Systematische beschreibung der bekann ^
Eurepaischen Zweiflugeligen Insecten, 8vo, 1818-1830 (by this work we are guided in the ensuing portion of our article); Wiedeina
Dipt era Exotica, 8vo, 1821; and Macquart’s Insectcs Diptircs du Nord de la France, 8vo, 1826-9, published in the Mem. de la
Royals, &c. de Lille.
ENTOMOLOGY.
shrill nocturnal pipe, the prelude to a closer contact, is par¬
ticularly distressing in many continental countries, espe¬
cially to an inexperienced traveller, unprovided with a
wusiniere or mosquito curtain. The Laplanders defend
themselves by means of smoke and grease.
C. pipiens. Palpi and antennae dark brown: thorax
rufous, nearly rust colour, with two brown longitudinal
lines: abdomen ringed with whitish grey and dark brown:
halteres whitish: wings unspotted: legs pale brownish,
the base of the thighs yellowish; the apex of the tibiae
with a small spot of changeable white. Length three
lines. Fab. Linn. Reaumur. Wood’s Illus. of Linn. Ge¬
nera of Insects, pi. xcvii. Common in almost all countries.
Genus Anopheles, Meigen. Antennae porrect, fili¬
form, fourteen-jointed; plumose in the male, pilose in the
female: palpi porrect, five-jointed, the length of the pro¬
boscis : proboscis porrect, the length of the thorax : wings
scaly, incumbent. Meig. Zw. i. 10, pi. i. f. 11-17; Cur¬
tis, Brit. Ent. v. pi. ccx.
A. bifurcalus. Plume of the antennae brownish grey in
the males: the two terminal joints of the palpi forming a
flat club; circle round the eyes white: thorax ash grey,
with a dark-brown line on the sides, and three others
down the middle: abdomen grey, ringed with brown : legs
brown, the thighs yellowish: halteres dirty white; wings
unspotted. The colour of the female is yellowish brown.
Three and a half lines. Curtis, l. c. Culex bifurcatus,
Linn. According to Linnaeus, the larva, like those of the
preceding genus, reside in the water, and the perfect in¬
sect does not bite. Only one other species is described
by Meigen, which is distinguished by having five dusky
spots on each wing. Two others are described in the third
volume of the Zoological Journal.
Genus ^Ldes, HofFmgg. Antennae porrect, filiform,
fourteen-jointed; plumose in the male, pilose in the fe¬
male: proboscis porrect, as long as the thorax: palpi
very short: wings scaly, incumbent. Meig. Zw. i. 13.
JE. cinereus. Greyish brown: thorax reddish, pubescent:
wings unspotted: thighs rather paler than the other parts
of the leg: palpi very short, in other respects not differ¬
ing much from Culex. Two to two and a half lines. Ap¬
parently a rare and imperfectly known insect.
* *
Proboscis shorter than the antennae; palpi incurved.
Genus Corethra, Meig. Named from the Greek
word xegjjdgov, a brush, with reference to the appearance of
the antennae. Antennae porrect, filiform, fourteen-joint¬
ed ; yerticillately plumose in the male, pilose in the female :
palpi standing out, incurved, four-jointed, the first joint
shortest: wings incumbent, the nervures villose, and the
hinder margin ciliated with scales. Meiar. Zw. i. 14, pi.
i. f. 18-23.
Q.pallida. Whitish: plume of the antennae brown;
eyes black: thorax with three pale-brown abbreviated
lines: thighs and tibiae white, spotted with black; the
joints of the tarsi somewhat brownish: wings hyaline,
with an obsolete brownish shade over the middle. Male
two and a half, female two lines. Meig. Zw. vol. i. pi. i.
ng. 2% female. Found on the continent of Europe. C.
plumicornis and culiciformis inhabit Britain, and have been
described, with their usual felicity, by Reaumur and De-
^er' Their larvae differ from those of Culex in their usu¬
ally horizontal posture. That of C. plumicornis is re¬
markable for its translucent texture, which renders it al¬
most invisible. It was hence called Tipula cristallina by
Degeer. r J
Genus Chironomus, Meig. (Plate CCXXXYIII. fig. 1).
ntennae porrect, filiform, in the male plumose, thirteen-
jointed; the terminal joint very long (ibid. fig. 1, a); in
e emale six-jointed, pilose; palpi standing out, incurv-
259
Probosci-
deae.
edi four-jointed; wings lanceoiate, deflexed. Meig. Zw. Diptera
C. elegans. Head light yellow ; plume of the male an¬
tennae brown ; female antennae pale yellow, the terminal
joint blown; thorax hood-shaped in front, elongate, sul¬
phur-yellow, with fulvous vittae, and having three black
spots on each side in the form of a triangle, towards the
base of the wings ; abdomen sulphur-yellow ; legs fulvous,
thick, with black joints and a ring of the same colour in
the centre of the middle and hinder tibiae; anterior tarsi
not elongate ; wings white, with three black points not far
from the hinder margin, one towards the middle, and two
others near each other, towards the apex. Three to three
and a half lines. Meig. Zw. vol. i. pi. ii. f. 1, female. This
rare species, represented by the figures last referred to,
Fas been taken lately at Raehills in Dumfriesshire. We
believe it to have been previously unknown in Britain. The
genus is very extensive, comprehending little short of a
hundred species, the greater portion of which inhabit Bri¬
tain. The little pink-coloured tortuous worm, frequent
in water-barrels, is the larva of Chironomus plumosus.
Genus Tanypus, Meig.; named from ravuw, to stretch
out, and vavg, the foot. Antennae porrect, filiform, four¬
teen-jointed ; in the male plumose, with the twelve lowest
joints globose, the thirteenth very long, the terminal short
and acute ; in the female pilose, ail the joints globose, the
terminal thickest; palpi standing out, incurved, four-joint¬
ed, the basal joint shortest; ocelli wanting; wings lanceo¬
late, deflexed, pilose. Meig. Zw. i. 55, pi. ii. f. 8-12.
T. varius. Male. Antennae and palpi brown; head
and thorax grey, the lines on the latter dark brown, with
a grey play of colour in the middle; abdomen yellowish,
banded with brown, and having a blackish line on the
back ; legs brownish yellow, the knee and apex of the tibiae
brown ; halteres white; wings with an oblique grey cloud
before the apex, having two dark-brown spots in it near
the anterior border, and three smaller dark spots at the
hinder margin; there is a grey spot at the apex of the
wing, and near the middle a rather broad band, in the an¬
terior part of which are placed three blackish spots, two
behind each other, and the third, which is smaller, be¬
neath, forming a triangle. The female is of a yellower
hue than the male, and the marks on the back, as well as
the bands on the abdomen, are paler; the wings are
marked in a similar manner. Male three to three and a
half, female two to two and a half lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi.
ii. fig. 12, male. Frequents banks and hedges, but is not
common. It occurs near London, and in some other parts
of England.
The Tipula maculata, of which the history is given
by Degeer, belongs to this genus. Twelve species are
described by Benoit Frederick Fries, in his Monograph
of the Swedish Tanypi. His work is enriched by some
new historical details. Above twenty species occur in
Britain.
Genus Ceratopogon, Meig. The generic name is
derived from xsgaj, a horn, and ffayo, a beard. Antennae
porrect, filiform, thirteen-jointed, the eight lowest joints
globose (bearded externally in the male), the following
cylindrical, elongate; palpi porrect, incurved, four-joint¬
ed, the joints unequal; ocelli wanting ; wings parallel, in¬
cumbent. Meig. Zw. i. 68, pi. ii. f. 13-18.
The larvae of these insects differ from those of most of
their congeners in not being aquatic. They inhabit ve¬
getable galls. The species are numerous, and of small
dimensions. Meigen describes forty-five different kinds,
of which about one half have been detected in Britain.
C. bipunctatus. Black; the antennas, including the
brush of the males, dark brown ; thorax clothed with fine
yellow pubescence ; halteres white ; wings thickly covered
260 E N T O M
Diptera with grey pubescence, and having a whitish spot in the
Probosci- middle of the anterior margin; legs pitch-brown ; tibiae
deae. wjth long hairs externally ; pubescence of the tarsi white.
One line. Tipula biimnctata, Linn.; Forcipomyiapictipen-
nis, Megerle ; Labidomyia bipunctata, Stephens. Inhabits
England and various parts of the continent.
Genus Macropeza, Meig. So named from paxgog,
long, and flr^a, the foot, the hinder legs being remark¬
able for their length. Antennae porrect, filiform, fourteen-
jointed; the joints cylindric, the five last longest: wings
lanceolate, elongate; hinder legs very long. Meig. Zw. i.
87, pi. iii. f. 1, 2.
M. albitarsis. Head black, with a broad forehead with¬
out ocelli; thorax cinereous, with three narrow black lines,
the central one widest; sides of the thorax and shoulders
black ; scutellum cinereous ; abdomen black ; halteres
white; wings hyaline, with pale-brown nervures; legs
black, the tarsi whitish ; the hinder legs uncommonly
long, particularly the tarsi, which are as long as the thighs
and tibiae united. Length one and a third. Length of
the wing two and two thirds, of the hinder legs four lines.
PI. iii. f. 1, female. The female only of this singular in¬
sect appears to be known : it has not occurred in Britain.
b. Gallicolae.
Eyes lunate: antennae with hairs disposed in whirls;
palpi incurved; wings pubescent, obtuse, with two or
three longitudinal nervures; tibiae without spurs at the
end.
Genus Lasioptera, Meig. The name is from Xotfiog,
hirsute, and Tmga, wings. Antennae porrect, filiform, con¬
sisting of many joints, which are globose and hairy ; ocelli
wanting: wings incumbent, villose, with two nervures.
Meig. Zw. i. 88, pi. iii. f. 3-5.
~L. picta. Female. Antennae black, shorter than the
thorax, cylindrical, twenty-four jointed ; the joints nearly
globose and pubescent: thorax black; abdomen black,
margined with white, and having two triangular white
spots on each segment: thighs yellow; tibiae and tarsal
joints white, with the apex black: halteres white: wings
ash-grey, having a narrow black edge anteriorly, in which
there is a white spot. One line. Meig. Zw. i. pi. iii. fig.
3, female. Diomyza Juniperi, Megerle.
Occurs on the continent of Europe, but is rare.
Genus Cecidomyia, Latreille. Antennae projecting,
moniliform, many jointed, the joints remote from each
other : ocelli wanting ; first joint of the tarsi very short:
wings incumbent, villose, with three nervures. Meig. Zw.
i. 93, pi. iii. fig. 8-12.
C. palustris. Thorax pale, with three broad black vit-
tae : abdomen flesh-red ; the halteres white. Tipula pa¬
lustris, Fab. Linn. Not unfrequent in Britain and else¬
where. We have nearly thirty indigenous species, among
which C. tritici, commonly called the wheat-fly, is an ob¬
ject of great interest to the agriculturist.1
Genus Campylomyza, Wied. Antennae projecting,
cylindrical, fourteen-join ted, the two radical joints thick¬
ened : ocelli three : wings pilose, with three nervures.
Meig. Zw. i. pi. iii. fig. 6-7.
C. bicolor. Female. Antennae dark brown : head and
thorax black, somewhat shining: abdomen dark brown,
with pale incisures: halteres white: legs testaceous:
wings hyaline. Half a line in length.
Found in April and May in hedges, not common.
c. Noctuaeformes.
Eyes lunate : ocelli wanting : antennae moniliform, with
a seta at the base: wings broad, villose, with numerous
O L O G Y.
longitudinal nervures, but without cross nerves: tibiae ipter,
without spurs. ijoho^
Genus Psychoda, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 2 !«•
and 2 a). Antennae projecting, moniliform, pilose, many
jointed, the two radical joints thick, the remainder globose,
and remote from each other : palpi standing out, four joint¬
ed, the joints equal: ocelli wanting : wings broad, lanceo-
late, villose, without transverse nerves. Meig. Zw. i. pi
iii. fig. 13-18.
Y. palustris.. Head, thorax, and abdomen covered with
white wool-like hairs : wings black at the apex, the centre
with a dark-brown band, which forms an acute angle in
the middle, the base shaded with brown; fringe dark j
brown, white at the apex of the wing: halteres dark
brown : legs white ; apex of the tibiae and the two last
tarsal joints black. Two lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. iii. fig,
18. Found in Britain occasionally, along with above a
dozen other species. We know little of the habits or me¬
tamorphoses of these insects. They occur in moist and
impure, as well as in marshy places.
d. Rostratae.
Eyes somewhat rounded, separated on the forehead;
ocelli wanting : head elongated into a rostrum anteriorly:
palpi incurved : thorax with an arched suture across the
middle : abdomen eight-ringed : tibiae more or less spurred.
Genus Erioptera, Meig. From t/goj, wool, and'mja,
wings. Antennae projecting, setiform, sixteen-jointed, the
first joint cylindrical, second cup-shaped, the following
ovate : ocelli wanting: palpi standing out, incurved, cy¬
lindrical, four-jointed, the joints equal: intermediate legs
shorter than the others : wings incumbent, parallel, the
nervures villose.
E. maculata. Dirty yellow, as well as the antennae and
legs : thighs brown at the apex, and having a brown ring
in the middle : palpi brown ; the abdomen with a brown
line along the back: wings with pale nerves and ferrugi- !
nous ocellated spots, which are partly single and partly form
a macular band. Two and a half lines. Inhabits Britain
and the continent of Europe. We have about thirty as¬
certained indigenous species.2
Genus Limnobia, Meig. From X//xv»j, a marsh, and/3m
/ live. Antennae projecting, setiform, the joints from
fifteen to seventeen, the radical joint cylindrical, second
cup-shaped, the remainder oblong or globose : palpi stand¬
ing out, incurved, cylindrical, four-jointed, the joints
equal: ocelli wanting: wings generally incumbent and
parallel, the nervures naked. Meig. Zw. i. pi. iv. v. vi.
L. rivosa. Antennae as long as the head, setiform, red¬
dish brown; palpi of a similar colour: head grey; the
forehead with a small protuberance behind the antenns:
thorax light grey, with reddish-brown vittae; scutellum
yellowish ; metathorax bright grey : abdomen light grey
inclining to red, with a reddish-brown line on the back,
which is waved on the sides, and has a grey play of co¬
lour in the middle: legs rather thick, testaceous, the
thighs darker : halteres yellow : wings clear hyaline, hav¬
ing a testaceous streak along the anterior margin ; not far
from the base another streak leaves the marginal one and
runs along the third longitudinal nerve, and from this a
third runs along the cross nerves, forming an obtuse angle;
the anterior streak has a semicircular projection near the
middle, and just behind the base there is a transparent
marginal streak with a black spot. From twelve to thirteen
lines. Tipula rivosa, Linn.; Tipula triangularis, Degeer;
Pedicia rivosa, Lat.
Rare on the continent. In Scotland we lately observ-
1 See Linn. Trans, iv. 230, and v. 106.
2 J he genus is named EHopteryx by Mr Stephens—a commendable change, in as much as it avoids a termination characteristic
of the ordinal rather than the generic groups of Entomology.
ENTOMOLOGY.
ed it in considerable numbers in several of the northern
counties, frequenting marshy glades by the sides of rivers.
It likewise occurs in the vicinity of Edinburgh. The ge¬
nus Limnobia is rather extensive, containing upwards of
sixty European species, the greater proportion of which
are indigenous to Britain. Degeer has published some
curious details regarding the manners and metamorphoses
of L. replicata.1
Genus Rhipidia, Meig. Antennae projecting, four-
teen-jointed, the radical joint cylindrical, second and
third cup-shaped, the following globose, remote, pectinat¬
ed on two sides in the male : palpi standing out, incurv¬
ed, cylindrical, four-jointed, the joints nearly equal: ocelli
wanting: wings incumbent, parallel. Meig. Zw. i. pi. v.
fig. 9-11.
R. maculata. Forehead light grey ; palpi and antennae
brown, the latter twice the length of the head : thorax
bright grey, with a brown vitta, which has an indistinct
brown line close to it on each side behind : abdomen dark
brown: halteres pale yellow: legs long, thin, brownish
yellow; the apex of the thighs, the tibiae, and the tarsi,
brown: wings hyaline, the surface sprinkled with pale
brown spots, some of which at the anterior border are
larger and darker, and the cross nerve is margined with
brown. Three lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. v. fig. 11, male.
Inhabits England, Germany, &c.
Genus Ctenophora, Meig. Antennae projecting,
thirteen-jointed, the radical joint cylindrical, second glo¬
bose, third oblong, the following pectinated in the male,
in the female simple, globose or ovate : palpi standing out,
incurved, cylindrical, four-jointed, the terminal joint elon¬
gate: ocelli wanting : wings spreading, shining.
C. bimaculata. Head black: palpi rufous beneath,
brown above : antennae dark brown, the joints globular in
the female: thorax and abdomen black ; the latter in the fe¬
male marbled on the sides and belly with rufous, which some¬
times runs into orange-yellow, spots ; the abdomen of both
sexes has a greyish transverse spot at the base : halteres
and legs rufous; the apex of the thighs, the tibiae, and
the tarsi dark brown : wings hyaline, the anterior margin
yellow, having a dark-brown band, extending half way
across, and the apex of the same colour. Male six, fe¬
male from seven to eight lines. Tipula bimaculata, Linn.
Found in Britain, with six other species belonging to the
same genus.
Genus Tipula, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 3 and
3 «.) Antennae projecting, thirteen jointed, the radical
joint cylindrical, second cup-shaped, the following cylin¬
drical and pilose: palpi standing out, incurved, cylindri¬
cal, four-jointed,2 the terminal joint elongate : ocelli want¬
ing: wings lanceolate, spreading.
T. oleracea. Palpi and antennae dark brown, the two
owest joints of the latter yellowish grey; forehead bright
grey, with a reddish-brown line; the snout yellowish
rown: thorax bright grey, having a testaceous dorsal
me bounded with dusky ; metathorax whitish grey : ab-
omen testaceous, with a dusky line on the back, which
is scarcely perceptible ; thighs and tibiae testaceous, the
aP.ex an^ the tarsi dark brown : halteres brown : wings
pa e brown, the anterior margin bordered with testaceous,
u not to the apex; behind this border there is a whitish
rea . Eleven lines. Linn. Fab. Degeer, Lat. This spe-
ics is common in meadows. It is known in England by
o e ^ & Harry Long-legs, and is called Jenny Nettles in
ron an°' •^e &enus Fipula, considered in relation to Eu-
Pe> contains forty-four species, several of which are large
261
^1COn|F1CUOU#s insects> and many of them are very plen- Diptera
tiful. T. crocata, of a deep velvet black with yellow bands, Probosci.
Edinburgh °rnamentaI SPeCieS‘ We haVe taken k near ^
Genus Nephrotoma, Meig. Antenme projecting, in
the male mneteen-jointed, with the first and third joints
cylindrical, second cup-shaped, the following excised; in
the female fifteen-jointed, the first and third joints cy¬
lindrical, second cup-shaped, the following somewhat cy-
indrical, thickened at the base: palpi standing out, in¬
curved, four jointed, the terminal joints elongate: ocelli
wanting: wings lanceolate, spreading. Meig. i. pi. v. f.
N. dorsalis. Antennae with the first and second joints
fen uginous, the rest black: ground-colour reddish yellow •
the forehead with a black vitta: thorax with three shin¬
ing black lines; the sides of the breast unspotted: scu-
tellum with a black spot; metathorax marked with a black
line, and the hinder margin of the same colour: abdomen
with a black dorsal line, and a longitudinal line of the
same colour on the sides and belly: thighs and tibiae fer¬
ruginous, the apex brown: tarsi dark brown : halteres yel¬
low : wings nearly hyaline, slightly clouded with brownish
yellow, the stigma dark brown: the apex of the wing is
likewise brownish. Male five and a half, female seven
lines. Found in hedges during summer, but is not com¬
mon. It has occurred in the vicinity of London.
Genus Ptychoptera, Meig. Antennae projecting,
sixteen-jointed, the radical joint short and cylindrical,
second cup-shaped, third long and cylindrical, the follow¬
ing oblong: palpi standing out, incurved, elongate, four-
jointed, the first joint shortest, second and third long, and
of equal length, the fourth very long, setaceous: ocelli
wanting : wings spreading, plicate at the hinder margin.
P. contaminata. The prevailing colour is shining black:
palpi ferruginous: antennae dark brown : the sides of the
breast silky grey: scutellum testaceous: abdomen of the
male with two ferruginous bands, that of the female with
two ferruginous spots on both sides: legs rufous: the
apex of the thighs, the tibiae, and the tarsi, dark brown:
halteres rufous, the knob brownish at the tip: wings
nearly hyaline ; near the middle of the anterior border is
a dark-brown abbreviated band; between this and the
apex there is a brown marginal spot, and two or three
others at the anterior margin. Male three and a half, fe¬
male five lines. Tipula contaminata, Linn. Fab. Lat. Not
rare during summer in Britain and other parts of Europe.
Genus Nematocera, Meig. Antenna: projecting, fili¬
form, six-jointed, the radical joints cylindric, second cup¬
shaped, the following cylindrical, equal: ocelli wanting:
palpi standing out, incurved, four-jointed, the joints equal.
N. bicolor. Head ash-grey; forehead wide, brighter at
the eyes: thorax bright grey, with three dark lines on
the back, that next the side short: abdomen flat, dark
brown : legs of the same colour, the base of the thighs,
and likewise the halteres, yellow : wings rather dull, with¬
out a stigma. Five lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. vi. fig. 1.
Seemingly rare: we are unacquainted with its native
country. The specimens from which Meigen took his de¬
scription were preserved in the collection of M. Baum-
hauer.
Genus Anisomera, Hoff. Antennae projecting, seta¬
ceous, six-jointed, the radical joint cylindrical, second
cup-shaped, third very long: ocelli wanting.
A. obscura. Antennae brown: the prevailing colour of
the body brownish grey; thorax with three wide dark
l Hcmiret, t. vi. plate 20.
eaumeratff6 Sa^S’ ^ C^1K1 articles,”—but he counts the radical tubercle, which does not seem to have been regarded in Meigen s
EN T O M
lines: along the abdomen of the males, which is nearly
hoary, runs a narrow vitta, and on the under side of the first
segment there is a broad yellow spot, and a smaller one
on the second; wings brownish yellow, especially at the
cross nerves; legs yellowish brown ; the apex of the thighs
dark; the anterior thighs thicker and shorter than the
others. Four lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. vii. fig. 5, male.
Found in Germany, Portugal, and England. In the lat¬
ter country another species has occurred, which has been
named A. lucidipennis.
Genus Trichocera, Meig.; from hair, and jc£faj,
a horn. Antennae projecting, setiform, the two lower
joints thickened, the remainder oblong and pubescent;
palpi standing out, incurved, cylindrical, five-jointed, the
joints nearly equal: wings incumbent.
T. hietnalis. Palpi, antennae, and legs, dark brown:
head grey : thorax greyish, with four distinct brown vittae,
the hinder part unspotted: abdomen wholly dark brown
passing into grey; the caudal process in the female shin¬
ing black: halteres pale yellow, with a brown knob:
wings pale grey or somewhat brownish, unspotted. Two
and^a half lines. Limonia hiemalis, Lat. Abundant in
October and November, and usually found throughout the
winter. Another British species, T. regelationis, is also
often seen on walls and houses, even during that inclement
season.
e. Fungicolas.
Eyes round or oblong, separated on the forehead: ocelli
unequal, sometimes wanting. Palpi incurved, four-joint¬
ed : thorax without a cross suture : abdomen seven-ring¬
ed : coxae long : tibiae spurred.
*
Antennae setiform, with indistinct joints, the two lower
ones thickened.
Genus Dixa, Meig. Antennae projecting, setiform, the
two lowest joints thickened, the rest pubescent: palpi
standing out, incurved, cylindrical, four-jointed, the first
joint very short: ocelli wanting: wings incumbent, parallel.
D. aprilina. Palpi and antennae dark brown: head
brownish yellow, with a large blackish heart-shaped spot
on the forehead: thorax light yellow, passing into brown,
and marked with three dark lines : abdomen dark brown :
halteres yellowish, with a brown knob: legs brownish yel¬
low; apex of the thighs, of the tibiae, and the tarsi, dark
brown : wings hyaline, somewhat whitish, with brown
nerves. Two lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. vii. fig. 12, male.
Found on the continent and in Britain. Meigen describes
four species, two of which occur in this country, which
also produces a third, named D. variegata by Mr Ste¬
phens.
Genus Bolitophila, Hoff. Antennae long, setiform,
projecting forwards, the two radical joints thick: ocelli
three, placed on the forehead in a transverse line: wings
incumbent, parallel, obtuse.
Vt.fusca. Head yellowish, with dark-brown antennae :
thorax yellowish, with three brownish lines on the back :
abdomen, halteres, and legs, dark brown; basal half of
the thighs yellow, which gradually passes into brown:
wings somewhat greyish, with a brown spot at the stigma.
Two to two and a half lines. English examples of this
species are preserved in the British Museum. Accord¬
ing to Mr Curtis, two other kinds inhabit Britain; viz. B.
maculipennis and B. cinerea; the former of these does
not appear to be known to continental naturalists. M.
Guerin has published a complete and detailed history of
a species of this genus, of which the larva lives in mush¬
rooms.1
Genus Macrocera, Meig.; named from .uaxgos, large,
O L O G Y.
and xsgaj, a horn—the antennse being of unusual length. Dtai
Antennae projecting, setiform, long, the two radical joints . bosci.
thick: ocelli three, placed on the forehead in the form of pe.
a triangle : wings obtuse, incumbent, parallel. ’ ysj
M. lutea. Of a uniform ochre-yellow : antennae above
twice the length of the body, brown, yellow at the base:
abdomen inclining to brown behind: legs yellow, with
brown tarsi. Three lines. This species occurs in the
south of England, and eight others are recorded as indi¬
genous to Britain.
* *
Antennae compressed, sixteen-jointed.
Genus Synapha, Meig. Antennae projecting, cylindri-
cal, sixteen-jointed ? the two lowest joints distinct: eyes
rounded: ocelli three, unequal, placed in a line on the
forehead: tibiae unarmed on the sides.
S. fasciata. Head and antennae black: palpi ferrugi¬
nous : thorax pubescent, shining black ; scutellum of a si¬
milar colour, small: first four joints of the abdomen shin¬
ing red, with a black band across their hinder margin,
the remainder black : thighs and tibiae ferruginous, tarsi
brown : wings hyaline, the central longitudinal nerve form¬
ing an oblong cell behind the cross nerve. One and a
half line. Inhabits Germany, but is rare.
Genus Mycetobia, Meig. Antennae projecting, cylin¬
drical, sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints distinct: eyes
kidney-shaped : ocelli three, unequal, approximating, pla¬
ced on the forehead in the form of a triangle: tibiae un¬
armed on the sides.
M. pallipes. Black: palpi yellow : antennae brown,
nearly cylindrical, and about the length of the thorax;
the latter somewhat pubescent: abdomen rather depress¬
ed: halteres and legs bright yellow, the tarsi passing into
brown at the apex: wings large, rounded at the apex:
and having brownish-black nervures. One and a half
line. Occurs in the vicinity of London, and in some other
parts of Britain.
Genus Puatyura, Meig. Name derived from ffXanif,
broad, and ouga, the tail. Antennae projecting, compress¬
ed, sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints distinct: eyes
rounded : ocelli three, approximating, unequal, placed on
the forehead in the form of a triangle: tibiae unarmed on
the sides: abdomen depressed behind.
P. semirufa. Head, antennae, and thorax black; the
latter with a narrow arched line of white anteriorly: ab¬
domen yellowish red, passing into brown, the two first
segments black : halteres and legs rufous, the tarsi
brown: wings nearly hyaline, without spots or bands.
Three lines. Found near London, Edinburgh, and in the
border counties of Scotland Thirteen other species are
natives of Britain.
Genus Gnoriste, Hoff. Antennae projecting, cylin¬
drical, sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints thick and
short: proboscis elongate, bearing the palpi at the apex,
ocelli three, unequal, placed on the forehead in the
form of a triangle: tibiae spurred at the apex, the sides
spinose.
G. apicalis. Head black; antennae dark brown: pro¬
boscis twice the length of the head; the palpi, which are
inserted near the apex, small and ferruginous: thorax
black, impressed with two deep longitudinal lines, W“1C
become obsolete behind the middle : abdomen dar
brown, pubescent: halteres yellow: cox® elongate, the
anterior pair ferruginous, the others black : thighs and tj-
bi® yellow, the tarsi dark brown : wings somewhat clou -
ed, the apex brown. Five lines. Has been found in Pros'
sia, but is rare.
Genus Sciophila, Hoff. Antenn® projecting, some-
1 Annales des Sciences Nat. t. x.
I)i| ?
h'o
d li
L'
what compressed, sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints
distinct: ocelli three, unequal, approximating, placed on
the forehead in the form of a triangle: tibiae with spurs
at the apex, and spines on the sides: wings with the in¬
termediate cell small and nearly quadrate.
S.Jimbriata. Ferruginous; antennae brown, yellow at
the base; anterior part of the head yellow, the forehead
brown: thighs ferruginous, tibiae and" tarsi brown : abdo¬
men pubescent, the segments margined behind with black,
the hinder extremity likewise black : wings unspotted, hy¬
aline. One two-thirds. This insect, and seven other spe¬
cies of the genus, occur in Britain.
Genus Leia, Meig.; named from Xs/05, smooth. Anten¬
nae projecting, compressed, sixteen-jointed, the two radi¬
cal joints distinct: eyes oblong: ocelli three, unequal:
tibiae with spurs at the apex, the hinder ones spinous on
the sides.
L. flavicornis. Ochraceous, as well as the antennae:
ocelli remote : thorax and abdomen somewhat shinino-:
tarsi brown: wings slightly yellowish, with a narrow, some¬
what arched, cross band of brown before the apex, slight¬
ly increasing in width at the anterior border; and to¬
wards the hinder margin of the wing there is a small
pale-brown spot placed at the hindermost longitudinal
nerve. Two lines. Meig. Zw. i. pi. ix. fig. II, female. In¬
habits Britain, with four others of the ten described by
Meigen as occurring in Europe.
Genus Mycetophiua, Meig. Antennae projecting, com¬
pressed, sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints distinct:
eyes oblong: ocelli indistinct: tibiae with spurs at the
apex, the hinder ones with spines on the sides.
M. lineola. Hypostoma1 and palpi yellow; antennae
greyish brown, the two radical joints yellow : thorax och-
reous above, with three brown lines, the sides of the breast
with a mixture of grey: abdomen brown, with yellow
incisures: halteres yellow: legs pale yellow, the tarsi
brown; hinder thighs black at the apex: wings yellowish,
somewhat dusky along the anterior border, and marked
with a dark-brown spot near the middle. Two lines.
Meig. Zw. i. pi. ix. fig. 15. This species occurs in Rox¬
burghshire, near London, and on the continent of Europe.
Ihe genus contains thirty species ; of these upwards of
twenty are included in the entomological catalogues of
Britain. Ihe larvae of several species are found in great
numbers in fungi, on the substance of which they feed.
The M. fusca of Lat. and Meigen seems indeed to have
been described by Degeer under the name of Tipula fun-
gorum?
Genus Cordyla, Meig. Antennae projecting, twelve-
jointed, the two radical joints distinct: eyes rounded;
ocelli wanting: tibiae with spurs at the apex, but unarm¬
ed on the sides.
C.^crassicornis. Head blackish; antennae twice the
ength of the head, compressed when seen from the side,
ie colour dark brown: thorax grey, the back darker in
ie middle: abdomen dark brown : halteres and legs bright
ye ow, the hinder thighs brown at the apex ; tarsi brown :
wings grey. One and a half. Meig. Zw. i. pi. x. fig. 1.
Inhabits Austria, England, &c.
p /• Lugubri.
yes nearly meeting above, and deeply margined:
ce i unequal: antennae cylindrical: palpi three-jointed:
orax without cross suture : abdomen seven-ringed,
nnhENUS ®PIARA> Meig. Antennae porrect, cylindric,
P escent, sixteen-jointed ; the two basal joints thickest:
ENTOMOLOGY.
263
eyes deeply emarginate: ocelli unequal: palpi exserted tv ,
S,ngS Pa^llT ’
nf c’ if ' B ck ; abdomen with a longitudinal line de®-
of saffron yellow on each side, consisting of spots in he
male, and narrower than in the female; the last has Ihe
incisures also yellow : wings smoke coloured, iridescent •
halteres and legs piceous: thighs of the fore legs rufes-
SJi1 b°r;> SeXer F°^r hneS' TiPula Th°™% Linn. •
Molobrus Thomce, Lat. Occurs at times in tolerable plenty
m woods in the south of Scotland, and in many pLts of
England, generally frequenting umbelliferous plants, in
the months of June, July, and August.
g. Latipennes.
Eyes of the male meeting above, those of the female
separated and kidney-shaped; ocelli wanting: antenme
cylindrical: palpi four-jointed: proboscis porrect, perpen¬
dicular : abdomen eight-ringed: wings very broad.
Genus Simulia, Meig. Antennae porrect, cylindric,
eleven-jointed, the two basal joints distinct: palpi ex-
serted, incurved, cylindric, four-jointed, the basal joint
shortest: ocelli wanting: wings broad, incumbent, pa¬
rallel. ^
S. reptans. Female. Palpi and antennae brown • hy¬
postoma white; forehead blackish blue; thorax brown,
with a bluish play of colour, the anterior part cinereous,
with a brown line in the middle, which has a cross streak
of brown close to it on each side ; the hinder part with
an ash-grey play of colour: abdomen dark brown, with
pale-yellow hairs at the base, the hinder segment shining
bluish grey: thighs brown : tibiae white, brown at the
apex: anterior tarsi deep black, the medial and posterior
tarsi brown: halteres pale yellow. One line. Culex rep¬
tans, Linn.; Simulium reptans, Lat. Of pretty frequent
occurrence in Britain, and other countries. We have
above a dozen indigenous species. These insects bite
sharply, and attack various animals.
h. Muscaeformes.
Eyes of the male meeting above, in the female separate
and round : ocelli three, of equal size : antennae cylindri¬
cal : thorax without a cross suture in the middle.
Genus Scatopse, Geoff. Antennae projecting, cylin¬
drical, perfoliate, eleven-jointed : eyes kidney-shaped :
ocelli three : palpi concealed : legs unarmed.
S. notata. Shining black, smooth. The thorax has a
white spot on the sides anteriorly: and there is another,
crescent-shaped, before the base of the wing, and a simi¬
lar crescent-shaped spot is placed on the sides at the base
of the abdomen : halteres black. One and a third line.
Tipula notata, Linn.; Tip. latrinarum, Degeer, vi. 160,
pi. xxviii. p. 1-4 ; Tipula albipennis, Fab. Found in
England, Scotland, Germany, &c.
The palpi in the preceding genus, as far as perceptible,
seem to consist of only a single articulation—a character
in which they differ from their congeners. The larvae
are apodal, and live in impure substances. The nymphs
are naked and motionless. The perfect insects occur on
the trunks of trees, on moist walls, and on flowers, espe¬
cially those of the Synantherece, of which they suck the
nectaries. The species are few in number, and of small
size.
Genus Penthexria, Meig. Antennae projecting, cylin¬
drical, perfoliate, eleven-jointed : eyes oval: ocelli three :
palpi standing out, incurved, four jointed: legs unarmed.
P. holosericea. Entirely velvet-black, with brown eyes
and wings: forehead of the males very narrow, that of
mJ'kk tern1 is used by Meigen to designate the region of the head lying between the antennae, the eyes, and the mouth. The
me part is named clypeus by Fallen.
Mmoires, L. vi. pi. 22. fig. 1_13.
H
264
E N T O M
Diptera the female wide ; head in both sexes as wide as the tho-
Probosci- rax: wings of the male much smaller than those ot the
dese. female: legs pubescent, without spines, much longer in
tiie maie than in the female. Male two and a half, fe¬
male three and a half lines. Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 267 ,
Meig. Zw. i. pi. x. fig. 17, 18. Found in Germany, &c.
Genus Dilophus, Meig.; from 6/5, tivo, and Xofoc, a
comb. Antennae projecting, cylindrical, perfoliate, eleven-
jointed: palpi standing out, incurved, five-jointed, the
third joint dilated at the apex: anterior tibiae radiated at
the apex. .
D. vulgaris. Shining black: wings of the males hya-
line, with blackish marginal nerves ; those of the female
brown, with the apex hyaline, the nerves with a pale
margin, and the stigma blackish. Two and a half lines.
Meig. Zio. i. pi. xi. fig. 1, male. Tipula febrilis, Linn. Fab.
Lat. Common during spring and summer. ....
Genus Bibio, Geoff. Antennae projecting, cylindrical,
perfoliate, nine-jointed; palpi incurved, cylindrical, five-
jointed, first joint very short: ocelli three : anterior tibiae
mucronate at the apex. Meig. i. 309, pi. xi. f. 9-15;
Curtis, B. E. pi. cxxxviii.
B. Pomonce. Shining black, with pubescence of the
same colour: thighs rufous: wings hyaline, the anterior
margin fuscescent, marginal nervures and stigma dark
brown. Male six, female seven lines. Tipula Pomonce,
Fab. Don. ix. 27, pi. ccc.
B. Marci. Very like the last, but entirely black;
wings of the males hyaline, of the females brown ; both
have the ^anterior margin dark brown, with black-brown
nervures, and a stigma of the same colour. Five to six
lines. $ Tipuli Marci, Linn.; Hirtea Marci, Fab.; $ Tip.
brevicornis, Linn. These two species, which are the larg¬
est of the genus, occur not unfrequently in Britain : in the
south of Scotland the former is common, and we have
often seen large_/?oc&s of the latter near Edinburgh.
In this genus the sexes differ considerably, which has
not seldom led to the males and females being described
as distinct species.1 The larvae are frequently found in
the dung of cattle. They are apodal, but otherwise bear
a resemblance to small caterpillars, being furnished with
a few hairs directed backwards. They are also believed
to change their skins before assuming the nympha state.
The perfect insects appear in spring; and, according to
the continental naturalists, at two different periods, cor¬
responding to the feasts of St Mark and St John,—a cir¬
cumstance which has obtained for them the names of
Mouches de St Marc and Mouches de St Jean. Their
flight is heavy, and they are sometimes seen in great
quantities on fruit trees, to which, however, notwithstand¬
ing a vulgar prejudice to the contrary, they are in no way
injurious. Meigen describes sixteen European species,
and Mr Stephens enumerates fourteen as occurring in
Britain. Their manners are curiously detailed by Reau¬
mur.
Genus Aspistes, Hoff. Antennae projecting, eight-
jointed, the terminal joint thickened, ovate : ocelli three :
anterior tibiae terminating in a spine.
A. berolinensis. Antennae black, somewhat longer than
the thorax, the two lowest joints thickened at the apex,
the following short, the terminal one broader, ovate, and
excavated in the middle : thorax pitch-black, with an
oval spot on the back anteriorly: abdomen pitch-black,
pubescent, the hinder extremity brownish red: thighs
nearly black; tibiae and tarsi reddish yellow : wings hy¬
aline, the marginal nervures dark brown, the others pale
O L O G Y.
brown : halteres black. One line. Inhabits Germany,
Prussia, &c. One or tw o other species are said to occur
in Britain.
Genus Rhyphus, Lat. Antennae projecting, subulate,
sixteen-jointed, the two radical joints distinct: palpi ex-
serted, incurved, four-jointed, the joints unequal, the
second clavate: ocelli three, equal: legs unequal: wings
parallel, incumbent.
R. fuscatus. Antennae and palpi dark brown; head
and thorax cinereous, the latter with three black lines,
the central one longest: scutellum grey : abdomen of the
males dark brown, with pale incisures, that of the female
brownish yellow: halteres whitish: wings somewhat cloud¬
ed, and having brown nervures, the stigma and a marginal
spot fuscous. Male four, female three lines. Meig. Zw.
i. pi. xi. fig. 18. ? Found in Britain, and is common in
many parts of Europe.
ipten
■>t>osa
ie*.
YV
B. Antennae consisting of few joints.
FAMILY II.—XYLOPHAGI.
Antennae projecting, approximating at the base, three-
jointed, the third joint eight-ringed : proboscis retracted:
ocelli three : abdomen composed of eight segments: hal¬
teres uncovered : wings parallel, incumbent; onychii three.
Genus Behis, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 4 and
4 a.) Antennae with the two radical joints short, third
elongate, conical, eight-ringed : scutellum with many rays
on the margin. Meig. Curtis. Brit. Ent. vii. pi. cccxxxvii.
B. vallata. Antennae dark brown; head and thorax
shining black: abdomen reddish yellow, that of the male
having two black spots at the base; legs rufous, the bin*
der half of the tibiae and the tarsi brown: wings of the
female scarcely inclining to brownish, the base and ante¬
rior margin yellowish, the stigma dark brown. Two and
a half lines. Stratiomys clavipes, Fab.; Beris nigritarsis,
Lat. This species is found pretty frequently throughout
the greater part of Britain. We have observed it near
Edinburgh, and in Roxburghshire ; and it occurs in Essex,
Kent and other parts of the south of England. We have
ascertained the existence of B. femoralis, B. clavipes,
(Linn.), and B. chalybeata, in the south of Scotland; and
seven others inhabit the more southern portion of the
island.
Genus Xylophagus, Meig. Antennae with the second
joint cup-shaped, the third elongate, eight-ringed; pro¬
boscis retracted: scutellum unarmed.
X. ater. Shining black: first joint of the palpi yellow,
second black: thorax of the males entirely shining black,
that of the female with three grey vittae, the lateral ones
somewhat abbreviated: anterior legs bright yellow, wit
the apex of the tarsi brown; hinder legs bright yellow*
the apex of the thighs, of the tibiae and tarsi, brown; ha-
teres yellow. Male five, female six lines. Meig. Zw. in
pi. xii. fig. 14. Lat.; Empis subulata, Panz. Apparent¬
ly the only species of the genus found in Britain.
Genus Ccenomyia, Meig. Antennae with the radica
joint elongate, cylindrical, second cup-shaped, third coni¬
cal, eight-ringed: scutellum bidentate. . .
C.ferruginea. Rust brown: thorax with two line*°
changeable white, which disappear behind the midde.
abdomen dark rust brown anteriorly, paler behind; the se¬
cond segment with a rather large white spot on each si
1 For example, Tipula Hortulana of Linn, is the female of B. Marci described above.
* Mcmoircs, t. v. p. 55, et pi. vii.
Dif a behind, the two following with a similar spot, but united by
Pro i-a narrow white line; belly rust yellow, the hinder mar
At '  f It zrv/to rvf-1f 1» rr -fi v» o ♦- «>r1r C 4>« - 1 f*
ENTOMOLOGY.
rZ jn?h:... Linn,_VDGgCGr’ v> ,88- i- ph xii. fig. 6-14.
trrow white Jine; Deny rust yellow, the hinder mar- Common on the continent It ‘ ", ^ i
!, with the exception of the first, whitish; legs ferru- in Britain esneciallv in Sr’ntl i ^ k <lulte.so Plentiful
’ o. hrio-ht V*1W. ^^‘^ain, especially in Scotland, where we have seen it
.gins, Wiui me KJI Mic moi,, wumsii; legs ICITU-
ginous: halteres bright yellow: wings brownish yellow,
with ferruginous nerves. Six to seven lines, tabanus
bidentatus, Fab. Gmel. Lat.; Sicus ferrugineus, Fallen.
Not unfrequent in Germany and other continental coun¬
tries in the months of June and July. It has not hitherto
been observed in Britain.
in Britain, especially in Scotland, where we have seen it
only on a few occasions in the northern and middle coun-
tms We have taken it by the banks of Loch Katrine, and
in Sutherland. Eighteen kinds of Tabani inhabit Britain,
and upwards of twice that number are known as Europe
265
Diptera.
Probosci-
deae.
FAMILY III.—TABANII.
Antennae projecting, approximating at the base, three-
jointed ; third joint from four to eight-ringed, or six-joint¬
ed : proboscis and palpi standing out: abdomen consist¬
ing of seven segments : halteres half covered : wings di¬
varicating : onychii three.
a. Antennae three-jointed.
Genus Pangonia, Fab. Antennae with the basal joint
cylindric, second cup-shaped, third elongate, subulate,
eight-ringed : ocelli three : proboscis elongate, exserted :
wings spreading.
V. ferruginea. Antennae black, the second joint and
base of the third yellow ; proboscis black, the length of
the thorax; the latter thickly covered with brownish-
yellow pubescence: abdomen with similar pubescence,
and marked with black spots on the back, the segments
margined behind with whitish: belly rust-brown : wing-
scales, halteres, and legs bright brown ; thighs black:
wings brownish. Eight lines. Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 282.
Inhabits Portugal. The genus contains six European
species, none of which appear to occur in Britain.
Genus Silvius, Meig. Antennas with the radical
joint cylindrical, second cup-shaped, third subulate, five-
ringed : ocelli three: palpi standing out, two-jointed, pi¬
lose, the second joint cylindrical in the male, conical in
the female.
S. Vituli. Antennae ochre-yellow, the apex black ; hy-
postoma bright yellow ; forehead of a similar colour, with
a shining black callosity anteriorly in the female; palpi
yellow, the apex black in the male : thorax yellow with a
brown play of colour, pubescent: abdomen pubescent,
yellow: wing-scales and halteres yellow, the knob of the
latter whitish: wings with microscopic hairs, somewhat
greyish, with the anterior margin yellow; legs yellow,
with brown tarsi. Five to six lines. Tabanus Vituli, Fab.;
Tabanus Italicus, Fab. This insect occurs on the con¬
tinent, but we have no knowledge of its precise localities.
^ Genus Tabanus, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 5 and
o «). Antennae with the basal joint cylindric, second cup-
shaped, third compressed, the lowest ring very large and
crescent-shaped at the base : ocelli wanting : palpi exsert-
ci, capitate in the male, subulate in the female: wings
spreading.
T. bovinus. Antennae black, reddish brown at the base :
^postoma, palpi, and forehead bright greyish yellow ; the
alter in the female with a black line, which terminates
eneath in a shining black roundish callosity ; eyes green
uring life ; thorax dark brown, with yellowish hair,
sometimes inclining to slate-colour, and having dark lines
°nA1® back; abdomen dark brown, with a rather wide
rc l!,h-yel)ow cross band on the hinder edge of the seg-
ments, and a row of bright yellow triangular spots down
e middle : belly yellowish grey, darker behind the inci-
res, with rather large nearly triangular spots of black,
brn near ..1?se an.°^*(Iue black line : thighs and tarsi dark
„ iWn ’ t'bise bright yellow, the apex brownish: wing-
es and halteres brown, the apex of the latter pale;
vol r0Wn*s^’ tbe anterior margin inclining to yellow.
Besides T. bovinus, we are not acquainted with any other
bcotch species except T. tropicus and T. autumnalis.
Latreille, Lepelletier and Serville, Meigen, Wiedemann,
.Aacquart, and the late Palisot de Beauvis, have cleared
away many of the difficulties which encumbered the sys¬
tematic study of this and the allied genera ; but their na¬
tural history, properly so called, has scarcely received any
accession since the days of Degeer. It is to that great
observer that we owe our knowledge of the manners and
metamorphoses of the species above described, the only
one in fact of which we have any detailed account. T.
maroccanus is extremely troublesome to camels in the
north of Africa. M. Defontaines has frequently observed
their bodies entirely covered by these insects. The spe¬
cies occurs also in Portugal.
Genus Chrysops, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 6
and 6 a). Named from xgv<ro$, gold, and i'^, the eye,
which is usually very brilliant during life. AntennEe cy¬
lindrical, three-jointed, two basal joints equal, third longer,
five-ringed : palpi exserted, two-jointed, pilose, the second
joint conic: ocelli three : wings spreading.
C. ccecutiens. Male. Black; the eyes with two dark
purple bands; the uppermost interrupted; hypostoma
yellow, with large dark spots which nearly conceal the
ground colour : forehead black : thorax with reddish pu¬
bescence on the sides and beneath : abdomen black, with
a rufous spot on each side of the second segment; under
side black brown, the two basal segments yellow, having
a brown line in the middle : antennae, palpi, legs, and hal¬
teres black: wings almost entirely brown ; in the middle
there is a small light-coloured spot; at the hinder margin,
before the apex, a nearly uncoloured triangle, and not far
from the base a pale mark.
The thorax of the female is lined with cinereous; the
first segment of the abdomen has two yellow spots, the
second is yellow, with two dark lines in the centre, en¬
closing a triangular mark of yellow behind: wings whit¬
ish ; the base, anterior margin, a broad band rather be¬
hind the middle, and an apical spot, brown. Four lines.
Tabanus ccecutiens, Linn.
Frequent in most countries of Europe. In Scotland it
is rather scarce, but has been taken occasionally in Dum¬
friesshire, Roxburghshire, and elsewhere.
Genus H^ematopota, Meig.; named from d)ga., blood,
and -jrorjjj, drinker. Antennae three-jointed, the second
joint cup-shaped, third subulate, four-ringed: palpi ex¬
serted, two-jointed, second joint conic: ocelli wanting:
wings parallel, deflexed. Meig. ii. 76. pi. xiv. f. 8-16.
H.pluvialis. Eyes greenish, with waved purple-brown
bands: palpi and hypostoma light grey; antennae scarcely
longer than the head; first joint thick, oblong, shining-
black, pubescent; thorax blackish, with whitish lines, the
two next the middle having a white spot in the centre;
sides of the breast light grey, somewhat pubescent: scu-
tellum blackish, sometimes cinereous over the middle:
abdomen blackish brown, with whitish incisures and a ci¬
nereous line down the back; on the third and following
segments on each side of this line there is a round cine¬
reous spot; in the males the three first segments are some¬
what testaceous on the sides: belly brownish grey: thighs
cinereous : anterior tibiae yellow at the base, the apex, to¬
gether with the tarsi, black brown ; posterior tibiae yellow,
with three brown rings, one in the middle and another at
2 L
266
Diptera
Probosci-
dese.
E N T O M
each end; the tarsi black brown, with the first joint yellow¬
ish : halteres yellowish, having a brown spot on the knob :
wings brownish-cinereous, with numerous waved lines of
white, and a dark-brown marginal streak. Four to four
and a half lines. Meig. ii. 78, pi. xiv. f. 16. Tabanus plu-
vialis, Linn. Very plentiful throughout Britain. This in¬
sect is known in Scotland by the name of Cleg, and is very
troublesome during the heat of summer both to man and
beast, particularly horses.
b. Antennae six-jointed.
Genus Hexatoma, Meig.; named from s|, six, and rogog,
section, in allusion to the number of joints in the antennae.
Antennae six-jointed ; the first and third joints elongate :
palpi exserted, two-jointed; second joint capitate (in the
male) or conical (in the female) : ocelli wanting: wings pa¬
rallel, deflexed. Meig. ii. 83, pi. xiv. f. 17-24. Heptato-
ma, Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 284.
H. bimaculata. Hypostoma of the males shining-black,
with yellowish hair; that of the female light grey above
and yellow beneath; thorax blackish, with rufous pubes¬
cence : abdomen of the males black, the pubescence of
the two basal segments brownish yellow ; on the belly these
segments are bluish white at the sides and blackish in the
middle; the following black, with three pair of bluish-
white transverse streaks: abdomen of the female black,
the base with brownish-yellow pubescence, and the second
segment with bluish-white lateral spots : feet black brown :
wings vitreous. Six lines. Tabanus pellucens, Fab. A
rare species, which has not yet been detected in Britain.
FAMILY IV.—LEPTIDES.
Antennae porrect, approximating at the base, three-
jointed; third joint without rings: proboscis and palpi
exserted: ocelli three : abdomen consisting of seven seg¬
ments : halteres uncovered: onychii three.
Genus Leptis, Fab. Antennae with the first joint cy-
lindric, second cup-shaped, third conic with an apical
seta: palpi pilose, the second joint elongate: ocelli three,
vertical: wings spreading.
L. aurata. Male. Hypostoma blackish grey; antennae
dark brown; thorax and abdomen thickly covered with
shining golden hairs: halteres, thighs, and tarsi dark
brown; tibiae testaceous : wings pale brown, with the stig¬
ma reddish brown.
Female.; Hypostoma and forehead dark grey, the lat¬
ter broad: thorax and abdomen thickly clothed with light-
yellow hairs; sides of the breast black; wings nearly hy¬
aline, scarcely tinged with brown, the stigma reddish
brown: halteres and legs as in the male. Three to four
lines. Rhagio atratus, Fab. Lat.; Rh. tomentosus, Fab. In
marshy meadows in May, common. This genus, as consti¬
tuted by Meigen, contains twenty-two species; but more
recent writers have separated it into two genera, corre¬
sponding to his sectional divisions. Nearly all of these
inhabit Britain, and some are very abundant, particularly
L. scolopacea and L. tringaria.
Genus Atherix, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 7
and 7 a.) Antennae with the terminal joint ovate, having
a naked dorsal seta at the base : palpi standing out, pilose,
incurved : ocelli three, vertical: wings spreading.
A. Ibis. Hypostoma and forehead bright yellow; the
latter in the female yellowish with a brown vitta; thorax
pubescent, yellowish brown, with broad lines of dark brown
along the back; scutellum brown : abdomen of the males
conical; the first segment dark brown, the following fer-
O L O G Y.
ruginous with the hinder margin bright yellow, and mark- pttn
ed with three black spots, one on the back and another >bosci.
on each side; on the last segments these spots run toge-
ther; belly yellow: abdomen of the females ash-grey, the
segments with a black band anteriorly, the hinder margin
white; belly ash-grey: legs ferruginous, the tarsi brown
at the apex : halteres yellow, the knob brown : wings hy-
aline, with irregular cross bands of reddish brown, which
are paler in the female. Male four, female five lines.
Curtis, Brit. Ent. i. 26 ; Rhagio Ibis, Fab.; $ Atherix ma-
culatus, Lat.; Anthrax Titanus, Fab. Mr Curtis states
that there are at present but two species of this genus re¬
corded as natives of Britain, although twelve are enume¬
rated as European. The species described appears to be
everywhere rare. The male and female were placed by
Fabricius in different genera.
Genus Clinocera, Meig. Antennae remote, the low¬
er joints spherical, the third conical with an incurved ter¬
minal seta: ocelli three, placed on the forehead: wings
incumbent, parallel.
C. nigra. Head black ; body dull black; thorax with
three darker lines; legs long, slender, and black: halteres
black, uncovered : wings hyaline. Two lines. Found in
Germany and elsewhere.
FAMILY V._XYLOTOMAl.
Antennae projecting, approximating at the base, three-
jointed, the third joint without rings: proboscis conceal¬
ed : ocelli three: abdomen seven-ringed, conical: hal¬
teres uncovered : wings spreading: onychii two.
Genus There va, Lat. Antennae with the radical joint
cylindrical, second cup-shaped, third conical: proboscis
retracted: ocelli three : wings spreading.
T. fulva. Ferruginous, with pubescence of a similar
colour, intermixed with black hairs on the thorax; two
first joints of the antennae ferruginous, the third dark
brown : on the forehead of the females is the usual shin¬
ing black spot, and the hinder extremity of the abdomen
is likewise black : thighs and tarsi brown; tibiae ferrugi¬
nous : halteres yellow : wings nearly hyaline, the anterior
border yellowish. Four to five lines. This insect is of
not unfrequent occurrence in the south of Scotland, where
T. anilis and T. plebeia are likewise found. The former is
distinguished by its reddish thorax, and abdomen of a sil¬
very-white or grey colour. It is generally seen sitting
upon sand, but flies oft’ suddenly if an attempt is made to
seize it. Meigen mentions twenty species. Britain pro¬
duces about one half of that number.
FAMILY VI.—MYDASII.
Antennae projecting, five-jointed, the joints withoutrings,
the terminal one club-shaped.
Genus Mydas, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 8 a and
8 b.) Antennae with the two lowest joints small, the fol¬
lowing cylindrical, the terminal one clavate. Proboscis
exserted.
M. lusitanicus. Entirely black, except the hinder edge
of the abdominal segments, which are yellowish white,
beard and mystax1 white: the sides of the thorax and two
first segments of the abdomen are beset with long white
hairs, and the back of the abdomen and legs with short
white pubescence : wings yellowish. Eight lines. Inha¬
bits Germany, Portugal, &c. Another species, named
1 1. his term is applied to a semicircle of bristles or hairs placed over the mouth.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Dip i M.filatus, is found in America. It is figured by Drury.1
Pro!:'l- Brazil produces one above two inches long,
de
FAMILY VII.—BOMBYLIARII.
Antennae projecting, three-jointed; third joint without
rings: hypostoma beardless : forehead flat: (proboscis re¬
tracted or somewhat projecting) ocelli three: abdomen
consisting of seven rings, cylindric or elliptical: wings
spreading: halteres uncovered.
Genus Hirmoneura, Wied. Antennae remote, the
joints sub-globose, equal, the third with a terminal style:
ocelli three, the anterior one remote: proboscis retracted
and concealed.
H. obscura. Hypostoma ochre yellow; forehead cine¬
reous with blackish hairs: thorax black, with yellowish
hairs on the sides, those on the breast more inclining to
grey: abdomen with the lateral edges yellow, the upper
side with yellowish grey pubescence, the apex of the seg¬
ments slate grey; belly yellowish, and covered with pu¬
bescence similar to that on the breast: wings brownish
grey, especially at the anterior margin: halteres dark
brown: legs ochre yellow, the tibiae and tarsi a little dark¬
er: extremity of the abdomen with two short truncated
styles. Seven and a half lines. Found in Dalmatia.
Genus Fallenia, Meig. Antennae remote, the joints
sub-globose, the last with an elongate terminal style : pro¬
boscis the length of the body, and bent beneath the
breast.
F. caucasica. Head and thorax covered with whitish
hair; eyes of a metallic hue: abdomen nearly orbicular,
with blackish pubescence ; the first segment wide, with grey
pubescence, the following fringed with whitish grey upon
the hinder edge ; the anus ferruginous : wings yellowish :
legs brownish grey, with rather indistinct grey hairs.
Five to five and a half lines. Volucella caucasica, Wied.
Zool. Mag. i. 2, 7. Found in Russia and elsewhere, but
appears to be scarce. There is only one other species, F.
fasciata, Fab. a native of Italy.
Genus Stygia, Meig.2 Antennae approximating, the
first joint dilated at the apex, and obliquely truncate, se¬
cond cup-shaped, third conical: head sub-globose; eyes
kidney-shaped: proboscis retracted.
S. Belzebub. Male. Hypostoma and forehead black,
the last having a tendency to pass into grey over the an¬
tennae : thorax wholly shining black, with pubescence of
the same colour : abdomen shining black, the hinder mar¬
gin of the segments (with the exception of the first) nar¬
rowly edged with yellow; the pubescence on the sides of
the first segment whitish, and on the following black:
belly entirely black : wing-scales black, fringed with white
hair: stalk of the halteres brown, the knob pale yellow:
iegs black. Five to six lines. Anthrax Belzebub, Fab.
This fly i$ found in France, Italy, Hungary, England, and
in most other parts of Europe.
Genus Anthrax, Scop. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 9
and 9 a.) Antennae distant, the first joint cylindrical,
second cup-shaped, third sub-globose, with an elongate
or conical style ; eyes kidney-shaped: proboscis retracted
or very slightly produced.
&..flava. Hypostoma with bright yellow pubescence ;
orehead black, with short rufous hairs, wdiich are mingled
with black ones: antennae black: thorax and abdomen
267
covered throughout with long reddish shining hairs, the Diptera
anus having pale yellow hairs, and three black tufts: Frobosci-
stalk; of the halteres brown, the knob yellow: wings hya- dese*
line, with a yellowish-brown streak along the anterior
edge, and the base with a pectinated mark of black: wing-
scales brownish yellow: legs black; thighs and tibim
sprinkled with yellow. Seven lines. Anthrax hottentotta,
Fab.; Musca hottentotta, Don. xiv. 69, pi. ccccxciv. In¬
habits England, France, and Plolland, occurring not un-
frequently. This genus, as constituted by Meigen, con¬
tains about sixty species, a small proportion of which has
yet been detected in Britain. We know little of their his¬
tory or transformations.
Genus Mulio, Eat. Antennae distant, the first joint
short and cylindrical, second cup-shaped, third conical,
acute ; eyes elliptical: proboscis standing out, horizontal.
M. infuscatus. Hypostoma with ash-grey hairs; the
forehead with dark-brown hairs ; proboscis as long as the
head: thorax dark brown, ash-grey on the sides: abdo¬
men flat and arched, with ferruginous hairs, the incisures
beset with numerous black bristles; halteres brown, the
knob almost entirely white; wings light brown, the apex
hyaline: legs yellow and glistening; the tarsi brown.
Three and a half lines. Found in Provence by M. Baum-
hauer.
Genus Bombylius, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 10
and 10 a.) Antennae approximating, the first joint cylin¬
drical, second cup-shaped, third elongate and compress¬
ed ; proboscis standing out, longer than the head: body
woolly.
B. minor. Beard whitish ; mystax reddish : the sides
covered with black hairs: forehead of the females with
reddish hair : antennae and proboscis black: ground colour
of the body deep black, the whole surface covered with
rufous hairs : halteres dark brown; wings somewhat grey¬
ish, the base and anterior margin more or less rufescent.
Four lines; the proboscis from two and a half to three lines.
Fab. Linn. Found in several parts of England : we have
often observed it in considerable abundance on the sides of
Arthur’s Seat, and in the fields to the south of Dudding-
ston. About six other species occur in Britain; and al¬
though the appearance of these is very familiar, natura¬
lists in truth know little or nothing of their transforma¬
tions. Latreille supposes that their larvae are parasitical.
Nearly fifty European species are described by systema¬
tic authors.
Genus Phthiria, Lat. Antennae approximating, the
two lower joints short and equal, the third elongate, spin¬
dle-shaped, compressed: proboscis standing out, horizon¬
tal, elongate: palpi clavate.
P. minuta. Male. Hypostoma and forehead black, and
covered with black hairs : body wholly deep black, with
soft and rather long black hairs: wings smoke-brown, the
stigma brown : halteres and legs black.
Female. Hypostoma white ; the forehead blackish, the
margin of the eyes white: body black, with traces ot
white hairs ; scutellum yellow, having a dark-brown streak
along the sides: under side of the breast whitish ; halteres
brown above, white beneath : wings brown, but considera¬
bly paler than those of the male : legs black. One and a
half line. Lat.; Volucella minuta, Fab. Occurs, along
with five other species, on the continent of Europe.
Genus Geron, Hoff. Antennae approximating, the
first joint elongate, cylindrical, second cup-shaped, third
t j ^le name of this genus is defective, in as far as it has been already applied to a lepidopterous genus. Meigen has si: faraiiy
to Lomtia, which is scarcely more fortunate, as it also has been previously applied by Mr Brown to a genus in botany ot the tam y
roteaceae. Latreille has altered the original designation to Stygides.
268
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
ENTOMOLOGY.
proboscis standing out, horizontal,
cylindric-subulate :
elongate.
G. gibbosus. Hypostoma and forehead white ; antennas
black ; thorax whitish grey, with two wide lines of brown¬
ish black down the back : scutellum and abdomen black :
halteres white; wings hyaline, inclining to pale yellow at
the anterior border: legs dark grey. 'Two and a hall
lines. Has been found in Bucharia by M. Baumhauer
in the month of July.
Genus Usia, Lat. Antennae approximating, the first
joint sub-cylindrical, very short; second cup-shaped ; third
spindle-shaped, elongate, obtuse : proboscis standing out,
elongate, horizontal, acute.
U. cenea. Dark brassy: forehead white anteriorly,
greyish behind, with a shining black vitta; hinder part of
the head cinereous, and marked with a shining black
streak in the centre : wing-scales and halteres white : ab¬
domen finely pubescent, wide, flat, and arched ; the belly
whitish yellow, marked with black cross bands which are
abbreviated at the sides : wings hyaline, with a yellow
base and a large black spot near the middle of the ante¬
rior margin : legs black, with a metallic lustre. I wo and
a half to three lines. Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 315. Found
near Bourdeaux and elsewhere.
Genus Ploas, Fab. Antennas approximating, the first
joint very thick and conical, second cup-shaped, third
spindle-shaped, and furnished with a jointed style at the
apex; proboscis standing out, horizontal, the length of
the head.
P. grisea. Colour varying from black to slate-grey:
thorax marked with four grey lines, the two in the middle
united anteriorly: halteres white: abdomen griseous :
wings brownish at the base and anterior margin. Three
and a half lines. Bornbylius griseus, Fab. Inhabits Ger¬
many, Spain, &c.
Genus Cyllenia, Lat. Antennae approximating, the
first joint cylindrical, second very short, cup-shaped, third
conical with a simple style at its apex: eyes oval: pro¬
boscis somewhat standing out, horizontal.
C. maculata. Antennae with the radical joint brownish
grey, second white, the third black : forehead black, the
margin of the eyes white : thorax black, with yellowish-
grey pubescence, mixed with long black hairs: abdomen
with the first segment brown, the following pale yellow
anteriorly, brown behind, with reddish-yellow hair and
long black ones intermixed; on each segment are two
longitudinal lines of black, diverging behind, and a black
spot: halteres pale yellow above, brown beneath: legs
black, covered with matted hair of a ferruginous colour:
wings pale brown at the anterior edge, and sprinkled over
the surface with dark-brown spots. In the male the hin¬
der thighs are much thicker than in the female. Three
to four lines. Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 312. The species de¬
scribed is the only one belonging to the genus. It appears
to be more frequent in France than in any other European
country.
Genus Toxopiiora, Meig. Antennae longer than the
head, approximating, the two lower joints cylindrical, the
third conical; proboscis standing out, arched, one half
longer than the head ; the palpi slender, cylindrical, bent
and acute.
T. maculata. Hypostoma white, the hinder part of the
head of a similar colour; thorax black, covered with a
sulphur-coloured down on the sides and back: abdomen
clothed in a similar manner, and having two rows of naked
black spots down the back: legs black, with white down,
the tibiae somewhat bristly: halteres white, uncovered:
wings hyaline, the anterior margin and the base yellow¬
ish. Four lines. This rare fly has been found in the
south of France and in Russia. It appears to have been;
formerly described by Villers under the title of Asrlusfasci
culatus.1 It was brought from Syria by Labillardiere, and
is justly admired as a beautiful and interesting species.
The genus is widely distributed, and probably requires
subdivision. We have received species from Brazil
Meigen Le Conte has taken it in the United States
Wiedemann describes a species from Java ; and Bomby-
Hus cupreus of Fab. which is now regarded as a Toxopho-
ra, is native to Cayenne.
n,P'
FAMILY VIII—ASILICI.
Antennae projecting, approximating at the base, turned
upwards, three-jointed ; the third joint without rings: hy¬
postoma with a my stax : forehead depressed: proboscis pro¬
jecting horizontally, short: abdomen consisting of seven
segments : halteres uncovered : wings parallel, incumbent.
a. Tarsi with two onychii.
Genus Dioctria, Meig. Antennae inserted into a
frontal tubercle; first joint cylindric, second shorter,
somewhat cup-shaped; third elongate, compressed, the
apex with a blunt two-jointed style : proboscis exserted,
short, nearly horizontal: hinder legs straight, ciliated be¬
neath : wings incumbent.
D. rtifipes. Shining black : hypostoma bright brass-
yellow, shining : on the thorax are two changeable white
lines, which, however, are scarcely observable in the
males ; the sides of the thorax with silvery streaks : hal¬
teres yellow : legs rufous, the hinder pair dark brown:
wings hyaline. Six to seven lines. Asilus rufipes, Degeer.
Not a rare insect throughout England: in Scotland it is
far from scarce, and D. lateralis frequently occurs in com¬
pany with it. Meigen describes twenty-eight species,
eleven of which have been detected in Britain.
Genus Dasypogon, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs.
11 and 11 «). Named from bas-jg, hairy, and vrogwv, a
beard. Antennae with the two lower joints sub-cylindric,
equal, third elongate, compressed, somewhat spindle-shap¬
ed, the apex with a short two-jointed style : proboscis ho¬
rizontal, the length of the head : tibiae straight.
D. ruficornis. Thickly pubescent: antennae ferrugi¬
nous, black at the base ; mystax ferruginous, the forehead
dark brown : thorax shining brownish black, with yellow¬
ish-grey spots, and having white hairs anteriorly: scutel¬
lum black : abdomen deep black, shining, the hinder half of
the second segment and the whole of the third and fourth
dull ferruginous, the fifth in the female with a ferruginous
margin behind: belly shining black; legs very hairy,
dark brown, the tarsi reddish brown : halteres brown,
with a yellow knob. Seven to eight lines. Asilus ruficornis,
Fab.; Meig. Zw. ii. pi. xx. fig. 11. This insect occurs in
France. The genus contains forty-four European species,
only two of which, viz. 1). punctatus and D. brevirostns
(Curtis, B.E. fol. 153), have been noticed in Britain.
Genus Laphria, Fab. Antennae with the radical
joint cylindric, second cup-shaped, third clavate, obtuse:
proboscis standing out, horizontal: tibiae arched.
L. gibbosa. Beard pale-yellow, with a brownish play
colour: thorax black, with reddish-brown hairs: three
first segments of the abdomen shining black, the three
following clothed with whitish-yellow down; the seventh
black, retracted: belly and legs black, the latter with
brown pubescence : nervures of the wings margined with
1 Entom. Lin. iii. pi. 10, fig. 31.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Pf sci-
yellowish brown: halteres black. Ten lines. Laphria
gibbosa, Fab.; Asilus gibbosus, Fab. Found in various
, parts of Europe. L. nigra (Curtis, B. E. fol. 97) is the
only species of the genus, which contains thirty-two dif¬
ferent kinds, satisfactorily ascertained to inhabit Britain.
It lias been found in Darent Wood, Kent, in the vicinity
of London, and at Coombe Wood.
Genus Asilus, Linn. Antennae with the basal joint
cylindric, second cup-shaped, third subulate, compressed,
having a setiform apical style : proboscis exserted, hori¬
zontal : tibiae straight, spinulose.
A. crabroniformis. Head yellow: two basal joints of
the antennae rufous, third brown : thorax rufous, with two
brown dorsal lines, which are usually obsolete, behind :
scutellmn brown : three basal segments of the abdomen
deep black, the second incisure with a white spot on
each side; the remaining segments rufous, with a fine
glistening lustre ; that of the female bent downwards and
terminating in a black style: legs rufous, with brownish
thighs : haltefes brownish yellow : wings pale yellow, the
hinder margin spotted with fuscous. One inch nearly :
the male rather less. Meig. ii. 309; Linn. Fauna Suec.
1908. Occurs throughout Europe, and in some countries
of Asia. The genus is extensive (containing nearly sixty
European species), and a considerable number inhabit
Britain,—some of them being rather common. A. opacits
abounds in several parts of Scotland. All the species are
carnivorous, and prey upon other Diptera. They even
attack hymenopterous insects. Their flight is rapid, and
frequently attended by a buzzing sound. They occur in
woods and various other places, chiefly in autumn, or the
end of summer. Their structure and metamorphoses
have been illustrated by Frisch,1 Degeer,2 and Marcel de
Serres.3 The larvae live under ground.
b. Tarsi without onychii.
Genus Leptogaster, Meig. Antennae with the two
lowest joints short, cylindrical, equal; third conical, with
the apex pilose : proboscis horizontal, short.
L. Pallasii. Naked: thorax slate-grey, black when
seen in certain directions; sides of the breast whitish :
first segment of the abdomen very small; the last nearly
club-shaped, all of them margined with light grey: legs
pale yellow, with a ring on the thighs, the apex cf the
tibiae and the tarsi brown : hinder legs much longer than
the anterior ones, club-shaped, with a ring near the apex :
halteres pale : wings with the lower half brown, the re¬
mainder hyaline. Four and a half lines. Found in the
south of Russia. It is rare.
FAMILY IX.—HYBOTINiE.
Antennae projecting, approximating at the base, three-
jomted: the first two joints united so as to form one, the
nrd without rings : hypostoma beardless, flat: forehead
a • proboscis projecting horizontally, short: thorax
n?Uc 1 ai'ched: abdomen slender, consisting of seven
r*ngs . halteres uncovered : wings parallel, incumbent.
enus Hyeos, Fab. Antennae with the two lowest
JJn.s unite(l) cylindrical; the third conical, with a pubes-
LT S^a aPex : hinder thighs thickened,
vpll i, , n'5’ Black, with a whitish hypostoma, and pale
bin iT .t;eres>: thorax- with a white play of colour he¬
lve • w!"gs with a dark-brown stigma. Two lines. Asi-
amoCM tcvortnis, Fab. Common everywhere in hedges and
ni-c Four other species in addition to the above
are indigenous to Britain.
269
Ho?- (Phte CCXXXVIH. Bipler,
r i.- i .i . ^ritenl1® Wlth two lowest joints united, Frobosci-
y indrical; third lenticular, bearing a seta at the apex • dese-
proboscis sub-exserted, horizontal: all the legs simple.'
O.flavtpes. Antennae dark brown ; palpi yellow : tho¬
rax and abdomen entirely black: halteres yellow: legs
ye ow, all the tarsi brown; the hinder coxae, the apex of
the hinder thighs, and the tibiae, are likewise brown: wings
somewhat brownish. Three lines. Found in England and
on the continent. 6
Genus Oedalea. Antennae with the first joint cylin¬
drical, short; second cup-shaped, third elongate, conic,
compressed ; proboscis short and horizontal: hinder thighs
thickened and spinose beneath. °
O. minuta. Body black, finely pubescent, shinino- • hal¬
teres brown: legs pale reddish yellow; in the anterior
pair the tibiae and tarsi are brown, and in the hinder pair
the tarsi only are of that colour: wings brownish, with a
long biown stigma. One and a half line. Empis minuta,
Fallen. F’ound in Britain, France, &c.
FAMILY X—EMPIDLE.
Antennae porrect, approximating at the base, three-
jointed, the third joint without rings, and having a style
or a seta at the apex : hypostoma beardless: ocelli three :
proboscis exserted, very perpendicular, with incurved
palpi: abdomen consisting of seven segments: wings pa¬
rallel, incumbent: onychii two. Meig. iii. 1.
Genus Hilara, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 13
and 13 a.) Antennae with the basal joint cylindric;
second cup-shaped, third subulate, compressed, the apex
with a two-jointed style: proboscis thick, shorter than
the head : wings incumbent, parallel, with an oblique trans¬
verse nervure at the apex. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxii. f. 1-5.
H. cilipes. Dusky black, antennae reddish brown : wings
fuscous ; halteres whitish ; the anterior metatarsus of the
male dilated in an elliptical form, and fringed on the ex¬
ternal margin with long hairs. Two lines. Meig. Ziu. iii. 3,
pi. xxii. fig. 3; Curtis, B. E. 130. Found near London.
Upwards of twenty species belong to the genus, and near¬
ly all of them inhabit Britain.
Genus Brachystoma, Meig. Antennae with the first
joint cylindric, second cup-shaped, third conic, with a
very long terminal seta : proboscis the length of the head :
wings incumbent, parallel.
B. vesiculosa. Hypostoma greyish white; forehead nar¬
row, black : antennae as long as the head, black; the two
first joints of equal length, the third with a long apical
seta bent downwards: proboscis perpendicular, nearly as
long as the head : thorax shining black, cinereous on the
sides : scutellum very small: abdomen cylindrical, black ;
the seventh segment very much inflated, pellucid, waxen
yellow: halteres white: wings hyaline, with a scarcely
perceptible pale marginal streak: coxae cinereous, short;
thighs ferruginous ; tibiae at the base, and the tarsi, brown.
Two and a half lines. Bacclia vesiculosa, Fab. Inhabits
Britain and the continent of Europe.
Genus Gloma, Meig. Antennae with the first joint
cylindric, very slender, second cup-shaped; third glo¬
bose, with an apical seta: proboscis the length of the
head, thick.
G. fuscipennis. Antennae black ; thorax of the same
colour, pubescent: abdomen pubescent, black brown, with
yellowish incisures: halteres brown : wings brown, with a
dark marginal streak; legs pubescent, brown; all the thighs
n ^ " ork on the Insects of Germany.
3 M[moires, t. vi.
3 Annates du Mas. d'Hist. Nat. t. iv. p. 361.
270 E N T O M
Diptera and the hinder tibia? with a groove on both sides; the
Probosci- hinder legs as long as the anterior ones. Two lines. Meig.
deae- Zw. iii. pi. xxii. fig. 11. Inhabits England, but is very
scarce.
Genus Empis, Linn. Antennae with the basal joint
cylindric, second cup-shaped, third conic, compressed, the
apex with a two-jointed style: proboscis perpendicular or
bent inwards, longer than the head, slender: wings with
a transverse nervure at the apex, incumbent, parallel.
Meig. Zw. iii. 15, pi. xxii. fig. 13-20 ; Curtis, B. E. pi. xviii.
E. tessellata. Palpi, antennae, and proboscis black, the
latter as long as the head and thorax: hypostoma and
forehead cinereous; thorax of the same colour, bristly,
with three dorsal lines black, the central one narrowest:
abdomen hairy, cinereous, with aline down the back, and
the hinder margin of the segments blackish; when seen
in another direction both colours change, the black be¬
coming grey and the grey black: halteres yellowish.
wings brown, ferruginous at the base: legs black, the
tibiae testaceous, shining. Five to six lines. Meig. Fab.
E. livida, Fab. var. Common on flowers, during summer,
in England and Scotland, and most parts of Europe: it
has been likewise taken by Pallas in Tauria. Twenty-
eight species of Empis occur in Britain, and nearly double
that number are known to entomologists. Their early
states have not been well determined. In the perfect
state they prey upon other flies.
Genus Rhamphomyia, Hoff. Antennae with the ra¬
dical joint cylindric, second cup-shaped, third conic, com¬
pressed, the apex with a two-jointed style : proboscis per¬
pendicular or bent inwards, slender: wings incumbent,
parallel, the transverse nervure at the apex wanting.
Meig. Zw. iii. 42.
R. longipes. Deep shining black, as well as the legs:
proboscis twice the length of the head, slender: halteres
dark brown: wings hyaline, with a scarcely perceptible
stigma: in the males the hinder legs are stout, elongate,
and pubescent; the hinder tibiae somewhat clavate, and
the first joint of the tarsi distinctly thickened : in the fe¬
male the anterior legs are simple. Found in summer, but
is rare.
FAMILY XL—TACHYDROMIjE.
Antennae porrect, approximating at the base, two-jointed,
with an apical seta: ocelli three: proboscis short, per¬
pendicular : palpi incumbent on the proboscis: abdomen
consisting of seven segments: onychii two.
Genus Hemerouromia, Floff. (Plate CCXXXVIII.
figs. 14 and 14 d). Antennae with the first joint cylin¬
dric, second ovate, the apex supporting a seta: proboscis
short and perpendicular, with incumbent palpi, which are
subulate or cylindric: anterior coxae elongate : wings in¬
cumbent, parallel. Meig. Zw. iii. 61, pi. xxiii. fig. 5-15.
H. monostigma. Yellowish white : forehead cinereous :
on the thorax are two cinereous vittae, which anteriorly
are drawn into two black lines : along the back of the ab¬
domen runs a black line, which is notched or sinuated on
both sides: the fifth joint of the tarsi is black; wings
hyaline, with a marginal spot of black. Two lines. Meig.
Ztv. iii. pi. xxiii. fig. 6. Found in the south of England
and elsewhere.
Genus Tachydromia, Meig. Sicus, Lat. Antennae
with the first joint cylindric, second ovate or oblong, with
a terminal seta: the anterior or intermediate thighs thick¬
ened: wings incumbent. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxiii. fig.
16-24. 6
T.fasciata. Palpi yellow, proboscis black; hypostoma
white ; forehead cinereous; antennse black, with the basal
O L O G Y.
joint yellow: thorax cinereous: abdomen shining black, ; te
with a broad cinereous ring, interrupted in the middle, 1 ^
at the base of each segment: halteres bright yellow : legs s*,'
rufous, the tarsi black at the apex: wings yellowish. Two ''(W
lines. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxiii. fig. 22. Has been taken
by Dr Leach in England, where thirty-three other species
occur. Few of these have been ascertained to inhabit
Scotland. T. minuta, however, has lately been found near
Edinburgh. There are about sixty species in Europe.
Genus Drapetis, Meig. Antennae with the firstjoint
cylindric, second lenticular, with a seta at the apex: pro¬
boscis scarcely exserted, very short, perpendicular, co¬
vered by the palpi: wings incumbent, parallel. Meig. Zw.
iii. pi. xxiii. fig. 25-28.
D. exilis. Head black, nearly round ; antennae black:
thorax shining black, without a transverse suture above:
abdomen of the males entirely shining black, rather long,
nearly cylindric; that of the female more oval, pointed,
reddish yellow above, with a black transverse band at the
hinder mai'gin of the segments, entirely ferruginous yel¬
low beneath : thighs somewhat thickened, black; tibiae
brown, unarmed ; tarsi yellow: halteres black: wings hya¬
line. Male half a line, female three fourths of a line. Said
to be common in hedges during the months of August and
September, in various parts of the continent.
FAMILY XII.—INFLATE:.
Antennae very minute, two-jointed: head almost en¬
tirely occupied by the eyes : ocelli three : abdomen very
thick, consisting of five segments : onychii three.
Genus Cyrtus, Meig. Acrocera, Fab. Antennae nearly
vertical, the first joint cylindric, second ovate with a ter¬
minal seta : proboscis exserted, horizontal, longer than the
head. Meig. Ziv. iii. pi. xxiv. fig. 1-6.
C. gibbus. Proboscis and palpi yellow : thorax nearly
globose, arched, pubescent, yellow, with a black dorsal
line anteriorly, which is widened in the middle into a
large spot: scutellum semicircular, black, with a triangu¬
lar spot of yellow at the hinder margin: abdomen very
thick, inflated, globular, flat beneath, of a yellow colour,
with four black cross bands produced in the middle into a
point: wing-scales large and cinereous; the halteres small,
and yellow: wings lanceolate, hyaline, yellowish at the
anterior margin : legs ferruginous. Four to five lines. A
rare insect, found occasionally in the south of Europe and
in the north of Africa. The species in general frequent
flowers.
Genus Acrocera, Meig. Antennae vertical, the second
joint spindle-shaped, with a terminal seta: proboscis con¬
cealed. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxiv. fig. 7-10.
A. sanguinea. Thorax black, naked, with a white spot
on the shoulder, and a whitish line before the wing-scales:
abdomen blood-red, with four dorsal spots, the three an¬
terior ones triangular: legs black: wing-scale blackish
brown: wings brownish, the marginal nervures dark.
Three and a half lines. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxiv. fig. W.
The species are few in number, and frequent moist places.
The one just described is found on the continent. Two
others, A. globulus and A. albipes, inhabit England.
Genus Henops, Illig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. ^
and 15 a.) Antennae porrect, inserted into the upper
margin of the mouth, the basal joint patelliform, second
ovate, with a terminal style thickened at the apex: pr0‘
boscis concealed.
H. marginatus. Thorax black, with fine grey pubes¬
cence : abdomen black brown or pitch colour, the hinder
margin of the segments white : legs entirely rufous: wing-
scales and wings hyaline, the last with yellowish-brown
entomology.
ra marginal nervures: belly white, with dark-brown bands,
ci- Two to three lines. Meig. Zw. iii.; Curtis, Brit. Ent.
pi. cx. This species has been frequently taken in the
New Forest.
FAMILY XIII—STRATIOMYDiE.
Antennae porrect, approaching at the base, three-joint¬
ed; third joint ringed: proboscis along with the head
projecting: ocelli three: abdomen with five segments :
onychii three.
Genus Pachygaster, Meig.; named from vayyg, thick,
and yamf, the belly. Antennae with the third joint glo¬
bose, four-ringed, and having a terminal seta: scutellum
unarmed. Meig. Ziv. iii. pi. xxiv. fig. 16-23.
P. ater. Antennae of the males brownish, of the fe¬
males rufous: forehead of the males triangular, small,
shining white, with a longitudinal furrow ; the crown with
three ocelli: thorax rather elongate, black; scutellum un¬
armed: abdomen wider than the thorax, arched above,
flat beneath, black, naked: legs pale yellow wdth black
thighs: haltereswith a yellowish stalk and a black-brown
knob: wings lanceolate, microscopically pubescent, when
in a state of repose lying parallel with the body ; the basal
half brown, the rest hyaline. Two lines. Vappoater,'L?Lt.
Leach. Not a scarce insect on the continent, and in this
country it has been found in Darent, Birch, and Coombe
Woods, besides various other places. The larva is elon¬
gated, of a reddish grey, marked with three obscure lon¬
gitudinal bands.1 Another British species is represented
in Curtis’ Brit. Ent. fol. 42, and named after Dr Leach,
by whom it was discovered in Devonshire. The most ob¬
vious mark of distinction is derived from the appearance
of the wings, which are uniformly hyaline in P. Leachii,
while the lower half is brown in P. ater.
Genus Sargus, Fab. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 16 and
16 a.) Antennae with the first joint sub-cylindric, second
cup-shaped, third lenticular, three-ringed, having an api¬
cal seta: scutellum without spines. Meig. iii. 104; Lat.
Gen. Crust, iv. 278.
S. Reaumuri. Male. Head black ; forehead with two
white spots over the antennae, the latter black brown ;
eyes green, without purple bands : thorax shining brassy
green above, with a longitudinal line of white on each
side : abdomen bright copper colour, with yellowish white
pubescence : halteres and feet rufescent, the tarsi brown
at the apex: wings reddish brown, the stigma somewhat
obscure. Six lines. Meig. iii. 109; Reaumur, Ins. iv.
22, pi. 5-8.
The female is considerably less than the male, and is
strikingly distinguished by having the abdomen of a bright
steel blue, with the two basal segments red, having a nar¬
row steel-blue line on the back. This sex is figured by
Mr Curtis, B. E. pi. cccv. This beautiful species has
been taken occasionally in England, and has been ob¬
served oftener than once near Edinburgh. On one occa¬
sion Mr Duncan found both sexes abundant in an open
wood on the banks of the Teviot. All the species hither¬
to described occur in Britain, excepting two. Several,
particularly S. infuscatus, S. politus (Musca polita, Linn.),
^ud S. formosus, are common throughout the south of
cotland, the two former frequenting woods and gardens,
f .marslly meadows. S. jlavipes (Meig. pi. xxvi.
• 4), which appears to be one of the rarer species, has
e^1 caPtured among the Pentland Hills.
he insects of this genus delight in warm and sunny
Gather. During cloudy days they may be found upon
271
Jnn!fraveh°f var1fius P,ants’,<Ju11> inactive, or in a state of Dtptera
p . One of the larvae has been described by Reau- Trobosci-
mur. Its form was oblong-oval, narrowed to a point in de8e-
front; the head scaly, furnished with a couple of hooks;
the body thinly beset with hairs. It was found in cow-
dung. It became a chrysalis without changing its skin,
and the perfect insect made its exit by knocking off the
anterior lid of its hardened envelope. Macquart divides
tne genus into two sections.
Genus Nemotelus, Fab. Antennae inserted into the
apex of a conical hypostoma, the lower joints equal, third
elongate, spindle-shaped, four-ringed, the apex with a
two-jointed style : scutellum without spines. Mefo. Zw
ill. pi. xxv. f. 16-20. b
N. uliginosus. Male. Forehead black, with a whitish
spot over the antennae: thorax shining black, with fine
cinereous pubescence, and a white vitta extending from
the shoulder to the base of the wing: scutellum black:
abdomen white, black at the base, and having a spot of
the same colour before the apex: legs white; thighs
black, with a white apex; hinder tibiae black, white at the
base and apex: halteres white: wings hyaline, the mar¬
ginal nervures yellowish.
Female. Shining black: head with short whitish silken
hair, and an interrupted cross band of the same colour
over the antennae : thorax with short whitish silky pubes¬
cence, the shoulders and a line on each side running to
the base of the wings, white: abdomen surrounded with
yellowish white, and marked with three rows of triangular
spots, the side rows united to the yellowish margin: in
other respects like the male. Three lines. Meig. Zw.
iii. 114, pi. xxv. fig. female. Musca uliginosa, Linn.;
Don. xv. 31, pi. 519.
Found in meadows and marshy places, in Britain and
on the continent of Europe.
Genus Clitellaria, Meig. Antennae with the two
lowest joints nearly equal, the third conic, five-ringed,
with a two-jointed terminal style. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxv.
f. 21-25.
C. Ephippium. Hypostoma and forehead black, the
latter in the female with two whitish pubescent spots:
antennae black brown : thorax covered with a silky pile of
a fiery red colour, the sides and breast black ; before the
base of the wing there is a black pubescent spine: scu¬
tellum black, with two pubescent spines rising from the
hinder edge: abdomen black: halteres yellow: wings
smoke colour, deepening at the anterior edge: legs black,
the hinder tibiae somewhat crooked. Five lines. Meig.
Ziv. iii. pi. xxv. f. 25. Inhabits Germany, France, Swit¬
zerland, and England.
Genus Oxycera, Meig. Antennae with the two low¬
est joints equal; third spindle-shaped, four-ringed, with
a two-jointed terminal style : scutellum armed with two
spines.
O. pulchella. Male. Hypostoma black, with whitish-
grey pubescence: eyes with a purple fascia: forehead
with two silver-white pubescent spots: antennas black:
thorax black: from the shoulder extends a yellow vitta
to the base of the wings, where it turns downwards some¬
what pointedly; behind the base of the wing towards the
scutellum there is a yellow triangle : scutellum and spines
yellow, the latter with a blackish apex: abdomen black,
each side of the third and fourth segment with a long
spot of a fine yellow colour directed forwards, and a tri¬
angular one on the terminal segment: belly black, the se¬
cond, third, and fourth segments yellowish in the middle:
legs yellow: thighs black in the middle: the anterior
1 Macquart, Dipt, du Nord dc la France, p. 112.
272
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
tarsi with the four last, and the others with the three last
joints, blackish brown: halteres yellow: wings hyaline, the
nervures brown.
Female. Hypostoma and forehead yellow, with a black
vitta in the middle; crown black; hinder margin of the
eyes yellow: on the first segment of the abdomen, be¬
neath the scutellum, is a yellow spot: in other respects
the same as the male. Three lines. Meig. Ziv. pi. xxv.
fi 29; Musca hypoleon, Don. v. 6, pi. cxlvi. f. 3. Found
in summer on hedges and bushes near lakes and marshes.
Genus Stratiomys, Geoff. Antennae with the second
joint cup-shaped, third elongate, somewhat spindle-
shaped, five-ringed: scutellum armed with two spines.
S. Potamida. Thorax fuscous; scutellum with a black
band at the base, the spines entirely yellow: abdomen
black, the second segment with a yellow triangular spot
on both sides, and on the hinder margin of the third seg¬
ment there is a narrow band of yellow, which is broad and
interrupted in the males, but entire in the females; the
following segments have a narrow band in both sexes, and
the anal one is marked with a yellow triangle : the belly
is dirty yellow marked with four bands of black, the first
one interrupted. From six to seven lines. Mused Cha-
mceleon, Harr. Ex. 44, pi. xi. fig. 1. Of occasional occur¬
rence in Britain, and on the continent of Europe. S. Cha-
mceleon is more frequently met with in this country, parti¬
cularly in the more northern parts.
The manners of these insects have been studied by
Geoffroy and Reaumur. The larvae have a long flattened
body, covered by a coriaceous or rather solid skin, divided
into segments, of which the last three, more slender and
elongated than the others, form a tail terminated by a ra¬
diated expansion of barbed or plumy hairs. The head is
scaly, small, oblong, and provided with a great many a{>
pendages and hooks, with which they agitate the water in
which they dwell. They respire by an opening in the
caudal segment, while suspended from the surface. Their
skin becomes the cocoon of the nymph. The latter
scarcely change their form, but they assume a rigid con¬
sistence, and become incapable of motion. They float
upon the water, and their tails frequently form a right
angle with the body. The perfect insect issues from a
cleft which opens in the second ring. The species are
few in number. About half a dozen are found in Britain.
Genus Ceuia, Fab. Antennae seated on a common ipte*
footstalk; the basal joint cylindrical, second and third %
equal, clavate, compressed, and furnished with an apical
style: abdomen cylindrical: wings divaricating?
FAMILY XIV—SYRPHICI.
Antennae three-jointed; third joint compressed, not
ringed, with an apical style, or a dorsal seta at the base:
ocelli three: proboscis concealed: abdomen with five
segments: onychii two.
a. Antennae with a terminal style.
Genus Callicera, Meig. Antennae inserted on a
common tubercle, the first joint cylindrical, second of
equal length, compressed and dilated at the apex, the
third terminating in an acuminated style: abdomen coni¬
cal : wings incumbent, parallel.
C. (enea. Hypostoma yellow and pubescent, having
a black line down the middle: thorax pubescent, of a
yellow colour, blackish on the back, and marked with
three obscure lines: scutellum blackish, the pubescence
yellowish white : abdomen shining brassy green, with yel¬
low pubescence, of a conical form in the male, more round¬
ed in the female, and in the former marked with a black
nearly triangular spot at the base : legs yellow, the thighs
almost entirely black. Males five and a half, females
nearly seven lines. Bibiocenea, Fab.; Musca cenea, Gmelin.
This insect has occurred at Berlin and in the south of
France.
C. conopsoides. Shining black and pubescent: peduncle
of the antennae elongate, and ferruginous ; thorax with the
shoulders and a small spot near the base of the wings yel¬
low : abdomen with a yellow band on the hinder margin
of the second, third, and fourth segments : legs rufous, the
thighs brown. Five to six lines Ceria clavicornis, Fab.;
Musca conopsoides, Linn.; Curtis, B. E. 186 $. Very
rare in Britain, but not unfrequent on the continent. There
is an English specimen in the British Museum, presented
by Dr Leach.
b. Antennae with a dorsal seta.
Genus Microdon, Illig. Antennae porrect, the first
joint elongate, cylindrical, the third with a naked dorsal
seta at the base: scutellum armed with two teeth: wings
incumbent, parallel.
M. apiformis. The head and thorax are dark brassy,
and shining; the hypostoma is covered with bright yel¬
low pubescence, but on the forehead, thorax, and scu¬
tellum it is of a fulvous colour: abdomen black, clothed
with shining golden-yellow pile, which forms a narrow
band at the hinder margin of the first segment, and a
broader one on the second, somewhat interrupted in the
middle, and covers nearly the whole of the third and
fourth segments: wing-scales and halteres white; wings
brownish: thighs black, with ferruginous pile, the tibiae
and tarsi entirely ferruginous. Four to five lines. Mum
apiformis, Degeer, pi. vii. fig. 18-20; Musca mutabilis,
Linn.; Curtis, B. E. 70.
Meigen describes four European species, but the above
is the only one known as British. It has been found in
the New Forest, and near Lyndhurst, in Hants, but ap¬
pears to be scarce in the country, although common in
France and many other parts of Europe.
Genus Chrysotoxum, Meig. Antennae inserted on a
frontal tubercle, porrect; first joint cylindric, the rest
somewhat compressed, equal, the terminal one with a na¬
ked dorsal seta at the base : scutellum unarmed : abdomen
margined: wings divaricating.
C. arcuatum. Hy'postoma shining yellow, with a black
line down the middle; the forehead of the females black,
with two yellow spots ; antennae black: thorax black, with
an interrupted yellow line on each side, and two abbrevi¬
ated cinereous lines on the back: abdomen without hairs,
black, and having four arched interrupted bands of golden
yellow; belly with four golden-yellow spots; the wings
are yellow at the anterior margin, and behind the middle,
near the anterior edge, there is a small brown spot. Five
and a half' lines. Syrphus arcuatus, Fab.; Musca arcuata,
Linn. This insect occurs not unfrequently throughout the
south of Scotland and England during the autumn, fre¬
quenting various flowers. We have often taken C. bicinc-
turn in company with it, on the flowers of Senecio JacobM-,
in Roxburghshire. The species have a waspish look, from
their prevailing hues of black and yellow. They feed on
the juices of flowers. Their flight is rapid.
Genus Psarus, Fab. Antennae inserted on a common
peduncle, porrect, the radical joint cylindrical, second
elongate and compressed, third oblong and compressed,
with a naked seta placed on the middle of the back: wings
incumbent, parallel. .
P. abdominalis. Hypostoma black, with a grey play0*
colour on the sides ; forehead black, with two white spots,
thorax black and naked: scutellum semicircular and un¬
armed : abdomen naked, nearly linear, reddish brown,
the base and apex black, sometimes having a black lme
along the back: wing-scales and halteres white: ting'18
ENTOMOLOGY.
ra black; tibiae and tarsi inclining to brown. Four lines.
ci- Syrphus abdominalis, Fab.; Psarus abdominalis, Lat. Ap-
, pears to be a rare and little-known species. Specimens
^ found in this country are preserved in the British Museum.
Genus Paragus, Lat. Antennae with the two basal
joints equal, the third elongate, compressed, with a naked
dorsal seta before the middle : hypostoma somewhat con¬
vex, smooth: abdomen linear, transversely rugose; the
hinder metatarsus somewhat thickened: wings parallel,
incumbent.
P. obscurus. Female. Antennae proportionally short¬
er than in most of the other species, and entirely dark
brown: eyes pubescent: thorax with a slight grey play
of colour, the sides covered with pubescence of a silvery
hue: abdomen shining black: legs yellow; the thighs
black, with the apex yellow: halteres white. Two and
a half lines. Inhabits France and England.
Genus Ascia, Meg. Antennae with the third joint ob¬
long, compressed, having a naked dorsal seta before the
middle: hypostoma impressed, smooth, produced be¬
neath: abdomen contracted at the base: hinder thighs
thickened, and spinose beneath: wings incumbent, pa¬
rallel.
A. floralis. Abdomen black, and marked with two yel¬
low fasciae, which are entire in the male, and interrupted
in the female : anterior legs yellow, the tibiae with a black
ring before the apex; the hinder legs black, with a me¬
tallic lustre, the thighs yellow at the base, the tibiae yel¬
low, with a black band in the middle, and the tarsi black :
wings hyaline. Two and a half lines.
Found occasionally in gardens and fields in the south¬
ern counties of Scotland, and in England.
Genus Sphegina, Meig. Antennae with the terminal
joint orbiculate, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta at
the base: hypostoma impressed, smooth: abdomen con¬
tracted at the base: hinder thighs clavate, spinose be¬
neath: wings parallel, incumbent. Meig. iii. 193.
S. nigra. Hypostoma whitish ; antennae rufous-brown :
thorax and abdomen shining black, the former with a
greenish tint: halteres yellowish white : the four anterior
legs pale yellow ; thighs of the binder pair black, yellow
at the base; the tibiae with two brown bands; tarsi black,
ihree to three and a half lines. Two species only belong
to this genus, both of which are to be found in Britain.
Mr Duncan took a few examples of the above in the
neighbourhood of Edinburgh in the summer of 1830. The
other species, S. clunipes (Meig. pi. xxviii. f. 5) is of more
hequent occurrence.
Genus Baccha, Fab. Antennae with the third joint
sub-orbicular, compressed, having a naked dorsal seta at
t )e base: hypostoma tuberculated : abdomen elongate,
attenuated before, and clavate behind : legs simple : wings
parallel and incumbent.
k B. nigripennis. Antennae brown: thorax dark brassy,
tie abdomen inclining to golden green, and flat behind;
at the base of the third segment there is a scarcely per¬
ceptible yellow spot on each side, and a yellow band on
efourth: anterior legs yellow; the hinder ones brown-
!p ’ W1|h the base of the thighs yellow : wings blackish,
three lines. Found in Austria by M. Megerle. It like¬
wise occurs in Britain, along with six other species—nearly
ie whole that the genus contains.
,. EI?US Eumerus, Meig. Antennae with the third joint
lc,t|ar> compressed, and having a naked dorsal seta be-
h^H ^ hypostoma sub-convex, villose, smooth :
in er thighs thickened, and spinose beneath: wings in¬
cumbent, parallel.
cprf y™ndis. Hypostoma covered with whitish pubes-
bhrlf ’ . 1re^ea.(^ M the males similar, that of the female
1 > with white pubescence under the eyes: antennae
vol. ix. J
273
oi t^Staceous’ ?nd adorned with three pair of cres- dem.
cent-shaped spots: legs dark metallic green, the tibiae
and tarsi with ferruginous pubescence : halteres brown •
iii. pi xxvhiWfhl18; TSS gre^' FjVe lines* MeiS- ZiV‘
thisPcountry- F r A™ Species ot Eumeri are found in
is country A. rnficorms, grnatus, strigatus, funeralis
Mnt £' °ne deSCribed ab°Ve °CCUrS on t “co„£
,.1?TDS,XYL0TA’ ^eig- inserted on a fron¬
tal tubercle, nutant, the third joint sub-orbicular, compress¬
ed, with a naked dorsal seta at the base : hypostoTa “ .
pressed, blunt below, smooth, or somewhat tuberculated:
hinder thighs thickened, and spinose beneath : wines in¬
cumbent, parallel. s
X. sylvarum. Hypostoma yellowish white, and finely
pubescent, the forehead similar in the male, but in the fe¬
male shining black, with two white spots anteriorly: an¬
tennas bi own: thorax dark metallic green, with a grey
spot on each shoulder; the pubescence on the sides gold¬
en yellow : scutellum dark green: abdomen black, the
tvvo first segments thinly clothed with golden pubescence;
similar pubescence covers the base and sides of the third,’
leaving a ti iangular black spot behind, and the fourth seg-
ment is entirely covered with it; fifth segment minute and
shining black : wing-scales and halteres yellowish white:
wings brownish, with a ferruginous stigma: legs ferrugi¬
nous, the thighs and two last tarsal joints black; hinder
thighs club-shaped, and armed with small prickles; tibiae
crooked, and having a brown play of colour behind. Six
lines. Musca sylvarum, Linn.; Syrphus sylvarum, Fab.;
Milesia sylvarum, Lat. Found occasionally in various parts
of the continent. We have taken single specimens near
Edinburgh, and in the neighbourhood of Jedburgh. X.
segnis, and pipiens, are comparatively common in England
and the south of Scotland. The former is often plentiful
at Roslyn. The larva of this genus, described by Degeer,
was found in the dung of horses.
Genus Milesia, Fab. Antennae inserted on a fron¬
tal tubercle, the third joint lenticular, with a naked dor¬
sal seta at the base ; hypostoma impressed, smooth, or
slightly tuberculated; legs simple, the hinder tibiae com¬
pressed; wings incumbent, parallel, the intermediate trans¬
verse nerve oblique.
M. speciosa. Hypostoma and forehead ferruginous,
with a yellowish-white play of colour on the sides; the
crown black : antennae ferruginous: thorax dark brassy
green, finely pubescent, blackish on the sides, and yellow
on the shoulders : abdomen dark brassy, cylindrical, and
finely pubescent; having a line along the back, and the
hinder margin of the segments covered with shining
golden-yellow pubescence, and before this yellow edging
there is a transverse band of black: wing-scales white:
halteres bright yellow : wings brownish yellow along the
anterior margin, but before the apex this colour passes
into brown : thighs dark brown, with a ferruginous spot
at the apex; tibiae and tarsi ferruginous. Seven lines.
Found, according to Meigen, near Paris, and likewise in
Austria and Italy. “ It is now several years,” says Mr
Curtis, who has given a beautiful representation of this
insect in his Brit. Entom. fol. 34, “ since this fine and
rare insect was discovered in the New Forest by Mr D.
Bydder, and the beginning of June of the present year
(1824) I took four near Brockenhurst: they appear to de¬
light in settling in the thickest parts of the Forest, where
a partial shadow is thrown by the surrounding foliage
upon the trunks of trees, or the flat surface remaining
when they have been felled.”
Genus Pipiza, Meig. Antennae nutant, the third
2 M
274
Diptera
Probosci-
dese.
E N T O M
joint ovate and compressed, having a naked dorsal seta
at the base: hypostoma smooth: hinder thighs some¬
what thickened : abdomen oblong-elliptical: wings paral¬
lel, incumbent.
P. Artemis. Black, with whitish hair: the second seg¬
ment of the abdomen with a lunate fascia of a red colour:
thighs black, tibiae ferruginous anteriorly, brown behind ;
tarsi ferruginous: halteres bright yellow: wing-scales
white ; outer half of the wings brown, the colour be¬
coming paler at the apex: belly black, yellow anteriorly.
Three lines. Inhabits Austria and England. There are
fifteen British species of this genus, and twenty-nine are
indigenous to Europe. .
Genus Psilota, Meig. Antennae nutant, the terminal
joint oblong-ovate, with a naked dorsal seta at the base .
hypostoma impressed, truncated beneath : eyes hirsute :
wings incumbent, parallel.
P. anthracina. Hypostoma and forehead bluish black ,
the body of a similar colour, and covered with very short
pubescence; abdomen oval: legs black, the thighs all
straight; the tarsi with fine ferruginous pubescence ; the
hinder legs somewhat elongate, and the tibiae a little bent:
wing-scales and halteres white ; wings hyaline, somewhat
yellowish at the base, and the stigma bright yellow. Three
lines. Meig. Zw. iii. pi. xxix. f. 20. Found in Germany
and Britain.
Genus Rhingia, Fab. Antennae porrect, nutant, the
third joint lenticular, the base with a naked dorsal seta.
hypostoma somewhat impressed, elongate beneath, coni¬
cal : wings incumbent, parallel. Meig. iii. 257 ; Eat. Gen.
Crust, iv. 320.
R. rostrata. Hypostoma and rostrum ferruginous, shin¬
ing, the latter brown at the tip; antennae ferruginous;
forehead of the females grey, with a dark streak : thorax
grey, with three black-brown lines; scutellum shining,
brownish yellow : abdomen ferruginous, the basal segment
sometimes blackish, and a longitudinal brown line on the
second: legs ferruginous, the hinder tarsi brownish:
wing-scale and halteres light yellow : wings somewhat
greyish,yellowish at the anterior margin. Four lines. Meig.
iii. 258. Comps rostrata, Linn., &e. Common throughout
the country. R. campestris (Curtis, B. E. pi. clxxxii.),
which differs from the above chiefly in having the incisures
of the abdomen, and a longitudinal dorsal line, of a black
colour, is likewise of frequent occurrence, and is probably
not specifically distinct. The name of a third species, R.
monostigma, has been recently published, but we are un¬
acquainted with its characters and history. We have but
a slight knowledge of the metamorphoses of these insects.
Indeed all that is yet known is inferred from the fact of
Reaumur having found Rhingia rostrata in the perfect
state in a sand-box (poudrier) in which he had previously
enclosed some cow-dung containing unknown larvae. The
perfect insects occur in gardens and meadows. The spe¬
cies are by no means numerous.
Genus Buachyopa, Hoff. Antennae inserted on a
frontal tubercle, nutant, the terminal joint lenticular, and
having a hirsute dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma im¬
pressed and elongate beneath, truncated: wings incum¬
bent, parallel, one half longer than the abdomen.
B. bicolor. Hypostoma, antennae, and forehead (of the
males) ferruginous, with a white play of colour; forehead
of the females grey, with a yellow spot anteriorly : thorax
dark grey or lead colour, with three brown lines, of which
the central one is double: scutellum rust-brown : abdomen
ferruginous, with a black dorsal line on the second segment,
which however is sometimes wanting: legs ferruginous,
with dark-brown tarsi: wing-scales white : halteres bright
yellow: wings unspotted, slightly obscured with brown.
Three lines. Rhingia bieolor, Fallen. The insects of this
O L O G Y.
genus are found on flowers, but seem to be in general rare. 1
The above, and another species named B. conica, are said H
to have occurred in England. ^
Genus Chrysogaster, Meig. Antennae nutant, the v
third joint compressed, orbiculate, or oblong, having a
naked dorsal seta at the base : forehead of the female
crenated on both sides: abdomen depressed: wings pa¬
rallel, incumbent.
C. eenea. Shining brassy, except the apex of the abdo¬
men, which is dull black ; "the belly dark green: antennae
testaceous: wings hyaline, partly of a yellowish-brown
colour, w ith a ferruginous stigma. Three lines. Inhabits
Austria and Britain, but seems everywhere rare.
Genus Syrphus, Fab. (Plate CCXXX’V III. figs. 17
and 17 a.) Antennae porrect, nutant, three-jointed; the
third joint orbicular or oval, compressed, with a pubes¬
cent dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma tuberculated:
feet simple, slender: wings incumbent, parallel, the ordi¬
nary transverse nerve nearly perpendicular.
S. Lucoram. Hypostoma white, with a shining black
line down the middle; forehead whitish, having a black
spot over the antennae, and a brown line in the females:
antennae black, with a very finely pubescent seta: thorax
black, with reddish-yellow pile; scutellum rufous: abdo¬
men having the first segment whitish, with pubescence of
the same colour, the male with a wide dark-coloured vit-
ta; third segment deep black ; fourth black, with whitish
pubescence and somewhat gloss}", especially on the sides:
legs dark brown, the base of the tibiae whitish: halteres
and wing-scales brown; wings hyaline, having a dark-
brown vitta in the middie of the anterior margin extend¬
ing half way across. Five lines. Meig. iii. 313, pi. xxx.
f. 27. Musca lucomm, Linn. Not unffequent on um¬
belliferous plants in woods throughout the country. The
genus Sgrphus, as characterized by Meigen, comprehends
nearly 100 species, of which upwards of one half, besides
a considerable number ot others recently discovered, are
to be found in Britain. The dissimilarity in form and
structure which prevails among many of these insects,
has led to their distribution, by later writers, into three
generic groups, distinguished by the names Cheilosia, >
Scceva, Syrphus; and they appear to be susceptible of
still further subdivision. As the English species are com¬
paratively well known, it may be interesting to mention
such as we have ascertained to inhabit Scotland: S. os-
traceus (frequent), cariabilis, lunulatus, Pyrastri, selenite-
cus, Ribesii (common), balteatus (common), cinctus, deca¬
nts, umbellataruntj tteuiattis, mtUitargils, Rosarum, Ocynn,
granditarsus (three last near Edinburgh, not common).
The larvae of the Syrphi prey upon Aphides. Their form
is that of an elongated cone. Their segments are very
retractile.
Genus Pelecocera, Hoff. Antennm porrect, the third
joint somewhat patelliform, the apex furnished with a
thick, short, three-jointed seta: hypostoma arched be-
neath. _ ,, ,
P. tricincta. Hypostoma white, with a shining blacx
vitta: thorax black, shining, the shoulders white, and tie
sides before the base of the wings marked w-ith a " n|e
streak: scutellum shining black; abdomen likewise blac
with a broad ferruginous band at the base ot the secon ,
third, and fourth segments: legs reddish yellow, the
der pair with a brown ring on the thighs and tibia;:
scales and halteres white: wings somewhat brownis i
with a ferruginous stigma. Three lines. Found in som
parts of the continent, but everywhere rare.
Genus Sericomyia, Eat. Antennae porrect, nutantl
the third joint pafelliforai; the base with a plumose °
sal seta: hypostoma descending, tuberculated: wings p
rallel, incumbent, hirsute.
i-
if
ENTOMOLOGY.
1 era
S. borealis. Hypostoma ochreous, with a black line;
pi )scU antennae dark brown ; forehead of the males yellow, of the
e. females black brown : thorax black, with a tuft of whitish
^pubescence on.each shoulder, and golden-yellow pubes¬
cence on each side before the base of the wing: scutel-
lum blackish brown: abdomen black, with four ochreous
bands, the first, and sometimes the second also, somewhat
interrupted ; belly dull ochreous, brown at the base : legs
rufous, base of the thighs black : wing-scales yellow : hal-
teres brown : wings hyaline, with the anterior margin yel¬
lowish, and sometimes with a pale-brown tinge before the
apex. Seven lines. Syrphus borealis, Fallen; Musca lap-
pona, Degeer. Abundant in some parts of the south of
Scotland during the autumnal months, andfrequently seen
on the flowers of Senecio Jaeobcm, in company with nume¬
rous species of the genus Eristalis. Its appropriate loca¬
lity seems to be elevated pasture lands, and the sides and
summits of hills. In the latter situation we have occasion¬
ally heard it, in fine weather, emit a peculiarly shrill and
stridulent note, which is sufficiently loud to be heard at a
considerable distance. A nearly allied species, S. lappona,
Linn., occurs among the Pentland Hills, near Edinburgh.
Genus Tropidia, Meig. Antennae nutant, third joint
patelliform, with a naked dorsal seta : hypostoma carinat-
ed, smooth: hinder thighs thickened, with a single tooth
at the apex beneath : wings parallel, incumbent, hirsute.
T. fasciata. Hypostoma greyish white, with a black
longitudinal line, and covered with fine silky hairs; an¬
tennae rufous: thorax with yellow pubescence, of a dark
green, somewhat metallic, with two whitish abbreviated
lines on the back, and a spot on each shoulder: abdomen
with ferruginous pubescence, of a dark brown, and having
a rufous interrupted band on the second, third, and fourth
segments: thighs of the anterior legs blackish, the apex
rufescent, the tibiae and tarsi rufous, with a brown apex :
hinder thighs blackish, the tibiae crooked, reddish at the
base, the other parts, as well as the tarsi, brown : hal-
teres and wing-scales white: wings hyaline. Four lines.
Found in some parts of the continent on Achillcea ptar-
mica, in the neighbourhood of Paris, and in Austria. The
only other species described by Meigen, T. milesiformis,
has been found in Britain, along with another, named T.
rufomaculata (Curtis), which does not appear to be known
to continental naturalists.
Genus Merodon, Fab. Antennae nutant, the terminal
joint oblong or elliptical, compressed, with a naked dorsal
seta at the base; hypostoma smooth and villose: hinder
thighs thickened, with a single tooth at the apex beneath :
wings incumbent, parallel, hirsute.
M. equestris. Male. Flypostoma and forehead with
greyish white pubescence ; antennae black : thorax ante¬
riorly dark brassy, with ferruginous pile, shining black be¬
hind, with pile of the same colour: scutellum and abdo¬
men coloured and clothed like the anterior part of the
thorax: legs black, the anterior tibia? and tarsi with fer¬
ruginous silky hairs; the hinder tibiae with a tubercle on
the inner side behind the middle, and a hooked spine at
the end : halteres brown : wings nearly hyaline. Six lines.
Syrphus equestris, Fab. Reaumur, Ins. iv. tab. xxxiv. fig.
10. This species has occurred in Italy and near Paris.
M.clavipes is the only British species known. It is figured
and described in Curtis’ B. E. fol. xcviii.
Genus Helophilus, Meig. Antennae porrect, nutant,
ie terminal joint patelliform, the base with a naked dor-
*a seta: hypostoma descending, gibbous beneath: eyes
naked: hinder thighs thickened, unarmed: wings divari¬
cating, hirsute.
. Pendulus. Hypostoma yellowish white, with a shin¬
ing black vitta m both sexes; forehead whitish yellow,
t le crown dark brown, and a small black spot over the
antennae ; the latter dark brown, with a yellow seta: tho¬
rax straw colour, with three black vittae: scutellum shin¬
ing brownish yellow: abdomen deep black, with three
unequal interrupted yellow bands: the belly pale anteri¬
orly, the three last segments black, with white incisures:
wung-scales and halteres yellow; anterior legs rufous,
nearly the whole of the thighs and the tarsi brown; hin¬
der legs dark brown, the apex of the thigh and base of
the tibiae more or less yellow. Five lines. Syrphus pen-
dulus, Fab.; Musca pendula, Linn.; Elophilus pendulus,
Lat Everywhere common. The species of this genus do
not greatly differ from those of Eristalis. They are ge¬
nerally less hairy. Several exhibit the aspect of garden
bees, as wrell as ot other Hymenoptera. The larvae, known
under the name of rat-tailed worms (vers a queue de rats,
Reaumur),1 are remarkable for the great length and sin¬
gular uses of their caudal extremity. It serves as a re¬
spiratory organ. I he insect lies at the bottom of stag¬
nant waters, generally concealed in the mud; but the
point of its attenuated tail is meanwhile in contact with
the surface. Reaumur found, by increasing the depth of
water, that the larva could extend its respiratory tube to
the height of five inches. After that, however, it was
seen to leave the mud, and ascend the side of the vessel
in which it was contained, that it might attain to the sur¬
face with greater ease. The tail seems composed of two
parts, one of which slips into the other like the portions
of a telescope. They are composed of annular fibres, and
when these are contracted, each tube is greatly increased
in length.
Genus Mallota, Meig. Antennae nutant, third joint
nearly four-angled, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta
in the middle: hypostoma descending, gibbous: wings
divaricating, hirsute.
M. megilliformis. Male. Hypostoma black, thickly
covered with silken hairs of a pearl-grey colour, and hav¬
ing a naked shining black vitta ; forehead black, pearly on
the sides beneath ; the hinder part of the head with fer¬
ruginous pile; antenna? black, the third joint with a white
seta: thorax and abdomen dark green, thickly clothed
with ferruginous hair; belly and legs black; wing-scales
ferruginous; halteres also ferruginous, with the knob
brown : wings nearly hyaline, with brown nervures. Six
lines. Rare: The females have not been described. The
genus contains only three species, none of which appear
to be British.
Genus Eristalis, Fab. Antennae porrect, nutant,
three-jointed; the third joint patelliform, with a plumose
or naked seta at the base: hypostoma elongate, tubercu-
lated: legs simple : wings spreading, naked (in the greater
number of species).
E. intricarius. Male. Flypostoma and forehead black,
with yellowish-white hair ; antennae black at the base, the
third joint rufous, with a plumose seta of the same colour
at the base: thorax black, thickly clothed with reddish-
yellow hair ; scutellum yellow: abdomen black, with fer¬
ruginous lateral spots, and clothed anteriorly with ferrugi¬
nous hair, which on the hinder parts passes into a whit¬
ish-yellow colour: wing-scales blackish : wings hyaline,
the central cross nerve more or less distinctly margin¬
ed with brown: legs black, the apex of the thighs and
basal half of the tibiae white. Six lines. Meig. ni.
391. Syrphus intricarius, Fab.; Musca intricaria. Linn.
Of frequent occurrence during summer on flowers and
275
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
1 Memoires, t. iv. p. 442.
276
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera plants. Several species of this extensive genus are very
Probosci- common in this country, particularly E. tenax, similis, hor-
d030, ticola, &c. About a score inhabit Britain. The larva of
E. narcissi (which inhabits the bulb of the plant from
which it derives its name) is figured and described by
Reaumur.1
Genus Volucella, Geoff. Antennae decumbent, the
third joint elongate, compressed, with a long plumose dor¬
sal seta at the base: hypostoma impressed above, elon¬
gate beneath, conical, gibbous : wings divaricating. Meig.
iii. 401; Lat. Gen. Crust, iv. 322.
V. pellucens. Hypostoma, forehead, and antennae shin¬
ing ferruginous, the latter with a black plume: thorax
shining black, bristly: scutellum testaceous brown, some¬
times black,2 bristly: abdomen pubescent, shining black,
the second segment yellowish white, pellucid, having a cen¬
tral line of black in the males, but usually uninterrupted
in the females, except by a very faint black line ; belly like
the back, except the anterior part of the third segment,
which is likewise transparent: legs black: wing-scales
yellowish : halteres with a blackish stalk, the knob white :
wings yellowish at the base, with ochreous veins, the rest
greyish, with brown veins. Seven lines. Meig. iii. 405.
Musca pellucens, Linn. An insect of not unfrequent oc¬
currence in Britain during the summer months, frequent¬
ing flowers in sheltered situations exposed to the sun. In
the summer of 1829 it appeared in unusual abundance in
the fields adjoining Duddingston wood, near Edinburgh.
All the other species belonging to the genus (as now re¬
stricted) are to be found in Britain, with the exception of
V. zonaria (Meig. iii. pi. xxxii. f. 27). The most common
in Scotland next to the species described is V. plumata,
which is found occasionally throughout the southern coun¬
ties. V. bombylans appears to be considerably scarcer;
the only examples which we have met with were from
Dumfriesshire and East Lothian. The larvae of these in¬
sects inhabit the nests of wasps and bees, and live at the
expense of the proper owners. Reaumur has detailed
their history at great length, and in a very interesting
manner. “ Lepelletier de Saint Fargeau a eu occasion
d’observer que les volucelles de diverses especes s’accou-
plent tres-bien ensemble; il a lu un Memoire a ce sujet
a I’Academie des Sciences.”3
FAMILY XV.—PLATYPEZINTE.
Antennae porrect, two or three-jointed, with a naked
apical seta: proboscis concealed ; thorax without a trans¬
verse suture : abdomen with six segments : wings incum¬
bent : the small cross nerve of the middle bent towards
the base : halteres naked.
Genus Cyrtoma, Meig. Antennae approximating,
two-jointed, first joint small, cylindric; second elongate,
conic, compressed, the apex with a two-jointed style : pro¬
boscis subporrect: hinder legs elongate: wings incum¬
bent, parallel. Meig. iv. 1.
C. nipra. Black; halteres yellow; the legs brown;
the hinder tibiae club-shaped, the lowest joint of the tarsi
thickened; wings somewhat brownish. Two lines. Found
in Germany and elsewhere occasionally. This genus con¬
tains three species, none of which are known to inhabit
Britain.
Genus Platypeza, Meig.; name derived from TrXaruc,
broad, and the foot. Antennae straight, approximat¬
ing, three-jointed, the lower joints sub-cylindric, third
ovate, compressed, the apex with a three-jointed naked
seta: proboscis concealed : hinder feet thickest, tarsi di¬
lated, the joints nearly equal: wings incumbent, parallel.
P. boletina. Male. Velvet black ; abdomen with grey-
ish-black bands : legs brown : halteres black brown: wings
hyaline.
Female. Clear ash-grey, abdomen with a narrow deep
black cross band, somewhat widened in the middle, before
the incisures; the first segment without a band: halteres
and legs bright yellow: wings hyaline. One and a half
line. Fallen. Occurs in Germany and England, rare.
Genus Callomyia, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs.
18 and 18 a.) Generic name from xaAog, beautiful, and
[iviu, a fly. Antennae straight, three-jointed; the lower
joints sub-cylindric, third compressed, acute; the termi¬
nal seta elongate, three-jointed : proboscis concealed: hin¬
der legs elongate, thick, the metatarsus elongate: wings
incumbent, parallel.
C. amcena. Male. Body velvet black: halteres rufous:
fore legs honey-yellow, the thighs blackish brown: hinder
legs entirely black brown : wings hyaline.
Female. Hypostoma and forehead bright blue : thorax
bright blue on the sides, with a silvery lustre : this colour
extends forwards along the thorax in the form of a bow,
and before the scutellum there is likewise a silvery band:
scutellum black: abdomen with the three first segments
orange yellow, the fourth and sixth deep black, the fifth
silvery blue, with a black line on the middle; fore legs
rufous ; hinder legs black, with rufescent thighs: halteres
rufous: wings hyaline. Two lines. Meig. Ziv. iv. pi. i.
f. 13. This species has been recently taken in England.
: itera
r*
FAMILY XVL—MEGACEPHALI.
Antennae three-jointed; the third joint deflexed, with
an erect seta at the base : hypostoma linear, narrow: pro¬
boscis concealed: abdomen consisting of six segments:
wings incumbent; the short transverse nervure in the
middle: halteres naked.
Genus Pipunculus, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 19
and 19 a.) Antennae Inarticulate ; first joint minute, se¬
cond cup-shaped, third deflexed, acute, compressed, with
an erect naked seta at the base : hypostoma narrow, linear:
proboscis concealed: wings incumbent, parallel. Meig.
Zw. iv. 18, pi. xxxiii. f. 15-24.
P. spurius. Deep velvet black, the apex of the abdo¬
men somewhat shining : hypostoma silver white, changing,
with a play of colour, into black: forehead very narrow,
black, silver white above the antennae: the latter, toge¬
ther with the legs, black: wings brownish, with a dark-
coloured stigma. One line. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxiii. f.
24. Occurs in England, but is rare.
FAMILY XVII.—DOLICHOPODES.
Antennae porrect, three jointed: the third joint flat,
with an apical or dorsal seta: hypostoma linear: probos¬
cis somewhat exserted, with compressed incumbent palpi:
thorax without a transverse suture: abdomen consisting
of six segments : wings incumbent; the short transverse
nerve bent towards the base: halteres naked.
Genus Rhaphium, Meig. Antennae approximating, the
1 Mtmoire, t. iv. p. 499, and pi. xxxiv.
till i/nftin ofe!1UIn ls.USU3llj ferruginous when the insect issues from the chrysalis, but becomes darker as it advances to maturity,
till it ultimately ac<iuire the colour of the thorax. a Dictiotu class, d^HisU Nat t. xvi. p. 631.
Dip »
frot i*
de
ENTOMOLOGY.
third elongate, compressed, with a two-jointed style at
the apex : eyes separated : wings incumbent, parallel.
R. vitripenne. Hypostoma bluish white ; forehead shin¬
ing steel blue: antennae black, slender, those of the male
as long as the abdomen, those of the female much shorter;
the body dark metallic green, legs black, the anterior tibiae
brown; halteres white : wings hyaline. Three lines. Meig.
Zw. iv. pi. xxxiii. f. 4. Four species of this genus, nearly
half the number known, have been found in Britain. The
species described occurs on the continent.
Genus Diaphorus, Meig. Antennae with the third
joint patelliform, having a villose dorsal seta: eyes meet¬
ing on the forehead; abdomen of the male with two fili¬
form appendages on the under side of the apex : wings
• i t '7...  ■ V r. r. °
incumbent, parallel. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxiv. f. 6-9.
D. flavocinctus. Hypostoma white ; antennae black :
body black, with greenish reflections ; the second segment
of the abdomen, and sometimes the base of the third, fer¬
ruginous, transparent: anterior legs rufous, with black¬
ish thighs, rufescent at the apex on the under side : mid¬
dle pair of legs rufous, the basal half of the thighs black :
hinder legs black, the upper half of the tibiae rufous: hal¬
teres white : wings reddish brown. One and a half line.
Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxiv. f. 8. Inhabits England, but is
not common.
Genus Psilopus, Meg. Antennae with the third joint
patelliform, villose; furnished with an inclined villose dor¬
sal seta before the apex: eyes separated: wings incum¬
bent, parallel, the transverse nerve at the apex curved.
P. platypterus. Male. Head white: antennae pale
yellow; the third joint brown : palpi white : thorax cine¬
reous-green, with a faint metallic lustre : abdomen brassy,
the apical segment blackish: legs long, pale yellow : hal¬
teres yellow : wings very broad, hyaline.
Female. Hypostoma somewhat wider than in the male :
legs pale yellow, with brownish tarsi. Two and a half
lines; the females rather less. This and seven other spe¬
cies of Psilopi are found in Britain, but none of them ap¬
pear to be frequent.
Genus Chrysotus, Meig.; named from ^ufforog, gold
colour, bright golden green being the prevailing colour of
the species..—Antennae with the terminal joint patelliform,
villose, having an inclined villose seta at the apex : eyes
separated: abdomen of the male with two filiform appen¬
dages at the apex beneath : wings incumbent, somewhat
spreading. Meig. iv. 40, pi. xxxv. f. 7-11.
Q. neglectus. Hypostoma of the males minute, black-
IS1; °1 die female wider and of a whitish colour;
eyes of a beautiful golden green, with light-blue reflec¬
tions : forehead metallic green : body bright golden green ;
egs straw yellow, with dark-brown tarsi, which are yel-
owish at the base: halteres white: wings hyaline, with
a p ay of colour ; the terminal segment of the abdomen
sma lying in a cavity of the belly, with two short
treads at its extremity. Meig. Zw. pi. xxxv. f. 10. Found
in ritam, with seven other species, all that are known to
belong to the genus.
20Ge^u® PoRPHYROps,. Meig. (Plate CCXXXV1II. figs.
' / ^ Generic name compounded of vogpvgu,
e, and o-^, the eye. Antennae with the terminal joint
jCU^e’ seta villose and bent downwards : eyes
1 paiated; abdomen of the male with two filiform appen-
Vlff8 % • aPex beneath : wings incumbent, parallel.
$'Zw'lv- pl- xxxv. f. 1-6.
nt ’ Male. Hypostoma narrow and black ;
leatli1?36,!? aCk; P°rebead black above, shining white be-
lavino- i°laX rnetab*c black with green reflections, and
eriorl a. mar^ °P changeable white on the sides an-
iewpJ'' abao^nen ponical, bluish, with a silvery lustre,
]n another direction dark slate grey ; with two in-
andThW ?„dd hT"r d,aP,'I»'°“s bands on the second
rih; th L- ! gmenuS : egs dark brown, with ferruginous
tibue which are brown behind: halves white- winus
vitreous. Three lines. Musca diaphana, Fab. Gmel. S
K iTtjii femaie h?S the thorax bright golden green with
*5 ue ^d^tlons ; the abdomen more silvery than the
male ; and besides the two fasciae, there is a yellowish spot
on each side of the fourth segment: the anterior thighs
are yellow at the apex. Inhabits England, and is not
unfrequent in woods in the south of Scotland. Twentv-
mne species have been described, ten of which are ascer¬
tained to inhabit Britain. All of them are minute insects,
several being only a line in length, and none exceeding
the size of the species described above. They are remark¬
able for beauty of colouring, which generally consists of
changeable tints of metallic green, blue, and silver white.
Ihis circumstance, together with the activity of their mo¬
tions, by which their colours are continually presented
under, varying lights, renders them more observable ob¬
jects, in the shade and among the foliage of woods, where
they usually prevail, than might be inferred from the
smallness of their size.
Genus Medeterus, Fischer. Antenna? with the ter¬
minal joint short, sub-ovate, compressed, with a two-joint¬
ed dorsal seta: eyes separated : abdomen of the male
with two filets at the apex: legs elongate, slender : wings
incumbent, parallel. Meig. Zw. iv. pl. xxxv. f. 12-17.
M. regius. Male. Hypostoma and palpi white: an¬
tennae black: forehead cinereous, with a greenish lustre :
thorax dark green, with a greyish patch over the middle, in
which are two blackish approximating longitudinal lines :
sides of the thorax cinereous : abdomen sea-green, the
hinder margin of the segments with a blackish band, bor¬
dered anteriorly with grass green : legs dark green : hal¬
teres white : Avings hyaline, with a brown spot behind
the middle, and the anterior margin from the middle to
the apex more or less dusky, the apex itself with a white
spot encircled with brown.
Female. Hypostoma black, steel-blue beneath ; palpi
greyish black margined with white : wings hyaline, with
only the brown spot, the other markings wanting. Three
lines. Found in France, Holland, Austria, and England.
Genus Sybistroma, Meg. Antennae with the termi¬
nal joint oblong, compressed, having an elongate two-joint¬
ed seta on the back, the first joint longest; eyes separat¬
ed : abdomen of the male incurved at the apex, and fur¬
nished with two flat ciliated processes. Meig. Zw. iv. pl.
xxxiv. f. 18-20.
S. patellipes. Male. Hypostoma rather wide, white ;
forehead whitish with a metallic lustre : antennae with the
two basal joints black, the third ferruginous: body ob¬
scure brassy : legs yellow, the anterior tarsi of the male
orbicular, and of a black colour: halteres white ; wings
brown. Two and a half lines. Communicated to Meigen
by Dr Leach, who found the insect in England.
Genus Dolichopus, Lat. Antennae with the third
joint trigonate, compressed; the dorsal seta pubescent:
eyes separated : abdomen of the male with the apex in¬
curved, and furnished with two membranous ciliated la¬
mellae : wings incumbent, parallel.
D. ungulatus. Hypostoma silver white, rather wide
in the female, and having a protuberance on each side
beneath : palpi blackish : antennae black: forehead, thorax,
and abdomen brassy green : sides of the thorax slate-grey :
coxae greyish black, the anterior pair rufous beneath :
abdomen bluish grey with a play of colour, the incisures
and a line on the back black: legs rufous: apex of the
hinder tibiae, and all the tarsi, black : wings slightly cine¬
reous : halteres yellowish white : anal segment of the ab¬
domen in the males black, with bright yellow lamellae
277
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
278
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera which are edged with black. Three lines in length. Lat.
Probosci- Musca angulata, Linn.; Nemotelus fP.ne.us, Degeer, Ins. vi.
dese. ^ 15, pj. ^ £ 14_22. Found in England, the south of
Scotland, and various parts of the continent. The genus
contains upwards of fifty species, none of them much ex¬
ceeding three lines in length ; nearly the half inhabit®Bri-
tain. The larva of the one above mentioned is described
by Degeei'. He found it under ground in the month of
May. It is white, cylindrical, eight lines in length, with
a pointed or conical anterior. The head varies in form,
being often sunk into the first segment. On the fourth of
June it became a nymph, of a much shorter and thicker
shape than the larva. It was then very restless, rolling
about incessantly, with a constant movement of the ab¬
domen. The perfect insect appeared on the 27th of the
same month.
' Genus Orthochile, Lat. Antennee porrect, the third
or terminal joint compressed, sub-orbiculate, and having a
dorsal seta : proboscis exserted, perpendicular, with acute
incumbent palpi: wings incumbent, parallel.
O. nigroccerulea. Thorax shining blue black, the sides
of the breast slate-grey: abdomen dark metallic green ;
the anal segment in the males shining black : coxae slate-
grey ; the thighs black, with a ferruginous apex : tibiae
rufous, the hinder pair with the half next the apex black;
tarsi black: wings brown. One line. Meig. Zw. pi.
xxxvi. fig. 5. Found in France and Germany.
FAMILY XVIII.—OCYPTE1LE.
Antennae porrect, three-jointed : abdomen consisting of
six segments : wings without a transverse nervure, point¬
ed : proboscis concealed.
Genus Lonchoptera, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII.
figs. 21 and 21 «.) Antennae with the basal joint thick¬
ened at the apex, second cup-shaped, third sub-orbicular^
compressed, with an elongate three-jointed villose seta at
the apex : proboscis retracted : abdomen linear, elongate :
wings lanceolate, incumbent, without transverse nervures.
Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxvi. f. 6-13.
L. trislis. Forehead dusky black ; wings smoke colour :
under side of the head yellow: thorax shining black, the
sides yellow : abdomen black, the terminal segment of
the males with yellowish lamellae : legs yellow ; the hin¬
der tibiae somewhat clavate, stouter in the male than in
the other sex: halteres white. Has been taken by Dr
Leach in England, and occurs in the vicinity of London.
L. lutea, known by its yellow colour, and a narrow black
line along the whole length of the back, has recently been
observed in Dumfriesshire and some other southern coun¬
ties of Scotland.
FAMILY XIX.—SCENOPINII.
white beneath : legs yellowish red : wings hyaline. One ip
and a half line. Not common. Near Moffat.
Antennae deflexed, three-jointed; the third joint trun¬
cated and without bristles: proboscis concealed : abdo¬
men consisting of eight segments.
Genus Scenopinus, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 22
and 22 a.) Antennae sub-deflexed, three-jointed, the
lower joints small, third elongate, sub-cylindric, truncat¬
ed, without a seta : proboscis retracted and concealed :
abdomen linear, flat, eight-ringed : wings incumbent, pa¬
rallel.
S. vitripennis. Head glossy black: body black ; tho¬
rax with a faint metallic lustre: halteres brown : head
FAMILY XX.-CONOPSAItIAS.
"V*
Antennae porrect, three-jointed, angular at the base
proboscis porrect, geniculated: thorax without a trans
verse suture : abdomen consisting of five or six segments
halteres naked: wings incumbent. Meig. Zw. iv. xi.
Genus Conops, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 23 and
23 a.) Antennae approximating, the first joint cylindric.
second and third clavate, the apex with a two-jointec
style : proboscis standing out, filiform, geniculated at the
base: ocelli wanting: wings incumbent, parallel.
C.flavipes. Antennae black ; head rufous, with a red-;
dish-brown inflated vesicle on the crown, in front of
which there is a black line; from this a black vitta ex¬
tends to the antennae, where it becomes wider, but does
not reach the margin of the eyes: thorax deep black,
with a yellow spot on each shoulder, and another on each
side behind under the base of the wing: scutellum black,
margined with yellow: abdomen sub-cylindric, slightly
clavate behind, black; the second and third segments in
the male, and the fourth also in the female, with a bright
yellow band behind ; the basal segment with a yellow
spot on each side; the two terminal ones ash-grey: hal¬
teres rufous: legs yellow; thighs black, yellow at the
base ; apex of the tarsi brown: wings with the anterior
margin more or less brownish. Five lines. C.Jiavipes,
Linn.; C. macrocephala, Samou. Comp. pi. ix. fig. 8.
Upwards of twenty species have been described as be¬
longing to this genus, only six of which have been ascer¬
tained" to inhabit Britain. They are usually found on
flowers, and seldom occur in large numbers. Ihe indivi¬
dual described is found not unfrequently in the south of
England, and occurs sparingly during the autumn in Rox¬
burghshire, and the neighbourhood of Edinburgh, gene¬
rally on the flowers of Senecio Jacobwa.
Con. melanocephala of one of Meigen’s earlier works
was merely a specimen of the above in which the head
had become black.
It appears that the females of these insects deposit
their eggs in the larvae of humble-bees (Bombus), or even
in the bodies of the perfect insects. Latreille, indeed,
has frequently observed them issue from the abdomen of
the latter. MM. Lachat and Audouin presented a me¬
moir to the Societe Philomatiqne, on an apodal larva which
they found in the month of July, in the interior of Bom-
bus lapidarius, and which they deemed the larva of Co-
nops flavipes.1 Bose seems to have also noticed this pa¬
rasite, but he mistook it for an intestinal worm properl)
so called.2
Genus Zodion, Lat. Antennae with the basal joint
cylindric, second clavate, compressed at the base, thiru
ovate, the back with a style : ocelli three : proboscis
standing out, filiform, elongate, geniculated at the base,
wings parallel, incumbent.
Z. cinereum. Hypostoma pale reddish yellow, the mar¬
gin of the eyes white, the latter colour extending ha
way up the forehead : forehead reddish yellow anterioil})
passing into dark brown above: antennae black, the thin
joint rufescent, with a blackish apex ; sometimes t e
second joint is likewise rufescent anteriorly: thorax cine¬
reous, with four blackish longitudinal lines on thebac'i
of which the two central ones are abbreviated, the sides
and hinder part spotted with black: abdomen cinereous,
1 See Mini, de la Soc. d'Bist. Nat. t. i. p. 330, pi. xxii.
2 Diction. Clast. d'Hist. Nat. t. iv. p. 404.
entomology.
the incisures from the second to the fourth marked with
a cross row of elevated black points; the back sometimes
d i with four blackish evanescent spots: anal segment of the
vi'"' males shining black: legs cinereous, the tarsi blackish:
wings somewhat brownish, slightly ferruginous at the base.
Three lines. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxvii. figs. 6, 7 ; Myopa
cinerea, Fab.; Zodion conopsoides, Lat. Usually found on
umbelliferous flowers. It is an inhabitant of England,
France, and various parts of the continent of Europe.
Genus Myopa, Fab. Antennae with the basal joint cy-
lindric, second clavate, compressed at the base, third glo¬
bose, with a dorsal style: ocelli three: proboscis standing
out, filiform, elongate, geniculated at the base and mid¬
dle: wings incumbent, parallel. Meig. Ziv. iv. 140.
M. buccata. Hypostoma white, without spots ; fore¬
head dark brown, with grey spots ; antennae testaceous,
third joint reddish yellow : thorax spotted with black and
cinereous: shoulders testaceous : scutellum dark brown :
abdomen testaceous or reddish brown, spotted with grey
on the sides: legs testaceous ; thighs blackish before the
apex: tibiae with a dark-brown ring at the middle, and
another at the apex; tarsi rufous : wing-scales white : hal-
teres pale yellow; wings clouded with pale brown, the
small cross nervure not darker coloured. Meig. iv. 142.
Conoys buccata, Linn. Occurs at times on umbelliferous
flowers, in gardens and fields, throughout England and
the south of Scotland. Botanic Garden, Edinburgh. 31.
. pida, which does not differ much from the above, is like¬
wise found in similar situations near Edinburgh.
FAMILY XXI—STOMOXIDA2.
Antennae deflexed, three-jointed, obtuse beneath : third
joint with a dorsal seta : proboscis porrect, geniculated :
abdomen consisting of four segments: halteres covered
with a double wdng-scale. Meig. Zw. iv. xi.
Genus Siphon a, Meig. Antennae with the lower
joints small; third elongate, linear, obtuse; the base with
| a naked dorsal seta: proboscis exserted, horizontal, fili-
form, geniculated at the base and middle: wings divari¬
cating. Meig. Zw. iv. 154.
S. tachinaria. 1 borax and scutellum pale cinereous;
the abdomen nearly conical, pale ferruginous; the first and
second segments pellucid at the sides, the incisures whit¬
ish, with small wart-like spots: thorax, scutellum, and
abdomen of the females likewise pale ferruginous ; the
alter elliptical, and the sides not so clearly pellucid ; legs
ferruginous, with brown tarsi. Two lines. Meig. Zw.
p • xxxvii. fig. 25 ; Stomoxys cristata. Fab. Inhabits Eu-
iope. Has been found in England, but is very scarce.
, ^enus Stomoxys, Fab. (Plate CCXXXVI1I. figs. 27
and 21 a) ; from croyu, the mouth, and cgug, sharp. An-
ennae incumbent, with the lower joints small; third elon-
t,a e, compressed, linear, obtuse, with a dorsal seta at the
use, proboscis standing out, horizontal, geniculated at
ne base; wings divaricating.
S. calcitrans. Hypostoma yellowish white : proboscis
1 > porrect, shining black beneath, with filiform, short,
fern g.nous palpi: forehead wide with a black line, some¬
what narrower in the males than in the females: antennae
brown, with a seta which is plumose on one side: tho,ax
cinereous, with short hairs and a black line along the
back, abdomen rounded, covered with short hairs, cine¬
reous, with shining black spots: legs black brown: wing-
scales white : wings uncoloured. Three lines. Conops cal-
c Lmn ; Degeer; Ins. Vu 39, 11; Musca pungens,
pi. iv. fig. 12-18. Not unfrequent throughout Britain,
inis is the common well-known stinging-fly, which, in hot
and sultry summer days, persecutes men and beasts with
its painful bite. It attacks the legs in preference to any
other part of the body. Even horses and cattle are not
protected by their thicker hides. It is said to be most
annoying before a storm. The C. calcitrans is so like a
common house-fly, as to have induced the erroneous be-
hef that the latter is also a blood-sucker. The females
lay their eggs in dunghills. According to the observa¬
tions of MM. Lepelletier and Serville (Encydop. Meth.),
many individuals survive the winter in a state of torpi-
dlty,—twenty having been sometimes found together in a
mass, within the hollow of a tree.
FAMILY XXII—(ESTFACIDES.
Antennae small, three-jointed ; the third joint with a
naked seta: mouth closed up, without a distinct probos¬
cis : abdomen pubescent, consisting of four or five seg¬
ments. Meig. Zw. iv. xi.
Genus CEstrus, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 24
and 24 a.) Antennae with the lower joints minute, the
third globose, with a naked seta : mouth closed :l halte¬
res covered : wings spreading, the apex with a transverse
nervure.
CE. ovis. Hypostoma flesh red : forehead dusky red,
with a reddish line, and blackish depressions: antennae
black: thorax cinereous, sprinkled with small blackish
warts, each of which supports a fine hair; on the neck
these warts form lines: scutellum pale brown, with black¬
ish warts placed without order: abdomen arched, round¬
ed, obtuse, silky white, with a yellowish play of colour in
some places, and prettily sprinkled with irregular spots of
a deep shining black: legs pale red: wing-scales large and
white : wings clear hyaline, with a blackish transverse
nervure at the middle. Five lines. Meig. Zw. pi. xxxviii.
fig. 16 ; Linn. Fab.; Reaumur, Ins\ iv. Mem. xii. tab. xxxv.
fig. 10-15; Clark, Linn. Trans, iii. tab. xxiii. fig. 14-17.
Of the nine European species of CFstrus, as now restrict¬
ed, only three inhabit Britain, viz. the one above de¬
scribed, and CE.pictus (Curtis, Brit. Ent. iii. pi. cvi.), and
Boris. (E. ericetorum of Dr Leach is not regarded by
Meigen as essentially distinct from that last named.
The injury and annoyance which the insects of this
genus, familiarly known under the names of breeze, gad¬
fly, &c. cause to sheep and cattle, render them deserving
of our careful consideration. Mr Bracy Clark, to whom
we still owe the best account of their economy,2 procured,
about the middle of June, some full-grown larvae of ffi”.
ovis, from the inside of the cavities of the bone which
279
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
nus iMfgen’S exPression, murid geschlossen, is obscure. It has in fact been doubted whether the insects of this and the following ge-
the r™7 mouths. Linnaeus says, “ Os nullum punctis tribus;” but, according to Mr Bracy Clark, when the hairs, which in all
to enlarge and termi-
have not been fortunate
not bee gKi 7 co^oured with some dark-brown matter lodging on the inside : though I confess, after repe^te
nate. p |)eto trace (hL haustellum farther than the inside of the inflated part of the head, where it appears t
in ohtai • nC1U-S 13:13 ™inutely described labia to the haustellum, and other apparatus to the mouth, which I hay
denie- a S1”llt ol\ ^‘e same time 1 cannot help being surprised that he should have overlooked the palpi, which he expressly
8 or 16 eNsterjce °f> though tolerably visible even without the aid of glasses.” {Linn. Trans, vol. iii. p- 322.)
and uU SCrv“t‘,0n> on th6 Gains OZstrus, Linn. Trans, vol. iii. p.289; see also the author’s later work, An Essay on the Buts of Horses
ier rnmals, 4to, 1815. It is quoted and referred to by a recent French writer under the title ol “ Ihe Lost of Horse 1
280
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera supports the horns of the sheep. They were neatly an
Probosci- jnch long, of a delicate white colour, flat on the under
deas‘ side, and convex on the upper; having no spines at the
divisions of the segments of the body, though provided with
tentacula at the smaller end. When young they are en¬
tirely white, but as they increase in size their upper side
becomes marked with two transverse brown lines on each
segment, and some spots become visible upon the sides.
They move with considerable quickness, holding with the
tentacula as a fixed point, and drawing up the body to¬
wards them. There is a broad line of dots on the undei
surface, which appear as rough points under a microscope,
and probably serve both for locomotion, and for exciting
such a degree of inflammation in the membrane on which
they rest, as to cause the secretion of lymph or pus. Mr
Clark has usually found these larvae in the horns or fron¬
tal sinuses, though he has remarked that the membranes
of those cavities were scarcely at all inflamed, while those
of the maxillary sinuses were highly so. From this he is
led to suspect that they inhabit the maxillary sinuses, and
crawl, on the death of the animal, towards the horns and
frontal sinuses. In common with (E. Boris, they do not
seem confined to any particular season, for young and
old are found together at the same time. When full
grown they fall through the nostrils, and change to the
pupa state, lying on the earth, or adhering by the side to
a blade of grass. The fly bursts the shell of the pupa in
about two months.
The manner in which the perfect insect lays its eggs
is difficult to determine, owing to its obscure colour and
extremely rapid movements. The great agitation of the
sheep also interferes with accurate observation, but its
general motions and method of defence leave little doubt
that the eggs are deposited on the inner margin of the
nostril. “ The moment,” Mr Clark observes, “ the fly
touches this part of the sheep,, they shake their heads,
and strike the ground violently with their fore feet; at
the same time, holding their noses close to the earth, they
run away, looking about them on every side, to see if the
fly pursues; they also smell to the grass as they go, lest
one should be lying in wait for them. If they observe
one, they gallop back, or take some other direction. As
they cannot, like the horses, take refuge in the water,
they have recourse to a rut, or dry dusty road, or gravel
pits, where they crowd together during the heat of the
day, with their noses held close to the ground, which ren¬
ders it difficult for the fly to get at the nostril.” Mr C.
imagines that the last-named part, from the constant at¬
tacks, and the consequent rubbing upon the ground, be¬
comes inflamed and painful, which occasions their touch
to be so greatly dreaded by the sheep.
The (Estrus Boris, in the perfect state, is a very beau¬
tiful insect, and one of the largest of the European spe¬
cies. The wings are without spots ; the abdomen has a
central band of black, and is clothed at the extremity by
reddish-yellow hairs. Although its effects on cattle have
been often remarked, yet the fly itself, as Mr Clark has
observed, is rarely seen or taken, “ as the attempt would
be attended with considerable danger.” It inflicts greater
pain in depositing its eggs than any other species. “ When
one of the cattle is attacked with this fly, it is easily known
by the extreme terror and agitation of the whole herd:
the unfortunate object of the attack runs bellowing from
among them to some distant part of the heath, or the
jtytei
'obosc
deai.
nearest water, while the tail, from the severity of the pain,
is held with a tremulous motion straight from the body,
in the direction of the spine, and the head and neck are
also stretched out to the utmost. The rest, from fear,,fY>
o-enerally follow to the water, or disperse to different parts;
of the field. And such is the dread and apprehension in
the cattle, of this fly, that I have seen one of them mee;
the herd when almost driven home, and turn them back,
regardless of the stones, sticks, and noise of their drivers;
nor could they be stopped till they reached their accus
tomed retreat in the water. When oxen are yoked to
the plough, the attack of this fly is attended with re&
danger, as they become perfectly uncontrollable, and will
often run with the plough directly forwards, through th
hedges, or whatever obstructs their way.” The attack o'
this small but dreaded foe has indeed been often describ
ed, and by none with more of taste and accuracy than Ly
tVio “ IVfnnt.iifln T?ard.”
Est lucos Silari circa, ilicibusque virentem
Plurimus Alburnum volitans, cui nomen Asilo
liomanum est, (Estron Graii vertere vocantes :
Asper, acerba sonans : quo tota exterritu sylvis
Diffugiunt armenta; fusit mugitibus aether
Concussus, sylvaeque et sicci ripa Tanagri.1
The female deposits her eggs with great rapidity, and
does not remain above a few seconds on the back of thej
animal. The larvae live beneath the skin, between it and
the cellular membrane, in a proper sack or abscess, rather
larger than the insect. When young they are smooth,
white, and transparent, become darker as they increase,
and when full grown are of a deep-brown colour. After
a time they work their way out, fall to the ground, and
assume the state of chrysalis, in which they continue from
about the latter end of June till towards the middle of ‘
August, when the perfect insect makes its appearance.
Genus Gastrus, Meig.; (Estrus, Linn.; Gasterophilus,
Leach. (Plate CCXXXVIII. fig. 25, 28, and 28 a.) An¬
tennae with the lower joints small, the third compressed |
and furnished with a naked dorsal seta: mouth closed:
halteres naked : wings without a transverse nervure at
the apex. Meig. Zw. iv. tab. xxxviii. fig. 18-23.
G. Equi. Head with fine hairs, yellowish grey, the
forehead rather darker, with two reddish-brown vittae: an¬
tennae ferruginous: thorax anteriorly with ferruginous
pubescence, that on the hinder part of a darker colour,
the sides with rather long glistening hairs passing into
whitish yellow : scutellum with black pubescence behind:
abdomen ferruginous, the pubescence fine, with a silky
gloss ; the back with a triangular blackish spot on each of
the segments, and sprinkled with several small spots, at
least in the male : legs and halteres ferruginous: wing-
scales white: wings whitish; having a waved brownish-
grey band across the middle, and two spots of the same
colour at the apex : the ovipositor of the females is thick,
cylindrical, and of a shining black colour. Five lines-
Meig. Ztv. iv. pi. xxxviii. 21, 22; (Es. Boris, Linn.; (E-
Equi, Linn. Trans, iii. 298, pi. xxiii. f. 7-9.
Not common in Britain. This species, likewise known
by the name of breeze or gad-fly, usually frequents ele¬
vated heathy districts, and we have observed it flyins
about the summits of the Westmoreland hills,2 and those
of Roxburghshire. Mr Bracy Clark has also furnished us
with some valuable information on the manners and me¬
tamorphosis of this insect, the larvae of which are com-
1 Georg, lib. iii. , ,
2 On one occasion particularly, on crossing some hill pasture above Elleray, the seat of Professor Wilson, we were suddenly attac 'e
by three of these insects. They flew round about us in a state of angry excitement, coming sometimes within a few inches ot t
face, and keeping so close to each other, that, having the forceps in hand, we captured the whole three at once, to their great surprint,
and probably disappointment.
E N T O M
monly called hots. “ The mode pursued by the parent
fly to obtain for its joung a situation in the stomach of
the horse is truly singular, and is effected in the following
manner:—When the female has been impregnated, and
the eggs are sufficiently matured, she seeks among the
horses a subject for her purpose, and approaching it on
the wing, she holds her body nearly upright in the air, and
her tail, which is lengthened for the purpose, curved in¬
wards and upwards: in this way she approaches the part
where she designs to deposit the egg, and suspending her¬
self for a few seconds before it, suddenly darts upon it,
and leaves the egg adhering to the hair : she hardly ap¬
pears to settle, but merely touches the hair with the egg
held out on the projected point of the abdomen. The egg
is made to adhere by means of a glutinous liquor secreted
with it. She then leaves the horse at a small distance,
and prepares a second egg, and, poising herself before the
part, deposits it in the same way. The liquor dries, and
the eggs become firmly glued to the hair: this is repeat¬
ed by various flies till 400 or 500 eggs are sometimes
placed on one horse. The horses, when they become used
to this fly, and find it does them no injury, as the Tabani
and Conopes, by sucking their blood, hardly regard it,
and do not appear at all aware of its insidious object.”1
The inside of the knee is the part usually chosen, although
other places are sometimes selected. It is worthy of
note, however, that these ova are always laid where they
are most liable to be licked off by the horse’s tongue. It
is not, however, precisely the eggs themselves which are
conveyed into the interior of the animal. Mr Clark found
that after they have remained four or five days on the
hairs, they became ripe,—after which the slightest appli¬
cation of warmth and moisture is sufficient to bring forth
the latent larva in an instant. “ At this time, if the
tongue of the horse touches the egg, its operculum is
thrown open, and a small active worm is produced, which
readily adheres to the moist surface of the tongue, and is
from thence conveyed with the food to the stomach.”
Mr Clark has often clipped off some hairs with eggs on
them, and holding them in his hand, moistened with sali¬
va, has seen them hatched in a few seconds. If the larvae
pass the dreadful ordeal of mastication, and are transmit¬
ted uninjured to the horse’s stomach, they attach them¬
selves to every part of it, but are generally most numer¬
ous about the pylorus. Sometimes, but much less fre¬
quently, they occur in the intestines. Their numbers
are very various,—from half a dozen to above a hun¬
dred. They generally hang in clusters, being fixed by
the small end to the inner membrane of the stomach, to
which they adhere by means of two small hooks or tenta-
eula. 'When removed from the stomach they will attach
themselves to any loose membrane with which they may
come in contact, and even to the skin of the hand. On
attaining to their full size, they pass by the intestinal
canal, drop to the ground, and enter the chrysalis state.
pon the whole, Mr Clark does not regard these insects
a» uirtful to horses, but rather views them favourably, as
Natural stimuli. Valisnieri, however, considered them
as t ie cause of the epidemic malady which in 1713 car-
!?e 80 many horses in the territories of Mantua and
tae Veronese.2
t F°}l“r,other sPec>es are found in Britain, besides the one
0 w ich the preceding observations more particularly ap-
° L ° G Y- 281
SC™' hammrhoidalis> CtaM, and saluti- Dipter,
I’robosci-
dese.
FAMILY XXIII—MUSCIDES.4
Antennae inclined, three-jointed, obtuse beneath: the
third joint with a seta on the back: proboscis concealed
gemculated at the base : thorax with a transverse suture •
ivximen haVmS fr°m four t0 six segments. Meig. Zw.
Genus Xysta, Meig. Antennae incumbent, shorter
than the hypostoma, second and third joints nearly equal
compressed ; the terminal one with a naked dorsal seta at
the base : mouth with a mystax: abdomen convex, con-
sisting oi five or six segments: wings divaricatino*.
^v. cilipes. Hypostoma and forehead greyish white,
the last with a black line: palpi ferruginous, the apex
brown : thorax dark grey, with three blackish lines: ab¬
domen shining black, consisting of six segments; the two
terminal segments grey, the apex having a shining black
bent appendage: legs black, strong: the hinder tibiae
audiod, dilated, and fringed with long black bristles *
wing-scales white; halteres slender, black : wings hyaline,
yellowish at the base. Three and a half lines. Meitr.
Zw. iv. 182, pi. xxxix. f. 5.
Two species only belong to this genus, both of which
appear to be scarce on the continent, and neither of them
has been observed in Britain.
Genus Phasia, Lat. Antennae incumbent, shorter
than the hypostoma, third joint rather longer than the
second, obtuse ; the base with a naked dorsal seta : mouth
villose : abdomen depressed, pubescent, consisting of five
segments : wings divaricating. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxix.
f. 6-16.
P. subcoleoptrata. Hypostoma whitish, with a pearly
play of colour; forehead white, with a changeable dark
grey line ; antennae blackish brown ; thorax light grey, with
four black lines, the two central ones abbreviated behind :
scutellum cinereous : abdomen oval, flat, black brown in
the male, with cinereous, and sometimes reddish-brown
reflections, the apex golden yellow: that of the female
black brown, with a dark dorsal line: wing-scales of the
male brownish, of the female white: legs blackish : wings
of the male broad, yellowish at the base, the anterior mar¬
gin having a brown vitta extending rather beyond the
middle, and there is another of the same colour along the
centre, which is dilated at the apex so as to appear some¬
what curved forwards; wings of the female comparatively
narrow, hyaline, somewhat yellowish at the base. Male
four, female three lines. Meig. Zw. iv. 190, pi. xxxix.
f. 13.
Occurs in the northern parts of the continent of Eu¬
rope and in Britain, but appears to be rare. P. hemiptera,
semicinerea, and pusilla, are the only other kinds hitherto
found in Britain, although the genus contains upwards of
thirty species.
Genus Gymnosoma, Meig.; from yvyvoi, naked, and
tfa/xa, the body. Antennas with the second and third joints
nearly equal; the terminal one compressed, linear, obtuse;
with a naked dorsal seta at the base : mouth naked: ab¬
domen nearly naked, globose, consisting of four segments:
wings spreading. Meig. 2m\ iv. pi. xxxix. f. 17-22.
a ?,ee Linn. Trans, vol. iii. p. 298 ; and the Essay mentioned in preceding note.
„ Ijfgwnamcnto intorno all' CEstre de Buoi. Opere, t. i. 3 Stephens’ Systematic Catalogue, part n. p. z9G.
„he tn,)e Muscides of Latreiile (excepting, we believe, the genera Diopsu, Scenopina, and Achias) has been recently created
Kat t named Myodakije, by M. liobineau Desvoidy. See an abstract of his views in the Diction. Class, d Hist.
VOL. IX. 2 N
282
Diptera
Probosci-
dese..
E N T O M
G. rolundata. Male. Hypostoma straw-colour, silky:
forehead golden yellow, with a brownish vitta changing
into red: antennae black; the third joint ferruginous on
the inner side at the base; thorax dull-ferruginous, with
four brownish longitudinal lines, and a shining black trans¬
verse band behind: scutellum black: abdomen fenugi-
nous, pellucid, with black spots on the back: legs black :
wings brownish, ferruginous at the base : wing-scales dirty
white. .
Female. Hypostoma and forehead pearl-white; the
frontal vitta brown: thorax cinereous on the sides and
beneath. Four lines. Musca rotundata, Linn. Fab.; Ocyp-
tera rotundata, Lat. On flowers and shrubs : found near
London, and on the continent, not unfrequently.
Genus Ocyptera, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs. 26
and 26 a.) Antennae somewhat deflexed, third joint
longer than the second, linear, compressed, obtuse, having
a naked dorsal seta at the base: mouth furnished with a
mystax: abdomen elongate, cylindric, subsetose, four-
ringed : wings spreading. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xxxix. f.
23-29.
O. brassicaria. Hypostoma and forehead silky white,
the former with two narrow black lines, the latter with a
broad black vitta: antennae blackish: thorax anteriorly
slate grey, with four black lines, the two in the centre
narrow: abdomen with the first and second segments san¬
guineous, the former with a large triangular mark of black
on the back, the two terminal segments black, the penul¬
timate one silvery on the anterior margin: legs black:
wing-scales pale white : wings brownish grey, the base
ferruginous, -i Five to six lines. Meig. iv. 211, pi. xxxix.
f. 29. Apparently a scarce species. It occurs near Edin¬
burgh.
M. Leon Dufour, in a memoir on the insects of this ge¬
nus, has shown that the larvae of two species, O. cassidce and
bicolor, are parasitical,—the first in the visceral cavity of
Cassida bicolor, the second in that of Pentatoma grisea.
Each feeds upon the epiploon or fatty matter of his
host.1
Genus Lophosia, Meig, Antennae deflexed, the two
basal joints minute, the third very large, compressed, tri¬
angular, with a naked dorsal seta at the base : mouth
with a mystax : abdomen cylindric, composed of four seg¬
ments : wings spreading. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xl. f. 1-4.
lu.fasciata. Hypostoma silky white; antennae with the
two first joints black, the third brown: thorax bristly,
shining black above, dark grey on the sides, with a
changeable cinereous spot on each shoulder: abdomen
sub-cylindric, arched, slightly narrowed at the base, brist¬
ly, of a shining black colour, the anterior margin of the
second and third segments changeable white: thighs
black, somewhat pubescent, bluish white beneath, with a
naked white spot on the inner side at the apex; anterior
tibiae blackish brown, posterior rufous : tarsi black : wings
hyaline, with a broad obsolete cross band of a brownish
colour before the apex. Five lines.
This genus is readily distinguishable from all the allied
genera by the large and distinctly trigonate terminal joint
of the antennae. It contains but one species, which oc¬
curs on the continent.
Genus Phania, Meig.; named from (pavoq, because
most of the species are pellucid. Antennae deflexed,
third joint elongate, linear, compressed, obtuse; the base
with a naked dorsal seta: mouth with a mystax: abdo¬
men consisting of four segments, the apex elongate, and
bent inwards : wings spreading. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xl. f.
5-10.
O L O G Y.
P. curvicauda. Head silver white, with a black play of I: „
colour: palpi and antennae black brown ; the third joint hr
with a finely pubescent seta, thickened at the base; fore- -j
head with a deep black line, broadest in the female:
body shining black, bristly, except on the shoulders,
where there are white spots: wing-scales white: halteres
black brown; wings brownish grey, the base yellowish:
legs black. Meig. iv. 221, pi. xl. f. 10. Rare: it occurs
in Britain along with two other species, P. vittaUx and
thoracica.
Genus Trxxa, Meig. Antennae incumbent, short;
second and third joints equal, terminal ovate, having a
naked dorsal seta at its base: hypostoma villose, without
a mystax : wings spreading, with a transverse nervure at
the apex. Meig. Zw. iv. pi. xl. f. 11-16.
T. dorsalis. Hypostoma cinereous ; palpi and antennae
black brown: thorax ash grey, with four black lines: scu¬
tellum black: abdomen rufous, having a broad dorsal line
of black, which at the base of the segments changes with
a play of colour into whitish grey; the third and fourth
segments have a similar play of colour on the sides ; wing-
scales white : wings greyish ; the small cross nerve of the
middle rather thick, black, edged with brown : legs black;
tibiae and tarsi faintly rufescent. Five lines. Inhabits
Britain, but is scarce. Only one other species of the six
described by Meigen is known to be British,— T.varie-
gata, which has occurred in the neighbourhood of Lon¬
don, in Dumfriesshire, and near Edinburgh.
Genus Miltogramma, Meig. Antennae incumbent,
third joint elongate, linear, compressed ; the base with a
naked dorsal seta: mouth setose: wings spreading, the
apex with a transverse nervure. Meig. Zw. pi. xl. f. 17- ;
26. .
M. fasciata. Hypostoma white, with flesh-coloured
play of colour : palpi and antennae clear reddish yellow;
the frontal vitta rather broad : thorax and scutellum cine¬
reous, with three black lines : abdomen conical, the first
segment black, the following white anteriorly, and banded
with black behind; on the sides the white passes with a
play of colour into brownish red : legs black: wing-scales
white. Four lines. Meig. iv. 227, pi. xl. f. 26.
The males have been found in Germany, the females
are unknown.
Genus Tachina, Illig. Antennae deflexed or mcum-
bent, the third joint truncated beneath; the base with a
naked dorsal seta: mouth with a mystax: wings sprea ■
ing, having a transverse nervure at the apex. Meig.
iv. 234j pi. xl. i r
T. grossa. Flead ferruginous, with a brown frontal line
changing into ferruginous; palpi ferruginous, with blac
bristles; antennae blackish brown at the base; secon
joint ferruginous, third sub-quadrate, brown with a yellow¬
ish play of colour : seta black: body shining black: wing
scales dark brown: wings greyish, the base ferruginous,
legs black. Eight lines. Meig. iv. 239. Musca grossa,
Linn.; Echinomyia grossa, Eat. Found occasionaly m
most parts of Britain. We took it in Sutherland. 15
one of the largest of the European Diptera. 4 he arva
lives in the dung of cattle, and is described by Reaumur.
We may observe that the genus Tachina, notwithstan mg
the labours of recent writers, is still a great magazine o
ill-assorted species. Considerably above three bun re
occur in Europe. f •
Genus Gonia, Meig.; from yoviu, an angle, retern »
to the form of the antennal seta. Antennae deflexe >m
cumbent, the third joint elongate, prismatic, the 3
with a naked seta, which is three-jointed and genicu a
l Annales des Sciences Nat. t. x. p. 248. See also Regne Animal, t. v. p. 513.
Dipt
’robi -
dec
ENTOMOLOGY.
eyes remote: wings spreading, the apex with a transverse
nerve-
G. capitata. Head reddish-yellow, with a whitish play
of colour; palpi ferruginous; antennae dark brown ; the
second joint ferruginous: thorax blackish, passing into
brown on the back, with an ash-grey play of colour, and
marked with four black lines; scutellum brownish yel¬
low: abdomen pellucid, ferruginous, shining, with an in¬
distinct dorsal line of black; the first and second incisures
have a very narrow, and the third a wider edge of change¬
able whitish yellow: belly ferruginous ; legs black : wing-
scales white : wings somewhat grey, with the base yellow¬
ish. Six to seven lines. Musca capitata, Degeer, Ins. vi.
12, 2.
This genus is of limited extent, not including more
than a dozen species. Two of these, besides the above,
occur in Britain, but are by no means common. G. capi¬
tata seems to be most plentiful in Sweden.
Genus Zeuxia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the se¬
cond and third joints equal, the third or terminal one com¬
pressed and obtuse, having a plumose dorsal seta at the
base: mouth with a mystax, and clavate projecting
palpi: wings spreading, the apex with a transverse nerve.
Z. cinerea. Hypostoma white: forehead wide, bristly,
white with a small black line: palpi extended horizontal¬
ly, large and clavate, ferruginous; antennae brown: tho¬
rax bristly, having a suture across the back, the colour
pale grey, with four black lines anteriorly, and three be¬
hind, the central ones much narrower than those at the
sides : abdomen bristly, conical, four-ringed, and of an
ash-grey colour changing into brown : legs black : wing-
scales large, the halteres covered: wings nearly hyaline.
Three lines. Has been found in Germany.
Genus Idia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the third or
terminal joint oblong, having a dorsal seta at the base,
plumose on one of the sides: palpi projecting, clavate:
wings with a transverse nerve at the apex.
I. fasciata. Hypostoma shining black, spotted with
white, and not furnished with a mystax : antennae shorter
than the hypostoma, and of a brown colour : thorax ash-
grey, the colour playing into black, with three broad lines
of black down the middle : scutellum grey, with a black¬
ish play of colour: abdomen oval, black, with three ru¬
fous interrupted bands : belly yellowish red : legs black:
wing-scales white, entirely covering the halteres: wings
greyish. Three lines. Has been found at Marseilles, and
on the hills near Frejus, but is very rare.
Genus Mesembrina, Meig. The generic term is a
Greek word signifying meridian. Antennae incumbent,
the third or terminal joint oblong, prismatic, having a
plumose dorsal seta at the base: body hirsute : wings
spreading, and furnished with a transverse nerve at the
apex.
M. meridiana. Hypostoma black, with a large angu¬
lar spot of a bright gold colour on each side: forehead
shining black, with a dull black streak: palpi black: an¬
tennae dark brown, the seta ferruginous at the base : body
and legs shining black ; the two last joints of the anterior
tarsi brown in the males, all the onychii yellow : halteres
brown : wing-scales, and likewise the base of the-wing,
ferruginous. Six lines. Musca meridiana, Linn. Fab.
bommon throughout Britain during the summer and au¬
tumnal months, on flowers and in woods—often seen rest¬
ing on the stems of trees.
The larva of this species lives in cow-dung. It is yel-
ow, conical, and composed of many segments. At the
mouth or narrowest end it has only one hook, and four
short fleshy horns or warts. The hinder end or anus is,
as it were, four-cornered and truncated, and has two cir¬
cular brown spots, which are slightly raised, and are each
perforated by a single air-hole. The two anterior air¬
holes are placed on the sides of the first segment. The
larva changes itself in its own skin into a dark-brown
nymph, which is nine-cornered behind, or nearly circular,
and the posterior air-holes are observable. In summer
the fly appears in a few weeks, but the nymphs formed
late in the season continue throughout the winter, and pro¬
duce the perfect insect in the spring.
The species of this genus are not regarded as generi-
cally distinct by Latreille, but form part of his genus
Musca, or Mouches proprement dites.
Genus Sarcophaga, Meig. Named from <rag£, flesh,
and payw, I eat. Antennae incumbent, the third or ter¬
minal joint oblong, prismatic, the base with a plumose
seta, naked at the apex: eyes not united: wings spread¬
ing, and furnished writh a transverse nerve at the apex.
Meig. Ztv. v. 14, pi. xliii. fig. 1-10.
S. mortuorum. Head silky golden yellow, with a red¬
dish play of colour; palpi ferruginous; antennae fulvous,
changing into whitish grey; line down the forehead red¬
dish brown, changing into golden yellow : thorax black¬
ish, with a grey play of colour, and black lines : abdomen
shining steel blue; belly and legs black: wing-scales white :
wings greyish. Five to six lines. Musca moi'txiorum, Linn.
Fab. Frequent in the south of Scotland, in England, and
apparently throughout the north of Europe, except Ger¬
many, where it is said to be rare.
In this genus the eggs are not unfrequently hatched
within the body of the mother, which has induced their
being regarded as viviparous,—strictly, ovoviviparous. Of
this kind is the S. carnaria {Musca carnaria, Linn.), a
species somewhat larger than the common flesh-fly {M.
vomitoria). The female deposits her living larvae on meat,
carcasses, and even on wounded or diseased subjects of
the human race.
Genus Dexia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the third
or terminal joint elongate and compressed, with a densely
plumose seta at the base: abdomen conical (in the male)
or oblong-elliptical (in the female) : wings spreading.
D. compressa. Hypostoma of a shining silvery hue, with
a black play of colour; forehead shining black, with a
deep-black vitta ; palpi rufous; antennae nearly the length
of the hypostoma, slender, the seta with a short plume:
thorax bluish grey, with two wide shining black lines,
which are continued over the grey scutellum to the sides:
abdomen somewhat compressed on the sides, shining ru¬
fous, with a blackish line on the back spotted with grey;
the incisures bright silver white, with a play of colour;
legs black, with rufous thighs : wing-scale large and
white : wings with a marginal spine, brown, clouded, and
yellow at the base. Four to five lines. Ocyptera rufa, Fab.;
Musca ruflventris, Fallen. Rather scarce : has been found
in Germany, Spain, England, and some other parts of Eu¬
rope. Twenty-four species are referred to this genus,
fourteen of which seem to be indigenous to Britain.
Genus Musca, Linn. Antennae incumbent, the third
joint elongate, obtuse, compressed in a prismatic form,
the base with a plumose dorsal seta: abdomen ovate,
setose: wings spreading, the apex with a transverse
nerve.
M. maculata. Male. Hypostoma white, with a brown
play of colour; forehead white, with a blackish vitta, which
becomes narrow above ; palpi black: thorax whitish, with
four broad black lines, the two central ones united behind
the cross suture, and drawn over the scutellum in the
form of a lozenge ; the scutellum having a black spot on
the side : abdomen globose, grey, with a light testaceous-
red play of colour, and several deep black spots of differ¬
ent form and size: legs black ; wing-scales dirty white;
wings somewhat brownish.
283
Diptera
Probosci¬
des.
'—
284
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera Female. Forehead wide, whitish, with a deep-black
Probosci- double vitta: thorax light grey, the lines narrower than
deae- in the male: abdomen light grey, rarely inclining to tes-
taceous; the spots and other characters as in the other
sex. Four lines. Musca maculata, Gmelin. Degeer. Ins.
vi. 41, 13. In summer and harvest in hedges and on
flowers ; not rare. It is frequent in Roxburghshire during
the autumn on the flowers of Senecio Jacobaa. Many o
the insects of this genus are very common. M. Cccsar,
distinguished by its brilliant golden-green colour, and 1 .
vomitoria, commonly called the Jlesh-jly, are abundant on
carcasses throughout Europe. The common house-fly,
M. domestica, is remarkable for its extensive distribution,
being found in Pennsylvania, New Orleans, and other parts
of the new world.
We may observe in regard to the last-named species,
that it is subject to a singular disease, of which the cause
is not yet known. A white crust forms upon the abdo¬
men, which becomes greatly distended, and the segments
become distant from each other, so as to produce a ringed
appearance. In this condition it is frequently found
dead, adhering to walls, and sometimes to the stalks or
leaves of plants. Its body is at this time filled with a
fatty matter, which has been observed to have exploded
on all sides through the pores.
Genus Anthomyia, Meig.; from a^o$, a flower, and
yttv/cc, a fly. Antennae deflexed, the third or terminal
joint oblong, compressed, obtuse, the base with a plu¬
mose, pilose, or naked seta; the frontal vitta obscure,
narrowed above in the male : mouth with a mystax : ab¬
domen consisting of four segments, setose : wings spread¬
ing or incumbent, without a transverse nerve at the
aPeXl
A. Angelicce. Hypostoma and forehead white, the for¬
mer with a blackish play of colour: thorax bright grey in
the male, inclining to ferruginous in the female: scutel-
lum and abdomen ferruginous, the last without a brown
play of colour; the black dorsal line does not extend to
the hinder extremity, and in the female it is usually inter¬
rupted on the third segment : legs rufous, with brown
tarsi. Four lines. Musca Angelicce, Scop. Ent. Cariol. ;
Musca deceptoria, Gmel. Schrank. Abundant in woods
in the south of Scotland, and apparently equally plentiful
in England.
The genus Anthomyia contains upwards of two hun¬
dred European species, more than the half of which have
been found in Britain. In addition to the one described
above, we may name two other well-known species of the
genus A. meteorica and pluvialis, Linn.
Genus Drymeia, Meig. Antennae deflexed, the third
joint oblong, compressed, obtuse at the apex, with a pu¬
bescent dorsal seta at the base ; forehead with an obscure
vitta; the eyes of the male united: mouth with a mys¬
tax: proboscis slightly projecting, the capitulum oblong,
and furnished with a hook : abdomen four-ringed, setose :
wings incumbent, parallel, without a transverse nerve at
the apex.
D. obscura. Hypostoma white, with a blackish play of
colour; antennae half the length of the hypostoma, black;
thorax shining black, bristly, with a cross suture; that of
the female inclining to grey, and having two indistinct
longitudinal lines of a dark colour : abdomen rather long,
bristly, ash-grey, with spots and a line along the back of
changeable black; flat in the male, arched in the female,
and acute behind: wing-scales small and white : halteres
black: legs of the same colour: wings somewhat brown¬
ish. Three to four lines. Found in August and Septem¬
ber, not unfrequently, in many parts of the continent.
Another insect, presenting generic characters somewhat
similar to the above, has been found in England, and is
named D. hispida : some doubt, however, attaches to the 1
propriety of referring it to this genus. H
Genus Eriphia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the third
joint oblong and compressed, the apex obtuse, and having
a naked dorsal seta at the base: mouth very hirsute:
eyes of the male united: abdomen four-ringed, the apex
very hirsute in the male : wings without a transverse nerve
at the apex.
E. cinerea. Male. Hypostoma grey, shining white on
the sides ; forehead black, changing into grey; antennae
black: thorax bristly, rather glossy black, with a faint
grey play of colour, and marked with three black lines:
abdomen with the first segment black, the following three
ash-grey, having a dark-brown play of colour, and a black
line on the back ; the second and third with a black band
behind: wing-scales small, yellowish : halteres black: wings
somewhat brownish : legs black. Four lines. Found by
M. Baumhauer at Genisberg.
Genus Diauyta, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
length of the hypostoma, the third joint long, compressed,
obtuse at the apex, with a naked dorsal seta at the base:
mouth with a mystax: eyes equally remote: abdomen
four-ringed, pilose: transverse nerve at the apex of the
wing wanting.
D. erinacea. Hypostoma silky white, with a black play
of colour; forehead shining black, with a deep black vitta
changing into whitish grey ; palpi black, bristly; the an¬
tennae likewise black : body shining black ; thorax some¬
what hoary, having two scarcely perceptible longitudinal
lines, and a distinct prominence on the shoulders: abdo¬
men of the males rather long, elliptical, flat, arched, some¬
what greyish, the incisures and a line on the back black,
but very faintly marked ; that of the female oval, pointed,
much arched, and shining black: wing-scales white ; hal¬
teres black: wings broad, ferruginous at the base: legs
black. Three to four lines. A rare species, the native
country of which is not yet known.
Genus Coenosta, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
third or terminal joint long, linear, compressed, with a seta
at the base, which is either plumose, or pubescent, or
naked : mouth with a mystax : eyes distant, those of the
male somewhat approximating : abdomen four-ringed, se¬
tose, clavate at the apex in the male: wings incumbent,
without a transverse nerve at the apex. The insects of this
genus, which is of considerable extent, are found in hedges
and on flowers, the smaller kinds are most abundant
among grass. With the exception of the species describ¬
ed below, we are not acquainted with their habits and
metamorphoses.
C. fungorum. Hypostoma white, changing into brown;
forehead black, the hinder part of the head ash-grey,
palpi and antennae black, the seta of the last distinctly plu¬
mose : thorax grey, with four black lines, which, however,
are often indistinct: abdomen rather long, rufous; some¬
times with a brownish dorsal line : legs rufous, with black
tarsi: wing-scales and halteres white: wings somewhat
clouded. - The scutellum is sometimes ferruginous, as well
as the shoulders. Three and a half lines. The larva of this
insect lives in mushrooms, is four and a half lines long, o
a whitish-grey colour, with two hooks on the head, t e
hinder part thick and obtuse. It undergoes its metamor¬
phosis in the earth.
Genus Lispe, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the termi¬
nal joint elongate, compressed, obtuse at the apex, an
having a plumose seta at the base: eyes distant: pap|
somewhat projecting, slender, spoon-shaped at the apex-
abdomen ovate, four ringed : wings incumbent.
L. tentaculata. Male. Hypostoma silky whitish yc*'
low ; the frontal vitta wide, and blackish grey; palp1 0 a
shining silvery hue, with a yellow play of colour: thorax
g. s
ENTOMOLOGY.
Dij a greyish black, with dark indistinct longitudinal lines : ab-
Pro p- domen flat, ovate; the first segment grey, the following
^ black; the second and third segments with a rounded
white spot on the back, and another on each side of a tri¬
angular form placed at the anterior edge ; the fourth hav¬
ing only the two triangular spots : legs black; the anterior
tarsi have the first joint somewhat shorter than the se¬
cond, and black, the rest yellowish; wing-scales and hal-
teres white; wings rather grey.
Female. Hypostoma bright yellow; the spots on the
abdomen grey ; the legs wholly black, the tarsi all alike.
Three lines. Musca tentaculata, Degeer. Found in Ger¬
many, and various other parts of the north of Europe. In
Britain it has occurred near London, and seems to be the
only species of the genus belonging to this country.
Genus Cordylura, Fallen. Antennae deflexed, the
terminal joint oblong, compressed, truncated at the apex,
the base with a seta, which is either plumose or villose :
head sphaeroidal, the hypostoma scarcely descending, and
furnished with an imperfect mystax; eyes distant, glo¬
bose: abdomen five or six ringed, that of the male linear
and clavate at the apex; wings incumbent, parallel, the
length of the abdomen.
C. pubera. Hypostoma white ; palpi black : antennae
shorter than the hypostoma, black, with a plumose seta:
forehead of the male not so wdde as that of the female,
black, with a greyish-white play of colour, sometimes
changing anteriorly into reddish yellow: body bristly,
shining black; thorax with a line of changeable white in
the middle of the front: the sides of the thorax changing
into bluish white : wing-scales and halteres white : wings
rather dull, the base and anterior margin ferruginous:
thighs black, the tibiae and tarsi testaceous, the latter in
the male spotted on the under side with black. Four
lines. Musca pubera, Linn. Fab. Meig. Zw. pi. xlv. fig.
22,female. Of occasional occurrence in the southern parts
of England.
Genus Scatophaga, Meig.; from enarog, dung, and
paycu, to eat. Antennae deflexed, the terminal joint elon-
| gate, prismatic, obtuse, the base with a seta, which is
either plumose or naked ; head spheroidal, the hypostoma
descending, and furnished with a mystax: eyes distant,
rounded : abdomen five-ringed, linear in the male : wings
incumbent, parallel, much longer than the abdomen.
S. scybalaria. Hypostoma, antennae, and frontal vitta
rufous, the latter very wide ; palpi whitish ; thorax brown¬
ish yellow, with obsolete lines: abdomen brownish yellow,
diat of the male thick, and clothed with rufescent hairs;
legs ferruginous, pubescent; wing-scales small and yel¬
low: halteres yellow: wings large, ferruginous, with brown
neivures, the transverse nerve in the middle black, and
usually a little bent. Five lines. Musca scybalaria, Linn,
lab. This species is of frequent occurrence in Britain.
<5. stercoraria and S. merdaria are among our most com¬
mon insects, and most of the species described by Mei-
gen, amounting to fifteen in number, are inhabitants of
this country.
Genus Dryomyza, Fallen. Antennae incumbent, ap¬
proximating, the third or terminal joint oblong, obtuse,
prismatic, with a villose seta at the base : head spherical;
tie lypostoma descending, coarctate, naked, blunt below :
eyes remote, rounded: abdomen oblong, five-ringed: wings
incumbent, very much longer than the abdomen.
• Jlaveola. Light ferruginous, shining: hypostoma
tig t yellow, especially on the sides; antennae black
■ own> with a dark-yellowish base, and a long black pu-
scent seta: thorax with two brownish approximating
hrn8 r6 kack 5 on the abdomen are likewise four
term1118" ,es’ these, properly speaking, are the in¬
i' vessels shining through: legs ferruginous, becom¬
ing brownish at the extremity : halteres clear yellow; the
wings hyaline. Five lines. Musca jlaveola, Fab. Not
rare in Britain, nor in most other parts of Europe.
Genus Sapromyza, Fallen. Antennae deflexed, the
third or terminal joint oblong, compressed, obtuse at the
apex, the base with a seta, which is either shortly plumose
oi villose: head sub-hemispheric, the hypostoma some¬
what descending, naked, flat: eyes distant, rounded ; ab¬
domen oblong, five-ringed : wings incumbent, parallel.
S. rorida. Entirely pale yellow, the seta of the an¬
tennae short and plumose: hypostoma and incisures of
the body whitish : wings of a yellowish tint. Two lines.
Found during summer, not unfrequently.
Genus Ortalis, Fallen. Antennae deflexed, oblique,
the third or terminal joint oblong, compressed, and having
a naked seta at the base: hypostoma arched in the middle,
naked; the forehead hirsute; eyes oblong; abdomen five-
ringed : wings erect (vibrating).
O. vibrans. Hypostoma and forehead very bright
orange yellow, with the margin of the eyes whitish: an¬
tennae rufous, with a finely pubescent seta: body shining
bluish black: halteres white: wings hyaline, the first
longitudinal nerve thick, and of a black colour; the apex
of the wing occupied by a triangular blackish-brown spot:
legs black. Two and a half lines. Musca vibrans, Linn.
Fab. Degeer. Don. x. 54, pi. cccxlvi. fig. 3. Tyrophaga
vibrans, Curtis, B. E. fol. 126. This insect, which forms the
genus Seioptera of Kirby, is of frequent occurrence through¬
out England and the southern district of Scotland. It is
rare in Germany, but is plentiful in Sweden and most
other northern countries.
Genus Sepsis, Fallen. Antennas incumbent, the ter¬
minal joint oblong, obtuse, compressed, with a naked seta
at the base: head globose; the hypostoma flat, and fur¬
nished with a mystax; eyes rounded, distant: abdomen
four-ringed, petiolate, sub-cylindric, naked: wings erect
(vibrating). These lively little insects, which are in con¬
stant motion, are found on bushes, in hedges, and among
grass, almost everywhere, and are for the most part very
common from the first bright warm days of spring to the
end of harvest: they probably continue during winter.
Their natural history is not known.
S. cynipspa. Head shining black; antennae brown:
body shining black, with metallic lustre: legs black ; an¬
terior coxae yellow, the thighs black; tibiae rufous, inclin¬
ing to testaceous; and in the hinder legs the base of the
thighs is rufescent. One and a half line. Musca cynipsea,
Linn. ; Micropeza cynipsea, Lat. Common in England
and the south of Scotland. In the vicinity of Edinburgh
S. cylindrica is common, and we have likewise observed
S. nigripes, S. violacea, and S. punctum.
Genus Cephalia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
third joint elongate, compressed, gradually attenuated,
with a pubescent dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma de¬
scending, naked; the proboscis standing out: eyes dis¬
tant, rounded : abdomen four-ringed : wings ....
C. rujipes. Flypostoma testaceous ; forehead black ;
palpi black; antennae blackish brown, rufescent at the
base : body black, naked : sides of the thorax, breast, and
scutellum testaceous: halteres white, not covered ; scarce¬
ly a trace of the wing-scales is perceptible; legs slender,
testaceous: wings hyaline, the first longitudinal nerve
thick and black, the apex with a brown spot. Has been
found at Berlin and in Austria.
Genus Lauxania, Lat. Antennae projecting obliquely,
remote, the third or terminal joint elongate, compressed,
obtuse, with a shortly plumose seta at the base: hyposto¬
ma somewhat descending, impressed in the middle : eyes
remote, oblong: abdomen ovate, five-ringed: wdngs pa¬
rallel, incumbent.
285
Diptera
Probosci-
deae.
286
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera
Probosci-
dese.
L. cylindricornis. Shining black; eyes during life
green, with four purple bands ; antennae projecting straight
forwards, longer than the head, dark brown, with a whit¬
ish pubescent seta; hypostoma shining black, with the
lateral edge glistening white; forehead with a dull-black
vitta: wing-scales and halteres black ; legs black, the hin¬
der tarsi yellow; wings yellow, black at the b^6, ^ne
and a half line. Sargns cylindricornis, Fab.; Musca chry-
soptera, Schrank. Frequent in summer among grass and
brushwood. . .
Genus Lonch^ea, Fallen. Antennae incumbent, ap¬
proximating, the third or terminal joint oblong, compress¬
ed, obtuse at the apex, and having a naked seta at the
base: hypostoma flat, somewhat descending, naked: eyes
oblono-, the forehead of the male narrow, of the female
wide: abdomen ovate, villose, six-ringed: wings incum¬
bent, parallel. , , A
L. niqrimana. Male. Antennae brown, shorter than
the hypostoma, the thir.d joint ovate, flat: forehead flat,
dull black: body shining greenish black: wings pale yel¬
low: legs black: the middle and hinder tarsi rufescent.
Two lines. Found in the vicinity of London, along with
eight other species of this genus. ^vvVTrTTT „ OQ .
Genus Trypeta, Meig. (Plate CCXXXVIII. fig. 29.)
Antennae incumbent, approximating, the third joint ob¬
long, compressed, obtuse at the apex, and having a seta at
the base which is either naked or pubescent: bypostoma
somewhat descending, flat, naked : eyes somewhat round¬
ed, distant; the forehead wide and setose : abdomen five-
ringed, the apex obtuse in the male, but furnished with a
projecting style in the female: wings erect (vibrating).
T. Zoc. Honey-yellow, shining, the metathorax bright
black: the wings of the male have two dark-brown spots
at the anterior border, the smaller one lying above the
small cross nerve, and having a small branch pi ejecting
forwards from behind; the other, which is much larger,
occupies the apex, extending scarcely beyond the fourth
longitudinal nerve: in the female the wings have a large
brown spot before the middle, and another at the apex,
with a narrow cross band, sometimes interrupted, at other
times indistinctly marked, in the space between. Male
one and a half, female two lines. In the neighbourhood
of Edinburgh, and near Jedburgh ; not common.
Several different names have been bestowed on this ge¬
nus. It is named Traupanea by Schrank, and lephritis
by Latreille : the latter seems to be most generally adopt¬
ed. To this genus belongs the insect which, in the Isle
of France, is so destructive to the lemon crop, by depo¬
siting its eggs in that fruit. Its multiplication is some¬
times extreme.
Genus Tetanops, Fallen. Antennae small, distant,
projecting obliquely, the third joint ovate, compressed,
the base with a naked dorsal seta: hypostoma reclined,
descending, carinated, naked; forehead projecting, flat,
naked: abdomen five-ringed, the style of the female in¬
curved and jointed.
T. myopina. Hypostoma and forehead greyish white ;
antennae reddish yellow: thorax light grey, the scutellum
of a similar hue : abdomen in the male with the two first
segments light grey, unspotted, the two following shin¬
ing black, having the hinder margin and a line on the
back grey, the fifth entirely black; in the female it is
light grey, with a black spot on each side of the segments :
legs reddish yellow; wings hyaline, with light-brown spots
and black transverse nerves. Two to three lines. This
seems to be a rare insect. It has been found in England.
Genus Psila, Meig. Antennas deflexed, oblique, some¬
what remote, the third or terminal joint oblong, compress¬
ed, obtuse at the apex, and having a villose dorsal seta at
the base: hypostoma reclined, flat, naked, descending:
eyes remote, rounded; forehead naked: abdomen six- 1
ringed, the style of the female jointed and acute: wings 1
incumbent, parallel, the first longitudinal nerve simple. ^
p. Rosa. Shining black, slightly glossed with brassy:
head rufous ; forehead occasionally with a black longitu¬
dinal line ; palpi yellow, the apex black : antennae rufous,
the apex’blackish, the seta white and pubescent: legs
bright yellow; halteres white ; wings hyaline. Found in
May and September in England and elsewdiere. Seven
of the thirteen species described by Meigen are natives
of Britain.
Genus Loxocera, Meig. Antennae projecting oblique-
ly, longer than the head, the third or terminal joint very
long, linear, compressed, with a villose dorsal seta at the
base: hypostoma reclined, flat, naked, descending: eyes
distant, rounded : forehead somewhat projecting, naked:
abdomen elongate, six-ringed, naked: wings incumbent,
parallel; the first longitudinal nerve simple.
L. ichneumonca. Hypostoma rufous, the sides with a
silvery play of colour; forehead testaceous, with a shin¬
ing black triangular spot: antennae half the length of the
head, black, the first two joints red: thorax testaceous,
the upper part of the neck shining black, the prominences
on the shoulders, and two lines on the back, of the same
colour ; scutellum testaceous ; abdomen black and shin¬
ing ; legs and halteres yellow; wings somewhat brownish.
Three to four lines. Lat. Musca ichneumonca, Linn.;
Musca aristata, Panz. Found in the southern parts ot
England, along with two other species, L. elongata and
L. sylvatica.
Genus Chyliza, Fallen. Antennae deflexed, the third
or terminal joint elongate, compressed, obtuse, with a vil¬
lose dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma perpendicular, flat,
without a mystax: eyes distant, oblong, the f orehead pubes¬
cent : abdomen elongate, pubescent, six-ringed: wings in¬
cumbent, parallel, the first longitudinal nerve simple. .
C. atriseta. Head thick, nearly quadrangular, shining
black, with a whitish lustre at the margin of the eyes:
antennae sulphur-yellow, the first joint black, the seta
longer than the antennae, of a deep black, and having a
short plume : body shining black; abdomen of the males
slightly contracted at the base: legs bright yellow; the
apex of the hinder thighs brownish : halteres light yellow:
wings greyish, the margin from the middle to the apex
brown. Three and a half lines. This insect occurs in
Britain, as well as C. leptogaster. ’
Genus Liss a, Meig. Antennae projecting obliquely, small,
the third or terminal joint ovate, compressed, with a vi
lose dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma reclined, some
what carinated, naked: eyes distant, oblong; the fore ea
tuberculated anteriorly : abdomen elongate, slendei, six
ringed : anterior legs remote: wings incumbent, para e,
the first longitudinal nerve double.
L. loxocerina. Hypostoma black, with a silvery-w i
play of colour: forehead shining black: antennae wit e
two first joints small and black, the third reddish ye ow,
hinder part of the head black, the margin of the ey
white: thorax black, clothed with fine white pubescence-
abdomen elongate, cylindrical, black, with a white ®tre ,
on each side at the incisures; that of the male club-s ap
Oil OclCll blLlt; ciL LI1L- IIlL-IoUICo, liJc*^ .
behind, in the female pointed: legs reddish yellow,
anterior pair remote from the hinder; anterior coxae r
dish yellow, thickly clothed with silver-white hairs, in
coxae black; the hinder legs longer than the others,
having the tibiae brown in the middle: halteres ye o
wing-scales wanting. Four lines. Meig. -Zwi. yol. v. p*
fig. 1-4. Ocyptera dolium. Fab. Inhabits Britain an s
parts of the continent. The generic name is objec i
able, as it was previously used by Dr Leach to design
a tribe of crustaceous animals.
E N T O M
Dip
Prob
der
GenusTetanura, Fallen. Antennae projecting oblique-
i' ]y; the third or terminal joint elliptical, compressed, and
obtuse, having a villose seta in the middle of the back:
hypostoma perpendicular, carinated, nearly naked : eyes
distant, rounded; the forehead flat and setose: abdomen
elongate, cylindric, five-ringed: wings incumbent, paral¬
lel ; the first longitudinal nerve simple.
pallidiventris. Hypostoma yellow; forehead shining
dark brown, yellow in front, and having a spot of yellow
on the crown; antennae yellow : thorax black, bristly, the
sides of the breast reddish yellow: scutellum black: ab¬
domen pubescent, black, the first segment and hinder ex¬
tremity of the terminal one pale yellow': legs rather long,
ferruginous; the anterior pair rather remote From the hin¬
der: halteres white, uncovered: wing-scales not visible :
wings large, somewhat brownish. Two lines. Found by
Professor Fallen at Esperod in Sweden, during the months
of July and August. It is the only species of the genus,
and has not hitherto been noticed in Britain.
Genus Tanypeza, Fallen. Antennae somewhat incum¬
bent, approximating, the third joint oblong, compressed,
having a naked dorsal seta at the base ; hypostoma some¬
what reclined, flat, and naked : eyes oblong, remote ; the
forehead narrow and naked: abdomen elongate, six-ring¬
ed: wings incumbent, parallel; the fourth longitudinal
nerve recurved.
T. hngimana. Hypostoma blackish, with a white play
of colour; forehead deep black, margined anteriorly with
white, and having a white spot on the crown; palpi and
antennae deep black; the proboscis yellow: body shin¬
ing black: thorax with an oblique slightly interrupted
pubescent band, of a changeable white, on the sides:
scutellum black and bristly: abdomen in the male with a
small projecting piece behind, which bears a two-jointed
seta near the apex, and a small protuberance anteriorly ;
in the female this appendage is short, pointed, and articu¬
lated : legs elongate, bright yellow ; the first tarsal joint
likewise yellow, and as long as the four following, which
are brown : halteres white and naked : wing-scales white,
j so minute as to be scarcely perceptible : wings hyaline.
Three lines. Examples of this species are preserved in
the collections of Baumhauer and Fallen. We are unac¬
quainted with its native country.
Genus Calobata, Meig. Antennae incumbent, sihall,
the third joint elliptical, compressed, the base with a dor¬
sal seta, which is shortly plumose or naked: hypostoma
flat, naked: eyes rounded ; forehead nearly naked : abdo¬
men elongate, cylindric, five-ringed: legs very long and
slender; the tarsi short: wings incumbent, parallel.
petronella. Hypostoma whitish ; palpi and antennae
yellow, the last black at the base, and furnished with a
scarcely pubescent seta; forehead reddish yellow', margin¬
ed with white, and having a black spot on the crown : tho¬
rax ash grey, with a yellowish callosity on each shoulder:
scutellum grey: abdomen black, with whitish incisures;
elly dark grey, wrinkled ; style of the females rufous an-
tenorly, the second joint shining rust-brown, carinated:
a teres white: wings hyaline: legs ferruginous, the Inn¬
er thighs brown at the apex. Three lines. Musca pe-
roneUa, Linn. Found in England, likewise in the neigh-
ourhood of Edinburgh, and other parts of the southern
district of Scotland.
1 Micropeza, Meig. Antennae projecting, small,
ie third joint patelliform and compressed, having a long
pu escent dorsal seta at the base: head elongate, elliptical;
,e TP°stoma reclined and naked: eyes rounded, some-
rin^ ?r°1rn’nen*'.’ fetuote : abdomen elongate, cylindric, six-
* e^S ^^orm’ very long, the tarsi short; anterior
abd rernote: wings incumbent, parallel, the length of the
O L O G Y. 287
M. corrigiolata. Hypostoma white; antennas deep black, Diptera
with a white seta; forehead black, deepening in the mid- Probosci-
dle : body black : the sides of the thorax without a yellow d36-
vitta: abdomen with white incisures: halteres white: ^ ^ 'w/
wings hyaline: legs yellow, with black tarsi; all the
thighs having a black ring before the apex, and the apex
itself black; tibiae behind passing into black. Two lines.
The female larger. Meig. Zw. v. 384, pi. liii. fig. 6. Ca-
lobata filiformis, Eat. Rather frequent. We once found
it in very great abundance in the month of June, on flow¬
ers, by the sides of the Esk, near Dalkeith.
Genus Ulidia, Meig. Antennae incumbent, small, dis¬
tant, the third or terminal joint elliptical, compressed,
with a naked dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma descend¬
ing, impressed, naked, the proboscis somewhat prominent:
ey^es rounded, distant; the forehead broad, rugose, naked :
abdomen ovate, depressed, five-ringed; wings incumbent,
parallel.
U. demandata. Hypostoma fulvous, wrinkled, whitish
above; antennae dark yellow, the third joint with a brown
spot anteriorly: forehead shining dark green, somewhat
metallic, wrinkled: thorax more or less brassy; abdomen
shining black : legs black; the tarsi rufous, with the apex
black: wing-scales very small, and, together with the hal¬
teres, white : wings clear, ivith slender nerves. Two lines.
Musca demandata, Fab. Meig. Zw. v. pi. liii. fig. 12. Has
been taken near Paris, and in England.
Genus Timia, Meig. Antennae distant, small, inserted
in a foveola, the third joint oval, compressed, with a naked
dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma descending, impressed
in the middle, naked, the proboscis and palpi somewhat
projecting: eyes oblong, distant; forehead villose: abdo¬
men ovate, six-ringed: w ings incumbent, parallel.
T. apicalis. Head black; forehead wide, and covered
with fine pubescence : body shining black, somewhat seta¬
ceous, with a small prominence on each shoulder: abdo¬
men finely pubescent: halteres and wing-scales small and
white; wings clear, with the base yellowish, and a trian¬
gular brown spot at the apex. Three lines. Meig. Zw.
v. pi. liii. fig. 16. Examples of this insect are preserved
in Wiedemann’s collection, and others have been obtain¬
ed from Portugal.
Genus Platysoma, Meg. A.ntennse deflexed, short,
the terminal joint oblong, prismatic, obtuse, with a naked
dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma somewhat descending,
impressed, naked, the proboscis and palpi rather project-
ing; eyes rounded, remote, the forehead nearly naked ;
abdomen ovate, four-ringed; wings divaricating.
P. seminationis. Variegated with ash-grey and black:
bypostoma and palpi black; antennas dark brown: body
grey, with black wartz-like points ; abdomen pale beneath,
the fourth segment as long as the others taken together:
legs entirely black: halteres dark brown: wings marbled
with fuscous. Two lines. Musca seminationis, Fab. Found
in the southern parts of Britain, and on the continent.
Genus Piophila, Fallen. Antennae incumbent, the
third joint elliptical, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta
at the base: hypostoma subreclined and provided with a
mystax : eyes rounded, remote : the forehead broad, gla¬
brous, convex, and setose: abdomen ovate, somewhat
setose, glabrous, five-ringed: wings incumbent, parallel,
longer than the abdomen.
P. casei. Shining black, glabrous: hypostoma and an¬
terior part of the forehead rufous; antenna; rufous, the
third joint, with the anterior edge and the apex, more or
less black: hinder part of the head black: anterior legs
black; base of the thighs and tibiae rufous, the middle
pair of legs entirely rufous ; hinder legs rufous, the thighs
before the apex with a black ring, more or less wide: an¬
terior coxae rufous: halteres white: wings hyaline. One
288
ENTOMOLOGY.
Diptera
Probosci-
(iea>.
and a half line. Musca casei, Linn. Var.; Tyrophaga casei,
Curtis, B. E. vol. iii. fol. 126. Meig. Zw. v. pi. liv. fig. 4.
The maggot lives in cheese, and leaps.
Genus Homalura, Meig. Antennae deflexed, distant,
the third joint patelliform, compressed, vyith a naked dor¬
sal seta at the base : hypostoma descending, perpendicu¬
lar, naked: eyes rounded and remote ; the forehead broad,
flat, and naked: abdomen ovate, depressed, naked, five-
ringed : wings incumbent, parallel, the length of the abdo-
H. tarsata. Body shining black, everywhere thickly
covered with tubercular dots: thorax without a distinct
cross suture: legs black, with yellow tarsi: stalk of the
halteres black, the head globose and white. One and a
half line. Meig. Zw. v. pi- liv. figs. 8 and 9. Inhabits
Austria and England.
Genus Thyreophora, Lat. Antennse very minute,
inserted in a foveola, the terminal joint lenticular, and hav¬
ing a naked dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma descend¬
ing, reclined, and having a mystax : eyes small and round ,
the forehead broad, rather prominent, convex, and villose :
abdomen oblong, six-ringed: wings incumbent, parallel,
longer than the abdomen.
- T. cynophila. Head bright orange yellow; forehead pu¬
bescent, with two black spots : body dark steel blue, shin¬
ing, everywhere beset with long black hairs : scutellum of
the male nearly half the length of the abdomen, truncated
at the apex, and bearing a strong seta at each side ; that
of the female small and triangular: legs dark steel blue,
pubescent, the four anterior tarsal joints rufous at the
base: wing-scales blackish: halteres white : wings hya¬
line, with two black dots on each. Four lines. Meig. Zw.
v. pi. liv. figs. 10, 15. Has occurred in France.
Genus Actora, Meig. Antennae small, distant, the
third joint sub-globose, with a naked dorsal seta at the
base: hypostoma perpendicular, descending, pubescent,
without a mystax: eyes rounded, distant; the forehead
broad, flat, villose : abdomen elongate, six-ringed : wings
longer than the abdomen.
A. (Bstuum. Hypostoma white; forehead ferruginous
and pubescent; antennae dark brown : thorax light brown,
finely pubescent, with small black dots; sides light grey,
with a brownish spot before the base of the wings : scu¬
tellum semicircular, light brown : abdomen cinereous:
legs dark grey, with rufescent tarsi; in the males the an¬
terior tibiae and tarsi are thickly covered beneath with
shining whitish-yellow hair : wing-scales small and white:
halteres white : wings hyaline. Four lines. Meig. Zw. v.
pi. liv. figs. 19, 20. This insect has been taken in England
by Dr Leach.
Genus Lipara, Meig. Antennae distant, small, the
terminal joint lenticular, with a naked dorsal seta: hy¬
postoma descending, pubescent, the forehead broad, rather
prominent, and pubescent: eyes rounded, small: abdomen
elliptical, pubescent, five-ringed.
L. lucens. Head nearly round, finely pubescent; an¬
tennae brown : thorax finely pubescent, brownish grey;
when seen in certain directions four dark-brown lines are
perceptible, the two central ones abbreviated: abdomen
oval, pubescent, the colour of the thorax: halteres brown :
wing-scales wanting : thighs dark brown : tibiae and tarsi
yellow : wings yellowish brown. Three lines. Inhabits
Germany.
Genus Lucina, Meig. Antennae distant, the third
joint ovate, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta at the
base : hypostoma descending, naked, and impressed ; the
forehead broad, somewhat prominent, slightly pubescent,
the vertex setose: eyes rounded, small; abdomen flat,
oblong, six-ringed: wings longer than the abdomen.
Ij.fasciata. Hypostoma pearly grey, with a silky gloss ;
forehead ferruginous; antennae brown : thorax grey, with
brownish longitudinal lines, and black spots and bristles;
scutellum grey with a black spot: abdomen grey, with a
black band on each segment from the second to the fifth,
which is widened anteriorly in the middle, and on the
second segment there is a longitudinal streak of .white:
legs reddish grey, the thighs spotted with black: wings
somewhat greyish, with two black spots. Three and a
half lines. Germany; Marseilles.
Genus Eurina, Meig. Antennae distant, short, the
third joint ovate, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta:
head trigonate, pubescent, hypostoma reclined ; forehead
broad, flat, rather prominent: eyes small and rounded:
abdomen oblong, six-ringed; wings incumbent, longer
than the abdomen.
E. lurida. Forehead ferruginous; hypostoma whitish;
antennae ferruginous at the base, the third joint entirely
brown on the outside, the inside yellow with a brown
apex : thorax and scutellum dark brown with deep punc¬
tures; abdomen and also the legs ferruginous: halteres
white : wings somewhat clouded with brown. Two lines.
Examples of this insect are preserved in Baumhauer’s
collection. Its native country is unknown.
Genus Orygma, Meig. Antennae small, distant, de¬
flexed, the terminal joint ovate, compressed, with a naked
dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma reclined, naked: the
forehead broad, flat, and setose: eyes rounded, small:
abdomen elliptical, villose, six-ringed: legs strong.
O. luctuosa. Forehead black and bristly; hypostoma
shining ferruginous, the antennae of a similar colour: tho¬
rax flat and bristly: abdomen elliptical, covered with
strong hairs; legs ferruginous and pubescent: halteres
uncovered, the wings somewhat brownish. Three lines.
Meig. Zw. vi. pi. Iv. fig. 17. Taken by Dr Leach in the
neighbourhood of London.
Genus Camarota, Meig. Antennae porrect, small,
the third joint oblong, obtuse, with a thick villose dorsal
seta at the base : hypostoma reclined, naked: forehead
wide, flat, somewhat arched anteriorly, pubescent: eyes
transversely elliptical: wings incumbent, arched.
C. flavitarsis. Hypostoma white ; forehead ferruginous
and finely pubescent; antennae black: thorax metallic
black, covered with small depressions, and marked with
tw(f longitudinal furrows behind : abdomen black: legs oi
a similar colour, the apex of the tibiae and the tarsi yel¬
low : halteres dark brown, uncovered : wings brownish
grey. Found in Germany, at Paris, and near Marseilles.
Genus Ccelopa, Meig. Antennae small, the terminal
joint small and rounded, with a naked dorsal seta at the
base : hypostoma excised, villose, the mouth rather pro¬
minent ; forehead flat, wide, setose: eyes somewhat
rounded : abdomen oblong, setose, five-ringed : wings in¬
cumbent, longer than the abdomen.
C.frigida. Hypostoma thickly covered with hair, the
forehead black and thickly covered with bristles; antennae
ferruginous : thorax bristly, and of a black colour : abdo¬
men black, that of the male thickly pubescent and trun¬
cated, that of the female pointed and bristly: ^ia
white, uncovered; wings somewhat greyish : legs r®c*dis'
brown, thickly covered with hair. Two lines.
frigida, Fab. This insect is found in Lapland and t ie
most northern countries of Europe.
Genus Sciomyza, Meig. Antennae somewhat distan ,
small, obliquely deflexed, the third joint oblong, obtuse,
with a dorsal seta at the base, which is either plumose, or
pilose, or naked: hypostoma descending or reclined, t
forehead broad, setose, or villose : eyes rounded : abdomen
oblong, flat, shortly setose, five-ringed : wings incumben ,
longer than the abdomen. ,
S. simplex. Shining ferruginous, except the thorax an
■ itetj
'■Mid
Pro
rie;
ENTOMOLOGY.
the last four joints of the tarsi, which are tlark brown :
the abdomen is marked with a brown longitudinal line:
halteres white, the wings somewhat brownish. Three
lines. This genus contains twenty-nine species, none of
which have been yet detected in Britain.
Genus Dacus, Meig. Antennae deflexed obliquely, as
long as the hypostoma, the third or terminal joint narrow,
elongate, obtuse, compressed, with a naked dorsal seta at
the base: hypostoma perpendicular, naked, the forehead
broad, somewhat setose : abdomen naked, four-ringed.
D. Oka. Antennae ferruginous: thorax cinereous on
the back, with three longitudinal lines of black, the sides
ferruginous anteriorly, black behind ; the shoulders, a small
spot at the base of the wings, and another of an elliptical
form beneath them, sulphur-yellow; the scutellum of the
same colour: abdomen rufous, with three interrupted
black bands: legs rufous : halteres white: wings hyaline,
having a dark-brown spot at the apex. Two lines. Inha¬
bits Germany, France, and Italy.
Genus Platycephala, Meig. Antennae projecting
obliquely, rather remote, the two terminal joints equal,
the third with a naked dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma
reclined, naked, the forehead flat, broad, naked : eyes
rounded : wings incumbent, longer than the abdomen, the
transverse nerves approximating on the disc.
P. umbraculata. Forehead ferruginous, with a black
impression in the middle; hypostoma likewise ferrugi¬
nous; antennae with the first and second joints black, the
third ferruginous, the apex black and the seta white:
thorax ferruginous, marked with three broad vittae of a
dark-brown colour on the upper side: abdomen wholly
dark brown, ferruginous on the under side : legs ferrugi¬
nous: wings greyish. Two lines. Musca umbraculata,
lab. Only three species have been described as per¬
taining to this genus. The one described above, and P.
planifrons, have been found in Britain. P. nigra occurs
in Germany and France.
Genus Sepedon, Lat. Antennae porrect, longer than
the head, the second joint elongate, compressed, setose ;
I third acute, emarginate above, and having a naked dorsal
seta at the base : hypostoma perpendicular, descending,
naked, the forehead broad and somewhat prominent: eyes
rounded and rather prominent: abdomen elongate, five-
ringed, naked : hinder thighs thick and spinose beneath :
i wings incumbent.
S. sphegeus. Shining bluish black ; antennae dark brown,
t e seta black above, white beneath ; eyes green, with a
ark purple fascia : thorax cinereous, with two dark lines
a ong the back ; the sides shining metallic black : halteres
white: wings brownish yellow, unspotted ; legs bright fer¬
ruginous. Ihree lines. Sepedon palustris, Lat. Found
uring t ie summer in various parts of the continent, and
in England, but is nowhere common.
nfttENiUS ^0RYCERA> Hoff. Antennae remote, the length
or the head, the second and third joints equal in length,
second linear, compressed, and setose; third conical, ven-
i ^ase’ anc^ furnished with a naked seta on
hpfl l a 1 hyPostoma reclined, arched, and naked ; fore-
rnn a 1 s?mewhat prominent, villose, and flat: eyes
riJr *nd a lll;fle prominent: abdomen oblong, five-
lonto \i16 °* ^le ^emaIe jointed: wings incumbent,
longer than the abdomen.
ted HyPostoma shining ferruginous, spot-
and a J,b!ack; foreliead ferruginous, with two black lines
bhrk nn^ round f*16 eyes: antennae ferruginous,
scutellum 16 apeX: thor?x grey> with six black lines;
blackish Sray> spotted with black on the sides: abdomen
havino' n’ ln,c lainS to reddish brown in the female, and
nous YXu interrupted line on the back : legs ferrugi-
voL ix r°Wn tars*: halteres bright yellow: wings
289
greyish. Four lines. Musca graminum, Fab.; Tetanocera Diptera
graminum, Lat. Inhabits France; apparently not found Frobosci-
in Britain. deae#
Genus Tetanocera, Dum. Antennae porrect, re-
mote, the second joint compressed and setose, third ex¬
cised on the upper side, compressed, with a plumose or
naked dorsal seta: hypostoma descending (rarely reclined')
furrowed, naked; the forehead broad and setose: eves
rounded and somewhat prominent: abdomen oblono-, five-
ringed, somewhat setose: wings incumbent, proiectintr
beyond the abdomen. °
T. Hieracii. Hypostoma and palpi white; forehead
ferruginous, without impressions, with brown spots on the
crown, and four black points at the margin of the eyes:
antennae infous: thorax bright yellow, finely shacreened,
and covered with black spots: scutellum yellow” with a
black spot: abdomen bluish grey, with three confluent
deep-black spots on each segment: legs bright yellow,
the apex of the hinder thighs spotted with black: hal¬
teres white; wings white, variegated with dark brown.
Two lines. Tephritis Hieracii, Fab.; Meig. Zw. vi. pi.
Jvii- fig- 18. Not unfrequent in summer among grass. It
is found in Britain, along with eleven other species.
Genus Heteromyza, Meig. Antennae porrect, some¬
what remote, the third joint orbicular, compressed, with
a naked dorsal seta : hypostoma descending, perpendicu¬
lar, furnished with a mystax: forehead broad and setose :
eyes rounded : abdomen oblong, five-ringed : wings longer
than the abdomen, the rib without bristles.
H. alricornis. Hypostoma white, with a longitudinal
furrow on each side : forehead rufous, having a white
ring round the eyes; the crown and hinder part of the
head bluish grey ; palpi rufous: antennae deep black, fur¬
nished with a long seta: thorax and scutellum bluish
grey: abdomen and legs rufous. Three lines. Meig, Zw.
vi. pi. Ivii. fig. 21. Meigen describes four species of He-
teromyzae, of which the only one hitherto detected in
England is H. buccata, Fallen. No locality is cited for
H. atricornis.
Genus Helomyza, Meig. Antennae somewhat de¬
flexed, remote, the third joint oblong or orbicular, having
a plumose or naked dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma
perpendicular, descending, furnished with a mystax ; fore¬
head wide and setose: eyes rounded : abdomen oblong,
six-ringed : wings incumbent; the costa setose.
H. rufa. The male is ferruginous, with black bristles;
the third joint of the antennas is elliptical, and bears a
long plumose seta: abdomen with black bands, which are
widened in the middle : hinder knees and two last joints
of the tarsi black: wings somewhat brownish, with two
white marginal spots at the apex. This species has been
found in England by Dr Leach. H. ustulata, figured
by Curtis (B. E. fob 66), and by Meig. {Zw. pi. Ivii. fig.
30), is.also a native of Britain.
Genus DichjEta, Meig. Antennae distant, somewhat
deflexed, short, the third or terminal joint oblong, com¬
pressed, having a pectinated dorsal seta at the base: hy¬
postoma somewhat descending, convex, setose; the fore¬
head wide, setose: eyes rounded: abdomen ovate, five-
ringed, that of the male with long setae at the apex :
wings incumbent; the transverse nerves remote.
D. caudata. Hypostoma brownish yellow; forehead
dark grey; two lower joints of the antennae brown, the?
third bright yellow: body dark grey, somewhat bristly;
thorax with three broad lines of black: legs dark grey,
the tarsi yellow: halteres white: wings greyish. Two
lines. A rare insect on the continent. According to
Curtis, it has occurred in Britain.
Genus Notiphila, Meig. Antennae somewhat re¬
mote, deflexed, short, the third joint oblong or orbicular,
2 o
* 1
290
Diptera
Probosci-
dese.
E N T O M
compressed, with a pectinated dorsal seta at the base; hy-
postoma somewhat descending, rather naked, convex;
the forehead broad, setose : eyes rounded : abdomen ra¬
ther flat, ovate or oblong, five-ringed: wings incumbent,
longer than the abdomen; the transverse nerves remote.
N. cinerea. Hypostoma fulvous, without lustre, fur¬
nished with short bristles on each side of the eyes, which
are surrounded with a whitish ring: forehead, thorax, and
scutellum ferruginous; on the thorax there are six rows
of small tubercles of a black colour: antennae brown, the
third joint yellow at the base: abdomen cinereous, with
three black spots on both sides: legs ferruginous, with
black thighs : halteres white : wings nearly hyaline. One
line and a half During spring and summer very com¬
mon in some countries on the Equisetum palustre. it oc¬
curs in Britain, but does not seem common.
Genus Discomyza, Meig. Antennae deflexed, short,
third joint oblong, compressed, obtuse, with a pectinated
dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma short and rugose;
forehead broad, short, and naked : eyes oblong: abdomen
depressed, suborbicular, naked, four-ringed: wings de¬
flexed, the length of the abdomen. .
D. incurva. Black and glossy, the tarsi yellow: hal¬
teres small and white: wings somewhat greyish, the an¬
terior margin brown. One line and a half. Meig. Zil. v i..
pi. Iviii. fig. 16, 17. Inhabits Austria and other parts of
the continent.
Genus Ochthera, Lat. Antennae incumbent, short,
the third joint elliptical, compressed, with a pectinated
dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma descending, naked,
convex, coarctate at the apex ; forehead broad, impress¬
ed, naked : eyes rounded and somewhat prominent ^ab¬
domen flat, elliptical, naked, five-ringed : anterior thighs
swollen, and spinose beneath: wings incumbent, the
fourth longitudinal nerve recurved at the apex.
O. Mantis. Hypostoma brownish, with a white play of
colour; forehead black: body naked, black, with a metal¬
lic lustre, the thorax marked with three black lines; ab¬
domen with a small white spot on each side of the second,
third, and fourth incisures: legs black: halteres white:
wings somewhat cinereous. Two lines. Musca manicata,
Fab. Found in August and September.
Genus Stegana, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the third
joint oblong, obtuse, compressed, with an irregularly plu¬
mose dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma somewhat im¬
pressed, and furnished with amystax ; forehead broad and
setose : eyes oblong: abdomen oblong, six-ringed : wings
longer than the abdomen, incurved, deflexed.
S. nigra. Hypostoma and forehead ferruginous, the
latter bristly; antenna: yellow: body shining black, some¬
what bristly ; legs yellow, the hinder thighs brownish : hal¬
teres yellow : wings smoke colour. One line and a fourth.
Meig. Zw. vi. pi. Iviii. figs. 24, 25. Drosophila curvipen-
nis, Fallen. A scarce insect on the continent, and not
occurring at all in Britain.
Genus Drosophila, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
third joint oblong, obtuse, compressed, with an irregularly
plumose dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma with a mys-
tax, the forehead broad and setose ; eyes rounded: ab¬
domen oblong, six-ringed : wings incumbent, longer than
the abdomen.
D.funebris. Hypostoma and forehead rust-brown : an¬
tennae dark brown, the base yellow: thorax shining testa¬
ceous : abdomen shining black, each of the incisures be¬
hind with a rather broad yellow band: legs ferruginous:
wings rather obscured with brown, but not spotted. One
line and a half. Musca funebris, Gmel.; Musca cellaris,
Linn. Found during spring and summer occasionally.
Genus Asteia, Meig. Antennae deflexed, the termi¬
nal joint patelliform, with an irregularly pectinated dorsal
O L O G Y.
seta at the base : hypostoma naked ; the forehead broad, i ter>
and somewhat setose : eyes rounded (fasciated): abdo- 1'
men naked, five-ringed: wings incumbent, large; the or-
dinary transverse nerve wanting.
A. concinna. Straw colour, the hypostoma with two
black spots, and two black longitudinal streaks on the
crown : thorax shining black, pale round the outer side,
the sides and breast straw-colour : scutellum straw-colour,
with a black spot at the base ; abdomen and legs entirely
straw-colour ; wings large and hyaline. One line. Both
this and the only other species of the genus, A. amma,
occur in England.
Genus Ochthipiiila, Meig. Antennae deflexed, the
terminal joint oblong, compressed, obtuse, with a naked
dorsal seta at the base : hypostoma nearly naked ; the fore¬
head broad and setose: eyes rounded: abdomen oblong,
five-ringed: wings incumbent.
O. Juncorum. Light cinereous : antennae yellow, with
the apex black; the abdomen with two rows of black
spots : thighs grey ; the apex, tibiae, and first joint of the
tarsi bright yellow, the four other joints brown: wings
hyaline. One line. Meig. Zw. vi. pi. lix. fig. 11. Com¬
mon in Germany. None of the species, which are seven
in number, have been detected in Britain.
Genus Diastata, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
terminal joint compressed and obtuse ; have a dorsal seta
at the base, which is densely plumose or naked: hypo¬
stoma with a mystax: the forehead broad and setose:
eyes somewhat rounded: abdomen oblong, five-ringed:
wings incumbent, longer than the abdomen, the transverse
nerves remote.
D. obscurella. Hypostoma whitish; antennae and forehead
rufous, the margin of the eyes and the crown light grey;
the third joint of the antennae brown at the apex : thorax
cinereous: abdomen black, with some lustre: legs ru¬
fous : halteres white. One line. Meig. Zw. pi. lix. fig-
15. Rather scarce : not indigenous to this country.
Genus Opomyza, Meig. Antennae deflexed, the ter¬
minal joint ovate and compressed, having a dorsal seta at
the base, which is shortly plumose or pubescent: hypo¬
stoma naked, or furnished with an imperfect mystax; the
forehead broad and setose: eyes rounded: abdomen
elongate, six-ringed : wings incumbent.
O. cornbinata. Palpi and proboscis white; head, an¬
tennae, thorax, and legs rather bright shining rufous, a -
domen of the males linear, shining black, rufous at the
base ; that of the female more elliptical, flat, rufous, with
black bands at the incisures: halteres white: wings
small, hyaline, the cross nerves and a spot at the apex
dark brown. One line and a third. Tephritis combinata,
Fab. Inhabits Britain and Germany.
Genus Ephydra, Fallen. Antennae deflexed, the ter¬
minal joint oblong, compressed, and obtuse, with a nake
dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma arched or convex,
villose; the forehead broad and setose: eyes rounded,
somewhat prominent: abdomen elliptical,depressed, wings
incumbent, longer than the abdomen.
E. palustris. Hypostoma brownish black, setaceous, a
least about the mouth ; forehead dark green, s uiingj
antennae black, with a rather thick seta: body s'11”111®
dark green: scutellum arched: halteres white: wins
pale brown : legs black. One line. Found in marsii)
places- t
Genus Heteroneura, Meig. Antennae porrect,
second joint the same length as the third, the
culate, with a pubescent seta inserted in the mid e
the back; forehead flat, furnished with a mystax,
forehead broad and setose : eyes rounded : abdomen e o
gate, five-ringed ; wings incumbent, the transverse nerv
approximating in the middle of the disc.
Ev
ENTOMOLOGY.
Pipt H. nubila. Hypostoma and forehead ferruginous, with
Prob - a whitish lustre round the margin of the eyes ; antennae
des ferruginous, the third joint somewhat brownish : thorax
^ shining ferruginous, passing into brown, with four dark-
brown lines on the back, and a white one on the sides, reach¬
ing to the base of the wings; the sides ferruginous : abdo¬
men black : legs rufescent: halteres white : wings some¬
what greyish. Male one and a half, female nearly two
lines. Inhabits Austria and other European countries.
Genus Gitona, Meig. Antennae incumbent, the ter¬
minal joint elliptical, compressed, having a naked dorsal
seta at the base : hypostoma carinated in the middle, and
provided with a mystax ; the forehead broad, and setose :
eyes rounded : abdomen ovate, flat, five-ringed : wings in¬
cumbent, longer than the abdomen ; the transverse nerves
approximating.
G. distigma. Hypostoma, palpi, and antennae rufous ;
forehead of a similar colour, with two brown lines ; tho¬
rax setaceous, light grey, with three dark somewhat un¬
dulating lines : scutellum light grey or yellowish: abdomen
shining rufous, with four bands and a dorsal line of black :
legs and halteres rufous; wings hyaline. Two lines.
Meig. Zw. vi. pi. lx. fig. 19. Found in the south of France,
and elsewhere.
Genus Milichia, Meig. Antennae porrect, the ter¬
minal joint patelliform, with a naked dorsal seta at the
base; hypostoma impressed, and provided with a mystax ;
the forehead broad and setose; eyes rounded: abdomen
ovate, four-ringed: wings incumbent, longer than the ab¬
domen.
M. speciosa. Male. Hypostoma white, setaceous about
the mouth and sides; palpi black and pubescent; fore¬
head slate-grey with a white play of colour, and when
seen in some directions two brownish lines are percep¬
tible : antennae black: thorax greyish white : scutellum
black : abdomen shining silver-white ; the belly, halteres,
and legs, black: wings hyaline, the anterior edge brown
from the middle to the apex. Two lines. Meig. Ziv.
pi. lx. fig. 23. Has been taken near Marseilles, and in
' Provence.
Genus Leucopis, Meig. Antennae porrect, the third
joint patelliform, with a naked dorsal seta at the base :
hypostoma somewhat impressed, naked ; the forehead
broad and naked : eyes rounded: abdomen ovate, five-
ringed, depressed: wings incumbent, longer than the ab¬
domen.
L. griseola. \Miite with a bluish tinge ; antennae deep
black: thorax with four pale-brown lines, the central one
narrowest: abdomen with a black play of colour at the
base, and marked with two black dots : halteres white :
wings hyaline, with brown nerves : thighs grey, the apex
J yellow; the tibiae and tarsi rufous, the former encircled
wit i a pale-brown ring. One line. Anthomyza griseola,
fallen; Meig. Zw. yi. pi. lx. fig. 28. Found on the con-
ment, but the special localities are not mentioned.
tV a NUS ^™N(?P.A’ Meig. Antennae incumbent, the
nr or terminal joint somewhat oblong, compressed, and
o use, with a naked dorsal seta at the base: hypostoma
escending, naked, tuberculated ; the forehead broad, and
near y naked: eyes rounded: abdomen ovate, glabrous,
i : incumbent, longer than the abdomen;
ntth longitudinal nerve abbreviated behind.
’i su,ftans- Dark metallic green, shining: head
%/ b ack: Uteres white. One line and a half.
Th F°unci in August and Septem-
hpo'n i -.f Senus contains four species, none of which have
been hitherto noticed in Britain.
thp ®R0PS> Meig. Antennae deflexed, porrect,
dorsal g1*13 d0*01 patelliform, with a naked or pubescent
e a at the base : hypostoma descending, naked ;
291
forehead broad and pubescent: eyes rounded: abdomen Diptera
elliptical, naked, five-ringed: legs simple: wings incum- Trobosci-
bent, the transverse nerves approximating on the disc. deae*
C. gracilis. Straw-colour, as well as the antennae and
legs: forehead rufous : thorax marked with three dark-
grey lines, of which the central one is abbreviated behind,
and the others in front; and on each side of the breast
there is a black spot; there is also a black spot on each
side of the first incisure of the abdomen. Three lines.
Meig. Zw. vi. pi. Ixi. fig. 17. Has been taken near Paris
on the flowers of Chrysanthemum leucanthemum, in Rus¬
sia, and in Austria. The genus is composed of sixty spe¬
cies, all of them minute insects ; and a considerable num¬
ber appear to inhabit Britain.
Genus Meromyza, Meig. Antennae deflexed, por¬
rect, the third or terminal joint nearly patelliform, with a
naked dorsal seta at the base; hypostoma descending,
naked ; the forehead broad, rather prominent and pubes¬
cent ; eyes rounded and somewhat prominent: abdomen
conical, naked, five-ringed: hinder thighs thickened:
wings incumbent, the transverse nerves approximating in
the middle of the disc.
M. pratorum. Pale-greenish yellow, as well as the
antennae and legs ; hinder part of the head unspotted:
thorax with three greenish-grey lines, the central one
running along the scutellum also; abdomen, with an in¬
terrupted dorsal line of black, and a black spot on each side
at the base. Two lines. Meig. Zw. vi. pi. Ixi. fig. 25.
Inhabits Germany and Britain.
Genus Agromyza, Fallen. Antennae deflexed and
porrect, the third joint orbicular, with a naked dorsal seta
at the base: hypostoma with a mystax; the forehead
broad and setose : eyes rounded: abdomen five-ringed:
wings incumbent, longer than the abdomen, the trans¬
verse nerves approximating.
A. denticornis. Head yellow, with a black point on the
crown ; antennae black, with a yellow base; the third joint
having a small horn before the apex: thorax with a yel¬
low streak on the sides : scutellum yellow: halteres white :
legs black, with yellow thighs. One line. Meig. Zw.
vi. pi. Ixi. figs. 33, 34. Chlorops denticornis, Panzer;
Chlorops Meigenii, Fallen. Found in England and on the
continent. The genus is extensive, comprehending sixty-
nine species. Few of these have been detected in this
country, although there can be little doubt that a large
proportion inhabit Britain.
Genus Phytomyza, Fallen. Antennae porrect, the
terminal joint patelliform, with a naked dorsal seta: hy¬
postoma with a mystax; forehead broad and setose:
eyes rounded : abdomen elongate, six-ringed: wings in¬
cumbent, longer than the abdomen, the transverse nerves
placed at the base of the wings, the ordinary one gene¬
rally wanting.
P. jlavicornis. Blackish; thorax and scutellum dark
grey; antennae entirely yellow: halteres white: wings
somewhat grey: the incisures of the abdomen and the
legs yellow. Two thirds of a line. Meig. Zw. vi. pi. Ixii.
fig. 6. Found on the continent, but is not common.
Genus Therina, Meig. Antennae porrect, the third
joint patelliform, with a long naked dorsal seta at the
base : hypostoma impressed, and furnished with a mystax ;
the forehead broad and pilose: eyes rounded: abdomen
oblong, five-ringed: wings incumbent, the transverse
nerves remote.
’T. femoralis. Hypostoma ferruginous, forehead of the
same colour anteriorly, grey behind; antennae black:
thorax dark grey, with four rather indistinct dark lines :
abdomen black : halteres white : wings hyaline : legs fer¬
ruginous ; the anterior thighs thickened. Scarcely one
line. Found on the continent.
292
Diptera
Eprobosci
dese.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Genus Borborus, Meig. Antennae porrect, the ter¬
minal joint spheroidal, with a naked dorsal seta: hypo-
stoma impressed, and furnished with a mystax ; foiehead
broad, setose, declined: eyes rounded: abdomen flat,
five-ringed : hinder metatarsi abbreviated and thickened :
wings incumbent, longer than the abdomen (or wanting).
B. clunipes. Hypostoma and anterior part of the fore¬
head testaceous: body dark brown : scuteilum elongate,
flat, setaceous : halteres brown : wings hyaline : the two
first joints of the hinder tarsi thickened, the second some¬
what longer than the first. One half line. Found in
dung; but is rare. It occurs in England.
FAMILY XXIV —TRINEURiE.
Genus Phora, Lat. (Plate CCXXXVIII. fig. 30.)
Antennae inserted at the opening of the mouth, globose,
with an elongate erect naked seta; palpi exserted, cla-
vate, setose : abdomen six-ringed : hinder legs elongate :
wings incumbent.
P. incrassata. Black, the forehead tuberculated : palpi
and antennae black : the first incisure of the abdomen
margined with white : legs black, the anterioi paii with
the apex of the thighs, the tibiae, and tarsi, ferruginous:
halteres brown : wings nearly hyaline, somewhat brown¬
ish. One and a half line. In September ; not rare.
Genus Conicera, Meig. Antennae erect, conical,
with a naked terminal seta: palpi exserted, setose . ab¬
domen six-ringed : wings incumbent.
C. atra. Velvet black; forehead pitch-brown ; ante¬
rior tibiae and tarsi rufous; wings clear hyaline. Half
a line. Found in September ; but nowhere common. Ap¬
parently not indigenous to Britain.
DIVISION II.—EPROBOSCIDEiE.1
FAMILY CORIACEiE.
Genus Hippobosca, Linn. (Plate CCXXXVIII. figs.
31 and 31 a.) Antennae gemmiform, inserted into the sides
of the hypostoma, and having a naked apical seta: ocelli
wanting: the tarsi with equal bidentate claws : wings pa¬
rallel, incumbent, obtuse, with many nerves.
H. equina. Forehead and hypostoma shining ferrugi¬
nous : eyes pitch-brown : thorax shining dark brown, the
shoulders ferruginous ; before the scuteilum there are
three yellow spots, of which the central one forms an
acute triangle : scutellum yellow, with black spots on the ! lle!1
sides : abdomen pubescent, brownish grey : legs ferrugi^lC
nous, the thighs and tibiae of the middle pair with a dark (
ring, the hinder pair with two: halteres black: wings'
brownish, the marginal nerves dark brown. Four lines.
Linn. Fab. On horses and cattle.
We are still indebted to Reaumur for the greater part
of our knowledge regarding the very singular mode of
production in the genus Hippobosca, or forest-flies, as these
insects are sometimes called. That delightful observer
has named them Mouches Araignees. The larva is hatch¬
ed and nourished within the body of the mother, and re¬
mains there till after its transformation to the nympha
state. Hence the term pupiparous, as applied to the Hip-
poboscee and other genera of the tribe. The nymph, or
rather cocoon, is at first of a milky whiteness, with a large
plate (plaque) at one end, black and shining, like ebony, j
It is of a round and flattened form, emarginate at the
plated end, where it forms two rounded or horn-like emi¬
nences. It becomes entirely black soon after exclusion, and
the skin or covering, of a cartilaginous or scaly texture,
resists a strong pressure of the fingers, and is even diffi¬
cult to cut with the sharpest scissors. The body of the
mother scarcely equals the dimensions of the nymph, and
it has often been a subject of marvel how the greater
should proceed from the less. It appears, however, that
the cocoon is possessed of an expansive power, which is
probably exercised the moment after its exclusion from
the body of the parent. The hardness and solidity of
the skin, though well qualified to defend the nymph from
injury, might seem to present a serious obstacle to the
escape of the perfect insect. But nature, so complete
and bountiful in all her doings, and so pervaded even in
her minutest operations by the perfect wisdom of her
great Author, has provided against this seeming incon¬
venience by a beautiful contrivance. When we examine
the larger end by means of a microscope, we shall perceive
the feeble trace of what in fact constitutes a kind of cap
or cowl, and which may sometimes be made to spring oft
even by the touch of a penknife. When the perfect in¬
sect is ready for exclusion, it finds it an easy matter to
manage this piece of natural mechanism. Ihe coriace¬
ous envelope to which we have alluded is, in fact, the dis¬
tended and somewhat altered skin of the larva, and with¬
in it Reaumur succeeded in detecting the exuviae of the
nymph. The phenomena of transformation are, thereioie,
so far analogous to what we observe in the coarctate pups
of some other dipterous tribes, and the chief anomay
consists in the larva passing the entire period of its exis-
1 In our copy of Meigen’s European Dipt era, the work by which we have been guided in the systematic portion of our cxpositio
the order, there is (at page xxxiii. of the first volume) a brief exposition of the characters of Division I. Proboscides, m
have given at page 258 of the present treatise. In the sixth and last volume of the German author we do not, however, nn
indication of Division II. Presuming, nevertheless, from the strong disparity of character presented by the Loriaceje,
compared with the preceding families, that they must constitute the other principal branch of the dipterous order, we have app
the name of EproboscidEjE, as significative of the division sought for. It was so applied by Latreille {Gen. Crust, ct snsec. . j •
360), as well as (excepting Nycteribid) by Dr Leach [Wernerian Memoirs, vol. ii. p. 547), to the family in question, ihe spec ^
which it is composed are in truth of a very singular structure and economy, and altogether of a nature so anomalous, as to cause
doubts as to their proper position in the system. They are now regarded as constituting a separate order, under the name 0
moloptera, by Leach, Macleay, Stephens, and other English naturalists, and form the family Pupipara of Latreille. Som
trariety of opinion still exists regarding the structure of the mouth. We shall here satisfy ourselves by a quotation from ie^ux
named entomologist, to whom we have been already so deeply indebted. “ La tete de ces insectes, vue en dessus, est divisee en
aires ou parties distinctes, dont I’une postdrieure et principale, ou composant plus specialement la tete, porte les yeux, et recjoi,
une dchancrure antdrieure, Pautre partie. Celle-ci se partage aussi en deux, dont la postdrieure plus grande et coriace porte a ^
ment les antennes, et dont Pautre constitue Pappareil manducateur. La cavitd infdrieure et buccale de la tete est occupee pa
membrane; on volt sortir de son extrdmitd un suqoir, naissant d’un petit bulbe ou pddicule avancd, compose de deux mets °^uvaj_
tres rapprochds, et recouvert par deux lames coriaces, dtroites, alongdes et velues, qui lui font Poffice de gaine. Cine ces lames o ^
vules reprdsentent, ainsi que je Pai presume, les palpes des autres dipteres, ou qu’elles soient les pieces d’une gaine propremen
comme le pense M. Dufour, a Poccasion d’une espece d’ornithomyie [Annales des Scienc. Nat. x. 243, xi. 1), on il a decouvert ileu P ■
corps, qu’il prend pour des palpes, il n’en serait pas moins vrai, que la trompe de ces insectes differerait sensiblement de cede e ^
teres prdcddents, et que la gaine, dans ce cas, aurait plus de rapports avec celle de la trompe de la puce, dont elle s’eloigne
pendant par Pabsence d’articulations. [Regne Animal, t. v. p. 538.)
E N T O M
Dip
Epro
de
tence within the body of the mother, and being born in
p- the pupa state.1
Genus Ornithobia, Meig. Antennae small, immers-
^ ed, inserted on the sides of the hypostoma, papillary,
naked: ocelli wanting: tarsi with unequal bidentate
claws: wings parallel, incumbent, with three nerves.
0.pallida. The colour of the head is ferruginous ; the
proboscis of a similar colour, shorter than the head : tho¬
rax flat, rounded, shining black, with a rather large ferru¬
ginous spot on each shoulder, and two lines of the same
colour in the middle; the hinder part setaceous, at least
on the sides ; scutellum transverse, ferruginous, the hin¬
der margin bristly: halteres white: abdomen ferruginous,
oval, pubescent: wings nearly hyaline, with pale nerves :
legs ferruginous, pubescent, robust: the first four joints of
the tarsi very short, the fifth longer, with two long un¬
equal claws, the outer claw shorter than the interior one.
Two lines. Rare ; apparently not found in Britain.
Genus Ornithomyia, Lat. Antennae gemmiform,
setose, inserted into the sides of the hypostoma; vertex
with three ocelli; tarsi with tridentate claws: wings in¬
cumbent, obtuse.
0. avicularia. Greenish yellow : antennae and probos¬
cis ferruginous ; eyes pitch-brown : thorax blackish on the
sides, with a yellowish longitudinal line : wings smoke co¬
lour with dark-brown nerves, the longitudinal nerves not
very distinct: legs pubescent. Two to two and a half lines.
Hippobosca avicularia, Linn. Degeer, vi. 114, pi. xvii. fig.
21-27. These insects occur on different species of birds,
but never on quadrupeds,—a fact in their history which,
in connection with the difference of structure, renders
their generic separation from Hippobosca the more advis¬
able. Latreille thinks that their metamorphoses resemble
those of the last-named genus. The species above de¬
scribed is extremely vivacious, runs swiftly, sometimes
side foremost like a crab, and flies with considerable faci¬
lity.
Genus Stenopteryx, Meig. Antennae gemmiform,
setose, inserted into the sides of the hypostoma : vertex
i with three ocelli: tarsi with tridentate claws : wings very
narrow, acute, longer than the abdomen.
S. hirundinis. This species is very closely connected
with those of the preceding genus, differing chiefly in the
long, narrow, pointed wings : the colour is ferruginous,
with pitch-brown eyes : the antennae are covered with
long black setae. Iwo lines. Hippobosca hirundinis,
Linn.; Stenepteryx hirundinis, Leach; Ornithomyia hi¬
rundinis, Lat. Meig. Zw. vi. Ixiv. fig. 5. Found on dif¬
ferent kinds of swallows, especially the Hirundo Apus of
Linn. The wings of this species are not well adapted for
flight. Reaumur once found as many as thirty in a swal¬
low’s nest.
Genus Anapera. Antennae gemmiform, setose, in¬
serted into the sides of the hypostoma : ocelli wanting:
tarsi with tridentate claws : wings short and acuminated.
pallida, ferruginous ; the abdomen brown : anten-
n* with numerous long black hairs: thorax rhomboidal,
ie anterior part embracing the head on both sides; si-
nuated on each side, but widened in the middle, and the
ack impressed with a deep longitudinal line : the hinder
pait setaceous, especially towards the sides : scutellum
fans verse: legs robust, especially the thighs, and cover-
^^dnongliair: wings short, scarcely longer than the
O L O G Y. 293
abdomen, somewhat greyish, with ferruginous nerves, the Genua
apex acute. Two and a half lines. Ocypterum pallidum,
Leach; Mouche-araignee, Geoff. Ins. ii. 547, 2. Found
on swallows, especially the swift.
Genus Melophagus, Lat. Antennae papillary, im¬
mersed, inserted in the sides of the hypostoma : eyes li¬
near and small : ocelli wanting: tarsi with bidentate
claws : wings wanting.
M. oyinus. Ferruginous ; the abdomen brown ; fore¬
head wide, with the crown smooth and without ocelli, the
other parts setaceous : proboscis as long as the head, and
porrected : thorax embracing the head anteriorly : abdo¬
men oval: legs robust, pubescent; the tarsi short, with
bidentate claws. Two lines. Hippobosca ovina, Linn,
hound in considerable numbers among the wool of sheep.
Another species occurs upon the stag.
Allied to the preceding genus is that named Braula
by Ur Nitzsch. The only known species lives upon the
honey-bee, and is figured by German2 It is absolutely
blind.3
We shall conclude this lengthened exposition of the
dipterous order by a few observations on the genus Nyc-
teribia of Lat., Phthiridium of Hermann, concerning
the true position of which very various opinions have been
entertained. The species are in fact entirely apterous, hav¬
ing neither wings nor halteres. They bear a general re¬
semblance to spiders. The head is extremely small, and
as it were implanted on the anterior and dorsal portion of
the thorax, in the form of a little capsular tubercle. The
eyes seem composed of minute grains. The thorax is
semicircular. Even Latreille (in his earliest work) was
so far misled by the anomalous aspect of these insects as
to mistake the very Class to which they belonged. He
consequently placed them among the Arachnides. In
this he was followed by Dr Leach,4 who was probably
not aware that the great French entomologist had long
before rectified his error. When a species of the genus
was first observed on a bat by Colonel Montagu, he
thought it an entirely new insect, and named it, on ac¬
count of its rapid movements, Celeripes VespertilionisJ1
It appears, from an expression in the Fauna Suecica, that
Linnaeus described it as a Pediculus. The generic name
of Phthiridium, bestowed by Hermann the younger,6 be¬
ing posterior in date to that of Latreille, ought not to be
adopted. We may add, that the antennae, which the
German author did not observe, and which he stated did
not exist, have been detected by Latreille.7 They are
extremely short, advanced, bi-articulate, and inserted
close to each other, on the emargination of the upper
edge of the head. The eyes are placed immediately be¬
neath them.
These curious insects, as far as yet known, occur on
bats, over which they move with great rapidity; but when
withdrawn from their natural nidus they become quite
confused, and almost incapable of locomotion. Their
heads being placed as it were upon their dorsal aspect,
it was difficult to understand how they satisfied their ap¬
petite ; and we owe to Colonel Montagu the observation,
that when they suck the blood of bats they place them¬
selves in a reverse position on their backs. Of the few
species known, two are found in Britain, on the greater
and the lesser horse-shoe bats. Another species occurs
in the Isle of France.8
Chev^ a ( e*jai^e^ account of the internal structure of these insects, see M. Dufour’s Recherches Anatomiques stir VHippobosque dcs
^ in . Ann. des Sciences Nut. t. vi. p. 299. For their classification, and that of the allied genera, consult Dr Leach’s Insecta
2 SSCI ,:a'111 Memoirs of the Wernerian Society, vol. ii. p. 547 ; and Regne Animal, t. v. p. 543.
* InT o1' EuroP- vL 25- 3 Mg™ Animal, t. v. p. 545.
s /; efuPPlement' to the preceding edition of this Encyclopaedia, vol. i. p. 44G. See also Zool. Miscell. vol. iii. p. 55.
« 1/'*”’ runs- v°h ix. p. 166, note. 7 Nouv. Diction. d'Hist. Nat. art. Nyctlribic.
m' Aptrologique, p. 124. “ Diction. Class. d'Hist. Nat. t. xii. p. 25.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Order IX.—SUCTORIA, Degeer.1
In this order the mouth consists of a sucker of three
parts (two maxillae and a ligula), contained between two
articulated blades (the labium), forming by their union a
trunk or beak, cylindrical or conical, and covered at the
base by a pair of scales, supposed to represent the palpi.
The species undergo a genuine metamorphosis analogous
to that of several Diptera, such as the lipularicB of La-
treille. •
The genus Pulex of Linnaeus composes the entire or¬
der. The body is ovjil, compressed, covered by a tough
integument, and divided into twelve segments, of which
the anterior three constitute a short thorax, and the re¬
mainder the abdomen. The head is small, much com¬
pressed, rounded above, truncated and ciliated in front,
and furnished on each side with a little circular eye, be¬
hind which, and lodged in a groove, we find certain small
moveable articulated bodies, which are the true antennae.
Towards the anterior part of the head, and near the ougin
of the sucker, are placed another pair of appendages, which
Latreille and others have regarded as the antennae, but
which are now with greater propriety considered as max-
ilte, or parts of the mouth. Between these is placed the
sucker, composed of a bivalvular articulated sheath, and
three setse. The sheath, according to Duges, corresponds
to the labial palpi, while two of the setae represent the
mandibles, and the remaining one is regarded as the ana¬
logue of the ligula.
In regard to the species,—“ Chacun, says Latreille,
« connaitlaPuce commune.” In this country wecall \t flea;
and, presuming that it is nearly as well known here as in
France, we shall not trouble our readers with a detailed
description. The female lays about a dozen eggs, of a
white colour, and slightly viscous. From these ere long
proceed little lively worms, which move like serpents, or
roll themselves about spirally, or in circles. They are at
first white, but become ere long of a reddish hue, and are
composed of a scaly head, without eyes, furnished with
two minute antennae, and of numerous segments bearing
little tufts of hair, and two hooks at the caudal extremity.
The mouth exhibits some small moveable pieces, of which
the larva makes use in pushing itself forward. They re¬
main about twelve days in that condition, and then each
larva encloses itself in a little silk cocoon, where it be¬
comes a nymph, and from which, after about an equal
lapse of time, the perfect insect issues forth. The com¬
mon flea (called by naturalists Pulex irritans, see the fi¬
gure last referred to) occurs in almost all countries. It
is parasitical on the bodies of several other animals besides
the human kind (of which it prefers children and the gent¬
ler sex, owing to the superior softness of their skin), such
as dogs, cats, hares, among quadrupeds,—and pigeons,
poultry, and swallows, among birds. Defrance, who has
published some interesting observations on the eggs and
larvae, has also shown that bathing domestic animals has
no effect in ridding them even of the perfect insect, which
he has seen resume its wonted functions after a continu¬
ous immersion of twenty-two hours. The process, how¬
ever, is useful, in as far as it appears to annoy the pregnant
females, which do not endure immersion above eleven
hours. In Dalecarlia the natives place hare-skins in their
beds, and other parts of their houses, for the fleas to nes¬
tle in. They then destroy them by dipping the skins in TfL
hot water, or holding them over a fire. . '|,
The genus Pulex is by no means numerous in species. ^
A lar^e yellow kind occurs upon the mole, and a banded
species (P. fasciatus of Bose) is found upon the fox. Pro¬
fessor Graham thinks he caught it in Clova. The Pukx
nenetrans of Linn., known to the French colonists of Ame-
Hca by the name of Chique (Plate CCXXXIX. fig. 14), is
by some regarded as belonging to a distinct genus. Its
sucker is as long as its body (fig. 14, b). It introduces
itself beneath the toe nails, or under the skin of the feet,
where the female speedily acquires a considerable bulk
in consequence of the growth of her eggs (fig. 14, a).
rp|}0 numerous young to which these give bnth sometimes
occasion malignant ulcers, difficult to cure, and occasion¬
ally mortal. They are extirpated by using a lavement of
tobacco juice, or other acrid infusion. The negroes, from
frequent practice, extract them with great skill.2
Order X.—THYSANOURA, Lat.
The insects of this order, like those of the preceding,
are apterous, or without wings. In addition to the usual
number of legs, they are provided, eithei along their sides,
or at the extremity of the abdomen, with peculiar organs,
which assist the purposes of locomotion. They are mas¬
ticators, that is, furnished with mandibles and maxillae.
They do not undergo metamorphoses. All the species
are of small size, of rather soft consistence, and are gene¬
rally covered either with shining silvery scales oi hairs.
They avoid strong light, and seldom quit their retreats till
the shades of night have fallen. Some inhabit the inte¬
rior of houses, keeping themselves concealed in presses,
in the interstices of shutters, window-sashes, and other
wooden fabrications others occur under stones and in
humid places. The order is divisible into two families.
FAMILY I LEPISMENA2, Lat.
This family corresponds to the genus Lepisma of Lin¬
naeus. The antennae are setaceous, usually very long,
and divided from their base into many small articulations.
The palpi are distinct and projecting. The abdomen is
furnished inferiorly on each side with a range of move¬
able appendages in the form of false legs, and is termina •
ed by articulated setae, of which three are more obvious
than the others. The body is of an elongated form, ana
covered with small shining silvery scales. The mouth is
composed of a labrum, two almost membranaceous manai-
bles, a pair of maxillae, each furnished with a palpus ot irom
five to six articulations, and of a labium of four ennargi
nations, bearing two quadri-articulate palpi. The t orax
consists of three perceptible portions. The ab omen,
which becomes gradually narrower towards its posterio
extremity, is provided, in addition to the false legs jus
mentioned, with an anal appendage or scaly style, com
pressed, and composed of two pieces, after which we ® 7
observe the three articulated setue prolonged beyon
body. The legs are rather short—the haunch often very
large, much compressed, and squamiform. ^evera,sPer„1,j.
occur in wdndow-sashes which are seldom opened, "e.ne
the planks of presses where there is any damp or mois
1 Aptera (pars) Linn.; Siphonaftera, Lat.; Aphaxiptera, Kirby. 18g2.
* See Recherche* stir les Caracte.res Zoologiques du genre'Pulex, par M. Ant. Dugfes, in the Annales des Sciences Nat. Octobre,
Curtis’s British Entomology, pL ccccxvii. ; and Mr Westwood On the Structure of the Antennas in the Order Aphaniptero, £»»■
vol. i. p. 35!#.
our
E N T O M
piys A few seek the protection of stones. They run swiftty,
and some leap well by means of their caudal appendages.
^ The Linna?an genus is now divided into two.
In the genus Machilis, Lat. (Petrobius, Leach), Plate
CCXXXIX, fig. the eyes are extremely composite, al¬
most contiguous, and occupy the larger portion of the head.
The body is convex and arched above, and the abdomen
is terminated by small setae, adapted for leaping, and of
which the central one, placed above the others, is much
the longest. The maxillary palpi are very large, and pe-
diform. The thorax is narrowed, with its first segment
smaller than the others, and arched. These insects leap
well and frequently. They dwell in stony and covered
places. The species are few in number, and, as far as yet
known, are European. We found the P. maritimus of
Leach1 in Fingal’s Cave, in the island of Staffa.
In the genus Lepisma properly so called (Forbicina,
Geoffrey, Leach), Plate CCXXXIX. fig. 7, the eyes are
very small, distant, and less composite than in the preced¬
ing genus. The body is flattened, and the three terminal
setae are inserted on the same line, and are not adapted for
leaping. The haunches are very large. The greater
number are found in the interior of houses. They run
swiftly, and when seized their silvery scales come off upon
the fingers. The softness of the masticating organs in
this genus would induce us to believe that they are inca¬
pable of gnawing hard materials. The most common spe¬
cies, L. saccharina, is said by Linnaeus and Fabricius to
feed on sugar and decayed wood,—and, according to the
former, it likewise gnaws books and woollen garments.
Geoffrey, however, is of opinion that it preys on the little
Psocus pulsatorius, a small neuropterous insect, usually
without wings, which we find both in houses and beneath
the bark of trees. This Lepisma measures about four
lines in length. It is of a silvery white, with a tinge of
lead colour, and without spots. It is said to have come
originally from America. Another species, which is re¬
presented by the figure last referred to, is distinguished
by its ash-coloured body, spotted with black, and marked
down the back by four black lines. Its localities are simi¬
lar to those of the preceding species.
FAMILY II.—PODURELLA:, Lat.
In this family, which corresponds to the genus Podura
of Linn., the antennae consist of only four articulations.
The mouth does not exhibit distinct and projecting palpi.
The terminal seta is forked, and when not in action is
kept bent beneath the abdomen. These insects are ex¬
tremely small, the body soft, elongated, with an oval head
and two eyes, each formed of eight small granules. The legs
exhibit only four distinct joints. The tail is soft, flexible,
and composed of an inferior piece, moveable at the base,
with two articulated appendages at the extremity, suscep¬
tible of being approximated, separated, or crossed. By
striking this caudal process against the plane of their po¬
sition, these insects possess the power of leaping into the
air like fleas, although with less activity. They generally
all upon their backs, with their tails stretched out behind,
ome are found on plants, beneath the bark of trees, or
under stones ; others on the surface of stagnant waters.
ley even occasionally occur, during time of thaw, in great
quantities, on snow. When collected in numbers, they re-
semble a sprinkling of gunpowder.
iese insects are oviparous, and undergo no transfer-
O L O G Y. 295
motions. They are completely formed on leaving the egg, Parasita.
although they speedily increase in size, and frequently
change their skins. Degeer informs us that he observed
them in Holland, alive and active, during the prevalence
of a strong frost. The aquatic species do not long sur¬
vive a removal from the water. They speedily7 shrivel up
and die. But the terrestrial species support uninjured
the heat of the mid-day sun even in dry and dusty regions.
As far as w7e know, all the ascertained species are Euro¬
pean, though we doubt not the genera exist in other quar¬
ters of the globe.
In Podura properly so called (Plate CCXXXIX. figs.
12 and 12 a), the antennae are of nearly equal thickness
throughout, and without annuli or small articulations at
their extremity. The body is almost linear or cylindrical,
with the thorax distinctly articulated, and the abdomen
narrow and oblong.
In the genus Smynthurus, Lat. (Podura, Linn.), the
antennae become attenuated towards the extremity, and
are terminated by an annulated portion, composed of small
articulations. The thorax and abdomen seem united into
a single globular or ovate mass. This genus corresponds
to the second section of the Podurce of Degeer. When
touched, these insects make great leaps into the air by
means of a setiform process at the end of the abdomen,
resembling that of the preceding genus;—but they are
moreover furnished with a very extraordinary organ, which
we do not find in Podura proper. Beneath their body,
and just between the points of the two forks of the tail,
there exists an elevated cylindrical portion, from which
issue two long membranous threads, transparent, extreme¬
ly flexible, and glutinous or humid. They are rounded at
the extremity, almost as long as the insect’s body, and
are thrown out with force and celerity, one on either side,
from the cylindrical portion just mentioned, according to
the insect’s pleasure.
In regard to the uses of these peculiar parts of struc¬
ture, Degeer observed that some Smymthuri which he
had placed in an earthen vessel ejected their slimy organs
whenever they7 found themselves, against their will, slip¬
ping dowm the sides of their prison. They then hung, as
it w7ere, suspended by these filaments, until they had time
to take up a fresh position.2 It may thus be reasonably in¬
ferred that their natural use or function is to prevent the
insect’s falling, when, after the execution of a powerful
leap, it happens to alight upon a perpendicular or inclin¬
ed surface. Degeer’s observations apply to Sm. fuscus,
Lat.,3 a comparatively large species, synonymous with
Podura atra of Linn.
Order XL—PARASITA, Lat.4
The insects of this, our concluding order, are apterous,
like those of the preceding; but their bodies are unpro¬
vided with articulated appendages, or other organs of lo¬
comotion, except the legs. Their organs of sight seem
to consist solely of smooth or simple eyes (yeux lisses).
Their mouth is in great part internal, and exhibits exter¬
nally either a muzzle or projecting protuberance, enclosing
a retractile sucker, or two membranaceous approximate
lips, with a pair of hooked mandibles. These insects form
in the Linnaean system the genus Pedicueus, containing
an extensive and varied group, known under the general
and repulsive name of lice, and exhibiting in their struc¬
ture and economy a great deal to interest the philosophi-
1 Zoological Miscellany, cxlv.
2 Memoircs, t. vii. p. 35, pi. ill. figs. 7, «•
Genera Crustac. el Insect, t. i. p. 166.
Aptera (pars) Linn.; Anoplura, Leach.
29G
I’arasita.
EN T O M
cal naturalist, notwithstanding the associations by which
we unavoidably connect their existence with that of
wretchedness and vice.
The unrestricted genus may be said to be generally
characterized by a flattened body, almost transpaient, and
divided into eleven or twelve distinct segments, of which
the anterior three bear the six legs. The first of these
segments often assumes the form of a thorax. The stig-
matic openings are very distinct. The antennae are short,
of uniform thickness, composed of five articulations, and
frequently inserted in an emargination. On each side ot
the head there are one or two small simple eyes. The
legs are rather short, and are terminated by a very stiong
claw, or by a couple of hooks directed one towards the
other. These parasites, as many know by experience, at¬
tach themselves to man, beast, and feathered fowls, they
likewise fix their eggs to hair and feathers; and as then-
generations are neither few nor far between, their supei-
abundant increase under certain circumstances, not yet
clearly understood, is sometimes such as to produce dis¬
ease and death. The malady is called phthiriasis, hotn
ffldfc/V, the Greek for louse.1 Fabricius placed the Pediculi
in his order Antliata (or Diptera), guided no doubt by a
consideration of the parts of the mouth ; while Dr Nitzsch,
who has studied these insects with great attention, now
ranks them with the Hemiptera, and at the same time
classes the cognate genus Ricinus in the orthopterous
order.
In the genus Pediculus properly so called (Plate
CCXXXIX. fig. 11 and 11 a), the mouth is very small,
mammillseform, and tubular, placed at the anterior extre¬
mity of the head, and, while not in action, enclosing a
sucker. The tarsi consist of an articulation almost equal
in size to the tibia, and terminated by a very strong claw,
which, bending inwards upon a small piojection, forms as
it were a kind of nipper. Such of the species as Latreille
has examined presented only a pair of simple eyes, one
on each side.
Of the three species which infest the human race,
P. humanus corporis is without spots. It infests the
inner garments of beggars, and others who attach no im¬
portance to personal cleanliness, and is the cause of the
disease above alluded to. The second species, P. hu¬
manus capitis, is more of an ash colour, with brow-n or
blackish spots around the stigmatic openings, and the
lobes of the abdomen are more salient. It occurs on the
heads of children, and of dirty adults. In both these spe¬
cies the head and thorax are obviously distinct from the
abdomen. In the third species, which forms the genus
Phthirus of Dr Leach, the body is broad and rounded, the
thorax very short and almost confounded with the abdo¬
men, and the four posterior legs are very strong.
Of all these insects the powers of multiplication are
great. Swammerdam viewed them as hermaphrodites, in
as far as he could not satisfy himself regarding their dis¬
tinctive sexual characters. But Leeuwenhoeck and De-
geer, and recently Latreille and Doctors Nitzsch and Ali-
bert, have shown that they do not differ essentially in these
respects from other allied tribes. They are all oviparous,
and their eggs are deposited on hair (see Plate CCXXXIX.
fig. 116) or garments. The young are hatched in five or
six days, and after several castings of their skin, or in
about eighteen days, they become fit to reproduce their
kind. In this way it has been calculated that a brace of
O L O G Y.
females may prove the parents of eighteen thousand young D,
in the space of two months. Oviedo remarked that the H
pediculi left the Spanish sailors at a certain latitude dur-
ing their voyage to the Indies, and made their appearance
again on the homeward progress about the same latitude.
This we think was somewhere near the tropics; but the
observation does not seem to have been confirmed by any
special observations in more modern times. It is said,
however, that in India they occur only on the head. These
insects, however disgusting to people of refinement, are
greedily sought after and eaten by those who may by some
be regarded as belonging to the inferior orders, viz. Ne¬
groes, Hottentots, and Monkeys.
In the genus Ricinus of Lat. (Plate CCXXXIX. fig,
10), which corresponds to Nirmus of Hermann and Leach,
the mouth is placed beneath, and consists exteriorly of
two lips, and a pair of hooked maxillae.2 These insects,
with the exception of a species found on dogs, are all
bird-lice, that is, parasitical on the feathered creation.
Their head, which, in common with the antennae, occa¬
sionally differs in the sexes, is usually very large,—in some
of a triangular form, in others semicircular or lunate,—
and is frequently furnished with angular projections. La¬
treille has perceived a pair of simple eyes on each side of
the head in several species. Besides the parts of the
mouth just mentioned, Savigny satisfied himself of the
presence of maxillae, each bearing a very small palpus,
and concealed by the labium or lower lip, which is also
palpigerous. There is likewise a kind of tongue. The
Ricini are much less sluggish in their movements than
the Pediculi properly so called. They glide about among
the feathers of birds with considerable agility, and are
captured with difficulty, by reason of the flatness of their
forms and adhesive propensities. When a bird dies, how¬
ever, they assemble together about the base of the beak,
and other parts of the head, and moving about with an air
of inquietude, they seem to watch for an opportunity of
making their escape to some living prey. M. Leclerc
de Laval detected portions of the plumage in their sto¬
machs, and he is of opinion that these constitute their
sole subsistence; but Degeer found the Ricinus of the
chaffinch gorged with blood; and their extreme anxiety
to change their quarters the moment that circulation
ceases, argues a fancy for something more than feathers.
We have at last brought to a conclusion an article
which the reader may possibly regard as of inordinate
length, but which the writer has certainly found far too
narrow for the proper elucidation of several departments
of his subject. “ And here it is not out ot place to re¬
mark, that it is the very perfection of the divine work¬
manship which leads every inquirer to imagine a surpass¬
ing worth, and grace, and dignity, in his own special de¬
partment of it. The fact is altogether notorious, that m
order to attain a high sense of the importance of any
science, and of the worth and beauty of the objects which
it embraces, nothing more is necessary than the intent
and persevering study of them. Whatever the walk ot
philosophy may be on which man shall enter, that is tie
walk which of all others he conceives to be most enriche
by all that is fitted to entertain the intellect or arrest
the admiration of the enamoured scholar. The astioiw-
mer who can unravel the mechanism ot the heavens, or
the chemist who can trace the atomic processes of matter
1 It is well described by M. Alibert, in his treatise Sur les Maladies de la Pcau. . ,|]e
2 The genus Ricinus was established by Degeer, who first recognised that these insects were distinguished from Pediculi >y ^
existence of mandibles. The name was applied by the ancients to certain acarideous species of the genus now called Ixodes, an
that reason has not been adopted by some modern naturalists, who prefer the name of Nirmus.
E N T O M
In • upon earth, or the metaphysician who can assign the laws
of human thought, or the grammarian who can discrimi¬
nate the niceties of language, or the naturalist who can
classify the flowers, and the birds, and the shells, and the
minerals, and the insects which so teem and multiply in
this world of wonders,—each of these respective inquirers
is apt to become the worshipper of his own theme, and to
look with a sort of indiflerence, bordering on contempt,
towards what he imagines the far less interesting track of
his fellow-labourers. Now each is right in the admira¬
tion he renders to the grace and grandeur of that field
o L o G Y.
which himself has explored; but all are wrong in the dis¬
taste they feel, or rather in the disregard they cast on the
other fields which they have never entered. We should
take the testimony of each to the worth of that which he
does know, and reject the testimony of each to the com¬
parative worthlessness of that which he does not know
and then the unavoidable inference is, that that must be
indeed a replete and a gorgeous universe in which we
dwell,—and still more glorious the Eternal Mind, from
whose conception it arose, and whose prolific fiat gave
birth to it in all its vastness and variety.”1 (t.)
297
Index.
INDEX.
Page.
Abraxas 250
Acasnitus 222
Acantbia 197
Acanthocinus 180
Acantbomera 164
Acanthopoda 150
Acantboptera 179
Acanthopus 234
Acanthoscelis 119
Acilius 135
Acraea 241
Acrocera 270
Acrocinus 179
Acrydium 193
Actora 288
Aculeata 227
Adela 253
Adelium 166
Adephaga Ill
Adolecera 140
Adorium 184
jEdes 259
-Egialia 154
■Egocera 244
Esalus 162
Eshna 210
Agarista 243
Agathidium 185
Agathis ; 222
Aglaope 244
Aglia   246
Aglossa 252
Agonum 128
Agnon 210
Agrocinus 179
Agromyza 291
Akis  
Aleocbara 138
Allecula 166
^]0.mya   223
Altica  
^juc‘ta .'.!.*!.”]252
^urnus 182
Atyson 230
Amarygmus 166
Amathusia 242
Ambly teres 157
Amerhinus  
Ammobates 234
Atnmophilus  229
Page.
Amphicoma 160
Ampulex 229
Anapera 293
Anaplognathides 157
Anaspis., 168
Anchomenus 128
Anchonus 174
Ancyloscelis 234
Andrena 232
Andrenetje 232
Anisomera 261
Anisonyx 160
Anobium 146
Anopheles 259
Anotia 203
Ant... 227
Anthia 115
Anthiacum 233
Anthicides 168
Anthidium 234
Anthobii 160
Anthomyia 284
Anthophila 232
Anthophora 134
Anthrax 267
Antbrenus 149
Anthribus 172
Apatura   242
Aphanisticus 139
Aphidii 204
Aphidiphagi 185
Aphis 205
Aphodius 154
Apiari^e 232
Apion 172
Apis  237
Apoderus 172
Aporus 229
Afosura 248
Aptinus 115
Aradus 197
Areopagus 187
Arenicoli 154
Areoda 159
Argynnis 241
Articerus 187
Ascalaphus 212
Ascia. 273
Asilici 268
Asilus 269
Asirica 
Aspistes 
Astata. 
Asteia 
Astrapaeus 
Ateuchus 
Athalia 
Atherix 
Atractocerus
Atta 
Attagenus  
Attelabides
Attelabus 
Atychia 
Aulacus 
Baccha  
Badister 
Bagous 
Balaninus 
Banchus 
Barbicornis....
Baridius 
Bassus  
Belostoma 
Bembecides...
Beris 
Bethylus 
Bibio 
Biblis 
Bipartiti 
Bithynus 
Bitoma 
Bittacus 
Blapsides 
Blaps 
Blatta  
Bocydium 
Bolitophila 
Bombus 
Bombycites...
Bombyliarii..
Bombylius 
Bombyx 
Borborus 
Boreus 
Bostrichus 
Bots 
Botys 
Brachelytra,
Page.
..203 Brachinus 
..264 Brachon 
..230 Brachycerus....
..290 Brachyopa 
..137 Brachypus 
..153 Brachystoma....,
..217 Brassolis 
..266 Braula   
..146 Breeze-Jly 
..228 Brentides 
.149 Brentus 
..172 Broscus 
.172 BruchjElje 
..244 Bryaxis 
,.218 Bulboceras 
Buprestides....
.273 Buprestis 
.128 Butterflies  
.174 Byrrhii  
.174 Byrrhus  
.225 Byturus 
.242
.174 Calandra  
.225 Calathus 
.199 Callicera 
.229 Callichroma 
.264 Callidium 
.227 Callimorpha 
.264 Callirhipis 
.242 Callomyia 
.119 Calobata 
.187 Calopus  
.176 Calosoma 
.212 Camarota  
.164 Camptocerus 
.164 Camptorbynchus,
.190 Campsia 
.204 Campylomyza....,
,262 Cantharidas...,
,235 Cantharis 
,246 Carabici 
,267 Carabus 
267 Carnivora......
247 Casnonia 
292 Cassida 
212 Cassidarge 
176 Castnia 
281 Cataphagus 
252 Catoxantha 
.136 Cebrio 
..222
..172
..274
..174
..269
..242
..293
..279
..172
..172
..125
..171
..187
..155
..138
.139
..240
,.149
,.149
,.148
..174
..126
.272
.178
.179
.248
.140
.276
.287
,167
.132
.288
.176
.174
.166
.260
.168
.170
.114
.130
.111
,116
.182
.182
243
140
,139
140
Chalmers’ Bridgewater Treatise
VOL. ix.
On the Adaptation of External Nature to the Moral and Intellectual ConUitution of Man, vol. ii. p. 173.
2 P
298
ENTOMOLOGY.
Index.
Page. Page-
Cebrionites 140 Clitellaria 271 Cynips..
Cecidomvia 260 CHtus 1/9 Cynthia.
|r.a. ™
Centrotu;:. 204 Coccinella 186
Cephalia 285 Coccus  2Ub
Cephas 218 Cochineal-insect, 206 Empidi^
Cerambyx VW Cockroach 190  204 Empusa
Ceramius 231 Ccelioxys 234 Darnis
Ceratina 233 Ccelopa..   
Page. Page, j,
..226 Dytiscus 134 U'
..242
276 Earwigs 189
 132
203 Elater 140
Elaterides 139
Eacne 149 Elmis 150
13aCus  289 Elodes 141
 269
 270
 191
Ceratopogon 259 Ccenomyia 264 gasycerus.
Dascillus 141 Enceladus 119
..176 Endomychus 185
n *. - 904 Ccenosia  284 Dasypoda 232 Engitides 148
 16 SL .:       241 Delphax -..203 Ephedra Ml
rnHPtes  232 Deltoides 250 Ephialtes 224
Demetrias H6 Ephydra 290
Cerocoma
Cerla   272
Ceropales  229
Cerophytum 140 Colhuns 
clrtHSm :::::::::;:i79 Colobata 287 Dendrmdea  67 Epicharis 23*
Ce£   .....161 Colymbetes 135 Dent.cruka  37 EPRoBOKiDEas
CeTONIIDES 161 Lomcera  Frinntf
292
248
260
284
raTa £0™^ 166 oerbe 203 Enopte™.
 ** ^   275
.283 Erodius 163
 185
Chalets  226 Copris 1^4 Uex.a ^oo ,
Chasmodia  Conronhilus  138 Diaperales 165 Erycina 242
Chauhodes ^1>> Lopropnnus ^ F,.r.hlnrn 159
Chelostoma 253 Loretnia  TT.il«r.Q 204
Chennium  187 Coreus  196 Diboha 184 Eulopa ^
Chiron...... 154 Cori ace/e iJicnaeta Fnmenia  242
umronomus Poronis  243 Dicranoura 248 Eumerus 2/3
ChlLnius  128 Corticus'..' 164 Dictyoptera 141 Eumolpus  8
Chlamys.... 183 Corydalis 213 Dilopbua 264 Eumorphua lb
Chloephora   250 Cossonm 175 Dme us 229 tupata
Chlorion   229 Cossus 245 Dioctna 268 Euplocampus
Cossyphenes 165 Dioderma 176 Eupoda
204
252
180
Chlorops 291 Cossyphenes ib5   lft7 Flirhinus'   172
Chrysides 227 CabS 230 Diphucepha a 159 Eunna  . ...288
ChrysonTela 184 Cremastocheilus 161 Dircsa 16b Eustrophus »
Chrysomelin* 182 Crepcscularia 243 Discomyza  ~ Ev^nia ” "  ...818
Chrysophora 157 Crickel  » D.st.chocera  79 Evama.  
Chrysops 265 Criocerides 181 Ditonms 120 Rvamales
Chrysotoxum 272 Crioceris 181 Diurna ~40
Chrysotus 277 Crocisa 234 Dixa 262 Fsenus 
Chyliza 286 Crypticus 164 Dolichopodes 2/6 Fallema......
Cicada 201 Cryptocephalus 183 Dohchopus 2/7 Feroma 
218
 218
' 267
 124
C-cadar.se 200 Cryptocerus .228 Dolichurus 229
- ..226
 ‘....137
0. ..292
..189
Cicindela 112 Cryptusa 223 Donacm 181
CiciNDELETiE 112 Ctenicer 140 Doracerus.. W8 Tigites
Cimbex 217 Ctenistes 187 Dorcadion 180 Fissilabra
Ciraex............. ...V...... 197 Ctenodes 178 Dorycera 289 Forest-fib
Cis.... 176 Ctenophora 261 Dorylus 228 torficula 
Cistela 166 Cucujus 177 Doryphora 183 Formica 
Cistelides 166 Culex 258 Dragon-fiy 210 Fossores 
Cladius 217 Curculio 173 Drapetis 270 Lulgora 
Clavicornes 146 Curculionites 172 Dromius 116 Iungicol./e 
Claviger 187 Cursoria 189 Drosophila 290
Clavipalpi 185 Cychrus 130 Drylus   144 Gadfiy 
Cleonus   174 Cyclica 182 Drymeia 284 Galba  
Clerii 145 Cyclomus 173 Dryomyza 285 Galgulus 
Clerus 145 Cylas 172 Dryopthorus 174 Galleria 
Clinocera.  266 Cyllenia 268 Dytilus 167 Gallerucim;.
.228
.202
.185
.279
.140
,198
.252
..184
ENTOMOLOGY.
In i s. Page.
,*/ Galeruca 184
Gallicol^e 226
Gallinsecta 206
Gastrus 280
GeocorisjE 195
Geotrupes 155
Geron 267
Gerris 198
Gitona 291
Glaucopis 244
Gloma 269
Glow~ivorm 141
Gnathium 170
Gnoma 179
Gnoriste 262
Goliathides 161
Goliathus 161
Gomphocerus 194
Gonia 282
Grandipalpi 130
Graphipterus 113
Grasshopper 194
Gryllotalpa 192
Gryllus 191
Gyranetis 161
Gymnopa 291
Gymnopleurus 153
Gymnosoma 281
Gyrinus 135
Haematopota 265
Halictus 232
Hallomenus 166
Harpalici 122
Synoptical table of... 122
Harpalus 122
Hawk-moth 224
Hedychrum 227
Hegeter 163
Helaeus 165
Helcon 222
Heliconius   241
Hellwigia 226
1 Helomyza 289
Helophilus 275
Helophorus 150
Helopii 166
Hetops 166
Heloptilus 197
Hemerobini 213
Hemerobius 213
Hemerodromia  270
HEMIPTEIIA 194
Hemirhipus 140
Henops 270
Hepialtes  245
JJepialus 245
•Heriades   233
Herminia 251
Hermoneura   267
Hesperia 243
Hesperi-sphinges 243
Heterocerus 150
Het
cromyza 289
Heterogyna 227
Heteromera 162
Heteroneura 290
Heteroptera 195
Heterotarsus  
Page.
Hexatoma 266
Hexodon 157
Hilara 269
Hippobosca 292
Hispa 182
Hister 147
Histeroides   147
Holepta 147
Homalura 288
Homoptera 200
Honey-bees 237
Hoplia   160
Hoplides 159
Horia 168
Horiales 168
Humble-bees 235
Hybos 269
Hybotina: 269
Hydaticus 174
Hydrocampe 252
Hydrocanthari 134
Hydrochus 150
Hydrocorisa: 198
Hydrometra 198
Hydrophili 150
Hydroporus 135
Hydrous 150
Hygrobia 135
Hylaeus 232
Hylesinus 176
Hylobius 174
Hylotoma 217
Hylurgus 176
HYMENOPTERA 215
Hypera 173
Hypulus 166
Jassus 204
Joppa 222
Ibalia 226
Ichneumon 222
IcHNEUMONIDES 218
Idia 283
Ilithyia 253
Inca 161
Inflata; 270
Insects
Definition of. 59
Orders of. 59
Anatomy of. 61
Covering of. 63
External characters of65
Locomotive organs of...73
Internal structure of...76
Nervous system of. 76
Senses of ...76
Respiratory system of..81
Circulating system of. .82
Adipose tissue of 84
Digestive system of....84
Metamorphoses of. 86
Relative position of....92
Geographical distribu¬
tion of 97
Iponomeuta 253
Issus 203
Labidus 228
Lady-birds 
Laena 
Lagria 
Lagriaria: 
Lamellicornes.
Lamia  
Lamjaria: 
Lamprima 
Lamprosoma 
Lampyrides 
Lampyris 
Languria 
Lantern-Jly 
Laphria  
Larra 
Larrates  
Lasiocampa 
Lasioptera 
Lathrobium 
Latridius  
Lauxania 
Leaf-eating Bees...
Lebia 
Ledra 
Leia 
Leiodes 
Leistus 
LEPIDOPTERA,
Lepisma 
Lepismena; 
Leptides 
Leptis 
Leptocera 
Leptogaster 
Leptopus  
Leptura 
Leptureta: 
Lesteva 
Lethrus 
Leucopis 
Leucothyreus 
Libellula  
Libythia 
Licinus 
Limacodes 
Limnebius 
Limnobia 
Lion-ant 
Lipara 
Liparus 
Lispe 
Lissa 
Lissonotus 
Lithosia 
Lithurgus 
Livia 
Lixus 
Locust 
Locus ta 
Lomechusa 
Lonchaea 
Lonchoptera 
Longicornes  
Longipalpi  
Longitarsus 
Lophosia 
Lophyrus 
Loricera   
Loxocera 
Page.
..186 Lucanides 
..166 Lucanus  
..167 Lucina  
..167 Luperus 
..151 Lycaena 
..180 Lycoperdina 
..179 Lyctus 
..162 Lycus  
..183 Lygaeus 
..141 Lymexylon 
..141 Lyrops 
..185 Lystra  
..203 Lystronichus 
..268 Lytta  
..229
..229 Machilis 
..247 Macraspis 
..260 Macrocera 
..137 Macrodactyla
..176 Macronota 
..285 Macropeza... 
.233 Malachius..  
.116 Malacodermi..
.204 Mallota 
.263 Malthinus 
.165 Manticora  
.132 Mantis 
.237 Mantispa 
.295 Masarides  
.294 Masaris 
.266 Mason-bee 
.266 Mastigus..., 
.179 Medeterus  
.269 Megacephala 
.197 Megacephali ...
.180 Megachile 
.180 Megaderus  
.138 Megalodontes ....
.154 Megalopus 
.291 Megascelis 
.158 Melandrya 
.209 Melasis 
.242 Meeasoma 
.182 Melecta 
.248 Melipona 
.151 Melissodes 
.260 Melitophili  
.212 Mellinus 
.288 Melliturga 
.173 Meloe 
.284 Melolontha  
.286 Melolonthides.
.178 Melophagus 
.248 Melyrides 
.233 Melyris 
.205 Membracis 
,174 Meria 
,192 Merodon 
,192 Meromyza 
138 Meryx 
,286 Mesembrina 
278 Metopius 
,177 Microcephala..
,137 Microdon 
184 Microgaster 
282 Micropeplus 
217 Micropeza.. 
128 Milesia   
286 Milichia 
 162
 288
 184
 242
 185
 176
 141
 196
 146
 229
,..,...203
 166
 168
 295
 .157
234-262
  150
  161
 260
 145
 140
 275
 144
 112
 190
 213
 230
 230
 233
 147
 277
 112
 276
 233
 178
 218
 181
 181
 166
 139
 162
 234
 237
 234
 160
 230
 234
 169
  158
 158
 293
 145
 145
 204
 229
 275
 291
 176
 283
 224
 138
 272
 222
 138
 287
273
..,..291
299
Index.
' '
300
Index.
.214
192
194
229
183
295
295
ENTOMOLOGY.
p Page. Page. Page. ]
Miltoeramma 282 Nysson 230 Papilio 241 Platycephala  289 uj
SSr  ” RS==S RSS£=S
S^£=.::::S g£"z:=::::z
Monedula 229 Ochthiphila 290 Pak.opes 227
Monotoma 176 Octogonotes 184 Parnus  50 P atyura... , .   262
Mordella 168 Ocydrorma 269 Paropsis 183  197
Morpho. 242 Odocantha 116 Passandra 117 Po«ana..    97
jIZL 244 Odvnerus 231 Patellimani 128 Ploiotnbus   176
Muno\T'.'.'.'.'.'.'.V.'.'.'£.£.267 (Ecophora 253 Synoptical tableof.....!29 Pneumora  1M
Musca     283 CEdalia 269 Patrobus 128 Podisma 
Muscides 281 CEdemera 167 Poxilloma 218 Podmm 
]y[UTjE  202 CEdemerites 166 Paxillus 162 Podontia.,... 
Mutillai:::::: 228 Oidionycliia IM Paussus 176  
Mvcetobia 262 CEstracides 279 Pavoma 242 Podurell;e 
Mycetophagx 176 CEstrus 279 Pediculus 296 Pogonocberus 180
Mycetophagus 176 Omalisus 141 Pelecmus 218 Pohstes...,. 231
Mycetophila 263 Omalium 138 Pelecocera 274 Po ochrum 229
Mycterus 167 Ometis 157 Pelicium 128 Po yergus 228
Mydas 266 Omophron 132 Pelocophorus 145 Polyommatus 242
Mydash 266 Oniticellus 153 Pelocotoma 168 Pomp.lus 229
Mylabris 169 Onitis 154 Pelopaeus 229 Ponera..   128
Myrraecophila 192 Opomyza 290 Pentatoma 195 Pnonus 178
Myrmelionides 212 Orchestes 174 Penthim.a 204 n°ceruS 130
Myrmica. 228 Orneodes 253 Perla 214 Prongs. 229
Myzine 229 Ornithobia 293 Perlides. 214 Proscopia  9^
Ornithomyia 293 Petalocheirus 197 1 rostomis 
Naucoris 199 Orobitis 174 Phaedon 184 Protemus  38
Nebria 132 Orsodacna 181 Phalacrus 185 Psammodius  54
Necrobia 145 Ortalis 285 Phalaena 250 Psammoecus 18
Necrodes 148 Orthocerus 164 Phawenites 250 Psarus ^
Necrophorus 147 Ortbochaetes 174 Phanaeus 154 Iselaphii 
Necydalis 179 Orthochile 278 Phania 282 Pselaphus !»/
Neraatocera 161 ORTHOPTERA 187 Phasia 281 Psen.... "u
Nentognathus 170 Oryctes 150 Phasma 191 Pseudo-eombyces  «j
Nemoptera 212 Oryssus 218 Philanthus   ~30 Psi a 
Nemosoma 176 Osmia 234 Phileremus 234 Psi opus 
Nemotelus 271 Orygma 288 Phileurus 156 Psilota 
Nemoura 214 Otiocerus 203 Philodotus 162 Psoa. .....
Nepa 199 Oxaea 234 Pholierus 155 Psochus 
Nepides 198 Oxiuri 227 Phora 292 Psychoda 
Nephrotoma 261 Oxybelus 230 Phryganea 214 Psylla.... 
NEUROPTERA .208 Oxycera 271 Phthiria 267 Pterochile 
Nilio 165 Oxyporus 137 Phycis 252 Pterophorites
Nitela   230 Oxytelus 137 Phyllium 191 Pterophorus 
Nitidula... 148 Ozorius 138 Phyllobius 173 Ptihnus 
Nittdularije 148 Phyllocharis 183 Ptiniores........
Noctua   249 Pachygaster 271 Phyllopertha 159 Pdnus. 
Noctuslites.. 248 Pachypus.... 157 Phyllophagi 157 Ptychoptera 
Nocturna  244 Paeciloptera 203 Phytomyza 291 Pulex 
Nomada 234 Paederus 137 Pieris 241 Pupivora 
Norma 232 Palarus 229 Pimelia 163 Pyralis 
Notiophila 289 Palpatores 146 Pimeliaris 163 Pyrochroides..
Nothus  167 Palpicornes .....150 Pimpla 223 Pyrochroa 
Notodonta.... 248 Pamborus 130 Pinophilus 137 Pytho 
Notonecta  200 Pamphilus  218 Piophila 287
Notonectides 200 Panagaeus 128 Pipiza  273 Quadrimani....
Notoxus 168 Pangonia 265 Pipunculus 276
Nyctelia 163 Panorpats 211 Pison 230 Ranatra 
Nycteribia....   293 Panorpa 212 Planiceps 229 Raphidia 
Nymphalis ^...242 Panurgus 233 Planipennes 211 Reduvius 
,274
,176
214
,260
,204
.231
,253
,253
.145
,145
.1.45
.261
.294
.218
,250
.167
.167
.166
.199
.213
.197
/ Rhagium 
Rhamphomyia 
Rhamphus 
Rhaphium 
Rhina 
Rhingia 
Rhinosimus 
Rhinotia 
Rhinotragus 
Rhipicera 
Rhipidia 
Rhisostrogus 
Rhyncha;nus 
Rliynchites 
Rhyncophora 
Rhynchostoma 
Rhyphus 
Rhyzophagus 
Ricinus 
Ripiphorus 
Rophites   
Rutela 
Ryssonotus 
Sagra 
Sagrides 
Salpingus 
Saltatoria  
Saperda 
Sapromyza 
Sapyga 
Saphygites 
Sarcophaga....  
Sargus 
Saropoda 
Saturnia 
Satyrus 
Saio-flies 
ScAPHIDITES.  
Scaphidium 
Scaphura 
ScARABjEIDES 
Scarabaeus 
Scarites 
Scaritides 
Synoptical table of.
Scatophaga 
Scatopse  
Scaurus 
SCENOPINN 
Scenopinus 
Sciara 
Sciomyza.. 
Scolia 
Scolietes 
Scolytus 
Scotinus   
Scotobius 
Scutellera 
Scydmaenus 
Scyrtes 
Securifera 
Semblis  
Sepedon.....4. 
Sepsis. ’
Seraptia  
Serica _  
Sericaria 
Page. Page.
..180 Sericomyia 274
..270 Sericostoma 214
..174 Serricornes 138
..276 Serropalpides 166
..174 Serropalpus 166
..274 Sesia 244
..172 Sesiades   244
..172 Sialis 213
..179 Sigalphus 222
..141 Silis 144
..261 Silk-worm 247
..159 Silpha 148
..174 Silphales..... 147
..172 Silvius 265
..171 Simplicimani 124
..167 Simplicipedes 130
..264 Synoptical table of... 133
..176 Simulia 263
..296 Siphona 279
..167 Sirex ...218
..233 Sitaris 170
..157 Smerinthus  244
..162 Smynthurus 295
Sparedrus 167
..181 Specodes 232
..181 Spectrum 191
..167 Sphaeroderus 130
..191 Sph^rodiota 151
..180 Sphaeridium 151
..285 Sphaerotus 166
..229 Sphegina 273
..229 Spheniscus 166
..283 Sphegides 229
..271 Sphex 229
..134 Sfhingides 243
..246 Sphinx 243
..242 Spondylis 178
..217 Staphylinus 137
..148 Stegana 290
..148 Stelis 234
..192 Stenelytra 165
..152 Stenopterus 179
..156 Stenopteryx 293
..119 Stenostoma 167
..119 Stenotrachelus 166
..121 Stenus   137
..285 Stephanus 222
..263 Sternoxi 138
..163 Steropis 168
..278 Stigmus  230
..278 Stizus 229
..263 Stomoxid.® 279
..288 Stomoxys 279
..229 Stratiomydae 271
..229 Stratiomys 272
..176 STREPSIPTERA 254
.164 Stridulantes 201
..163 Strongylium 166
..195 Stygia 246, 267
..147 Stylops 254
.141 Subulicornes 209
.217 Subulipalpi' 134
..213 SUCTORIAL 294
.289 Sybines 174
.285 Sybistroma 277
..168 Sylvanus 176
,.159 Synagris 231
.248 Synapha 262
Page.
Synetrita 176
Synodendron 162
Syntomium 244
Syntomis 244
Syrphici 272
Syrphus 274
Syrtis 196
Systropha 233
Tabanii 265
Tabanus 265
Tachina 282
Tachinus 138
Tachydromia 270
Tachydromle 270
Tachyporus 138
Tagenia 163
Tamnophilus 174
Tanypeza 287
Tanypus 259
Taxicornes 165
Telephorus 144
Tenebrio 164
Tenebrionites 164
Tentyria 163
Tenth redinetas 217
Tenthredo 217
Terebrantia 217
Termes 213
TermitinjE 213
Tesscratoma 196
Tetanocera 289
Tetanops 286
Tetanura 287
Tetramera 170
Tetrix 194
Tettigometra 203
Tettigonia 204
Thais 241
Thereva 266
Therina 291
Thrips 2Q5
Thymalus 148
Thynnus 229
Thyreophora 288
Thyris   244
THYSANOURA 294
Tiger-moth 248
Timarcha 184
Timia 287
Tineites 251
Tinea 252
Tingis 197
Tiphia 229
Tipula 261
TipularIjE 258
Tmesisternus 179
Tomicus 176
Tortrices 249
Toxophora 268
Toxotus 180
Trachelides 167
Trachyderes 178
Trachynotus 163
Trachys 139
Tragocerus 179
Tragopa 204
Trichides 161
Page.
Trichius 161
Trichocera 262
Trichoptera 214
Tridactylus 192
Trigones 237
Trimera 185
TrineuRjE 292
Triphyllus 176
Triplax 185
Tritoma 185
Trixa 282
Trogosita 177
TrogositjE 177
Tropidia 275
Trox 155
Trypeta 286
Tryphon 222
Trypoxylon 230
Truncatipennes 115
Synoptical table of....117
Truxalis 193
Tubicenus 172
Tylode 174
Uleoiota 177
Ulidia 287
Ulocerus 172
Upis 164
Urania 243
Urocerata   218
Usia   268
Vanessa 241
Velia 198
Vespa   231
VespiarijE 230
Volucella 276
Wasps 231
Wire-worm 140
Wood-bugs 195
Xenos 
Xiphydria....
Xorides 
Xyela 
Xylocopa...
Xylophagi
Xylophagus
Xylofhjli .
Xylophilus...
Xylota 
XylotomjE.
Xylotrogi ,
Xysta 
 254
 218
 222
 218
 233
176, 264
 264
 155
 172
 273
 266
 146
 281
Zabrus 124
Zelus  197
Zephyrius 242
Zeuxia .283
Zeuzera 246
Zodion 278
Zonitis 170
Zophosis 163
Zygaena 244
Zyg^enides 244
Zygops ....174
302
EON
F.ntre Du. ENTRE DUERO E MINHO, one of the provinces into
eroe Min-which the kingdom of Portugal is divided. As its name
ho
II
Eonians.
denotes, it is bounded on the north by the river Minho,
which divides it from Spain, and on the south by the river
Duero. The Atlantic Ocean is its western boundary, and
on the east a chain of elevated mountains separates it
from the province of Tras os Montes. It has by far t le
most dense population of any part either of Spain or 1 or-
tugal, and extends over a surface of 291 square leagues.
Thenumberofitsinhabitantsin 1798 amounted to 907,965.
It enjoys the best climate, the most fertile soil, and the
most beautiful rivulets, not only of Portugal, but of the
whole peninsula. Its vegetable productions are oranges,
lemons, maize, wheat, and especially wine. ihe latter
article is the great object of export, and forms the prin¬
cipal trade of the kingdom, as almost all the red wine,
commonly named port, from the city whence it is ship¬
ped, is the growth of Entre Duero e Minho. Both its sea
coasts and rivers abound with most excellent fish, which
forms the foundation of considerable commerce. Consi¬
derable manufactures are conducted, which furnish hats,
linens, sail-cloth, woollen cloths, and various kinds of silks
and satins. These, though not sufficiently cheap to be
sent to other parts of Europe, supply the demands of the
kino-dom, and a portion is exported to Brazil and the set¬
tlements on the coast of Africa. The rivers next in im¬
portance to those which bound it are the Lima, the Ca-
bado, the Deste, and the Ave, all which run from east
to west, and form natural defences, aided by the moun¬
tains, against any invading enemy. The city of Braga is
the capital, though Oporto is in every respect the first city
in the province, only that Braga, as the see of an archbi-
shop, is usually considered as the chief place. This pro-
vince lies between 41. 6. and 42. 6. north latitude.
ENTHEPAS, in the manege, a broken pace, which is
neither walk nor trot, but is somewhat of an amble.
ENTRY, in Laiv, signifies taking possession of lands
or tenements, where a person has a right so to do.
Entry of an Heir, in Scotch Law, that legal form by
which an heir vests in himself a title to his predecessor’s
estate.
ENUMERATION, an account of several things, in
which mention is made of every particular article.
Enumeration, in Hhetoric, a part of the peroration, in
which the orator, collecting the scattered heads of what
had been delivered throughout the discourse, makes a
brief and artful relation or recapitulation of the whole.
ENVELOPE, in Fortification, a work of earth, some¬
times in the form of a simple parapet, and at others like a
small rampart with a parapet. It is sometimes raised on
the ditch, and sometimes beyond it. Envelopes are of a
zigzag form, in order to enclose a weak ground, with single
lines, where that is practicable, or to save the expense of
horn-works, crown-works, and tenailles, where room is
wanting for such defences. Envelopes in a ditch are call¬
ed sillons, counter-guards, and lunettes.
ENVIRONNE', in Heraldry, signifies surrounded with
other things. Thus, they say, a lion environne with so
many bezants.
ENVOY, a person deputed to negotiate some affair, not
of a very solemn or important nature, with any foreign
prince or state.
ENVY, pain felt, and malignity conceived, at the sight
of excellence or happiness in another.
ENZELLI, a town of Persia, in the province of Ghilan,
built entirely of reeds, as the sandy soil will not bear a
more solid edifice, and consists of two parts, New and Old,
inhabited by Persians, Armenians, and Russians. It is six
miles north of Reshd.
EONIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, the followers of
E P A
Eon, a wild fanatic of the province of Bretagne, in the I,
tenth century. He concluded, from the resemblance be¬
tween eum, in the form of exorcising malignant spiritsLf »
(per eum, qui venturus estjudicare vivos et mortuos), and J
his own name Eon, that he was the son of God, and or- f
dained to judge the quick and dead. Eon, however, was
solemnly condemned by the council at Rheims in 1148,
at which Pope Eugenius III. presided, and he ended his
days miserably in a prison. This insane fanatic left be¬
hind him a number of followers and adherents, whom per¬
secution and death could not persuade to abandon his
cause, or to renounce an absurdity which, as Mosheim
observes, one would think could never have gained credit
in any place but bedlam. _
EDO A, Eaoowe, or Middleburg. This island is the
most eastern of the Friendly Islands, in the South I acific
Ocean. It is about thirty miles in circuit, and has an
elevated and unequal surface. Ihe north-east coast rises
suddenly, but the north-west consists of valleys, meadows,
and plains, abounding with groves of fruit trees, sugar-
canes, bananas, shaddocks, and vegetables of various sorts.
It was discovered in 1643, by lasman, who called it Mid¬
dleburg. Long. 174. 30. E. Lat. 21. 24. S.
EORIA, in Mythology, a feast celebrated by the Athe¬
nians in honour of Erigonus, who, by way of punishment
for their not avenging the death of his father Icarus, in¬
duced the gods to inflict on their daughters the curse of
loving men who returned not their passion. The feast was
instituted by the order of Apollo.
EOSTRE, in Mythology, a Saxon goddess to whom
sacrifices were offered in the month of April, called the
month of Eostra ; and hence the name Easter, which
the Saxons retained after their conversion to Christianity,
applying it to the festival celebrated in commemoration
of our Saviour’s resurrection.
EPACTS, in Chronology, the excess of the solar month
above the lunar synodical month, and of the solar year
above the lunar year of twelve synodical months; or o se¬
veral solar months above as many synodical months, and
several solar years above as many dozen synodical months.
See Chronology. .t,, , u
EPAMINONDAS, son of Polymnis the Theban, born
about 410 b. c., was one of those distinguished charac¬
ters whose appearance forms an epoch in the history o
their country. The position of Thebes was not such as
to enable it to take a prominent part in the attairs o
Greece ; and, excepting during the short period w en
Epaminondas and Pelopides were at the head of the govern
ment, it seems to have been dependent either on bpar
or on Athens, according as the power of the one or t e
other prevailed. The earlier years of Epaminondas we
spent under the direction of Lysis the Pythagorean P '
losopher; and, if we may credit the story told by B>oao
rus, he was the fellow-student of Philip of Macedon •
Devoted though he seems to have been to the stu y
philosophy, he did not neglect those lighter accompiisn-
ments which add grace to the character; and Nepos
thinks it necessary to tell us the names of the I”fs,
from whom he derived his knowledge of music an
cing. i n the
At the period when Epaminondas appeared up
stage, the small republics of Greece were torn 4° P1
by intestine dissensions ; at one time the party of t c
and noble prevailed, at another the power ^ ev..as
cracy was predominant. Of the latter party fe.n j 0t'
the main prop, whilst Sparta was the powerful r1^ .jj
the former. It does not appear that Epaminondas
earlier years took any prominent part in support o e ^
faction, being probably disgusted by the intrigues an
morseless cruelty which he saw practised by all par
H!
E P A
• -the pursuit of whatever object they had in view. He was
present indeed at the battle of Mantinea (385 b. c.), fought
1' between the Arcadians and Spartans; and it w-as mainly
through his efforts that it was decided in favour of the
latter, on the very same ground which was destined a few
years afterwards (362 b. c.) to witness his own death, and
the defeat of his allies.
During the whole period of his political life his friend¬
ship with Pelopidas was uninterrupted, and, according to
Plutarch, nothing reflected greater glory on both, than
that they never allowed a feeling of rivalry to interfere
with their exertions for their common country. Yet no
two individuals could possibly be more dissimilar in cha¬
racter, as Pelopidas loved all the pomp and splendour of
power, whilst Epaminondas was better pleased to remain
in poverty and retirement. The nobles, mistrusting their
own strength, received a Spartan garrison (382 b. c.) into
their citadel, and Pelopidas and the chiefs*of the popular
party were banished; but Epaminondas, who was suppos¬
ed to be more engaged in the speculations of philosophy
than in the active affairs of life, was allowed to remain.
Three years afterwards a conspiracy was formed to recover
the independence of Thebes ; but though his friend Pelo¬
pidas was at its head, Epaminondas refused to join in the
attempt, wisely judging that the bloodshed and rapine
which would inevitably follow any violent change in the
government must more than counterbalance the good an¬
ticipated from the success of the popular party. The
conspirators succeeded without his assistance, yet prudent¬
ly adopted the moderate counsels which he recommend¬
ed. The Spartans made an attempt to recover their power,
but, being defeated by Pelopidas, were induced to listen to
terms of accommodation. A general diet of all the states
of Greece was summoned at Sparta, in order that peace
might be established on just and sound principles. Epa¬
minondas was the deputy appointed by Thebes, and the
able manner in which he maintained the interests of his
country did not disappoint the expectations of his fellow-
citizens. He refused to emancipate the cities of Boeotia
from the control of Thebes, unless Sparta was prepared
to act the same part towards those subject to her in La¬
conia. Negotiations were broken off, as neither party
showed a disposition to yield, and orders were sent to
Cleombrotus the Spartan general, then in Phocis, to com¬
mence hostilities against the Thebans. It was now that
Epaminondas, by the consent of all, was appointed to the
chief command, and the measures which he took to pro¬
tect the country from the incursions of Cleombrotus were
>o complete that they compelled the Spartan general to
retire from Chaeronea, where he had taken up his position.
Eleombrotus descended from the mountains to the sea
more, and passing along the difficult and rugged coast at
.he foot of Mount Helicon, reached without interruption
•he plains of Leuctra, at no great distance from Thebes.
Here he found the troops of the Thebans posted on the
’eights around ; and in the council of war which was held
t required all the ability of Epaminondas to persuade the
ahcers that the fate of their country ought to be staked on
he chances of a general engagement. In this, however,
ie succeeded, and immediately drew out his men in order
’f battle.
The result of his arrangements was a complete victory,
,ained in July 371 b. c. To his friends who congratulated
’lm ’e answered, “ that his chief pleasure arose from his
aients being alive to enjoy his triumph.” Two years af-
'OOnff entered the Peloponnesus at the head of
’ f1?60’ carry*ng terror and desolation to the very
ie CS ° ^jace^a2mon> which had not for five or six centu-
ipU S/ln t^e sm°ke of an enemy’s camp. He was com-
e > however, to retire, by the able generalship of Age-
E P E
silaus, though not until he had devastated the whole coun¬
try around. On his return home he was brought to trial,
along with Pelopidas and the other generals, for having
retained his command four months beyond the time spe¬
cified by law. He recommended the other generals to
plead as their excuse his superior orders, and then boldly
said to the assembly, “ I acknowledge that the law con¬
demns me to death ; all I ask is, that the sentence passed
on me may be couched in these words: Epaminondas was
punished for having conquered the Spartans at Leuctra,
for having besieged Lacedasmon, and rebuilt Messene.”
The boldness of this answer was of course applauded, and
Epaminondas acquitted ; yet his enemies had sufficient in¬
fluence with the people to exclude him from all honour¬
able employment. Some time-afterwards he redeemed his
character by a successful campaign against Alexander,
the tyrant oi Pherae, in Thessaly, and by delivering his
friend Pelopidas from the hands of that unprincipled des¬
pot. A war broke out between the Tegeates in Arcadia,
who had implored the assistance of the Thebans, and the
Mantineans, who were supported by Lacedemon. The
two armies met near Mantinea, the modern village oi'Pale-
opoli, when Epaminondas employing a manoeuvre similar
to that which had succeeded at Leuctra, gained a com¬
plete victory, but was wounded by a javelin, the iron point
of which remained in his body. Before he expired, he
inquired for the generals Deiphantus and Joliidas, and be¬
ing told they were dead, bemadded, “ Then persuade the
Thebans to make peace.” In fact, from this moment,
Thebes, to use the expression of an ancient writer, was a
javelin deprived of its iron point, and ceased to be formi¬
dable. Epaminondas died on the 4th July 362 b. c. one of
the most perfect models that Greece presents of a great
captain, a true patriot, and a philosophic sage.
His life was written by Plutarch, but it has been unfor¬
tunately lost; there are, however, many details of it con¬
tained in the lives of Agesilaus and Pelopidas, and also in
his moral works. But it is to Xenophon that we are in¬
debted for the chief facts. The life of Epaminondas by
Cornelius Nepos has been evidently mutilated. The rea¬
der may also consult Diodorus Siculus, x. xvi. xv.; Pausa-
nias, Polybius, iElian, and Valerius Maximus. A long
and uninteresting life has been published by De la Tour,
Paris 1739, 12mo ; by Meismer, in German, 12mo, Prague,
1798 ; and in the Memoires de VAcad, des Inscript, et Idelles
Lettres, vol. xiv. p. 113.
E PARER, in the manege, signifies the flinging of a
horse, or his yerking and striking with his hind legs.
EPAULEMENT, in Fortijication, is a kind of breast¬
work, constructed to cover the troops in front, and some¬
times also in flank. In a siege, an epaulement of eight or
ten feet in height is generally raised near the entrance of
the approaches, in order to cover the cavalry which is
placed there to support the guard of the trenches. These
works are commonly constructed of filled gabions, or of
fascines and earth intermixed. The term epaulement is
frequently applied to any work thrown up to defend the
flank of a post or other place; it also denotes sometimes
a demi-bastion, and at others a square orillon, for cover¬
ing the cannon of a casemate.
EPAULETTES are a kind of military shoulder-knots,
which are made of different materials, according as they
are worn by officers or by common soldiers.
EPENTHESIS, in Grammar^ the interposition or in¬
sertion of a letter or syllable in the middle of a word; as
alituum for alitum, relligio for religio, induperator for
imperator, and the like.
EPERIES, a city of Hungary, in the circle of the Hi¬
ther Theiss. It is the seat of the several boards for the go¬
vernment of the circle, and contains 806 houses, and 7426
303
E P H
inhabitants, who make much linen and woollen goods, and
some very excellent wine. Long. 21. 10. 25. E. Lat. 48.
58. 45. N.
EPHA, or Ephah, in Jewish antiquity, a dry measure,
equal to three pecks and three pints.
EPHEBiEUM, \n Antiquity, the place where theephebi
or youth exercised; or, as some think, where those who
designed to exercise met and agreed on the kind of exer¬
cise which they should contend in, and what should be
the victor’s reward. ... *
EPHEBI, among the Athenians, a designation given to
their young men when they arrived at eighteen years ot
age, at which period they had their names entered in a
public register. , r
EPHEMERA, from iifitgx, a day; a diary fever, or a
fever of one day’s continuance.
EPHEMERIDES, in Astronomy, tables calculated by
astronomers, showing the actual state of the heavens for
every day at noon; that is, the places in which all the
planets are found at- that time. It is from these tables
that the eclipses, conjunctions, and aspects of the planets
are determined. In England, the Nautical Almanack, or
Astronomical Ephemcris, published annually by anticipa¬
tion, under the direction of the Board of Longitude, is the
most considerable work ot the kind.
EPHESUS, the chief city of Ionia, in Asia Minor, on
the south side, and near the mouth of the river Cayster
(now called Kutchuc Mended, or Lesser Maeander), was
320 stadia, or forty miles, to the south of Smyrna, and 540,
or three days’ journey, from Sardis, the capital of Lydia.
It was situated at the extremity of a rich and beautiful
plain, called Campus Cilbianus, through which the river
flowed, and which still retains its former character, after
centuries of Turkish oppression. Ephesus was originally
founded by the Leleges and Carians, who were compelled
to make way for an Ionian colony led by Androclus, son
of Codrus. The inhabitants continued to be distributed
over the neighbouring district until the reign of Croesus
(560 to 546 b.c.), when, being attacked by that prince,
they are said to have dedicated their city to Diana, by
fastening a rope from their walls to the temple of the god¬
dess. They gradually deserted the ancient site, and ap¬
proached the position of the sacred temple, where they
are said to have continued until the time of Alexander the
Great (330 b. c.). Lysimachus having obtained posses¬
sion of the city (302 b. c.), compelled the inhabitants, by
inundating the ancient site, to remove higher up to a spot
which he surrounded with wralls. We find that it was de¬
livered over to the kings of Pergamus by the Romans, after
the defeat of Antiochus (190 b. c.); and, amidst all the
changes of government which subsequently took place,
Ephesus continued to increase in riches and prosperity,
being in the time of Strabo (24 b. c.) the emporium of
Asia. It was considered by the Romans as the first of
the three chief cities of Asia, the two others being Smyr¬
na and Pergamus; and in the later divisions of the coun¬
try under the Christian emperors, we are told by Hiero-
cles that it was the capital of the important provinces of
Asia. Ephesus was lost to the empire at an earlier period
than the other parts of Western Asia. Some time before
the commencement of the Crusades (1096 a. d.), a chief
of the Saracens made himself master of Ephesus; but
the crusaders restored it to its ancient master. In the
fourteenth century it fell into the hands of a prince of Ca-
ramania named Sasan ; and from this time it ceased to be¬
long to the Greek empire. It still, however, continued to
exist down even to the time of Timur or Tamerlane (1370
a. d.), who for a considerable period had a camp under its
walls, and who is supposed to have destroyed it, as he did
many other cities.
E P H
Ephesus was more particularly celebrated on account E
of the temple of Diana, which, according to Pausanias, ex- s.
isted even before the arrival of the lonians. Its architect
was Chersiphron of Cnossus, in Crete, assisted by his son
Metagenes; and as the ground on which the temple was
erected was marshy, it is said that he obtained a firm
foundation by means of heaps of charcoal and wool, pack¬
ed closely together in sacks. It was the only temple in
Asia which escaped the doom pronounced against them
by Xerxes on his return from Greece (480 b.c.); but it
was burnt to the ground 356 b. c. by a madman named
Eratostratus, who is said to have taken this method of im-
mortalizing his name. This event took place the very
night on which Alexander the Great was born; and the
temple seems to have remained in ruins till that monarch
offered to restore it, on condition that he should be de¬
clared the founder. This proposal, however, the Ephesi¬
ans declined to accept, cunningly soothing the wounded
vanity of the hero by saying, “ that it was beneath the
dignity of one god to erect a temple to another.” Hav¬
ing collected sufficient funds amongst themselves and their
neighbours, they entrusted its restoration to the architect
Dinocrates, who is reported to have conceived the extra¬
vagant project of forming a statue of Alexander out of
Mount Athos. The new edifice was much larger, and
constructed with more magnificence, than the original
temple. It was 425 feet in length and 220 in breadth,
with 227 pillars, each 60 feet in height. It is said to have
been of the Ionic order of architecture. The interior
was adorned with numerous pieces of sculpture by the
celebrated Praxiteles. Thraso and Scopas were also em¬
ployed in its decoration; and there was a picture in it by
the celebrated Apelles. The statue of the goddess was
more particularly the object of veneration, having been
preserved in safety amidst all the vicissitudes to which
the temple and city had been exposed. It was of wood,
and, according to Pliny, was covered with some unctu¬
ous substance, to guard it from decay. I he service of
the temple was performed by priests called Megabyzae,
who were eunuchs, and to whom were added a number of
priestesses. The temple was an asylum for criminals of
every description. Alexander extended the privilege to
a stadium round the edifice; Mithridates fixed it at a
bow-shot; and Antony doubled the distance, so that it
included part of the town. It may easily be conceived
that such a privilege must have been liable to great a •
uses; and in fact it became at last so dangerous to the
peace of the city, that Augustus caused it to be abolish¬
ed. It was seven stadia, or about an English mile, fiom
the walls of the city; but no modern traveller seems yet
to have discovered its remains. Pococke has indeed gnen
a gi'ound plan of what he considered as the temple, u
his description by no means agrees with wdiat is relate
of the seventh wonder of the world.
The ruins of Ephesus are seen half a mile from the
Turkish village of Aiasluk, which seems to have risen
about the middle of the fourteenth century. Chandler
thus speaks of its present appearance : “ Ephesus was si
tuated by the mountains which are the southern boun
dary of the plain, and comprehended within its wa s
portion of Mount Prion and of Corissus. Mount Prion
a circular hill; Corissus a single lofty ridge, extend^
northward from near Mount Pactyas, and approve in&
Prion, then making an elbow, and running wester y
wards the sea. We entered Ephesus from Aiasluk,J ^
Mount Prion, and the exterior lateral wall of a sta m
which fronted the sea, on our left hand. Me me®?
ed the area, and found it 687 feet long. The ves ig
of the theatre alluded to in the Acts of _the Apos^ j
which was very capacious, are farther on in the si
E P H
ihet:
II
jhon
i the same mountain. Going on from the theatre, you come
to a narrow valley which divides Mount Prion from Co-
•rissus. Within the valley you find broken columns and
oieces of marble, with vestiges of an odeum in the slope
dF Prion. Beyond the odeum the valley opens gradually
into the plain of Aiasluk. Keeping round by Prion, you
meet with vestiges of buildings, and come to the remains
of a large edifice. This was the gymnasium. The street
at the entrance of the city from Aiasluk was nearly of the
iength of the stadium. The opposite side was composed
of edifices equally ample and noble. The way was be¬
tween a double colonnade, as we conjectured, from the
many pedestals and bases of columns scattered there.
This street was covered by one leading from the plain to
the valley. It had on the left the front of the stadium,
and the theatre with the portico adjoining. On the right
are ample substructures, with pieces of massive wall.
These remains reach as far as the portico, and have be¬
hind them a morass, once the city port. The extent of
the city towards the plain, on which side it was washed
by the Cayster, cannot now be ascertained ; but the moun¬
tainous region has preserved its boundary, the wall erect¬
ed by Lysimachus, which is of excellent masonry. Near
the entrance of Ephesus from Aiasluk are the vaults of
several sepulchres, and others along the slope of Corissus
show that the Ephesians buried likewise within the city.”
Travels in Asia Minor, chap. 35.)
EPHETiE, judges who in early times presided over
he five criminal courts of justice at Athens, taking cog-
lizance of every description of homicide. They were
ifty-one in number, and required to be of noble birth.
Solon first separated the Areopagus from the other four
ourts; and from this time the jurisdiction of the ephetae
ras confined to cases of unintentional or justifiable homi-
ide. It formed part of their duty to see that the person
dio had committed the act should be properly expiated
; y sacrifice and other rites. He was obliged to leave his
ountry, by a particular road, for a certain time, which
ras generally eight years, though at Athens it was pro-
I 'ably undetermined. During this time he was bound to
eep at a distance from places of public resort; and when
ie returned, a reconciliation took place, either with the
indred, or certain chosen ploratores. (See Plutarch,
'iolon, 29; Pollux, viii. 125.)
EPHOD, in Jewish antiquity, a part of the priestly
abit, being a kind of girdle, which, being brought from
ehind the neck over the two shoulders, and hanging
own before, was put across the stomach, then carried
ound the waist, and made use of as a cincture to the
unic. There were two sorts of ephods ; one of plain linen
)r the priests, and the other embroidered for the high
! nest. a
EPHORI, ancient Doric magistrates, whose power and
inuence seem to have varied at different times. In Spar-
i tie college consisted of five, and they entered on their
nnual office at the autumnal solstice, the beginning of
16 aced$monian year. The first of these magistrates
ave name to the year, in the same way as the first elect-
consul did at Rome; and they began their official du¬
es by publishing a species of edicts, in which they ap-
omted the secret officers or muvtm. In this edict was
)un the strange metaphorical expression for subjection
|11 obedience, “ that they must shave the beard and obey
ie aws. I hey held their daily meetings in an office
. aPa[,t ^or ^em (d^s/ov), where they were also in the
aoit of eating together.
t is supposed by Muller, in his able treatise on the po-
a institutions of the Dorians, that the duties of the
ilp®11 W^rer0r'g*na^y t0 superintendence of
’ an ^e public markets. Aristotle informs us,
Vol.ix.
E P H
whilst describing their judicial powers, that they decided
civil causes, but that the council presided over all capi¬
tal crimes. It appears therefore that the court of ephori
gave judgment respecting civil duties and property. The
Periaeci and Helots, when they were in Sparta, were also
under its jurisdiction. But the ephori gradually extend¬
ed their authority; and it seems to have been the usual
course of events in Greece, that the civil courts should
enlarge their influence, whilst the power of the criminal
courts was continually on the decline.
The circumstance which seems principally to have ex¬
tended the jurisdiction of the ephori, was the privilege
they enjoyed of instituting an inquiry into the official con¬
duct of all magistrates, excepting that of councillors. We
do not mean to say that this scrutiny always took place ;
but the ephori had it in their power to compel any magi¬
strate to stand his trial, if they had remarked any thing
suspicious in his administration. The king was not ex¬
empted from this power, but bound to yield as implicit
obedience as the lowest officer of the state. Thus we find
Cleomenes tried for bribery before the Persian war. But it
must not be supposed that the ephori could of themselves
punish with death; they were only the accusers before a
larger court, which consisted of all the councillors, of the
ephori themselves, who seem to have acted both as ac¬
cusers and judges, of the other king, and probably of
several other magistrates, who had all equal votes. The
ephori had only the power to impose fines, and to demand
immediate payment. Thus Agesilaus was fined for en¬
deavouring to make himself popular; wdiilst Archidamus
was reprimanded for having married a wife of too small
stature. Sometimes we find them punishing one man for
having introduced money into the state, another for in¬
dolence, and a third for the most extraordinary reason,
namely, that he was generally ill treated and insulted.
The ephori appear from very ancient times to have had
a right to transact business with the popular assembly in
preference to any other magistrates. They could convene
the people and put the vote to them. They had great
authority in transacting with foreign nations, admitting
ambassadors, and dismissing them from the confines of
the kingdom. In time of war they were empowered to
send troops on whatever day they thought fit, and seem
even to have been able to determine the number of men.
The army was then entrusted to the king, or some other
general, who received from them instructions how to act,
and was even restrained in his proceedings by deputies
whom the ephori sent to watch over him. The general
could be recalled by the scytala, and their first duty was
to visit the office of the ephori. It is impossible, how¬
ever, to believe that the ephori could act by their own au¬
thority on such important occasions as these ; they could
only have been the agents and plenipotentiaries of the
popular assembly. It must in fact have been the decrees
of the people which they put in execution.
The office of the ephori was abolished by Cleomenes,
but restored under the Roman dominion. (See Muller’s
Dorier, Breslau, 1824, t. ii. p. 111-129.)
EPHORUS, a celebrated Greek historian of Cunae in
iEolis, born about the year 362 b. c., a year memorable for
the battle of Mantinea. His father’s name was Demophi-
lus, or Antiochus; and being contemporary of Eudoxus
and Theopompus, he studied along with them under the
philosopher Isocrates. Of his personal history we are en¬
tirely ignorant; and if it were not for the high character
he enjoyed among the ancients as an orator and histo¬
rian, his name would be unworthy of notice. It was Iso¬
crates who directed his attention more particularly to that
branch of literature in which he eventually became so
eminent; and, to mark the distinctive peculiarities in the
2 Q
305
Ephorus.
306
Ephorus
II
Ephraim.
E P H
mind and character of his two pupils Theopompus and
Ephorus, the philosopher is reported to have said, “ se
calcaribus in Ephoro, contra autem in Theopompo frenis
uti solere.”
The great work of Ephorus was a history of the wars
between the Greeks and Persians, in which, like Herodo¬
tus, he introduced, in the form of episodes, the description
of foreign and barbarous nations, yet only in as tar as they
were connected with and served to illustrate Grecian his¬
tory. It must be allowed, however, that the Greeks consi¬
dered the work of Ephorus as an universal history; but
then this may be explained from the extreme vanity of that
nation, in believing that their history was the central point
on which that of the whole world turned. Meier Marx,
who has published a collection of the fragments of this
work, has endeavoured to give us the contents ot the
thirty books of which it was composed.
The first book contained an account of the return ot
the Heraclida? into the Peloponnesus, and the change of
affairs consequent upon that event; and the second was
occupied with the state of the rest of Greece; and the
third narrated the departure of the Greek colonies to Asia.
In these three books he thus brought the history of
Greece and Asia down to that period when they began
to assume a peaceful aspect, probably a few years before
the commencement of the Median war. After this intro¬
duction he proceeded to describe separately each coun¬
try which subsequently became the scene of important
transactions; in the fourth book Europe, in the fifth
Asia and Africa, and in the sixth he probably gave an ac¬
count of the nation of the Pelasgi. dhe seventh book
contained the most ancient traditionary notices of Sicily,
and probably all he could collect respecting the original
inhabitants of Italy and the adjacent islands. The eighth
book narrated the various changes of fortune to which
those nations had been subject, who in succession held the
supreme command in Asia, namely, the Assyrians, Ly¬
dians, and Persians. The fragments which remain refer
principally to the affairs of Croesus. In the ninth hook we
had the origin, changes, and migrations of the Amazons,
Scythians, and other nations who inhabited the coasts of
the Pontus and those northern countries, whence, through
Thrace and Thessaly, he returned to Greece and its affairs.
Then it was that Ephorus reached the period when, like
every Greek historian, he imagined that the transactions
of the whole world became centred in the causes and
events of the Persian war ; and then also he began to treat
his subject with more copiousness, for we find that in his
tenth hook he had already brought down his history to the
times of Miltiades, about 490 b. c. In his eighteenth
book he had reached Dercyllidas, 399 b. c. In his twenty-
filth he had arrived at the battle of Mantinea, 362 b. c. We
thus see that he must have employed seven or eight books
in describing thirty-seven years, whilst his last four or five
books could contain the history of only twenty-two years.
The part of the thirtieth hook which gave an account of
the sacred war was composed, not by Ephorus himself, but
by his son Demophilus ; at the conclusion of the war
Ephorus took up the thread of the history, and continued
it to the siege of Perinthus, 340 b. c. According to
Diodorus Siculus, the whole period treated of was 750
years.
Eor a more full description of the life of Ephorus, and a
collection of the fragments of his history which have been
preserved, the reader may consult Ephori Fragmenta a
Marxio, Caroluh, 1815 ; Creuzer, Symbolik and Mytho-
logie der alten Volker, besonders der Griechen, Leipsic, 1819 ;
Vossius De Historicis Greeds, Lugd. Bat. 1651 ; and Ul-
rici, Charakteristik der antiken historiographic, Berlin, 1833.
EPHRAIM, in Ancient Geography, one of the tribe di-
E P I
visions of Palestine. Ephraim and the half tribe of Ma- \J
nasseh are blended together by the sacred writer; and it il
appears that Ephraim occupied the more southern, and ^
the half tribe of Manasseh the more northern parts, but^
both seem to have extended from the Jordan to the sea.
Ephraim also denotes a kingdom, on the separation of the
ten tribes from the house of David, called the kingdom
of Israel and Samaria.
EPHREM Syeus, an ancient Christian writer, in the
fourth century, deacon of Edessa, was born at Nisibe in
Syria. He was greatly esteemed by Basil, Gregory Na-
zianzen, and other eminent men. He wrote against the
opinions of Sabellius, Arius, Apollonarius, and the Mani-
chaeans, and acquired such reputation that he was styled
the doctor and the prophet of the Syrians. He died in
the year 378. The best editions of his works are, that of
Oxford, in 1708, in folio ; and that of Rome, from 1732
to 1738, in Syriac, Greek, and Latin, six vols. folio.
EPHYDOR, in Antiquity, an officer in the Athenian
courts of justice, whose business it was to provide the plain¬
tiff and defendant with equal water hour-glasses. When
the glass had run out, they were not permitted to speak
any longer ; and therefore we find them very careful not
to lose or mis-spend one drop ot the water. Whilst the
laws quoted by them were reciting, or if any other busi¬
ness happened to intervene, they gave orders that the
glass should he stopped.
EPIBATiE, part of the crew which manned an Athe¬
nian vessel. The triremes of this people were of two sorts,
either swift-sailing vessels or transport ships. The latter
were filled with land forces which it was intended to trans¬
port to some particular point, and, being heavily laden,
were never employed in battle excepting in cases of great
emergency; the former contained only the necessary crew
for the working and defence of the vessel. I he troops
embarked in these transports were, like all other passen¬
gers by sea, called Epibatae. But the crew also of the
swift-sailing vessels consisted of two distinct bodies ot
men; the soldiers intended for their defence, called Epi¬
batae, who seem to have occupied the place of our marines;
and the sailors who were employed for the purpose of work¬
ing the vessel. These Epibatae were perfectly distinct
from the land forces, the oplitae and pellestae, and were
entirely devoted to the sea. It seems difficult to decide how
many of them were attached to each ship, for there areoni)
two passages in ancient authors from which any inference
can he drawn. Herodotus (vi. 15) says, that the Chians,
when they armed one hundred ships against the Persians,
embarked forty able-bodied citizens as Epibatae in eaci
trireme ; whilst Plutarch (in Themist. 14) tells us t at
there were only eighteen Epibatae on board the Attic
triremes at Salamis, four of whom were archers, and the
rest heavy-armed men. See Bdckh, Die Staatshaushultung
der Athener, vol. i. p. 301, Berlin, 1817.
EPIBATERION, a poetical composition, in useamongs
the ancient Greeks. When any person of condition am
quality returned home after a long absence or journey
into another country, he called together his friends an
fellow-citizens, and made them a speech, or rehearse
a prepared copy of verses, in which he returned solemn
thanks to the immortal gods for his happy return, im
ended with an address by way of compliment to his e^
low-citizens. These verses formed what the Greeka ca^
i-ziCars^iov, epibaterium, from zkiQouvm, 1 set out. O*1 1 ^
occasion of departure they had another analogous conip
sition, called apobaterium.
EPIC, or Heroic, Poem, a poem expressed in narra m
formed upon a story partly real and partly feigne ,
representing, in a sublime style, some signal and for ui
action, distinguished by a variety of great events, m or
E P I
E P I
307
licec
I!
piclu
toni
rY'
to form the morals, and affect tlie mind with the love of
heroic virtue. See Poetry.
EPICEDION (from sir/, upon, and xtjcSos, funeral), in
Greek and Latin poetry, a poem, or poetical composition,
on the death of any one. At the obsequies of persons
of consequence there were three kinds of discourses usu¬
ally made: that rehearsed at the bustum or funeral pile
was called nenia ; that engraven on the tomb, epitaphion ;
and that spoken in the ceremony of his funeral, epicedion.
We have two beautiful epicedions in Virgil; that of Eu-
ryalus, and that of Pallas.
EPICEDIUM, in ancient poetry, a poem rehearsed dur¬
ing the funeral ceremonies of persons of distinction.
EPICHARMUS, a celebrated poet of the old comedy,
the son of Helothales, a native of Cos, but who having been
carried into Sicily at the age of three months, is general¬
ly known as a Sicilian, the name of his adopted country
having prevailed over that of the country of his birth.
He was a pupil of Pythagoras ; for there seems abundant
proof that Epicharmus the Pythagorean and Epicharmus
the father oflhe old comedy were one and the same per¬
son. He was the author of many comedies, w ritten in
trochaic tetrameters, which he began to exhibit about
the year 500 b. c., and continued down to the reign of
Hiero, 477 b. c. Plautus is said to have imitated him
(Hor. Ep. ii. 1, 57), and Ennius translated one of his
moral works. He used to say that the principal requi¬
site in a philosopher was not to believe rashly. (Cic. De
Petit. Cons. c. 10.)
Epicharmus is much less known and esteemed than his
peculiar style of writing and dramatic skill deserve. The
subjects of his plays were mostly mythological, being pa¬
rodies or travesties of mythology, nearly in the style of
the satirical drama of Athens. Thus, in the comedy of
Busiris, Hercules was represented in a most ludicrous light
as a voracious glutton ; and he seems again to have been
exhibited in the same character in the Marriage of Hebe.
It is supposed that the figures on a vase now preserved
in the British Museum, and which was found at Bari in
i the kingdom of Naples, were intended to represent the
characters in the play of Epicharmus entitled Vulcan,
or the Revellers. (See Millin, Galerie Mytholoyique,
xiii. 48, for the figures.) The play began, as we are told,
with Vulcan chaining his mother Juno by magical charms
to a seat, from which he only released her after long en¬
treaties. Vulcan being, in consequence of this act, ill
treated by his parents, entirely deserted Olympus, until
Bacchus, having made him drunk, placed him on an ass,
and thus brought him in jolly merriment back to Olym¬
pus. But Epicharmus, like Aristophanes, sometimes han¬
dled political subjects. Thus, according to Hemsterhuis
(ad Pollux, ix. 4. 26), the piece called ' A^nctyti, or the
| Plunderings, which described the devastation of Sicily
ni his time, had a political meaning; and this was per¬
haps also the case with “ The Islands.” The style of his
plays was not less various than his subjects ; he passed
rom rude buffoonery to a more serious strain, introducing
tnaxims and moral sentences, together with precepts of
t ie Pythagorean philosophy. That the dramatic style of
picharmus was perfect in its kind is proved by the great
admiration in which it was held by the ancients, particu-
,arly by Plato.
EPICHIROTONIA, amongst the Athenians. It was
or ained by Solon, that once every year the laws should
e carefully revised and examined; and that if any of
lem were found unsuitable to the actual state of affairs,
ley should be repealed. This was called iiuyjn^oroviu, rwv
from the manner of giving their suffrages by hold-
ug up their hands. (See a further account of this cus-
rn ln Potter, Archceol, Grcec. tom. i. p. 242.)
EPK (ENE, in Grammar, a term applied to nouns, Epiecene
which, under the same gender and termination, mark in- II
differently the male and female species. Such in Latin EP^l!feiin
are aquila, vespertilio, and the like, which signify equally
a male or female eagle or bat. ^op iv^
Grammarians distinguish between epiccene and common.
A noun is said to be common of two kinds, when it may
be joined either with a masculine or a feminine article ;
and epiccene, when it is always joined to some of the two
articles, and yet signifies both genders.
EPICTETUS, a native of Hierapolis, in Phrygia, was
born of humble parents, in the first century of the Christian
era. In his youth he was the slave of Epaphroditus, the
freedman of Nero, an individual of gross and vulgar habits.
It is said that he was one day amusing himself in twisting
the leg of his slave, when Epictetus exclaimed, “ you will
break itand the event justified the prediction. “I told you
so,” added the philosopher, without changing a muscle of
his countenance. Of his personal history it may be rea¬
dily imagined that we know but little; even his name is
unknown to us, for Epictetus merely marks his condition
of life, signifying in Greek a slave (sT/xr^ro;). He must,
however, have received his freedom; for, when Domitian
published his edict about the year 90, banishing philoso¬
phers from Italy, Epictetus retired to Nicopolis in Epirus,
where it is supposed he passed the rest of his life. Spar-
tianus indeed asserts that he lived at Rome in great in¬
timacy with the Emperor Hadrian ; but if this information
be correct, he does not seem to have profited much byr
his intercourse with the rich, for his house is said to have
been without a door, and to have had no furniture except
a table, a bed, and a miserable mattress.
Epictetus was a Stoic, but possessed none of the vain
boastings nor austerity of that sect of philosophy. The
virtue which he prized most dearly was modesty. Being
an enemy of Epicurus and his doctrines, he admired So¬
crates, and has left us a magnificent picture of the true
cynic. As we might expect from his principles, Epicte¬
tus during the whole of his life made war on opinion. All
his doctrines were reduced to this point: Our actions de¬
pend on ourselves; all other things are independent of
us: let us therefore devote our whole attention to the cor¬
rection and amendment of the first; but it is madness to
make any effort to avoid the other, for they are entirely
beyond our control. Support pain and fly pleasure, was
the grand leading precept of Epictetus. It is indeed
beautiful, but difficult to follow. Suidas says he wrote
much, but nothing has come down to us, Arrian, the most
celebrated of his disciples, collected, with much care and
diligence, the discourses and principles of his master,
and composed several treatises on them, viz. 1. On the
Life and Death of Epictetus; 2. Twelve books of Fa¬
miliar Discourses of this philosopher (these two works
are lost); 3. Eight books of Dissertations on Epictetus
and his Philosophy, four of which only remain; 4. En¬
chiridion, or Manual of Epictetus, which is preserved,
and in which he presents a concise view of the moral phi¬
losophy of the Phrygian. Arrian dedicated this work to
M. Valerius Messalinus, consul in the year of the city 901.
There are also in Stobaeus many moral sayings of Epicte¬
tus, which have been collected by Blancard, Copenhagen,
1629, 12mo. The first Greek edition of the Enchiridion
was published at Venice, 1528, 4to. See also Heyne’s
edition with notes, Dresden, 1776, 8vo.
EPICUREAN Philosophy, the system of doctrine,
canonical, physical, and ethical, taught by Epicurus, and
maintained by his followers, who, from the name of their
master, received that of Epicureans.
The first part of this threefold system regarded the
canons or rules of judging. Disgusted with the subtle-
308
E P I
Epicurean ties and paradoxes of the Stoics, Epicurus endeavoured
Philo- to introduce a more simple and natural method of judging,
sophy. an(j? instead of artificial modes and scholastic distinctions,
appealed to the common sense and natural perceptions of
mankind as the ultimate basis of all reasoning. These he
assumed as first principles, or rather as unerring guides ;
and by giving excessive latitude to an elementary defini¬
tion, which, if properly guarded and restricted, might have
served as the foundation of a rational system of logic, he
was betrayed into errors and extravagances not less start¬
ling than those from which it had been his object to escape.
Cicero has reproached him with an alleged unphilosophi-
cal contempt of logic; but this censure, when duly weigh¬
ed, must be pronounced to be entirely without founda¬
tion. Epicurus, it is true, despised and even ridiculed the
modes of reasoning by means of which the Stoics evolved
the paradoxes in which they delighted ; and he was nei¬
ther acquainted with nor had any relish for those analyti¬
cal investigations in which the members of that philoso¬
phical sect displayed so much unprofitable ingenuity. But,
on the other hand, all the errors with which his system is
easily chargeable, may be traced to the logical strictness
with which he adhered, in all his reasonings, to the pri¬
mary canon which he had laid down, and to the implicit
faith which he was consequently led to repose in those
sensible perceptions and intuitive judgments which,
though in every case relatively true, are nevertheless in
many absolutely and demonstrably false. Having, as he
conceived, established a principle indisputably certain, he
was prepared to admit, and, in point of fact, never suffer¬
ed himself to doubt or to question, any consequence, how¬
ever startling, which might be logically deduced from it.
His very errors, therefore, are the direct and necessary
result of a rigid adherence to this principle, and of the
precision with which he reasoned from the primary as¬
sumption to its consequences.
In the second or physical part of his system, Epicurus
borrowed from Democritus and Leucippus the idea of the
atoms or monads, which he regarded as the ultimate prin¬
ciples of all things. These atoms, however, which had
no other properties than those of hardness and gravity,
and which were therefore totally distinct from the gases
of every kind that form so prominent a part of the physics
and chemistry of the moderns, soon fell into discredit with
philosophers; and, notwithstanding the poetical embel¬
lishments which the hypothesis received from the genius
of Lucretius, it continued to be treated as a subject more
fitted for ridicule than reason, until Gassendi endeavour¬
ed to revive and restore it, but without success. The ef¬
forts of this philosopher, however, can scarcely be con¬
sidered as having proved altogether fruitless, since Leib¬
nitz in his theory of monads, Boscovich in his principles of
corpuscular attraction, and still more recently Dr Dalton
in his theory of definite proportions, which has effected a
complete revolution in the nomenclature of modern che¬
mistry, have, each in succession, adopted modifications of
the original hypothesis, and thus brought within the pre¬
cincts of science a doctrine once regarded as amongst the
wildest extravagances of ancient philosophy. In fact, the
atomic theory of modern times is founded upon the same
general principle with the hypothesis promulgated by
Democritus, taught by Leucippus, and afterwards adopted
by Epicurus ; namely, that matter, so far from being infi¬
nitely divisible, is resolvable by division, decomposition,
or analysis, into certain ultimate or primordial elements or
atoms, which, again, enter synthetically, in certain definite
proportions, into the constitution or composition of all
things. And thus it is that the grand cycle of decay and
reproduction, observable in the operations and changes
which take place in the material world, may also be de-
E P 1
tected in the history of philosophical systems; they rise,;
decline, disappear, and are reproduced by the silent work- Jj,
ing of causes too remote to be discovered or appreciated sy,
by us; they have their various phases and occultations, ^ k
even whilst they remain within the sphere of our obser-
vation; and when they altogether disappear from our j
view, and seem to be for ever lost, it is only to return,
after having rounded their apogee, and to present nearly
the same aspect as before.
With regard to the third or ethical part of this system,
morality, according to Epicurus, is entirely founded upon
utility. Man is placed upon earth to seek or pursue his
own happiness or good, and he finds it only in a calm and
tranquil life. The sage is ever upon his guard against the
passions which might disturb his peace. Physical pleasure
consists in the satisfaction of our natural wants; but the
less trouble we take to ensure this satisfaction, the fewer
privations we will be exposed to, and the greater will be
our immunity from reverses of fortune. To abstain in order
to enjoy, was accordingly the grand maxim of this philoso¬
pher. The happiness of individuals depends upon, andforms
part of, the general happiness, from which, therefore, it
can never be separated. This is his leading principle; and
hence the essence of his ethical system consists in incul¬
cating the maxima felicitas, or the greatest happiness of
the greatest number. It has indeed been vulgarly alleged
that Epicurus made the supreme good to consist in plea¬
sure ; and many persons persist in thus representing his
doctrine, without giving themselves the trouble to inquire
what he understood by pleasure ; a term which, as he ap¬
plied it, differs in no degree from the wisdom of the Stoics,
and the maxima felicitas of the modern school of Utilita¬
rians, founded by Bentham, the great restorer of the Epi¬
curean ethical philosophy. In the nomenclature of this
system, whatever contributes to the happiness and well¬
being of man as a member of society, is denominated plea¬
sure ; nor, as the happiness of individuals is made to de¬
pend upon, and declared to be inseparable from, the gene¬
ral happiness, can the true meaning of the term be mis¬
taken or misapprehended by any honest and intelligent
inquner. But those false Epicureans, who limited the im¬
port of the word to mere sensual indulgence, and reasoned
as if Epicurus himself had recognised this acceptation,
did great injury to the sect, which they brought into un¬
merited discredit and odium. We accordingly find that
they were banished from Rome in the time of the republic,
and also, at different intervals, from a number of other cities.
But the school always subsisted at Athens, where it ie-
mained in the time of Lucian ; and Numenius, his contem¬
porary, remarks, with an evident feeling of regret, that the
Epicureans had preserved in all its purity the doctrine o
their master, whilst that of Plato had been greatly altered
and corrupted. The Stoics appropriated several of the
maxims, and adopted the most remarkable apophthems
of Epicurus, which are expressed, with much spirit, in a
brief, sententious style ; and the principal charm of £■
neca’s letters to Lucilius consists in the freedom and ex¬
tent to which he has borrowed from the same source.
It is very difficult to discover the real opinion of P1
curus respecting the divinity. Cicero assures us that tie
philosopher spoke of the Supreme Being in terms ®
most sublime, and that he recommended piety to ms 15
ciples. It may no doubt be alleged that this was d°ne^
order to conform to the popular belief, and that no sa
conclusion can be drawn, as to the opinion really en
tainedby the philosopher, from mere generalities, or^c0(j
venient and safe recommendation. But, on the other an ’
in his letter to Menecius, Epicurus expresses
thus : “ The gods are not such as the vulgar ve V. atj)e
the impious man is not he who rejects the gods o
E P I
■ •, multitude, but he who attributes to the gods the opinions of
'Y' the multitude.” These expressions, if they had been known,
would have been sufficient to ensure to their author the ho¬
nours of persecution. But, whilst it is evident that Epicurus
was not actuated by mere prudence in making the belief
of a God one of the principal dogmas of his philosophy, it
must at the same time be admitted that his other opinions
respecting the gods rendered this belief useless. For
he regarded them as beings perfectly happy, impassible,
and in no degree concerned about, or disposed to inter¬
meddle with, human affairs,—as alike indifferent to, and
incapable of, being affected by the good or evil of this
world; and thus destroyed at once a providence, and the
hope of future recompense or punishment. -To this opi¬
nion, certainly one of the most discouraging and disas¬
trous which can be maintained or promulgated, may be
mainly ascribed the charge of atheism which was early
preferred, and often subsequently reiterated, against this
amiable and virtuous philosopher, whose life was as re¬
markable for its moral purity as those of some of his pre¬
tended followers were for their dissoluteness and profli¬
gacy.
EPICURUS, one of the most celebrated philosophers
of antiquity, was descended of an illustrious family, that
of the Philaides, which derived its origin from Philaeus,
grandson of Ajax. Neocles, his father, resided in Gar-
gettium, a borough of Attica ; but finding himself ill pro¬
vided in point of fortune, he passed into the island of Sa¬
mos, when the Athenians sent a colony thither, in the
year 352 before Christ. As Diogenes Laertius fixes the
birth of Epicurus in the year 341 before Christ, it is there¬
fore probable that the philosopher first saw the light at
Samos, and not at Gargettium, as is commonly supposed.
In his early youth he is said to have followed his mother,
who appears to have been an itinerant sorceress, reading
the formularies of exorcism and expiation, whilst she per¬
formed the ceremonies usual on such occasions; but as
he advanced in years he assisted his father in keeping a
school, which the latter had established at Samos. At
I the age of fourteen Epicurus began to devote himself to
philosophy. He at first attended Pamphilus, one of the
disciples of Plato, and Nausiphanes, of the school of De¬
mocritus ; not the disciple of Pyrrho, as Diogenes Laer¬
tius affirms, Pyrrho having been the contemporary of Epi¬
curus. But the lessons he received from these teachers
did not satisfy his mind; and having applied himself to
the study of the writings of Democritus, he made great
progress in philosophy, and soon thought himself in a con¬
dition to form a new sect. At the age of eighteen he
proceeded to Athens, but he sojourned there only a short
time, by reason of the troubles which ensued after the
death of Alexander. He then repaired to his father’s at
Calophon, in Ionia, whence he afterwards went to Mity-
lene and Lampsacus, where he began to profess his new
principles of philosophy. Having attracted a great num¬
ber of disciples, amongst whom were the three brothers
Neocles, Cheredemus, and Aristobulus, he returned with
them to Athens in the year before Christ 309; and hav¬
ing there purchased a garden for eighty minae, or L.288
sterling, he immediately commenced teaching his philoso-
phy. All the world was not admitted to his lessons; but
is disciples, in imitation of the Pythagoreans, formed a
sort of community by themselves. Nevertheless, he did
not recommend or encourage a community of goods, which
ie considered as calculated to excite distrust; but each
paid a portion of the general expense, which, however,
was inconsiderable, as they were content with the sim-
P est fare. The most perfect union reigned amongst
om, and indeed subsisted undisturbed long after the
eat 1 °* Epicurus. Cicero says that the Epicureans of
E P I 309
his time still lived in common, and in the best understand- Epicycle
ing with one another. Women were even admitted into II
this society ; and amongst its most celebrated disciples are Lp’('ani*
mentioned Leontium, courtezan of Athens, and Themista,
wife of Leontius of Lampsacus. As Epicurus never ^
taught in public, the sect was little celebrated during his
lifetime ; but after his death, when his writings became
generally known, the doctrine therein taught was warmly
attacked by the Stoics, who did not blush even to have
recourse to the most atrocious calumnies. Diotimus the
Stoic went so far as to fabricate, in the name of Epicu¬
rus, fifty letters addressed to courtezans, in which the
philosopher is made to express himself in the most ob¬
scene manner; but Chrysippus himself bears testimony
to the blameless conduct and manners of Epicurus; and
although the latter alleged that this was not the result of
philosophy, but attributable solely to coldness and insen¬
sibility of temperament, it is certain that his life was
wholly free from those vices with which his enemies have
reproached him. For a short account of the system, ca¬
nonical, physical, and ethical, taught by this philosopher,
see Epicurean Philosophy. Epicurus died of the
stone in the seventy-second year of his age. He was
never married; not that he blamed marriage, for he taught
that a wise man ought to marry and have children; but
as he was of a feeble constitution, and seldom enjoyed
good health, he did not think it incumbent on him to ob¬
serve the maxim which he inculcated on others. By his
will, which Diogenes Laertius has preserved, he bequeath¬
ed his garden and a house which he had at Melitus to
Hermachus his successor, and to those who should after
him be at the head of his school, as long as it should sub¬
sist, in order that his followers might assemble on the
spot where his system was first taught. His memory was
held in veneration by his disciples, among whom the an¬
niversary of his birth was celebrated as a festival; they
had his portrait engraved on their rings and on their cups,
as well as placed in their chambers ; and they never spoke
of him but with the greatest respect. In the number of
Greek manuscripts discovered at Herculaneum have been
found several of the works of Epicurus, the unravelling of
which, however, has as yet been only partially effected.
Some fragments of the second book of his treatise On the
Nature of Things were published at Naples in 1814. No
one has better developed the philosophical system of Epi¬
curus than Gassendi in his Syntagma de Vita et Moribus
Epicuri, lib. viii. Lyons, 1647. See also Durondel, Vie
d’Epicure, Paris, 1679; Coutures, La Morale dEpicure,
Paris, 1685; Apologie pour Epicure, and Discours sur
Epicure, Paris, 1651 and 1684, in 12mo.
EPICYCLE, in the ancient astronomy, a little circle
whose centre is in the circumference of a greater circle :
or it is a small orb or sphere, which being fixed in the
deferent of a planet, is carried along with it; and yet, by
its own peculiar motion, carries the planet fastened to it
round its proper centre.
It was by means of epicycles that Ptolemy and his fol¬
lowers solved the various phenomena of the planets, but
more especially their stations and retrogradations.
EPICYCLOID, in Geometry, a curve generated by the
revolution of the periphery of a circle, along the convex
or concave side of the periphery of another circle.
EPIDAMNUS, afterwards called by the Romans Dyrr-
hachium, a city of Illyria, on the coast of the Adriatic,
founded by a colony from the island Corcyra, under the
command of Phalius, a native of Corinth, 629 years b. c. ac¬
cording to Eusebius. The lofty and precipitous peninsula
on which it was built seems to have been called Dyr-
rhachium ; and as the last syllable of Epidamnus was signi¬
ficant of ill omen to the Romans, that superstitious people
310
E P I
E P I
Epidaurus. were probably induced to change it for the name applied
by the Greeks to the peninsula. There seems no good
reason to believe that the site of the more modern town
was different from that of the ancient. Epidamnus be¬
came at a very early period of considerable importance:
its intimate connection with the rich republics of Corcyra
and Corinth excited in its citizens a spirit of commercial
enterprise; and it was not long before they rivalled the
most celebrated of the cities of Greece in the extent of
their trade and the magnitude of their undertakings. Epi¬
damnus continued to prosper until it became a prey to do¬
mestic feuds and civil broils. Its constitution was original¬
ly aristocratic ; a single magistrate formed the head of the
administration ; and the phylarchs ((puXa^ai) composed a
species of council. These phylarchs were afterwards re¬
placed by a senate (/SovXrj) chosen on democratic prin¬
ciples. It was the contest between the popular party at
Epidamnus and the nobles that produced the Peloponne¬
sian war. Corcyra refused to interfere, and the Epidam-
nians proceeded to make their application to the Corin¬
thians, who felt nowise disinclined to increase their own
power at the expense of the Corcyreans. Ihe aid fur¬
nished by Corinth soon re-established order and tranquil¬
lity; but the Corcyreans, at no time on good terms with
that city, felt highly indignant that it should have inter¬
fered with what they considered as their own peculiar pro¬
perty. They sent orders to the Epidamnians to receive
back the nobles whom they had banished, and to cause
the Corinthians to evacuate the city; but as no attention
was paid to the demand, they equipped a fleet, and, in
conjunction with a body of Illyrians, besieged the town,
which, in a few days, was compelled to surrender. Ihis
was the beginning of the Peloponnesian war. Of the sub¬
sequent history of Epidamnus we know but little until we
find it under the protection of the Romans, to whom it
adhered faithfully, both in the Illyrian and Macedonian
wars.
At a later period it became the scene of contest be¬
tween Pompey and Csesar; but for a detailed account of
these transactions we must refer the reader to the Com¬
mentaries of Caesar himself. From this time it became
much frequented by the Romans, from being situated at
the commencement of the great Egnatian Road, which led
through Macedonia to the provinces of the east. Here it
was that Cicero landed on his banishment from Italy ;
and he speaks in high terms of commendation of the kind
treatment which he received from its inhabitants. At
the end of the fourth century Dyrrhachium became the
capital of the newly established province of Epirus Nova;
and it is now called Durazzo, which is an insignificant
village, rendered unhealthy by its vicinity to marshes.
EPIDAURUS, a city of Argolis, in the Peloponnesus,
situated in a recess of the Saronic Gulf, open to the north¬
east, and backed by high mountains, was founded probably
by Carians, and afterwards joined by a colony of lonians
from Attica. It was at first subject to Argos; but on the
return of the Heraclidae and Dorians to the Peloponnesus,
an independent kingdom was established, which extended
over the whole of this small peninsula. We-find its king
Procles engaged in war with Periander of Corinth. In
the Persian war it sent ten ships to the common fleet at
Salamis, and eight hundred heavy-armed men to Plataea •
and in the Peloponnesian war it always appears as the de¬
termined opponent of Argos, and the ally of Sparta, suc¬
cessfully resisting the Argives when besieged by them
after the battle of Amphipolis. In the time of Augustus
the circumference of its walls was no more than fifteen
stadia ; whence it appears that Epidaurus was even at that
time reduced to the promontory where are now to be seen,
in many parts, the foundations of Hellenic walls along the
edge of the cliffs. A small neighbouring village is still IL|
called Pidhavro. jl
Epidaurus was chiefly remarkable for the temple and 1 ni,
sacred grove of iEsculapius, one of the most renowned ^ v
places in Greece for its sanctity, riches, and the splen- j
dour of the sacred offerings which adorned it. It was at 1
the distance of five miles from the city, and surrounded
by a semicircle of steep hills. The place is still called Sto
lerd, which means the temple, or sacred place. It con- s
tained a statue of the god, wrought in gold and ivory, by
Thrasymedes of Paros, and about half the size of the Ju-
piter Olympius at Athens. Aesculapius was seated on a
throne, holding a staff in one hand, whilst the other rested
on the head of a serpent, and a dog lay at his feet. Beside
the temple was the dormitory of those who came to suppli-
cate the god; and near it the Tholus, a circular building
of white marble, built by Polycletus of Argos. But the
most remarkable building was the theatre, which, though
inferior in size and ornamental decoration to those of the
Romans, far excelled them in the beauty of its workman¬
ship and the harmony of its proportions. This temple was
the most fashionable place of resort for Grecian invalids
seeking relief from a change of air, of place, or of medical
treatment. Hither they flocked from every part of the
country, to place themselves under the care of the servants
of iEsculapius; and those who were healed were in the
habit of recording their cures with inscriptions in different
parts of the temple.
Considerable remains of the temple and adjoining build¬
ings are still to be seen. “ There exists a part of the foun¬
dations, and some remains of the circular cell of the Tho-
lus, with defaced inscriptions. But the most remarkable
ruin at lero is the theatre : though no traces of the pros¬
cenium remain, and many of the seats made of white
marble are displaced, it is in better preservation than any
other theatre in Greece, except that which exists near
Trametzus in Epirus, not far from Joannina. The orches¬
tra must have been about ninety feet in length, and the
entire theatre about 370 in diameter. Thirty-two rows
of seats still appear above ground in a lower division. The
theatre, when complete, was capable of containing 12,000
spectators.” Leake’s Travels in the Morea, vol. ii. p. 424,
London, 1830.
EPIDEMIA, in Grecian antiquity, festivals observed
in honour of Apollo and Diana, at the stated seasons when
those deities, who could not be present everywhere, were
supposed to visit different places, in order to receive the
vows of their worshippers.
EPIDEMIC, among physicians, an epithet applied to
those diseases which at certain times are popular, attack¬
ing great numbers at or near the same time. See Me¬
dicine.
EPIDERMIS, in Anatomy, the cuticle or scarf-skin.
See Anatomy. The word is formed of the Greek sin,
over, and big/ia, skin.
EPIDICASIA, amongst the Athenians. Daughtersin-
heriting their parents’ estate were obliged to marry their
nearest relation; which gave occasion to persons of the
same family to go to law with one another, each pretend¬
ing to be more nearly allied to the heiress than the rest.
The suit was called imbiKuaiag dixrj; and the virgin about
whom the relations contested, iiribixog.
EPIDOTiE, certain deities who presided over the
growth of children. They were worshipped by the Lace¬
daemonians, and chiefly invoked by those who were perse¬
cuted by the ghosts of the dead, or spectral apparitions-
EPIGONI, the sons and descendants of the Grecian he¬
roes who were killed in the first Theban war. The war
of the Epigoni is famous in ancient history. It was un
der taken ten years after the Theban war. The sonso
those who had perished in that contest resolved to avenge
the death of their fathers, and marched against Thebes,
under the command of Thersander, or, according to others,
‘ of Alcmseon the son of Amphiaraus, about 1307 years be-
' fore Christ. The Argives were assisted by the Corinthians
and the people of Messenia, Arcadia, and Megara. The
Thebans had engaged all their neighbours in their quar¬
rel, as in one common cause. The two hostile armies met
on the banks of the Glissas, and a battle ensued. The
combat was obstinate and bloody; but victory declared
for the Epigoni, and some of the Thebans fled to Illyri-
cum with Leodamas their general, whilst others retired
into Thebes, where they were soon afterwards besieged
and forced to surrender. In this war TEgialeus was the
only person of note who was killed; and in the former
his father Adrastus was the only individual of this de¬
scription who escaped alive. This whole war, as Pausa-
nias observes, was written in verse; and Callinus, who
quotes some of the verses, ascribes them to Homer, an
opinion which has been adopted by many writers. “ For
my part,” continues the geographer, “ I own, that next
to the Iliad and Odyssey of Homer, I have never seen a
finer poem.” The Epigoniud of Wilkie is a modern poe¬
tical celebration of the same story. The descendants of
the veteran Macedonians, who served under Alexander
the Great, and who had children by Asiatic women, were
also called Epigoni.
EPIGRAM, in Poetry, a short poem in verse, treating
only of one thing, and ending with some lively, ingenious,
and natural thought or point. The word is formed of
vxiy^aiiiia, inscription, from itfiyoatpav, to inscribe or write
upon. See Poetry.
EPIGRAPHE, among antiquaries, denotes the inscrip¬
tion of a building, pointing out the time when, the persons
by whom, and the uses for which, it was erected.
EPILOGUE, in Oratory, the end or conclusion of a
discourse, ordinarily containing a recapitulation of the
principal matters before delivered.
Epilogue, in the Drama, a speech addressed to the
I audience after the play is over, by one of the principal
actors, and usually containing some reflections on certain
incidents in the play, especially those in the part of the
person who speaks it, together with somewhat of pleasan¬
try, intended to compose the passions raised in the course
of the representation ; a practice which is ridiculed by
the Spectator, and compared to a merry jig upon the or¬
gan after a good sermon, in order to wipe away any im¬
pressions that might have been thereby produced, and to
send the people away just as they came.
EPIMENIDES, a native of Gnossus in Crete, who
seems to have flourished about 594 b. c. and of whom we
have several very extraordinary accounts. Being pro¬
bably a man anxious to distinguish himself, he was not
long in perceiving that the readiest way to obtain the ob¬
ject he had in view was to work on the love of the super¬
natural, a feeling inherent in the minds of an ignorant peo¬
ple. Accordingly we are told that he retired from all in¬
tercourse with his countrymen, and no doubt devoted him¬
self to the acquisition of that knowledge which enabled
nm to act the part which he had chalked out for him¬
self. When he imagined his name forgotten, he re-ap-
peared with his hair and beard long and matted, and
spread a report that he had slept upwards of two hundred
an ninety years. Who does not recognise in this the
story ot the seven sleepers ? In accordance with this spi¬
rit of charlatanry, he pretended to the gift of prophecy,
an to intimate converse with the gods. Yet under all
Vs ou^ward garb of fanaticism he seems to have conceal-
e] a Profound knowledge of mankind, and to have em-
P °-Vea influence he had acquired in obtaining the
sanction of the Cretans to a code of laws constructed on Epime-
just and sound principles. His fame became so widely theus
spread, that Solon, under pretence of purifying the city , . N
ol Athens from the blood shed in consequence of civil ^'Piphany.
feuds and dissensions, determined to make use of his in-
fluence to prepare the way for the laws which he wished
to introduce. A vessel was equipped, and Epimenides
having acceded to the invitation given him, assisted in
purifying the city, and at the same time prepared the way
for the legislation of Solon. He wrote several works, of
which the most considerable was a poem on the expedi¬
tion of the Argonauts ; hut none of these has come down to
us. His life has been written by Diogenes Laertius, but
that writer is too credulous to admit of our placing much
dependence on the facts he states. See Cic. Div. i. 18,
and Leg. ii. 2; Val. Max. viii. 5; Suidas; Plato De Leg.;
Pausanias ; also, for his age, Vossius De Hist. Grace. Lug.
Bat. 1651 ; Fabricius, Biblioth. Grace, i. 6.
EPIMETHEUS, a son of Japetus and Clymene, one
of the Oceanides, who inconsiderately married Pandora,
by whom he had Pyrrha, the wife of Deucalion. He had
the curiosity to open the box which Pandora had brought
with her, and thence issued the train of evils which from
that moment have never ceased to afflict the human race.
Hope was the only redeeming ingredient which remained •
at the bottom of the box, not having had sufficient time
to escape; and she it is alone who comforts men under
misfortunes. Epimetheus was changed into a monkey by
the gods, and sent into the island Pithecusa.
EPINAL, an arrondissement of the department of the
Vosges, in France, extending over 550 square miles, and
divided into five cantons, which are subdivided into 116
communes, with 68,610 inhabitants. The capital, a city
of the same name, is situated on the river Moselle, which
divides it into two parts. It is a well-built place, contain¬
ing 1100 houses and 7820 inhabitants, who carry on some
trade in earthenware, cotton goods, paper, and leather.
Long. 6. 29. E. Lat. 48. 22. N.
EPIPHANIUS, St, an ancient father of the church, born
at Besanducan, a village in Palestine, about the year 332.
He founded a monastery near the place of his birth, and
presided over it. He was afterwards elected bishop of
Salamis, when he took part with Paulinus against Mele-
tius, and ordained in Palestine Paulinian, the brother of
St Jerome, on which a contest arose between him and
John bishop of Jerusalem. He afterwards called a coun¬
cil in the island of Cyprus, in which he procured a prohi¬
bition of the reading of Origen’s writings, and made use
of all his endeavours to prevail on Theophilus bishop of
Alexandria to engage St Chrysostom to declare in favour
of that decree; but not meeting with success, he him¬
self proceeded to Constantinople, where he refused to
have any conversation with St Chrysostom, and formed
the design of entering the church of the apostles to pub¬
lish his condemnation of Origen. Being informed, how¬
ever, of the danger to which he would be exposed, he re¬
solved to return to Cyprus, but died at sea in the year
403. His works were printed in Greek at Basil, 1544,
in folio, and were afterwards translated into Latin, in
which language they have often been reprinted. Peta-
vius revised and corrected the Greek text with the aid of
two manuscripts, and published it together with a new
translation at Paris in 1622. This edition was reprinted
at Cologne in 1682.
EPIPHANY, a Christian festival, otherwise called the
Manifestation of Christ to the Gentiles, observed on the
sixth of January, in honour of the appearance of our Sa¬
viour to the three magi or wise men, who came to adore
him and bring him presents. The feast of epiphany was
not originally a distinct festival, but formed part of that
312
Epirus.
E P I
of the nativity of Christ, which being celebrated twelve
days, the first and last of which were high or chief days
of solemnity, either of these might properly be called epi¬
phany, as that word signifies the appearance of Christ in
the world.
The word in the original Greek, svipaviu, signifies ap¬
pearance or apparition, and, as some critics think, was ap¬
plied to this feast, on account of the star which appear¬
ed to and guided the magi. St Jerome and St Chrysos¬
tom take the epiphany for the day of our Saviour s bap¬
tism, when he was declared to men by the voice, Hie est
Jilim mens dilectus, in quo mihi complacui, this is my be¬
loved Son, in whom I am well pleased; and accordingly
it is still observed by the Copts and Ethiopians in this
view. But others contend that the feast of Christmas, or
the nativity of our Saviour, was held in different churches
on this day, which had the denomination epiphany or ap¬
pearance, by reason of our Saviours first appeal ance upon
earth at that time. And it must be allowed that the
word is used amongst the ancient Greek fathers, not to
signify the appearance of the star to the magi, but that
of our Saviour to the world; in which sense St Paid uses
the word epiphania in his second epistle to Timothy
(i. 10.)
EPIRUS, a country to the north-west of Greece, along
the coast of the Ionian Sea, bounded on the north by the
Ceraunian Mountains, on the south by the Ambracian
Gulf, and separated on the east and north-east from Thes¬
saly and Macedonia by the lofty range of Pindus. This
extensive country was known in the earlier ages of the
world under no general name; it was probably the inha¬
bitants of the numerous islands along its coasts who first
applied to it the appellation of Epirus, answering to the
English term mainland, in order to distinguish it from the
islands which they themselves inhabited. It included
within its bounds several nations, the most powerful of
whom were the Molossi, whose chief town was Dodona,
famous for the oracle and temple of Jupiter; the Thes-
proti, who had for their capital Buthrotum; and the
Chaones, who dwelt in the valleys of the Ceraunian Moun¬
tains. All these tribes are considered as having been of
Pelasgic origin. Though allied by blood with the Greeks,
they were always regarded as barbarians, and Ambracia
as the last city in Greece. The ancient buildings, insti¬
tutions, and religious worship of the Epirotes, are also
manifestly of Pelasgic origin.
The kings of Epirus pretended to be descended from
Pyrrhus, son of Achilles, who settled in this country after
the taking of Troy, and transmitted his kingdom to Mo-
lossus, his son by Andromache; but the early history of
the kings of the Molossi is involved in much obscurity.
Admetus sat on the throne of Epirus, 480 b. c. at the time
of the invasion of Greece by the Persians, and he remained
neutral till their defeat, when he solicited an alliance with
the Athenians. This was refused chiefly through the
persuasion of Themistocles; yet Admetus was generous
enough to forget this circumstance when Themistocles was
banished, 471 b. c. by his ungrateful countrymen, and re¬
ceived him with every mark of respect and esteem.
Admetus was succeeded by his son Tharymbas or Arym-
bas I. about 429 b. c., but was still so young that he was
placed, by a decree of the people, under the guardianship
of Sabylinthus, prince of Atintania. He seems to have
been a wise and prudent monarch, who attempted to in¬
troduce a regular form of government among a wild and
a lawless people. Alcetas is the next king of Epirus men¬
tioned in history, and he reigned about 385 b. c. Being
driven from his throne by his subjects, he fled to Syracuse,
and with the assistance of Dionysius was soon afterwards
re-established. Neoptolemus his son reigned but a short
E P I
,,
time, and left the crown to his brother Arymbas II. about 1
360 b.c. who encouraged literature and the arts, govern- <\
ing his kingdom with prudence, equity, and moderation.
It was to him that Xenocrates of Chalcedon dedicated
the four books which he had composed on the art of go-
verning. This prince educated with the greatest care the
children of his brother. He married Troas, one of his
nieces, and gave the other, Olympias, in marriage to Phi-
lip of Macedon, who had by her Alexander the Great.
On his death, 342 b. c. he was succeeded by his nephew
Alexander, brother of Olympias. This prince was put
in possession of the throne of his uncle by the aid of his
brother-in-law Philip, who afterwards gave him in mar¬
riage his daughter Cleopatra. It was at the celebration
of these nuptials at Edessa that the king of Macedonia
was assassinated.
Alexander was the first prince who raised the charac¬
ter and reputation of his country amongst foreign nations.
Having been applied to by the Tarentines for assistance
against the Samnites and Lucanians, he passed into Italy
with a considerable force, made a descent at Paestum, 332
b. c., a city near the mouth of the river Silarus, and redu¬
ced under his dominion several cities of the Lucani and
Brutii. In his second attack upon Italy he was Surround¬
ed by the enemy, defeated, and slain, near the city Pan-
dosia, in the territory of the Brutii.
CEacides the son of Arymbas II. succeeded to Alex¬
ander, and espoused the cause of Olympias against Cas-
sander ; but his soldiers having mutinied, dethroned him,
though he was in a short time reinstated. He was killed
the same year, 313 b. c., in a battle against Philip, brother
of Cassander. This prince had by his wife Phthia, the
celebrated Pyrrhus, and two daughters, Deidamia and
Troas, of whom the former married Demetrius Polior-
cetes. His brother Alcetas, who succeeded him, conti¬
nued the war with Cassander till he was defeated, and
his dominions were overrun by the enemy. He was af¬
terwards put to death by his rebellious subjects 295 b.c.
The name of Pyrrhus, who now ascended the throne, sheds
a lustre on the annals of Epirus, and gives to its history
an importance which it would never have otherwise pos¬
sessed ; but for a detailed account of his life we must re¬
fer to the article Pyrrhus.
Alexander, in 272 b. c., succeeded his father Pyrrhus,
when he attempted to seize on Macedonia. He defeated
Antigonus Gonatas, but was himself shortly afterwards
driven from his kingdom by Demetrius, son ot that prince.
He recovered it, however, and spent the rest of his reign
in peace. At the expiration of two other insignificant
reigns the family of Pyrrhus became extinct, upon which
the inhabitants of Epirus changed the form of their go¬
vernment, electing annually a praetor in a general assem¬
bly of the nation held at Passaron, a city ot the Molossi.
Epirus imprudently espoused the cause of Perseus in his
war against the Romans, when he was defeated and taken
prisoner 168 b. c. ; and it was exposed to the unrelent¬
ing fury'of the Romans, who destroyed in one day se¬
venty-three cities, and carried away the principal inhabi¬
tants to Rome. It never recovered from this fatal blow.
At the dissolution of the Achaean league, 146 b. c. tus
country became part of the province ot Macedonia uncer
the name of Vetus Epirus, in order to distinguish it from
Nova Epirus, which lay to the east.
On the division of the empire it became the inheritance
of the emperors of the East, and remained under tiem
until the taking of Constantinople by the Latins, in 1 >
when Michel Comnenes seized on AEtolia and Epirus, n
the death of Michel, in 1216, these countries fell into
hands of his brother Theodore. Charles, the nephew0
Theodore, and the last prince of this family, having die
Epis
pac;
E P I
without legitimate heirs, Epirus and Acarnania were left to
his natural children. Amurath II. stripped them of this in¬
heritance. In 1443, Scanderberg, king of Albania, made
himself master of a considerable part of Epirus. But on
his death it fell into the power of the Venetians, from
whom it passed to the Turks, who possess it at present un¬
der the name of Albania.
EPISCOPACY, that form of church government in
which diocesan bishops are established, as distinct from
and superior to priests or presbyters. We have already
observed, that from a very early period the ministers of
religion have been distinguished into different orders, and
that it has been much controverted whether the distinction
be of divine or human right; whether it was settled in the
apostolic age, or only adopted afterwards. (See Bishop.)
This controversy commenced soon after the Reformation,
and has been agitated with great warmth between the Epis¬
copalians on the one side, and the Presbyterians and Inde¬
pendents on the other. Amongst the Protestant churches
abroad, those which were reformed by Luther and his as¬
sociates were in general episcopal; whilst such as follow
the doctrines of Calvin have for the most part dispensed
with the order of bishops, as being either unnecessary or
unattainable. In England, however, the controversy has
been considered as of greater importance than on the con¬
tinent; for it has there been strenuously maintained by
one party that the episcopal order is essential to the con¬
stitution of the church ; and by the others, that it is a per¬
nicious encroachment on the rights of Christians, for which
there is no warrant or authority in Scripture. Though
the question has for some time lain almost dormant, and
though we have no desire to revive it, yet as a work of
this kind might perhaps be deemed defective, did it con¬
tain no account whatever of a controversy which has em¬
ployed some of the ablest writers of the past and present
times, we shall give a fair though short view of the chief
arguments by which the advocates of each contending
party have endeavoured to support their own cause, leav¬
ing it to our readers to judge where the truth lies. See
Independents and Presbyterians.
The^Independent maintains, that under the gospel dis¬
pensation there is nothing which bears the smallest re¬
semblance to an exclusive priesthood; that Christ and his
apostles constituted no permanent order of ministers in
the church ; but that any man who has a firm belief in re¬
velation, a principle of sincere and unaffected piety, a ca¬
pacity for leading devotion and communicating instruction,
and a serious inclination to engage in the important em¬
ployment of promoting the everlasting salvation of man-
ind, is in all respects a regular minister of the New Tes¬
tament, especially if he have an invitation to the pastoral
fians from some particular society of professing Chris-
Against this scheme, which supposes the rights and pri-
eges of all Christian men to be equal, and which ac-
now e ges no authority in the church excepting that
icn is derived from election by its members, the Pro-
s ant Episcopalian argues in the following manner: He
.p p1 SJ. j1.8 an undoubted truth, that Christ gave to none
?wers authority or jurisdiction of such a nature
mapA ln,:er^ere with the rights and duties of the civil
Ikf]18-he never conferred upon them what he
that i ^mseh> when, before Pilate, he declared
tawev8 ^as not world. He maintains,
owpreer’ V3]1 ^ confer upon his immediate fol-
ninistr ^ iS-confer upon their successors in the
>ver nth 3 n, °.rity anci jurisdiction of a specific nature
dour’s ah",1 nst‘ans 5 an(l that neither during our Sa-
mverninc,0. 6 r-UP°n earth, nor during the period of the
vol. ix*1 *16 c^urch by apostles, nor in the age im-
E P I
mediately succeeding these, did there exist an absolute
equality among believers.
During our Saviour’s ministry, it will be allowed that
all power resided in him; and it is important to observe,
that even then, before believers were constituted a church,
parity was abolished by the ordinance of Jesus himself, in
the appointment of the twelve apostles and the seventy
disciples. And when the divine Founder of Christianity
was making preparations for the maintenance of his re¬
ligion after his departure hence, he did not abolish the
distinction which he had previously instituted, but grant¬
ed to the twelve apostles a still wider commission, a still
more decided supremacy over the ordinary members of
the church. “ As my Father hath sent me,” said he, “ even
so send I you. And when he had said this, he breath¬
ed on them, and said unto them, receive ye the Holy
Ghost: whose soever sins ye remit, they are remitted
unto them, and whose soever sins ye retain, they are re¬
tained.” (John, xx. 21, 22, 23.) “ All power is given unto
me in heaven and in earth. Go ye, therefore, and teach all
nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, and of
the Son, and of the Holy Ghost, teaching them to observe
all things whatsoever I command you ; and lo, I am with
you alway, even unto the end of the world.” (Matt, xxviii.
18, 19, 20.) Now the Episcopalian maintains that men
who had received this commission could not be on a foot¬
ing of equality as to ecclesiastical privileges with the great
body of believers, who had no commission whatsoever.
If, however, all this be granted, and still the permanence
of the commission be denied, the Episcopalian refers to
our Lord’s concluding words, “I am with you alway, even
unto the end of the world and asks how Christ could be
with the commission to the end of the world, if the commis¬
sion itself was to last only for one generation. But, further
than this, he refers to the acts of the apostles, as furnishing
abundant evidence that they understood it to be the will of
Christ that there should be a perpetual succession of privi¬
leged officers in the church. For, in the first place, the va¬
cancy occasioned by the death of Judas was immediately
filled by the appointment of Matthias ; then a new order
of Christian ministers was introduced under the name of
deacons; afterwards Barnabas and Saul were ordained to
be apostles ; and finally, as the number of Christian con¬
gregations increased, a race of ministers superior to the
deacons was instituted, to administer the sacraments, and
to preside in the religious assemblies. To imagine that
these were elected by the laity, and derived their autho¬
rity from that election, could scarcely be credited, even if
we possessed no evidence to the contrary. But St Paul
(Eph. iv. 11) asserts, that when Christ ascended upkon
high, “ He gave some apostles, and some prophets, and
some evangelists, and some pastors and teachersthat
is to say, he commissioned the apostles, and empowered
them to commission the inferior officers.
With respect to the age immediately succeeding the
apostolic, we cannot of course refer to Scripture, but must
have recourse to the records of primitive antiquity. And
in referring to the Fathers for the historical fact, the
Episcopalian claims for them nothing more than sufficient
honesty to tell the truth when there existed no temptation
to commit falsehood, or sufficient sense to abstain from a
falsehood which it was impossible should be credited by
any of their contemporaries. Now, of the earliest Chris¬
tian writers, of those called apostolic fathers, because they
are believed, on good grounds, to have been contempora¬
ries and companions of the apostles, three, namely, Cle¬
ment of Rome, Ignatius, and Hermas, explicitly state the
existence of different orders of officers in the church, to
whom great honour and obedience was due from the laity;
whilst the remaining two, Polycarp and Barnabas, do not
2 R
313
Episco¬
pacy.
314
Episco¬
pacy.
episcopacy.
Further than this it is epistle is said to have been «■ ghren by |OT|ih«qra.
laying on of the hands of the presbytery, is in the second i.
said to have been “ in him by the putting on of the hands ^ N
of St Paul.” And here it is worthy of observation, that j
the preposition used in the former case is which sig. :
nifies concurrence rather than instrumentality ; but thatva
the latter is hut, which, as every Greek scholar knows, is
prefixed to the instrumental cause by which any thing is
effected ; so that whatever may have been the order of :
the presbyters who concurred, St Paul appears to have
been the sole ordainer. But by the confession of all par-
ties, St Paul was a bishop in the highest sense in which
that word is ever used ; and the powers of the episcopate
not being parcelled out among various partners, of whom
each possessed only a share, the imposition of his hands
was sufficient for every purpose which could have been
effected by the hands of the whole college of apostles.
It appears, therefore, that from the promiscuous use of
the titles bishop and presbyter, and from the ordination of
Timothy, nothing can with any certainty be concluded on
either side of this celebrated question. But if, instead
of resting on mere words, which, when taken alone and
without regard to the context, are almost all of ambigu¬
ous signification, we attend to some important facts re¬
corded in the New Testament, the Episcopalian thinks we
touch upon ecclesiastical polity.  
unnecessary to descend, as every one now admits that in
the age succeeding this, diocesan episcopacy Prevade
over the Christian world, and continued undisputed til
the Reformation. ,
Against this historical argument it may be urged, that
the commission to the apostles was “ to go and teach al
nations, baptizing them in the name of the Father, the
Son, and the Holy Ghostand that consequently a sys¬
tem which confines the right of preaching and baptizing to
their successors in a particular order appears inconsisten
with the wisdom and the goodness of God ; as by s«?h ar]
economy an intolerable dominion would be established
over the souls of men, and the very purpose for which
the Saviour died might be defeated by the caprice of an
ignorant or designing priesthood. To this objection t e
Episcopalian replies, that under the Mosaic law sacrifice
was necessary for the expiation of sin, but that m many
most important cases this expiation could be effected only
by the instrumentality of a priest; that, in short, the
objection, if it have any weight, weighs with equal force
against the wisdom and justice of Providence m the oidi-
nary government of the world. In every thing, he ob¬
serves, that is valuable, whether of a temporal or a spiri¬
tual nature, Jqed^e1 must be*3com- shanliscoTeVintheVe sufficient evidence that the govern-
baptism must be confcrre , » as easy to ment of the primitive church was Episcopal.
municated, by some human being, a J 7 ^ rinrincr our Saviour’s stay upon earth, it is undeniable
imagine tile whole human race, as the whole cler,cal order, distinct orders of minis,en,
unfaithful to their obligations. „ , . . .l twelve and the seventy; and after his ascension, ira-
The Episcopalian havmg by ^dSd/before Xh h^’had enlarged the powers of
the eten, we read of r^and^in
by an inquiry of the same nature, to prove that this order
was not single, but threefold. In the former inquiry he was
united with the Presbyterian against the Independent;
he has now to answer the arguments of the Presbyterian,
who maintains that originally the Christian church con¬
tained no office higher than that of presbyter or elder ; and,
in opposition to him, the Episcopalian maintains that Christ
and his apostles instituted divers orders in the church,
of which that of bishops with authority over presbyters, and
with the exclusive right of ordination, was the highest. TI’T^eome'Fox reiect the use of that
In behalf of the Presbyterian plea it is urged, that the which the disciples of George J . . . . f
titles of bishop and presbyter, being in the New Testament rite which ?ur Savl®ur^eleven alone to whom
indifferently given to the same persons, cannot be the titles kind into his church. y , , ,, nnt;ons bap-
of distinct ecclesiastical officers ; which appears still more Christ satd, “ S”/6 Fatto and of the s£
evident from the ordination of Timothy, who, although he t.zmg them m ,he "a“e,,of h we fte-
was the first bishop of Ephesus, received his ep.scopal cha- and of the H"'y ,he a-
racter bv the imposition of the hands of the presbytery, quently find presbyters and deacons admmiste g
-fhat one and J same man is, in the New Testament, crament of bapt.sm we ^
styled sometimes a bishop and sometimes a presbyter, can- ministers justice y . y administered bap-
not be denied; but although every apostolic bishop was so those inferior officers of the church adman j ^ ^
therefore undoubtedly a presbyter, it does not of course
follow, says the Episcopalian, that every presbyter was
likewise a bishop. In the Old festament, Aaron and his
sons are without any discrimination of order frequently
styled priests ; and in the New, both St Peter and St John
call themselves presbyters, as St Paul, upon one occasion,
styles himself a deacon, hiuxovo; (Eph. iii. 7): yet no man
ever supposed those apostles to have been such ecclesias¬
tical officers as modern presbyters and deacons; and it is
universally known, that in the Jewish priesthood there
were different orders, and that Aaron was of an order su¬
perior to his sons. This being the case, the presbyters,
by the laying on of whose hands Timothy was made a
bishop, may have been of the same order with St Peter and
St John ; and if so, it follows that his ordination was Epis¬
copal. At all events, we are certain, continues the advo¬
cate for Episcopacy, that it was not in the modern sense
of the word Presbyterian ; for the gift, which in the first
the church. That the presbyters were superior to the
deacons, and the apostles superior to both, is acknowledg¬
ed by the supporters of presbyterian parity; but it has
been said, that in Scripture we find no intimation that the
apostolic order was designed for continuance. A Quaker
says the same thing of water-baptism ; and the Episcopa¬
lian observes, that it would be difficult to point out by
what passage of Scripture, or what mode of reasoning,
those who upon this plea reject the apostolic order ot
Christian ministers, could overthrow the principles upon
so those inferior officers oi me ei.u.en
tism by authority derived from the apostles. Indeed,
they pretended to act by any other authority, it i
easily to be conceived how their baptism couk iav ,
the baptism instituted by Christ; for it was not .
external washing, by whomsoever performed, a ^ „ j.
eleven and their successors, that he promise o
even unto the end of the world.
ways,
We have already noticed that the eleven, act'nj?’f,t:on
orthodox Christians allow, by the eXtraor^'nar^/.Upcom-
of the Spirit, never appear to have supposed that me
mission with which they were invested was o
with them. On the contrary, they admitted -
Barnabas, and Paul, to the name and authority o iv;jent,
and Timothy and Titus to some office W^1C I’ presby*
was superior to that of either ancient or moderaP
ters. Supposing it then granted that Iimo /
missioned" by the apostle Paul not to foun a
where the gospel had been hitherto unpreac e >
EPISCOPACY.
315
pisof
P«.V
-r
execute some office in one previously founded, the Epis¬
copalian maintains that the directions given by the apostle
could be addressed to none but a bishop, that is, to one pos¬
sessing an ecclesiastical authority superior to that of pres¬
byters. For in Timothy (iv. 2-6) we read, “ I besought
thee to abide still at Ephesus, when I went into Mace¬
donia, that thou mightest charge some that they teach no
other doctrine, neither give heed to fables and endless ge¬
nealogies. Let the presbyters that rule well be counted
worthy of double honour ; especially they who labour in
the word and doctrine. Against a presbyter receive not
an accusation but before two or three witnesses. Them
that sin rebuke before all, that others also may fear. Lay
hands suddenly on no man, neither be partaker of other
men’s sins.” Now, an individual right to dared presbyters
as to the doctrine they preached, to receive accusations
against them, to rebuke the offending, to confer authori¬
tative approbation upon the deserving, and finally, to or¬
dain, are exactly the offices which belong to a bishop.
The right to perform these, if derived from an appoint¬
ment by presbyters, would have constituted a superin¬
tending presbyter; but the right being conferred by apos¬
tolic authority, raised their professor to higher order, and
this higher order is the Episcopal.
It is unnecessary to pursue the argument in the case of
Titus, bishop of Crete, whose episcopacy is equally clear
with that of Timothy; and if no other diocesan bishops
are mentioned in the Acts or Epistles, we need not won¬
der when we reflect how little is said of the greater part
of the apostolic body.
We perceive, then, that as far down as the history of the
church is warranted in Scripture, there always existed
imparity among the ministers of religion, and that the
apostles ordained certain officers to superintend or be
bishops over the presbyters. And when from the inspir¬
ed penmen of the New Testament he proceeds to examine
the succeeding writers of the Christian church, the Epis¬
copalian finds such multiplied and concurring evidence of
the apostolic institution of episcopacy, as he thinks it im-
I possible to resist without denying the truth of all ancient
history, and even shaking the pillars of revelation itself;
for, “ in the noble army of martyrs,” the witnesses of the
episcopal government of the church are earlier, and by far
more numerous, than those who testify that the gospel of
St Matthew was written by that apostle, or that the book
of the Apocalypse is canonical Scripture. The authority
of the Fathers indeed is at present very low; but should
they be allowed to be as fanciful divines and as bad cri¬
tics as their worst enemies are pleased to represent them,
this would detract nothing from their evidence when they
bear witness to the constitution of the church in their own
times; for of their honesty there can be no doubt; and
'vhat the Episcopalian wants of them is only their testi¬
mony to matters of fact which fell under the cognizance
ot their own senses, and about which therefore they could
not be deceived. It is here indeed chiefly that he tri¬
umphs over his antagonists. In the second and third
centuries there was no general council, nor any Christian
sovereign. A prelacy therefore, he urges, could not have
been universally introduced, during that period, either by
a concert among the clergy, or by the authority of the
civil magistrate.
fhat at the close of the first or apostolic century the
'v 0 6 Christian world was Presbyterian, and that, as we
now to, have been the case, at the close of the second it
was entirely Episcopal; that of the cause or progress of
ie change not a word should be mentioned by the con-
emporary writers; that whilst Episcopacy was a foul
usurpation of the rights of Christ’s flock, every Christian
nter from Clement downwards should speak of it as a
most excellent and even divine institution ; that no single
presbyter throughout the world should, as far as we know,
have said a single word in defence of his insulted order;
all this, the Episcopalian maintains, is so utterly improba¬
ble as to justify his regarding it as a fable, and one not
very cunningly devised.
The candid Episcopalian, however, allows, that in the
apostolic age there may have been some churches which
at first had only bishops and deacons to perform the offi¬
ces of religion; for when the number of disciples in any
place was so small that they could all meet in one assem¬
bly, there was no necessity for any other order of minis¬
ters; but it appears that, from the very beginning, bishops,
presbyters, and deacons were settled in all the lunger cities
of the Roman empire ; and it was in those days an allowed
maxim, that without a bishop there could be no church.
The better to understand the original state and institu¬
tion of episcopacy, it is necessary to observe, that the em¬
pire, which contained almost all the known part of the
Christian world, was divided originally into provinces of
two kinds, the one called consular, the other prcetorian, of
which the former were either larger, or of more political
importance. In the reign of Augustus the consular pro¬
vinces were placed under the direct control of the em¬
peror, and were administered by legates generally of con¬
sular rank ; whilst the praetorian were left under the con¬
trol of the senate and people, and were governed by a
proconsul, as Asia was. ( See Acts, xix. 38.) There was still
a third class of smaller provinces retained by the emperor,
and governed in general by men of equestrian or even infe¬
rior rank, under the title ot procurators; of these Judaea was
one. A province comprehended the cities of a whole re¬
gion ; and in the age of the apostles each city was under
the immediate government of certain magistrates within its
own body, known by the name of /ScoXjj, or senatus, ordo,
and curia, the states and court of the city. Those ma¬
gistrates were subordinate to the prcetor or proconsul;
but among them there was one superior to the rest, called
sometimes dictator and sometimes defensor civitatis, whose
jurisdiction extended not only over the city itself, but like¬
wise over all the adjacent territory. That territory was
denominated rr^oaisrua, or the suburbs, and often reached
to the distance of ten or twelve miles round the city, and
sometimes much farther, containing within it many villa¬
ges and small towns under the government of the city
magistrates. From some passages in the New Testament,
and from the concurring evidence of the earliest writers
of the church, it appears to have been the purpose of the
apostles to settle a bishop in every city where there was
a civil magistracy; but as they could not be personally
present in all places at once, it was natural for them to
enter upon the great work of converting the nations by
first preaching the gospel in that city of each province
which was the ordinary residence of the governor; because
to it there must have been the greatest resort of people,
who would carry the glad tidings with them into the
country when they returned. Accordingly, having dis¬
persed themselves over the empire, and made numbers of
proselytes in the principal cities, they fixed in each, where
they saw it necessary, a bishop, with a college of presby¬
ters and deacons, and gave to those bishops, who were at
first called apostles, a commission, as the other cities of the
province should be converted, to fix bishops in them also.
In some of the smaller cities, it is extremely probable
that a bishop and a deacon were for a short time the only
ecclesiastical officers, till the number of Christians in¬
creased so much as to make it impossible for them all to
assemble in one house for the purposes of public worship.
The bishop then ordained presbyters to officiate in those
congregations where he himself could not be present, and
Episco¬
pacy.
316
Episco-
E P I S C (
to assist him in other parts of his pastoral office; but in
all their ministrations the presbyters were subordinate to
him, who was the chief pastor within the city, who com¬
posed the prayers which were offered up in public, and
to whom all the other ministers of religion were account¬
able for their conduct. As long as the number ot the
faithful was confined within the walls of the city, it ap¬
pears that the bishop with his presbyters and deacons
lived together as in a college ; that divine service was
every Lord’s day, or oftener, performed m what was af¬
terwards called the cathedral or mother-church, by the
bishop himself, assisted by some of his clergy; and that
the congregations which met in other churches, having
no fixed pastors, were supplied by such presbyters as the
bishop chose to send to them from his own church. Whilst
matters continued in this state, the clergy had no other
revenues than what arose from the voluntary oblations ot
the people; which were indeed so large as not only to
support them with decency, but likewise to answer other
ends of charity and munificence. They were commonly
divided into four equal parts ; of which one was allotted
to the bishop, a second to the inferior clergy, a third to
the poor, and a fourth to keep the churches in repair;
and it was considered as a part of the bishop s duty to
take care that the offerings should be faithfully applied
to these purposes. _ ,
When converts increased in number, and churches
were built in the suburbs, each of these churches had a
fixed pastor similar to a parish-priest amongst us ; but still
those pastors, as well as the city clergy, ministered in
subordination to the bishop, whose authority extended as
far as the civil authority of the Roman magistrate, within
which district or diocese it was supreme oyer all orders
of Christians. This every man knows who is acquainted
with ecclesiastical history ; for the bishop alone could or¬
dain priests and deacons, administer the rite of confirma¬
tion, absolve penitents who were under church censure,
and exclude from communion heretics and notorious of¬
fenders ; and from his sentence there lay no appeal but
to a synod of comprovincial bishops.
Such synods were in each province convened by the
bishop of the chief city: for the apostles having been
careful to place in those cities men of the most eminent
gifts and abilities, the other bishops of the provinces ap¬
plied to them for advice upon every emergency, and paid
a particular deference to them upon every occasion. So
that though all bishops were of equal authority ots bishops,
yet when they met to consecrate a new bishop, or to deli¬
berate upon the affairs of the church, they yielded a pre¬
cedency to the bishop of the metropolis, who called them
together, and who sat as president or moderator of the sy¬
nod. Hence the origin of metropolitans or archbishops,
whose authority was so considerable, that though there
is not a doubt but the election of bishops was anciently
placed in the clergy and people of the vacant diocese, yet
the bishop elect could not be consecrated without the con¬
sent of the archbishop of the province.
In consequence of the very extensive powers with which
the primitive bishops were vested, they are commonly
styled in the writings of those times presidents, provosts,
or inspectors of the church, chief priests, princes of the
clergy, and even princes of the people ; but their authority
was wholly spiritual. Those prelates, imitating the ex¬
ample of their Divine Master when on earth, neither pos¬
sessed nor assumed to themselves any jurisdiction over
the properties or civil rights of men. In consequence of
St Paul’s having reprimanded the Corinthians for going
to law before the unbelievers, they were indeed often cho¬
sen as arbiters of such civil disputes as arose between in¬
dividuals under their episcopal government; but on these
3 p A c Y.
occasions they could not act unless the submission was } ^
voluntarily made by both the contending parties, and then if
their decision was final. When the empire became Chris- H v
tian, this privilege was confirmed to them by law ; for any
civil cause depending before a court of justice could be
withdrawn, and by the mutual consent of parties be sub¬
mitted to the arbitration of the bishop, whose award, which
in former times could be enforced only by the terror of
church censures, was then enforced by the secular magis¬
trate. In criminal causes, where the trial might be for
life or death, they were prohibited, both by the canons of
the church and by the laws of the state, from acting as
judges ; and therefore they never suffered such causes to
come before them, excepting when it was necessary that
the person accused, if found guilty, should be excluded
the communion of the faithful.
Be this as it may, it is certain that, through the libera¬
lity of the Christian emperors, the bishops enjoyed large
revenues and many valuable privileges ; but it does not
appear that they had any rank or authority, as barons or
temporal princes, till the Gothic nations, which subverted
the Roman empire, had embraced the Christian faith.
As Christianity incapacitated the leaders of those tribes
from officiating as chief priests at the religious rites which
were usually celebrated at the opening of their public
assemblies, the bishops came naturally to discharge that
duty on such occasions, when they must have shared in
the rank by sharing in the functions of the chief. The si¬
tuation in which they thus appeared at the opening of all
political conventions, enabled them to join with much
effect in the deliberations which ensued; and their supe¬
rior knowledge, their sacred character, and their influ¬
ence with the people, soon acquired them power equal to
their rank. They must therefore have been thought en¬
titled to obtain admission into that council which was form¬
ed by the king and the lay-chiefs at the national assem¬
blies ; and as they balanced the authority of those chiefs,
we cannot doubt of the king’s disposition to give the
utmost effect to their claim. Accordingly, we find the
dignified clergy, who received large grants of land to be
held on the same tenures with the lands of the lay magis¬
trates, presiding along with those magistrates in the pro¬
vincial assemblies of every degree in all the Gothic na¬
tions, and enjoying every advantage of rank and authority
in their national diets. Hence the bishop of Rome, and
several bishops in Germany, have, like the dukes and
marquises of that empire, been for a long time sovereign
princes ; and hence too the bishops of England and Ire¬
land have always sat, and have an equal right with the
lay-peers to sit, in the upper house of parliament. It is
however obvious, that, as far as episcopacy is ot apostolical
institution, those peers and pdpqes possess not t\\e original
character in any higher deglife than the bishops in Ame¬
rica, who are merely on a f^png of equality with ot er
citizens, or those of Scotland, who are little more turn
the ministers of a small body of dissenters from an esta
blished church. *
Having thus traced what we may call the progress o
episcopacy from the simple purity of apostolic times up o
the gorgeous prelacy of the middle ages, it seems proper)
before concluding, that we should briefly allude to e
history and present state of episcopacy in Scotland.
About the time of the Reformation, the want or or e
and decency in the worship of the reformed church wa
abolished in the reign of James VI. by the estabhshmen^
of episcopacy on very liberal principles. This mo e
worship obtained the sanction of the most respectable pa
of the nation, and continued to flourish under the ausPlct0
of government, till it was overthrown by the adheren
the national covenant. Its restoration was, however,
E P I
Episi
pac'
*~r!
fected in the year 1662, and twenty-seven years subse¬
quently it was again abolished by the supporters of the
Prince of Orange, afterwards William III.
It may be proper to observe, that the Scotch Episcopal
Church had no public liturgy during her legal establish¬
ment. It is indeed true that the English book of common
prayer was used by the first reformers, and there is rea¬
son to believe that John Knox himself was by no means
inimical to fixed forms of prayer, nor to clerical subordi¬
nation; but his successor, Andrew Melvil, introduced an
equality among the clergy, and excited the minds of the
people against the liturgy to such a degree, that an at¬
tempt to modify the prayer-book for the use of the Church
of Scotland was productive of the solemn league and co¬
venant, and the subsequent ruin of Charles I.
During the reign of William III. the episcopalians were
treated with some degree of severity, because they could
not transfer to him that allegiance which they had sworn
to King James. It is said that they were prohibited from
officiating on the Sabbath-day, except “ in their own hired
houses, where they received such friends as chose to come
in unto them.” In this manner was their worship con¬
ducted, praying either extempore, or from premeditation,
till the accession of Queen Anne, when the English litur¬
gy was introduced by degrees into Scotland, under the
sanction of an act of parliament, passed on the third of
March 1712, “ to prevent the disturbing of those of the
episcopal communion in that part of Great Britain called
Scotland, in the exercise of their religious worship, and
in the use of the liturgy of the Church of England.” But
as their attachment to the house of Stuart was well known,
they were, at the rebellion in 1715, laid under some re¬
straints, yet neither severe in their nature, nor of any
long continuance, since in 1720 their places of worship
were as numerous as before, and frequented by numbers
both of rank and respectability, many of whom held places
under government.
In England Dr Sancroft, archbishop of Canterbury,
with five other bishops, were deprived of their sees for re¬
fusing their allegiance to King William ; a circumstance
which occasioned a schism in the church, as they were
extremely popular. Different opinions were entertained
respecting the nature and design of the Lord’s Supper,
and the controversy infected the Episcopalians of Scot¬
land. On the death of Dr Rose, the proscribed bishop
of Edinburgh, the diocesan form of church government
was opposed by such of the presbyters as had been raised
to the episcopal dignity, and it was proposed to govern the
whole church by a college of bishops. This plan, for the
adoption of which no precedent could be found in the annals
of history, was successfully opposed by many of the most
enlightened bishops, and it was of consequence abandoned.
After the rebellion of 1745 additional acts of consider¬
able severity were passed against the Scottish episcopa¬
lians, the worst effect of which was the formation of many
congregations using the English liturgy, and imagining
themselves episcopalians, whilst they and their ministers
were living in separation from the bishops of the coun¬
try. All restraints upon Scottish episcopalians were,
owever, removed by the act of 1792; since which pe¬
riod they have enjoyed full liberty of conscience, in com-
mon with other dissenters from the established church,
tl • e,rePea' ^ie penal acts of course tended to unite
to independent chapels above mentioned to the episco-
pa church ; but an impediment still existed, which delay-
e t ie progress of this union for several years. The Scot-
is Episcopal Church had never yet adopted the English
on ession of Faith ; and though the act of 1792 requir-
th .ever^ ,:o^erate(l episcopalian minister should sign
e urty-nine Articles, still, as might have been expect-
E P I 317
ed, those ministers were not prepared immediately to sign Episcopal
a declaration of faith at a secular mandate. There conse- H
quently remained an ostensible reason for separation till Epitaph,
the year 1804, when a convocation of the episcopal church
declared their readiness to sign the Thirty-nine Articles
of the Church of England, in the manner enacted by the
act of 1792. ^
The cause of separation being thus removed, the English
chapels began immediately to unite themselves to the Scot¬
tish Episcopal Church, and to submit to the authority of the
bishop within whose jurisdiction they lay; and at the pre¬
sent moment (1834) there are but three congregations in
Scotland using the English liturgy, who refuse obedience
to the Scottish bishops. The episcopal church in Scotland
is now governed by six bishops, having under them about
seventy presbyters entrusted with the cure of souls.
EPISCOPAL, something belonging to Bishops.
EPISCOPALIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, an appel¬
lation given to those who prefer the episcopal government
and discipline to all others.
EPISCOPIUS, Simon, one of the most learned men of
the seventeenth century, and the chief supporter of the
Arminian sect, was born at Amsterdam in 1583. In 1612
he was chosen divinity professor at Leyden, in the room
of Gomarus, who resigned ; but the functions of his office,
with his private studies, were light, compared with the
difficulties he sustained on account of the Arminian con¬
troversy. The states of Holland having invited Episco-
pius to take his place at the synod of Dort, he went thi¬
ther, accompanied by some ministers; but the synod
would not allow them to sit as judges, nor to appear in
any other capacity than as persons summoned before them ;
and, in the end, they were deposed from their functions
and banished. Episcopius and his persecuted brethren
retired to Antwerp; but the times growing more favour¬
able, he returned to Holland in 1626, and was made mi¬
nister of the church of the Remonstrants at Rotterdam.
In 1634 he was chosen rector of the college founded by
the sect at Amsterdam, and died in 1643. His works
form two volumes in folio.
EPISODE, in Poetry, a separate incident, story, or ac¬
tion, which a poet invents and connects with his princi¬
pal action, so that his work may abound with a greater
diversity of events. See Poetry.
EPISTEMONARCH, in the ancient Greek church, an
officer of great dignity, who, acting in the capacity of cen¬
sor, had the care of every thing relating to faith.
EPISTLE, the same as letter; but it is now chiefly used
in speaking of ancient writings, as the epistles of St Paul,
of Cicero, of Pliny, and so on.
Epistles and Gospels, in the liturgy of the Church of
England, are portions of Scripture selected from the wri¬
tings of the evangelists and apostles, and appointed to be
read, in the communion service, on Sundays and holidays.
They are believed to have been selected by St Jerome,
and by him put into the lectionary.
The epistles and gospels are placed in an admirable or¬
der and method, and bear a special relation to the several
days on which they are read. The year is distinguished
into two parts; the first being designed to commemorate
Christ’s sojourn upon earth, and the other to instruct us
to live after his example. The former includes the whole
time from Advent to Trinity Sunday; the latter all the
Sundays from Trinity to Advent.
EPISTYLE, in the ancient architecture, a term used
by the Greeks for what we call architrave, that is, a mas¬
sive piece of stone or wood laid immediately over the ca¬
pital of a column.
EPITAPH (from m, upon, and rapoi, sepulchre), a
monumental inscription in honour or in memory of a per-
318
E P P
Epping.
Epithala- son deceased. It has been disputed whether the ancient
mium Jews inscribed epitaphs on the monuments of the dead;
but however this may be, it is certain that epitaphs or
very ancient date are found among them. The Athenians,
by way of epitaph, commonly put only the name of the
dead, with the epithet ^rjffrog, signifying good, or rigag, hero,
and the word intimating their good wishes; but t re
name of the deceased’s father and that of his tribe were
occasionally added. The Lacedaemonians allowed epi¬
taphs to none but those who had died in battle. I he Ko-
mans inscribed their epitaphs diis manibus ; and frequent¬
ly introduced the dead, by way of prosopopoeia, speaking
to the living. .
EPITHALAMIUM, in Poetnj, a nuptial song or com¬
position in praise of the bride and bridegroom, and pray¬
ing for their prosperity. ^ j
Epithalamia were sung amongst the Jews at the door
of the bride, by her friends and companions, the evening
before the marriage. Amongst the Greeks the epithala-
mium was sung as soon as the married couple had gone to
bed, and was attended with shouts and stamping of the
feet to drown the cries of the bride. They returned in
the morning, and with the same song, a little altered, sa¬
luted them again. The evening song was .called imOaXci-
(iia xoi/inrixa, the morning salute was called iviQx^fiia.
f7vr,Ka. The practice amongst the Romans was the same,
but their epithalamia were often obscene.
EPITHET, in Poetry and Rhetoric, an adjective ex¬
pressing some quality of a substantive to which it is join¬
ed or such an adjective as is annexed to substantives by
way of ornament and illustration, not to make up an es¬
sential part of the description.
EPITOME, in literary history, the same with Abridg-
MEPITRITUS, in Prosody, a foot consisting of three
long syllables and one short. Of these, grammarians
reckon four kinds; the first consisting of an iambus and
spondee, as sdlutdntes; the second, of a trocheus and
spondee, as concitdti; the third of a spondee and an
iambus, as commuriicdns ; and the fourth of a spondee and
trocheus, as mcdntdre. See the articles Spondeus, Tro¬
cheus, and Iambus.
EPITROPUS, a kind of judge, or rather an arbitrator,
which the Greek Christians, under the dominion of the
Turks, were in use to elect in the several cities, in order
to terminate the differences that arose among them, and
thus avoid carrying them before the Turkish magistrates.
See Arbitrator. „ . . . .
EPOCH A, in Chronology, a term or fixed point of time
whence the succeeding years are numbered or reckoned.
EPODE, in Lyric Poetry, the third or last part of the
ode, the ancient ode being divided into strophe, anti¬
strophe, and epode. The epode was sung by the priests,
standing still before the altar, after all the turns and re¬
turns of the strophe and antistrophe, and was not confined
to any precise number or kind of verses. The epode is
now a general name for all kinds of little verses which fol¬
low one or more great ones, of what kind soever these be ;
and in this sense a pentameter is an epode after an hexa-
meter.
EPOPCEIA, in Poetry, the history, action, or fable,
which forms the subject of an epic poem. The word is
derived from the Greek £ffo£, carmen, verse, and iro/sw,
facto, I make. In the common use of the word, however,
epopceia is the same with epos, or epic poem itself. See
Poetry.
EPPING, a market-town of the county of Essex, in the
hundred of Waltham, seventeen miles from London. It
was remarkable for its situation in a district formerly very
woody, and preserved by our ancient monarchs for the
E Q u
enjoyment of the sports of the field. It was then called Ep; j
Waltham Forest, and extended almost to the capital. In
the same neighbourhood also w'as Hainault Forest, where 1
a fair was held for many centuries under a remarkable
tree, well known by,the name of Fairlop Oak, which has '
existed till recently, and was of prodigious size. The
greater part of these districts have been disforested, and
converted into fertile fields. The town of Epping has a
market, which is held on Friday, but at a small distance
from the buildings. It preserves the fame it has long en¬
joyed for its butter, its sausages, and its pork, in the Lon¬
don markets. The population amounted in 1801 to 1729,
in 1811 to 1874, in 1821 to 2146, and in 1831 to 2313.
EPITNGEN, a city, the capital of a bailiwick of the
same name, in the grand duchy of Baden in Germany. It
is situated on the river Elsenz, and contains 336 houses,
with 2439 inhabitants.
EPSOM, a town of the county of Surrey, fifteen miles
from London. It was formerly frequented on account of
its saline springs, and is now so on account of the races held
on the down near it. County meetings are generally held
here. The neighbourhood abounds with elegant seats of
the nobility and gentry. The population amounted in
1801 to 2404, in 1811 to 2515, in 1821 to 2890, and in
1831 to 3231.
EPULARES, in Antiquity, an epithet given to those
who were admitted to the sacred epulce or entertainments,
it being unlawful for any to be present at them who were
not pure and chaste.
EPULO, in Antiquity, the name of a minister of sacri¬
fice among the Romans.
The pontifices not being able to attend all the sacrifices
performed at Rome to the numerous gods adored by that
people, appointed three ministers, whom they called qii<-
tones, because they had conferred on them the care and
management of the epula, or feasts in the solemn games
and festivals. Their number was at length augmented
from three to seven, and afterwards to ten. Their first
establishment was in the year of Rome 558, under the
consulate of L. Furius Purpureo and M. Claudius Mar-
ccllus.
EPULUM, in Antiquity, a solemn feast prepared for
the gods in times of public danger. The feast was sump¬
tuous, and the gods being formally invited, attended by
proxy; for the statues were brought on rich beds fur¬
nished with soft pillows, called pulvinaria ; and thus ac¬
commodated, their godships were placed on their couches
at the most honourable part of the table. I he care o
the epula belonged to the epulones, and the gods were
plentifully served with the richest dainties, as if they were
able to eat; but the epulones performed that function or
the divinities, and no doubt showed themselves compe¬
tent proxies. ,
Epulum is also used to signify any solemn feast; ana
hence we meet with epulum ferale, a funeral entertam-
ment.
EQUABLE, an appellation given to such motions a
always continue the same, without being either accelera e
or retarded. ,.
EQUAL, a term of relation between two or more tnm^
of the same magnitude, quantity, or quality. Mat ema
ticians speak of equal lines, angles, figures, circles, ra >
solids. e
EQUALITY is that agreement between two or mm
things, by which they are denominated equal. ,
EQUANIMITY denotes that calm and even frame u
mind and temper, under good or bad fortune, by w ,
man appears to be neither puffed up nor overjoyec
prosperity, nor dispirited, soured, or rendered uneasy
adversity.
a
319
iatio
EQUATIONS.
1. In all the applications of algebra, it is not the magni-
tudes concerned that we immediately consider, but merely
their proportions. In every class of quantities of the same
kind, one being adopted as the unit of comparison, all the
rest are referred to this standard, and are represented by
the proportions they bear to it. The letters of the al¬
phabet, or other symbols, used in algebra, are not, there¬
fore, properly speaking, the representatives of magni¬
tudes ; they denote ratios, or abstract numbers, viewed,
as in the fifth book of Euclid, in the most general man¬
ner, and independently of any particular system of arith¬
metic or numeration.
The ancient geometry follows a different procedure.
In that science the attention is in every case confined to
the magnitudes under actual consideration. A general
property of triangles is established, by showing that it is
true of any particular triangle that comes under the pro¬
posed hypothesis. The geometer contemplates particular
instances, presenting for the most part relations not very
complex, and easily kept in view. On this account he carries
on his investigations with the greatest clearness, and is in
no danger of falling into contradiction or paradox. But
his science is little susceptible of general methods. If any.
process within the compass of the ancient geometry be enti¬
tled to that appellation, it is what is called the method of
exhaustion. Every geometer perceives that all the de¬
monstrations under this head have the closest analogy.
Yet, after a hundred applications, it is still necessary, in
any new case, to pursue the reasoning through all its de¬
tails, without deriving assistance from any general con¬
clusion previously obtained.
Algebra possesses a great advantage over geometry in
generalizing its processes. Problems relating to magni¬
tudes of the most different kinds, nevertheless, lead to
similar expressions in numbers. Questions in geometry,
I m mechanics, or concerning mercantile business, are made
to depend on the same rules for their solution. It may be
said that algebra and the modern analysis accomplish, for
ill the mathematical sciences, the project, entertained by
some ingenious men, of an universal and philosophical lan¬
guage, which, being founded on an exact scrutiny into the
nature of things, and on what they possess in common,
might greatly facilitate the acquisition and the extension
if our knowledge.
The spirit of generalization peculiar to algebra is no¬
where more conspicuous than in the doctrine of equations.
Every determinate problem that can occupy the attention
of the mathematician, is ultimately reduced to the finding
of such numbers as are necessary to determine the un¬
known quantity or quantities, by means of the equations
| that subsist between those numbers, and others which are
given in the question. A wide field of mathematical in¬
vestigation is thus brought under a limited number of
algebraic expressions.
In treating of equations, it will not be necessary to begin
with laying down a formal definition. We confine our¬
selves, in this article, to the consideration of such equa¬
tions as contain only one unknown quantity. We further
suppose that the elementary operations preparatory to
solution are already performed; so that the unknown
quantity is clear of radical signs, and is nowhere found in
e denominator of a fraction ; likewise that all the sepa¬
rate terms are brought to one side of the sign of equality,
an arranged in such a manner that the first term, which
“lust always be positive, and have unit for its index, con¬
tains the highest power of the unknown quantity, or Equations
the second term contains the next highest power, and so
on, the term which does not contain x being placed last.
This arrangement must always be understood when any
term is distinguished by the order it stands in; but it will
sometimes be convenient to write the terms in an in¬
verted order, arranging them according to the indices of
the unknown quantity.
Equations are divided into different classes or orders,
according to the highest power of the unknown quantity
found in their terms.
An equation of the first degree, or a simple equation,
is one which contains w only, without any of its powers, as
x~A = 0.
A quadratic equation, or one of the second degree, con¬
tains the square of a?, as a:2— A 0, or — Aa:+ B =: 0.
A cubic equation, or one of the third degree, contains
the cube, or third power of a-, as x3—A=0, or x3—Aa^ +
Ba; — C=0.
A biquadratic equation, or one of the fourth degree,
contains the fourth power, or biquadrate of x, as x4—
A=0, or x* — Aa^ +Bai2 — Cai-T Q—0.
And, in general, an equation of the ?ith degree contains
the nth power of x, and the powers inferior to the nth,
such as
xtl — Aa:”—1 + Ba;” 2 — Ma?+N=0.
A root of an equation is a value of the unknown num- •
ber x. Thus, if a represent a number, and if its powers,
«, a2, a3, when they are substituted in the equation for x,
x2, a?3, &c. produce an equality between the positive and
negative terms, then a is a root of the equation, and it is a
positive root; but if, for x, x2, aP, &c. we must substitute
—a, a2, — a3, &c. which are the powers of — a, in order
to obtain the like equality, then a is a negative root of the
equation.
What we have here called roots are more generally
named real roots, to distinguish them from those expres¬
sions to which the appellation of imaginary or impossible
roots has been given. As it will conduce to perspicuity,
we shall always use the word root in the sense here de¬
fined, unless when imaginary or impossible roots are ex¬
pressly mentioned.
From the definitions laid down, it follows that the ne¬
gative roots of the equation,
0 — N + Mx + La?2 -f- Kx3 +, &c.
are the same with the positive roots of the equation,
0 = N — Ma? + La?2 — Ka?3 +, &c.
in which the signs only of all the terms containing the
odd powers of x are changed. For the same result is ob¬
tained, whether we make x equal to — a in the first equa¬
tion, or to -+• « in the second.
2. A great advantage has resulted from the practice
introduced by Harriot, of writing all the terms of an equa¬
tion on one side of the sign of equality. The polynomes
formed by all the terms thus brought together are ra¬
tional and integral functions of the unknown quantity;
and the question is, to find in what circumstances such
expressions are equal to zero. The most likely way of
succeeding in this research, is to resolve the functions
into their most simple component factors. Harriot sup¬
posed that every rational function can be produced by
the continued multiplication of binomial factors, and in
320
EQUAT IONS.
Binomial Factors.
3. The first object of inquiry must be to find the con¬
ditions necessary, in order that a binomial quantity, as
x a, or x a, shall divide a rational polynome with¬
out a remainder. Suppose that x — a is a divisor of the
polynome,
+ A*”-1 + Bx71-2 + Mx + N,
Kquations. tWs l,e has been followed by succeeding algebraists. The tional functton ^ be completely exhausted by sunpleh J
modern theory of equations is entirely founded on th.s bee'n said naturally distributes the sub. ~
supposition, which, although .t demonstrated, . onc ,rea,ingyof the simple o, bino.
^ Snce!°aTd byatheldmission of those artififial ex- mial factors and the other of the quadratic or trinomial
pressions called imaginary or impossible quantities. But factors, of age laic equa
there is a distinction between the real and impossible
binomial factors of a rational polynome; for the first are
expressions complete and significant by themselves, with¬
out reference to other quantities ; whereas one impossible
factor necessarily supposes the existence of another, the
two related expressions being such that their multiplica¬
tion produces one real factor of the second degree. Ihus,
every pair of impossible factors is equivalent to a real
quadratic factor; and, by an unavoidable consequence ot
the forced supposition made by Harriot, the attention or
algebraists has been drawn to the two impossible expres¬
sions, instead of the real one which they compose. In
order to place the doctrine of equations and the theory
of impossible roots on a solid foundation,^ it appears ne-
cessarv to attempt the resolution of rational functions
into their component factors by a rigorous analysis, free / (x) /(^) — jy[ + L ■
from arbitrary suppositions.
To resolve the rational function / (a?) into its compo¬
nent factors, we must begin with inquiring whether it
can be divided without a remainder, by a division such as
x a, or x + a. If it can, the proposed function will
be equal to (x + a) X / (x), where/ (x), the quotient
of the division, is a function similar to f (a:), but of an
order one degree lower. In like manner, it may be pos¬
sible to reduce/' (x) to a degree still lower, by means of
one or more divisors of the same form; and, in certain
cases, the first function may be entirely exhausted by
successive binomial divisors. When this happens, the di¬
visors x — a, x — b, x — c, &c. will be equal in number to
the exponent of the highest power of x, and their conti¬
nued product will be equal to / (x). It is evident, that
by multiplying together a proper number of such factors,
which we shall denote by/ (x) : then we shall have
f(x) = N + Ma: + Lx2 + Kx3 +, &c.
f(a) = N + Ma + La2 + Ka3 +, &c.
wherefore, by subtracting and dividing by x — a, we get
x? — a2
-K
x3-
- + > &c.
x—a x—a x—a x — a x a
Now, it is known that the difference between any like
powers of two numbers is exactly divisible by the differ¬
ence of those numbers: hence all the quantities on the
right-hand side of the sign of equality form an integral
expression. But as/(a^ does not contain x, it cannot be
divisible by x — a ; it follows, therefore, that/(x) cannot
be divisible by x — a, unless /(a) = 0; and it is obvious
that this condition is the only one necessary. Thus, the
polynome/(x) will be divisible by x — a when a is a po¬
sitive root of the equation/(x)=0, otherwise not.
Again, let the divisor be x + a; then,
/(/) = N + Mx + Lx2 + Kx3 +> &c.
a) = N — Ma + La2 — Ka3 +, &c.
+L-~i HK-- ,
x + a x + a x + a
ft
uj   „ r__r  and by proceeding as before,
an algebraic expression may be formed similar to any ra- f(x) f(—a) x + a . T x2—a2 , T7. x3 + a3
tional and integral function, and the co-efficients of this 7
product will likewise contain as many quantities to be de¬
termined at pleasure as there are co-efficients in the given
function. But we should reason badly if, from this pro¬
cess of composition, we should infer that a product arising
from the multiplication of a certain number of simple fac¬
tors may have any given co-efficients, or will coincide with
any proposed polynome of the same degree. This is a
point that can be ascertained only by a process of ana¬
lysis or resolution, and by seeking all the binomial divi¬
sors any given function admits of. In fact, the cases are
extremely rare in which an algebraic function can be
completely exhausted by real binomial divisors. There
+&c.
x + a x + a
Here again all the divisions on the right-hand side of the
sign of equality can be exactly performed ; and we must,
therefore, conclude that / (x) will be divisible by x+a
only when/(—a) = 0, that is, when a is a negative root
of the equation / (x) — 0.
Now x~T~a being a divisor of/ (x), the quotient, which
we may denote by/' (x), will be a polynome of (w—1)
dimensions, or one degree lower than / (x); and we
shall have
/(x) = (xrpa) X/'(x).
From this equation it appears that every value of x that
icnrc In pro aiuiii Lino cuucinwn *1/ ~ ^ ,
1 ^ i i*1. ,« . • i r • p makes f1 (x) equal to zero, will likewise make/(x) ecpia
are many polynomes winch have not a smgle dmsor of ^ 1 , ’ binomial disisor Jo{ the Ital
tins kind ; and. m the progress of resolution we generally ° ze nowise be a divisor of the second. And >
arrive at a function which cannot be further divided, iliiicuuu hjac » „ , • • i j- • ora nPither will
When this is the case, it must be tried whether a quad- / (/) 'ias no loots, an binomial divi-
ratic divisor, as x2 + mx + *, will not be successful in /(*) have any roots except =♦=«, nor any bmommUm
lowering the function. But here it must be observed that
such divisors are of two kinds ; one, as (x — g)2 — r2, which
can be resolved into two binomial factors; and one, as
(x — g)2 + r2, which cannot be so resolved without intro¬
ducing imaginary or impossible expressions. Now, to
divide by a divisor of the first kind is the same thing as
to divide by the two binomial factors of which it is com¬
posed ; and, therefore, it is the second kind of quadratic
factors only that need be tried, or that can succeed, in
lowering a function already deprived of all its simple divi- mauuci cimti mi,       . .
sors. After quadratic divisors, those of the third degree last to a binomial quotient, in which case the origma p
would naturally come to be considered; but this is unne- lynome / (x) will be completely resolved into binoim
cessary, because algebraists have found that every ra- factors; or till we come to a quotient that has no roo 1
j nave; cii/y iuuls ^  f / )
sors except x=pa. Suppose that the polynomes / (I’j
and /' (x) have the common root =t=b; they will like¬
wise have the common divisor xi+=6; audit we put/ (+
for the quotient arising from the division of/' (x) }
x=fzb, so that/' (x) = (xrp6) ./" (x), we shall have
/ (x) = (x + a) . (x z+z b) ./" (x),
in which equation /" (x) is a polynome of n—2 dunen
sions, or two degrees lower than / (x).
It is evident we may continue to reason in the same
manner either till, after successive divisions, we. come a
Equ
EQUATIONS.
in which casef(x) will have no binomial factors except and a value of x, viz. a, may be found such that
those previously found. We may therefore conclude that 2«+] . 2» , 2»_l
«a rational polynome has as many binomial factors as it T a 'r' ... + M
has roots, and no more; every positive root producing a ^ow transpose N, and then change the
factor of the form x — a, and every negative root one of terms> and we shall get
321
Equations.
.+ Ma=N.
signs of all the
*2,i+1 + Ao!2w_ Ba2"—1 Ma + N=0,
which shows that a is a negative root of the equation.
2. “ Every equation ot even dimensions having its last
— - . ' J O -    
the form x+a; and since the number of binomial fac
tors can never be greater than the dimensions of the po¬
lynome, its roots cannot exceed the same number.”
4. There are very few cases in which it can be known
immediately and by inspection that an equation has
one or more roots. These cases depend upon the follow¬
ing propositions, viz. “ If <p (x) denote a rational poly¬
nome, having x, or some integral power of x, in every one ~ ^ ^
of its terms, and likewise having the term that contains and consider the polynomes,
the greatest power of x positive, a value of x may be 2« , A 2«—1
found that will make <p (x) equal to any positive quantity, ‘T( ' x
x2n— Ax2’1-1 + Bx2n~2... — IVTc — N,
tei ni,negative, has two roots, one positive and one nega
Let the equation be
N=0;
x2n + Ax2n~l + Bx2n 2... + M* ■
+ — N,
as s,
Suppose, first, that all the terms of p (x) are positive ; in the latter of which the signs of all the terms contain-
pn rn hemp* the first term, nr that in whinh v     ?   i i .1 .v
then xn being the first term, or that in which x rises to
the highest power, if s = tn, and it is manifest that
Therefore, while x increases from 0 to be equal to X, the
function <p(x) increases from 0 to be greater than s ; and
as the variations of <p (x), however irregular they may be,
are connected by the law of continuity, the function will
pass through every gradation of magnitude between 0 and
the greatest limit <p (X). Consequently, there is a value
of x between 0 and X, that will make <p (x) equal to s.
When the terms of <p (x) are not all positive, let all the
positive terms except xn be rejected, and all the negative
terms be retained, and we shall have <p (#) equal to, or
greater than,
xn — Fa;” * 1 — Hxn * 1
But, s being equal to tn, we have
"+tzxn-°...+i j
ing the odd powers of x are changed ; then there are two
values of x, viz. a and b, such as to answer the conditions,
a2n+ Aa2”—
—M6=N:
consequently' a is a positive and b a negative root of the
equation.
3. “ A polynome of even dimensions, which has no bi¬
nomial factors, is always positive, whatever value be sub¬
stituted for the unknown quantity.”
Let the polynome be/(a?) or
x^11 + Ax2n 1... Mar + N;
then the last term, or that term which does not contain x,
must be positive; for otherwise the polynome would have
two roots and two binomial factors, contrary to the hy¬
pothesis. Now, if it be possible, let the polynome have a
negative value when X is substituted for x, so that/(X) =
— P; therefore, when «=:0, f (x) is equal to the positive
7.2/1 1
—, &c.
V W 0 V/ VJ UCIL LKJ
tn=3f‘—(x 1) . | Xn
1 1 l
"r’torrermf ^V^l ^ °f ^ ^d, wl“kf saSnction Hqual
Mon to tne terms containing the like powers ot x in the -- ^ ^ ^ % . .... l .
value of tn, we shall get
And hence,
(x—t) . tl= F, (x — t). tl — H, &c.
&c.
x=t + ^,
r e
Let X be either equal to or exceed the greatest of those
values of x, then we shall have
<p (X) >tn>s.
Vv herefore, as before, there is a value of x between 0 and
X) that will make <p (x) equal to s.
From what has now been proved, we derive the follow-
mg properties of equations.
L Every equation of odd dimensions has at least one
positive root when the last term is negative, and one ne-
tr V°0t w^en ^le last term is positive.”
1 the last term be negative, as in this instance,
*2*+1 + A^« + Bz2”-1... + M* _ N=0;
accM-amg to what has been proved, a value of X, viz. a,
may be found that will satisfy the condition,
to — P; but since/ (x) passes through all degrees of
magnitude between N and — P, while x varies from 0 to X,
it will become equal to zero when x has some interme¬
diate value; therefore the polynome has one root be¬
tween 0 and X, and one binomial divisor corresponding to
that root, contrary to the hypothesis.
It may be observed, that the converse of this proposi¬
tion is not true ; for a polynome of even dimensions, that
has
such factors as (x—a)2, (x—a)4, (x—a)2m, may
«2n+1 + Aa
■2n + Ba2”—1
. — ... + Ma=N;
'm 18 ? positive roo.t of the equation.
en the last term is positive, as in this equation,
change ^ + +B^2ra~1- + Ma;+N=0’
termPtW S,gn of the last term> and the signs of all the
nome wifi become ^ °f then the P°ly'
vol. I*2n+1'~A2;2n+Ba;2re~1-+Ma!—N:
never become negative, although it is capable of being
equal to zero.
5. The properties demonstrated in the last section lead
to this general proposition relating to the number of roots
in any equation, viz. “ In any equation the number of all
the roots is even when the dimensions are even, and odd
when the dimensions are odd.”
For every equation has as many binomial divisors as it
has roots; and if we suppose an odd number of roots in an
equation of even dimensions, or an even number in one of
odd dimensions, the last quotient, after dividing succes¬
sively by all the divisors, would be a polynome of odd di¬
mensions, having at least one root, which would likewise
be a root of the proposed equation. Therefore the num¬
ber of all the roots of an equation cannot be even when
the dimensions are odd, nor odd when the dimensions are
And again, since every polynome is equal to the conti¬
nued product of all its binomial divisors, and the quo¬
tient last found, after dividing by them all successively,
we obtain the following proposition, viz.: “ Every rational
polynome is equal either to the continued product of as
many binomial factors as it has dimensions ; or to the con-
2 s
322
Equations-
Equal
roots.
i
EQUATIONS.
tinued product of an even or odd number of such factors,
according as the dimensions of the polynome are even or
odd, and a polynome of even dimensions, which, having
no binomial factors, is always positive,^ whatever value be
substituted for the unknown quantity.”
6. When several of the binomial factors of an equation
are equal to one another, it is said to have so many equal
roots. In this case the equation can be divided a num¬
ber of times successively by the same binomial divisor.
Thus, an equation which is twice divisible by x — a, or,
which is the same thing, once by (x — a)2, has two roots
whatever i stands for, the co-efficients of the like powersEq;,
of i must be equal; and hence, by equating the terms in ■
which i is wanting, and likewise the terms that contain
the first power of i, we get
X = (x-a)mX'
equal to a ; and if it can be divided by (x — a)m, it has
m roots equal to a.
The most obvious way of finding the conditions on
which the equality of the roots depends would therefore be
to expand the divisor (£ — «)”* by the binomial theo¬
rem, and then divide the equation by it; for, after the
integral quotient is obtained, the required conditions will
be found by making the several parts of the remainder se¬
parately equal to zero. The number of the conditions found
in this manner is equal to the exponent of the divisor; for
of so many parts will the remainder of the division con¬
sist. But, in a complex operation, it is difficult to ascer¬
tain the remainder; and, besides, it is not necessary to con¬
sider all the equations obtained by this process, because
both the number and the value of the equal roots can be
found by means of two of them only.
The inconveniences just mentioned will be avoided by
proceeding in the following manner: Let the equation be
Y = (x — a)m Y' + m (x — a)m~lX
which proves that (x — a)m—1 is a common divisor ofX
and Y. If, therefore, by means of the usual process, we
seek the greatest common measure of the two polynomes
X, Y, or,
xn + Axn~~] + Ba;n—2 + Ma; + N,
nxn—1 + (n— 1) Axn—2 + (n — 2) Bxn 2... q. M;
we shall obtain the factor (x — o)m ], and the given po¬
lynome X will be divisible by (x — a)m ; that is, it will
contain the common factor x — a once more than the po¬
lynome Y contains it.
If we proceed farther, and equate the co-efficients of i2
in the expressions (A) and (B), we shall get
Z — (x— a )WZ' + m(x — a) Y'
m — 1 , ->w!—2y,
+ m. —-— {x — a) X ;
which shows that Z is divisible by (x — a)m *. In the
same manner, it may be proved, that V is divisible by
— a)m—3, and so on. It appears, therefore, that the
first co-efficients of the expression (A) are respectively
divisible by (x — d)m, (x — a)m 1, (x — a)m 2, &c.; and
consequently we shall have
X = 0, Y = 0, Z = 0, V = 0, &c.
Axn-l + Bxn-2... + M* + N = 0;
then, if it be divisible by (x — a)m, the quotient will be
a polynome of n — m dimensions ; and we may therefore
suppose that the expression
xn + A*”"1 + Bx11-2... + Mx + N
is equal to the product,
(,r _ a)m x {xM—m + A’xn~m 1 2 +, &c.}-
In these expressions, x may have any value whatever;
and therefore the equality between them will still sub¬
sist if we substitute x i for x, i being any arbitrary
number; therefore the expression
(a?+V)n -f- A{x + i)n 1 + B(a; + 0n ? • • +M(a?+*)q-N
will be equal to the product
(x—a-\-i)m X {(tf-f i)n—m + A'(x 4- *)n—m—1 4_,&c.}.
Now, let the several powers of (x -{- i) be expanded by
the binomial theorem, and put
X = xn + Axn~1 -{- B#”—‘2. . . + M# N,
Y — 7ixn—1 + (»—l)Aaj”—2 + (w—2)Ba:n—3. . . . + M,
7i - 1 hi  O
Z = n—^—■ xn—2 4- (n— 1) ■■ ^ ‘~Axn—34-,&c.
n—I
2 ‘
n—2 ,
_^_xn~34-(w—1)
n—2
2~” ’
n—2
3
A.xn—*
-f- ? &c. &c. &c.
then the given polynome of n dimensions will become
X 4" Y * 4" Zi2 4* V i3 -J-, &c. (A).
And if the like operations are performed in the polynome
o{ n — m dimensions, and {x — a-f i)™ be expanded by
the binomial theorem, the product of these two expres¬
sions will become
{x—a)m 4- m. (a:—a)"1”1
i -}- m.
(*—a)m—2i2
+ , &c. | x |X' + Y'i 4- Z i2 4-,&c
The expression (A) being equal to the
•} • (B).
product (B),
If the polynome X is divisible by{(a’—a24*/32)}''> ^
maybe proved in like manner that {(4 — of 4 /32}"-1
will be a common divisor of X and Y.
We may therefore lay down the following rule for
finding all the double, triple, &c. divisors of any given po¬
lynome X: “ Find R, the greatest common measure of
X and Y, and resolve it into its elementary factors; then
each of these factors will be contained in X once more than
in R.” !
7. If it be required to find how many of the roots ofanW®
equation are positive, and how many are negative, we havej^ %
for this purpose the rule first published in the Geometry^ ;t-
of Descartes. This celebrated rule seems to have been
discovered by induction; at least its author gave no de¬
monstration of it, and disputes arose about its true im¬
port. It was demonstrated for the first time by Du Gua,
in the Memoires de Paris ; but many other demonstrations
of it have since appeared, of which that of Segner, in the
Memoires de Berlin-, 1756, is not only the most simple, but
probably the most simple that will ever be invented.
Segner deduced the rule of Descartes from the follow¬
ing analytical proposition, viz.
“ If any rational polynome be multiplied by x — a, the
changes from one sign to another, from + to — 1, ant‘
from — to 4* 1, will be at least one more in the product
than in the given polynome; and if it be multiplied by
a? 4~ «, the successions of the same sign, of + to + b
and of — to — 1, will be at least one more.”
Let the proposed polynome be
xn z±= Axn—1 Ba;w—1 idr Mx ± N;
then, according to the usual process, the product of the
polynome by a; — a will be found by adding these two lines,
viz.
a.n+1r±i: AxM=L:Ba;w—^..r+rMa^rtNa; l
— ax1 Aaxn 1 ... qp Loa^q= Ylax =+=N«)
the signs of the several terms remaining unchanged in the
first line, and being all. changed in the second line. It15
EQUATIONS.
323
1S gvldent, therefore, that the terms of the product will have
\j the same signs with the respective terms of the proposed
polynome, except when a co-efficient in the second line is
greater than the one above it, and likewise has a contrary
sign; the sign of the last term of the product being al¬
ways the same with the sign of the last term of the se¬
cond line. Now, beginning on the left hand, pass over
the terms of the first line, so long as they have the same
signs with the terms of the product. When this ceases
to be the case, the signs in the product will be the same
as in the second line, and contrary to those in the first
line; wherefore descend to the second line, and pass along
its terms till the signs in the product are again the same
as those in the first line, and then ascend to that line.
Continue thus descending and ascending alternately till
all the terms in both lines are taken in. At the conclu¬
sion, it is evident that the descendings are always one
more than the ascendings, because the passing from one
line to another both begins and ends with descending.
If we descend from z±: A«n in the first line, to
rp kaxn—1 in the second line, it is evident that the
signs of r±= A#” and =±r in the first line will be
the same, both being contrary to the sign of zpr K.axn—1
in the second line. Therefore, in the given polynome, the
first and second terms have the same sign. But in the
product the like terms have contrary sighs; for the se¬
cond term of the product has the same sign with =±= Kxn
in the first line, and the third term of the product has the
same sign with =p Kaxn—1 in the second line. Thus it
appears that a variation from one sign to another is intro¬
duced in the product, instead of a continuation of the
same sign that takes place in the given polynome; and
the same thing will happen at every descending.
In ascending from the second line to the first, there
may either be a continuation of the product instead of a
variation in the given polynome, or the contrary; but one
of these two must take place.
Now, so long as we keep on the first line, the signs in
the product are the same with those of the given poly¬
nome ; and, so long as we keep on the second line, the
signs in the product are contrary to those in the poly¬
nome. In both cases, therefore, the variations from +
! to —-1, and from — to + 1, are the same in the product
and in the polynome. Every descending introduces a va¬
riation in the product, instead of a continuation that takes
place in the polynome ; and although it be supposed that
every ascending introduces a continuation in the product
instead of a variation that exists in the polynome, yet, on
the whole, the variations introduced must be one more
than the continuations, because the descendings are one
more than the ascendings.
Again, if the given polynome be multiplied by x + a,
the product will be the sum of these two lines, viz.
/+1 =fc Kxn z±z Bx”—1... r±r Ma? z±z Nr }
+ axnz±zAaxn 1 =t= La^z±zMar =t= N«. j
Here the terms of both lines have the same signs ; and, as
before, the signs in the product will be the same with the
signs of the proposed polynome, unless when a co-efficient
m the second line is greater than the one above it, and
i ewise has a contrary sign; the sign of the last term of
ie product being always the same with the sign of the
ast term in the second line. Now, if we pass along all
, e terms of both lines, descending from the first line to
e second, when the signs in the product change from
eing *16 sarne with those in the given polynome, to be
contrary to them ; and ascending from the second line to
e w^en the signs in the product change from being
n rary to those in the polynome, to be the same with
them; it is evident that the descendings will be one more Equations,
than the ascendings, as in the former case. 'w'
If we descend from r±z Axn in the first line, to
z±=Aaxn 1 in the second line, the two terms dtzAxn and
-±- Ba;n—1 in the first line will have different signs; for,
on account of the descending, r±= Ba;n—1 has a contrary
sign to the term =±= Aaxn—1 below it, and, consequent¬
ly, to =t:Aa;re in the first line. Therefore the second and
third terms in the polynome have different signs. But
the like terms in the product have the same sign ; for the
second term in the product has the same sign with z±zAxn
in the first line ; and the third term of the product has the
same sign with =d= Aaxn—1 in the second line. Thus
there is a continuation of the same sign introduced in the
product, instead of a variation from one sign to another
that takes place in the polynome; and the same thing is
true at every descending.
In ascending from the second line to the first, there
may either be a variation in the product instead of a con¬
tinuation that exists in the polynome, or the contrary.
But one of these two must take place.
Now it is evident that, except at the descendings and
ascendings, there is the same number of continuations of
the same sign, and the same number of variations from
one sign to another, in the product and in the given poly¬
nome. Every descending introduces a continuation in
the product instead of a variation existing in the poly¬
nome. And even if we suppose that every ascending in¬
troduces a variation in the product instead of a continua¬
tion that takes place in the polynome, yet, on the whole,
there will be one continuation more in the product than in
the polynome, because the descendings are one more than
the ascendings. .
In the preceding demonstration, it is supposed that all
the ascendings have a contrary effect to the descendings,
by which means there is introduced in the product the
least possible number of variations from one sign to an¬
other in the one case, and the least possible number of
continuations of the same sign in the other. But if, in
the first case, we suppose that, at one ascending, there is
a variation in the product, and a continuation in the poly¬
nome, this will add one to the variations in the product,
and one to the continuations in the polynome ; so that the
variations in the product will now exceed those in the po¬
lynome by three, namely, by two more than in the cir¬
cumstances supposed in the demonstration. And if we
extend the like reasoning to two, three, &c. ascendings,
the variations in the product will exceed those in the po¬
lynome respectively by five, seven, &c. The like conclu¬
sion is evidently true of the second case, mutatis mutan¬
dis; and hence the preceding proposition, when it is ge¬
neralized as much as it can be, may be thus enunciated:
“ If any rational polynome be multiplied by x — a, the
variations from one sign to another in the product will ex¬
ceed those in the polynome by one, or three, or five, or
by some odd number; and if it be multiplied by x a,
the continuations of the same sign in the product will ex¬
ceed those in the polynome by one, or three, or five, or
by some odd number.”
Now, if we conceive that any rational polynome is re¬
solved into its binomial factors, there will be a factor of
the form x — a for every positive root, and one of the form
a: + a for every negative root; and when all the factors
are multiplied together in order to reproduce the poly¬
nome, it follows, from what has been proved, that the pro¬
duct will contain at least one change from + to —., or
from — to + 1, for every factor of the form x — a, or for
every positive root; and at least one succession of + to
+ , or of — to — 1, for every factor of the form x a,
or for every negative root. Hence this rule, viz. “ An
324
EQUATIONS.
Equations, equation cannot have more positive roots than it has va-
riations from one sign to another, nor more negative roots
than it has continuations of the same sign.”
In general, this rule merely points out limits which the
number of the positive and negative roots of an equation
cannot exceed. But it gives no criterion by which we
can certainly know that an equation has even one positive
or one negative root, much less does it ascertain the exact
number of each kind.
But if the proposed equation can be completely resolv¬
ed into real binomial factors ; in which case the total num¬
ber of its roots will be equal to its dimensions, and conse¬
quently to the sum of all the variations from one sign to
another, and of all the continuations of the same sign; it
is evident that the number of the positive roots will be
precisely equal to that of the variations, and the number
of the negative roots precisely equal to that of the con¬
tinuations. In this case, therefore, and in this case only,
the rule of Descartes is perfect, ascertaining the exact
number of each kind of roots in the proposed equation.
We subjoin some consequences that result from the
principles laid down.
“ If a polynome/(x) of n dimensions be multiplied by
x — a, or a; + a ; and, in the first case, if the number of
variations from one sign to another be augmented by the
odd number 2i + 1 ; or, in the second case, if the number
of continuations of the same sign be augmented by 2i + 1;
then the total number of the roots, positive and negative,
of the proposed polynome, cannot be greater than n—2i.”
For, when the multiplier is x — a, let m denote the
number of the variations from one sign to another in the
proposed polynome f (x); then m 2i \ will be the
total number of variations in the product (x — a) X /(x) ;
consequently the total number of continuations in (# — a)
X f (x) will be equal to (« + 1) — -f- 2i + 1), or
n — m — 2i. But a polynome cannot have more negative
roots than it has continuations of the same sign ; where¬
fore the number of the negative roots of (a? — a) X f (x)
cannot be greater than n — m — 2i. Now, the two po-
lynomes/^a:) and (x — a) X f («) have the same nega¬
tive roots ; and hence the number of the negative roots of
f (x) cannot exceed n — m — 2i. But the number of the
positive roots off (x) cannot exceed m ; consequently the
total number of the roots of f (x) cannot be greater than
w + 7i — m — 2i ; that is, than n — 2i. And the propo¬
sition may be demonstrated in a similar manner when the
multiplier is * + a.
“ If one or several consecutive terms of an equation be
wanting, and if the next terms on each side of those
wanting have the same sign, the equation cannot have as
many roots as it has dimensions.”
Let the equation be P + Q 0, P and Q denoting the
two parts on each side of the terms wanting. Having
multiplied P + Q by a; — a, the product will be (a? — a)
P + (a: — o) Q; and it is evident that we may consider
P, Q, (x — a) P, (a: — a) Q as separate polynomes ; hence,
in each of the polynomes (x — a) P and (x — a) Q, there
will be at least one more variation from one sign to an¬
other than there is in P and Q. Again, in the polynome
P + Q, there will be a continuation of the same sign in
passing from P to Q; because the last term of P is sup¬
posed to have the same sign with the first term of Q. On
the other hand, because the last term of (x — a) P has a
contrary sign to the last term of P; and the first term of
• (x — a) Q, the same sign with the first term of Q, it fol¬
lows that, in the polynome (x — a) P + (a; — a) Q, there
will be a variation from one sign to another in passing
from (x — a) P to (x — a) Q. Therefore, on the whole,
there will be at least three variations from one si^n to
another in (# — a) P + (x — a) Q, more than there is in
P + Q. Consequently, by the last proposition, the num-k a
ber of all the roots of the proposed equation must be at \
least two less than its dimensions.
8. An important inquiry is, to find how many roots, thaty b
is, real roots, there are in any proposed equation. Much re r(
has been written on this subject, but not very successful-ii f
ly. No general method has been found that is practically11
useful. Many criteria have been contrived, by means of
which we can certainly discover that roots are wanting in
an equation, although we cannot infer the existence of the
roots when the same criteria fail. But great value cannot
be attached to such rules, since they are neither sufficient
guides in practice, nor have much tendency to throw light
on the theory.
Waring first, and nearly about the same time Lagrange,
proposed a method which is successful in finding the con¬
ditions necessary in order that an equation have as many
roots as it has dimensions, and which in all cases points
out a limit that the number of the roots cannot exceed.
This is effected by an auxiliary equation, and merely by
the signs of its co-efficients, without requiring the compu¬
tation of any of its roots. This procedure answers very
well for equations of the third and fourth degrees; and it
has even been extended by Waring to those of the fifth
degree; but in this last case the calculation is very long,
and would be altogether impracticable in the higher or¬
ders of equations. It is also not a little probable that
this rule employs more conditions than are absolutely ne¬
cessary for determining the point in question ; there being
great reason to think that some of them are implied in
the rest, and are deducible from them. The method here
alluded to depends upon the theory of trinomial divisors;
and as it is much referred to by algebraists of the pre¬
sent day, we shall, in a subsequent part of this article,
briefly explain the principles on which it is founded.
There is also another way of finding the number of real
roots in an equation, which is general for all orders, and
requires the solution of such equations only as are of lower
dimensions than the one proposed. As to practical uti¬
lity, indeed, this method is of little avail in equations
passing the third and fourth degrees, or at most the fifth
degree; but it is nevertheless not without interest, both
because it is founded on the principles essential to the
inquiry, and because it leads to some useful properties.
Algebraists differ from one another in their exposition of
this method. Some derive it from the theory of Harriot,
namely, that every rational polynome is the product of as
many binomial factors as it has dimensions; in which
manner of proceeding the impossible roots are the occa¬
sion of uncertainty and embarrassment. Others, again,
deduce it from the variations of magnitude which a ra¬
tional polynome undergoes when the unknown quantity
is made to pass through all possible degrees of increasing
and decreasing. This last mode of investigation seems
greatly to deserve the preference, being in reality the
only one that is entirely unexceptionable, and requires no
principles foreign to the research.
Suppose an equation, xn + Ax11 1 + Bxn~2 
+ Ma; + N ^ 0, which we may denote by f(x) = ^:
substitute x — i in place of a;, and put
X =f(x) = x11 + Axn 1 + Ma; + N,
X'=nxn—X+(?i—\) Ax1 2 + (n—2)Bxn 2. • • + M,
X" = n.n-^- ^ - 2 + (« — 1) • ^ Axn - 3+, &c. &c.
then the function jf (a? — i) will be transformed into
X — X'. e + X" . i2 — Xff'. i3 + > &c.
If we suppose the notation of the differential calculus,
the same transformation will be thus represented:
EQUATIONS.
325
f(x)-
d.f(x)
dx
d°~ .f(x)
dx1
&c.;
which has the advantage of pointing out in what manner
the several functions, X', X", &c. are derived from one
another, and from the first function X, or f (x).
Let a, /3, 7, &c. denote the real roots of the equation
X = 0, or / {x) — 0, arranged according to the order of
their magnitude, that is, a greater than /3, /3 greater than
„ and so on. In like manner, observing the same order
of arrangement, let a', /3', 7', &c. represent the roots of
X' = 0, or
d .f{x) _
dx
= 0; and, for the sake of simplicity,
suppose that the equation Xf — 0 has no equal roots.
The relations which the variations of the polynome X
bear to the variations of x, depend upon the functions X',
X", &c. and principally upon the first of these. If X' be
positive, X will decrease as x decreases ; if X' be negative,
X will increase as x decreases ; and if X' pass from being
positive to become negative, or the contrary, then x con¬
tinuing to decrease, X will change from decreasing to in¬
creasing, or the contrary; that is, it will attain a mini¬
mum or a maximum value. What is here said is the
foundation of the method taught in the differential cal¬
culus, for finding the maxima and minima of algebraic
quantities.
Now, when x has a value great enough, the polynome
X'will have the same sign with its first term, that is, it
will be positive; and it will continue positive so long as x
is greater than a', the greatest root of the equation X' =: 0 ;
after which it will become negative. Hence, while x de¬
creases to the limit a', the polynome(x), which is posi¬
tive when x is sufficiently great, will continually decrease ;
and when xzz a!, f (x) will pass from decreasing to in¬
creasing, or it will have a minimum value. Now if this
minimum f (a') be positive, f (x) has not decreased to
zero, and the given equation will have no root greater
than a'. Iff («') — 0, then, because the two equations
X = 0 and X' = 0, take place at the same time, the given
equation will have two roots equal to a'. (Sect. 6.) Lastly,
if/(a') be negative, the polynome fix) has decreased
from being positive to be negative ; and therefore it has
passed through zero, and the given equation will have one
root, viz. a greater than a'.
As a: continues to decrease from a! to jS', the polynome
X' being negative,y (a?) will continually increase. At the
limit £ = /3', X' is first equal to zero, and then becomes
positive; and fix) will therefore change from increasing
to decreasing, or will attain a maximum value. If this
maximum f (/3') be negative, the polynome f (*) has not
increased to zero, and the given equation will have no root
between a' and ft: iff (/S') = 0, it will have two roots equal
to p: and if f (/S') be positive, f (a?), in increasing from
the negative quantity f (a') to the positive quantity y (/S'),
m.’JstJlave passed through zero, and the given equation
j *1^ve °ne root, viz. ft, between a' and /S',
n like manner, x continuing to decrease from ft' to 7',
polynome f(x) will decrease from the maximum
(p) to the minimum f (7') : iff if) be positive, the pro-
oosed-equation will have no root between ft' and 7'; if
(7) — 0, it will have two roots equal to 7'; and iff if)
oe negative, it will have one root, viz. 7, between the li¬
mits ft and f. '
^ As the function f (x) must become a minimum or a
^ ximum, or must pass from decreasing to increasing, or
^etween every two contiguous roots of the
a I°n/vr) d; and as the limits where the changes
fAac? a,re determined by the roots of the equation
> it follows that there must be at least one root
of this last equation between every two contiguous roots Equations,
of the first. Hence the equation f (a?) — 0 cannot have
as many roots as dimensions, unless the equation X' — O
likewise have as many roots as dimensions ; and in gene¬
ral we have this rule, which determines a limit that the
number of the roots of an equation cannot surpass, al¬
though it may fall short of it: “ The roots of an equation
f (x) — 0 cannot exceed in number those of the equation
dfix) . ,
—' = 0, by more than one.”
But if we can find the roots of the equation X' = 0,
which is always one degree lower than the proposed equa¬
tion, we can thence discover exactly both the number and
the limits of the roots of this last. For let a', ft', f, &c.
be substituted in the polynome f ix), and let the results
be arranged in order, viz.
  +   +
if these quantities are alternately negative and positive;
the first, third, fifth, &c. which are all minima, having the
sign minus; and the second, fourth, &c. which are all
maxima, having the sign plus; then the proposed equa-
tionycy) = 0 will have just one root more than the equa¬
tion X' = 0. When some of the conditions fail, the roots
of the proposed equation will fall short of the number
specified. If one maximum have the sign minus, or one
minimum the sign plus, two roots will be wanting in the
proposed equation ; and in general as many roots will dis¬
appear, as there are consecutive minima and maxima that
have the same sign deducting one; unless the minima
and maxima precede the greatest root, or come after the
least root, in which cases there will be as many roots
wanting as there are minima and maxima that have the
same sign.
Since the series of functions, X, X', X", &c. are derived
similarly from one another, we may prove, as has been
done with respect to the two first, that the roots of any
one are contained between the roots of that which follows
it. Hence, if the given equation have as many roots as
dimensions, every equation in the series will likewise have
as many roots as dimensions ; and if there be roots want¬
ing in any one, there will be at least as many wanting in
every equation preceding it in the series.
The connected equations necessarily terminate in one
of the first degree, which gives a limit between the two
roots of the quadratic immediately before it; in like man¬
ner, the roots of the quadratic are the limits of the roots
of the cubic preceding it; and in this manner, by going
through all the successive equations, we shall finally ar¬
rive at the limits of the roots of the proposed equation.
This process has been called La Metliode des Cascades;
but the length of the calculations renders it useless in
practice.
The procedure explained above would enable us to find
the number of roots in an equation of any order, if we
were in possession of rules for solving equations of the
inferior degrees. For want of such rules, the practical
advantage that can be derived from it is very limited.
Mathematicians have therefore turned their attention to
determine the point in question in a wa}r that should not
require the resolution of equations. They have sought to
investigate rational functions of the co-efficients, which, by
means of the signs they are affected with in every parti¬
cular case, might indicate the number of roots the equa¬
tion possesses. Of this nature is the method which Du
Gua has given in the Memoires de Paris, 1741, for find¬
ing the conditions necessary in order that an equation
have as many roots as dimensions. By a process analo¬
gous to that of Du Gua, M. Cauchy, in an excellent Me-
326
EQUATIONS.
Equations, moir, published in the sixteenth volume of the Journal de
I’Ecole Polytechnique, has shown not only that the total
number of the roots may in every case be discovered, but
likewise that the numbers of the positive and negative
roots may be separately ascertained. The principles of
both these methods are to be found in the theory ex¬
plained above; but as many considerations of some intri¬
cacy are involved in them, a particular account of them
would exceed the limits of this article.
In what goes before, we have supposed that all the roots
of the equation X' = 0 are unequal; and in order to com¬
plete the theory, it remains to notice the consequences
that follow when the case is otherwise. Suppose, then,
and it is divisible by or x2l + l : And as the one im-Nid
mediately preceding it in the series, viz.
2i +1
that X'= (a —X)* X Q: And, in the first place, if A be
a root of the equation f (x) = 0, there will in reality be
no exception to the general conclusion; because in this
case it is known that the polynomey (x) will be divisible by
(a- x) i+ 1. (Sect. 6.) Now, the case just mentioned
being set aside, if i be an even number, the polynome X^, or
d
P dmQ,
dxm dxm
0,
(x—x)* . Q, will be equal to zero when a? = A; but it will
not change its sign when x, from being less, comes to be
greater than A. Hence the polynome/(a;) will neither
attain a maximum nor a minimum value at the same li¬
mit ; and it will have no root, either between A and the
next greater root of the equation X' 1= 0, or between A
and the next less root of the same equation. It appears,
therefore, that when i is even, the number of the roots of
the equation f {x) = 0, and their limits, will depend en¬
tirely upon the equation Q — 0. Again, when i is an odd
number, the polynome X' will be equal to zero when
a- — A, and it will likewise change its sign when x is taken
on contrary sides of that limit: Consequently, when a: — A,
the polynome / (a;) will be a maximum or a minimum ;
and the nature of its roots will depend upon the equation
(x x) Q = 0. It is evident that we may extend the
same conclusions to any two adjacent equations in the
cpvips
X = 0, X' = 0, X" = 0, X'" = 0, &c.
provided the one which stands lower in the series is re¬
ducible to the form (a —X)*Q; and that a —A is not
a common divisor of both. We may likewise draw this
general inference from the principles that have been ex¬
plained, viz. “ If, in the series of connected equations,
any one be found which is divisible by (a — A)2*, or
(x A)2*+ \ at the same time that a — A is not a divisor
of the equation immediately preceding, there will be at
least 2i roots wanting in this last equation, and in all that
stand before it in the series.”
The following not inelegant proposition is a conse¬
quence of what has just been proved: “ The number of
the roots of an equation of n dimensions, in which 2i or
2i + 1, consecutive terms, are wanting, cannot be greater
than n— 2i.”
Let the equation be represented by
P + Q — 0 ;
supposing that 2i, or 2i + 1 terms, are wanting between P
and Q. Therefore, if the first term of Q contain xm, the
is not divisible by x, it follows, from what has been shown.,
that there will be at least 2i roots wanting in this last equa¬
tion, and in all those that stand before it; consequenth
the proposed equation cannot have more than n — 2i roots
From this we learn that it is not always possible, a
least by any operations with real quantities, to transforn
an equation into another in which any proposed numbei
of the intermediate terms shall be wanting. For the
terms to be taken away may be such that the transformec
equation could not have the same number of real roots a
the one given ; but it is impossible, without introducin'
imaginary quantities, to transform an equation with a cer
tain number of real roots into another with a differen
number of such roots.
9. In what goes before, we have sought for the root-
and binomial divisors in the nature of the polynome. Wt
are now to take an inverted view of the subject, and tc
consider a rational polynome as produced by the conti¬
nued multiplication of as many binomial factors as it has
dimensions ; from which source there arises an interesting
set of properties.
If we take the words root and binomial factor strictly
in the sense in which we have hitherto used them, and
as denoting real quantities only, nothing is more certain
than that all polynomes cannot be generated by binomial
factors. But it will afterwards be proved that every ra¬
tional polynome can be completely exhausted by binomial
and trinomial divisors; and if we admit the resolution of
every trinomial divisor into two imaginary factors, we
shall arrive, with all the rigour of which the investigation
is capable, at the genesis of equations supposed by Har¬
riot, which represents them as entirely composed of bino¬
mial factors, possible or impossible. Besides, in extend¬
ing to all equations the conclusions obtained from the
manner of generating them, it may be observed that the
properties so obtained, being ultimately expressed in
functions of the co-efficients from which the roots and ge¬
nerating factors have disappeared, are in a manner inde¬
pendent of the method of investigation. Such is the struc¬
ture of the language of algebra, that the conclusions to
which it leads, although deduced by reasoning from a hy¬
pothesis not strictly general, are nevertheless true in all
cases, when they are finally disengaged from what is pe¬
culiar in the analysis.
Suppose a polynome, as
z"-A(V-1 + A<V-3 ... zfcA^-'WAW,
which is produced by the multiplication of the n factors,
(x — a) . (x — /3) (x — y)(x — <5), &c.
then, by actually multiplying the factors, and equating
the like terms of the equivalent expressions, we shall get
a(1) =
last term of P will contain xm+* + ' ~™ + 2i + 2
or x
dx
P_
*i+l “0;
Now, in the series of equations, we shall at length arrive
at one from which all the quantities of Q are exterminated ;
which equation, if we use the notation of the differential
calculus, is equivalent to
,w+ 1
+ /3 + 7 + d +, &c.
A^ — + ay +, &c. + /3y +, &c.
A^3) = ajSy + a/3d +, &c. + /3y5 +, &c.
A^4) — a/3yi “p, &c.
&c.
Hence it appears that the co-efficient of the second
term of the polynome, or — A^, is equal to the sum of
all the roots with their signs changed; the co-efficient 0
the third term, or + A^2\ to the sum of all the P^°^UC^S
of every two roots; the co-efficient of the fourth ter 1
EQUATIONS.
Iquat p or — A^, to the sum of all the products of every three
^ roots with their signs changed, and so on, the signs of the
roots being always changed in the products of an odd
number; and finally, the last term is the product of all
the roots with their signs changed or not, according as
their number is odd or even.
It is evident that the ultimate product of the binomial
factors will always be the same, in whatever order they
are multiplied; and hence the co-efficients of the poly-
nome will consist of the same products, however the roots
be interchanged among one another. Expressions of the
kind just mentioned, which have constantly the same
value, whatever change is made in the order of the quan¬
tities they contain, are called invariable functions and sym¬
metrical functions. The co-efficients of an equation are
the most simple symmetrical functions of the roots, from
which it may be required, on the one hand to deduce all
other functions of the like kind, and on the other to go
back to the roots themselves. Most inquiries relating to
equations are connected with one or other of these two
problems; of which the first, like most direct methods, is
attended with little difficulty, and has been completely
solved; while the other, past equations of the fourth de¬
gree, has eluded all the attempts of algebraists.
After the co-efficients of the polynome, the next most
simple symmetrical functions of the roots are the sums of
the squares, cubes, &c. In the universal arithmetic of Sir
Isaac Newton, a very elegant rule is given for computing
the sum of any proposed powers of the roots ; and as this
rule is a fundamental point in the theory of equations, we
subjoin an elementary investigation of it.
Of the binomial factors before set down, let the first
.c —a be left out, and having multiplied the rest together,
let the product be
+&c>;
in which expression ^ is the sum of all the roots /3, y, b,
&c. except the first a; is the sum of the products of
every two of them, and so on. Now, multiply by ^ — a, and
the product will be equivalent to the given polynome:
hence we get
•AW-a + pO),
A(2) = a.p(1) + f,(2))
A(3) = 0.p(2) + p(3))
327
A'Ozra.pO-l) +pW.
Again, multiply these formula in order by a — *
| r 9 o J
% , a ~ , &c.; then
* r  r
A0)
l _ »• , r
— a ~r a
1
0)
A(2) • «r~2 = /“ 1 . pO) + a'- 2 . ?(2>
A^~1>.« = a2p(r-2) + a. ^>1),
nd, by adding and subtracting alternately, we get
I aW- A(1). a' - * + A(2). </ - 2 .... A(' -1). a
A<r) = z+z <p(r\
I' dbn.exPre*sjon is the sum of all the products of
wns of the roots /3, y, &c. leaving out the first a.
In like manner, if we leave out the factor # —/3, and Equations,
multiply all the rest, and proceed as before, we shall get  
F— A^1)0r~l+ A^- 2.... =4= ^^aM
_ ^(r)
the symbol <p ^ being the sum of the products of r dimen¬
sions of all the roots, a, y, d, except the second /3.
And if we next leave out the factor x — y, and follow
a like procedure, we shall get
yr—A(1).yr-1+A(2).yr-2....±A(r“1).y=f:
A^) = ;
where represents the sum of the products of r di¬
mensions of all the roots a, j3, d, &c. except the third y.
If we proceed similarly till every one of the n factors
is left out in its turn, and then add all the results, we
shall get
sr- A<1)! + A« sr_2 .... =fc A^-■) S,
»A« = =,= { ?« + ?V) + +j &c. |.
in which expression Sr is written for the sum of the r
powers of the roots; Sr ^ for the sum of the (r— 1)
powers, and so on.
Every product in any one of the aggregate quantities
<p(r\ <p"(r\ &c., is found in A^r\ which is the sum of
the products of r dimensions of all the roots; and hence
it is easy to perceive that the sum of all the aggregates
must be a multiple of A^r\ Take any product in A^ ;
then that product will not be contained in r of the quan-
• • (r) f(r) f'(r)
titles 0W, <pw, <p &c,; because, m so many of them,
one or other of the letters of the product will be wanting;
but the same product will be contained once in every one
of the « — r remaining quantities, because in every one
of these all the letters of the product will be contained.
Every product in A^ is therefore repeated n — r times
in the sum of the quantities 9^, <p^, p W, &c.; conse¬
quently,
p(r) + p(') -j- p ^ +> &c. ~{n — r) A^.
Substitute this value in the formula obtained above, and
after transposing and cancelling wA^, which appears
with contrary signs, we shall get
S,-aW Sr_! + A<2> sr_5 .... A’-—1 S
=prAW =0.
This is the rule of Sir Isaac Newton, and contains all his
particular formula;, as will readily appear by putting 1, 2,
3, &c. successively for r.
The preceding formula will enable us to compute, in
succession, the sums of all the positive powers of the roots,
both when r is less and when it is greater than the dimen¬
sions of the equation. But, in applying the formula in the
latter case, we must observe that all the co-efficients of
the polynome after A^ are wanting, or equal to nothing.
If, in the first step of the preceding investigation, we
take the co-efficients that follow A^, we shall get
A(r+1) =a . pW + p(r+1\
A(rt2>=a.p(rfl) + p(r+2),
EQUATIONS.
*(«—!)
1) _ ap(n—2) + p
A(«) - a . .
And, by first dividing by a, or, a3, &c. in order, and then
subtracting and adding alternately, we shall obtain
A(r+1> A^2) , A^3)
A(«—1) _ 2 A(,!—2) 2 + SA^-3^2—, &c.
a(”) — A(w—1} ^ + A(n—2j z2 —, &c.
= S
— 1
d
. z + S o . z2 + > &c.
+ S_2-s ^ ^—3
Two kinds of quantities only can enter into any rational!
+
a a or
In a similar manner we get '
A^+l) A(r+2) . A(h-3)
&c. = <pv
and symmetrical function of the roots of an equation; andl
these are the sums of the like powers of the roots, andl
13
A(r+l)
Air+2)
+
 , &c. = <p(r\
+
A(r+3) "(r) c
— —, &c. = <pO, &C.
the sums of such products as, a /3* y , &c. which aris
from multiplying different powers of the roots, two and
two, three and three, &c. We shall now shortly point ou ;
in what manner the latter sums are deduced from the
sums of the like powers, for the computation of which
rules have already been given; by which means we shal
be enabled to find the value of any proposed function of
7 / ^ , i u i• r» oe enauieu lu huh
Therefore, by adding all these formula?, and substitut 0 tjie ^ove mentioned
for the sum of p(r), &c. the value of it already found, Let it be required to find the sum of all the products
we shall finally obtain suc^ ag al ft1', that arise from combining two powers of
A(r+1) S__ j — A(r+2) S__ 2 + A^r+3^ S_3 —, &c. ttie roots jn an possible ways ; which sum may be denoted
= (n — r) A^r\ tlie symbol S . afi1'. Now it is evident that the pro-
S 1 &c. being put for the sums of the duct, S. X S.„ will contain two sorts of terms only, name
the symbols S j, S 2’1
negative powers of the roots according to the indices un¬
derwritten. This formula will enable us to compute the
sums of the negative powers of the roots.
If, in the formula for the sums of the positive powers of
the roots, we make r successively equal to 1, 2, 3, &c. we
shall get
aW = s,,
-2A(2> = -A<1) S, + s2,
3A®= A^S.-A^ S3 + S3,
_ 4aW = _ A<3> S, + A<2> S2 - A(» S3 + S4, &c
and from this we learn that the quantities S15 S2> S3, &c.
may be found by means of this expression, viz.
A« - 2A<2> ^ + SA® ^=t aW =8,
ly, powers of the roots, such as a+1, and the products
of which the sum is sought; therefore
ini' i"
Next let it be required to find 2 . a /3 y , or the sum
of all the products of three powers of the root. Now
2 . a1 ft' X S^/ will contain three sorts of terms, namely,
products, such as a+l" ft' and a +1 ft, in which two
roots only are combined, and the products of which the
sum is required ; therefore
2 . aft yl =2alftX S.„
=t=AW
1-aW2+A®t
+ S2 . 2? + S3 . 22 +, &c.
for if we multiply the series on the right-hand side of the
sign of equality, by the denominator of the fraction on
the other side, and then equate the co-efficients of the
product to the like co-efficients of the numerator, we shall
obtain the very formulae set down above. Hence the sums
of the powers of the roots expressed in terms of the co¬
efficients of the polynome will be found by developing the
fraction in a series. In effecting the development differ¬
ent analytical methods may be followed; and the quanti¬
ties sought will thus be obtained by different rules, or
exhibited in expressions of different forms, such as those
given by Waring, Vandermonde, Euler, and La Grange.
And in like manner, if, in the formula for the sums of
the negative powers of the roots, we make r successively
equal to n—1, n — 2, n — 3, &c. we shall get
A(«—1) = AWs ,
  1>
_2A(«-2) __a("
-2.«i+i"/3
— 2.
but, according to the last case,
i'+i'
ft:
ai+i"^ = Si+i„ X Sj, —Sj
i+i'+i",
V+i" Gi¬
ft — Sj'+ i" X Sj — si+i,+i„:
wherefore
2 . ft ft y = S. X S., X S.„
Si+i/ X Si"
— s,
xs,
x s:
1)S_1 + aWs_2)
3 A(«-3) = A^~2) S_1 — A^-1) S_ 2 + A(”)s_3j
■ 4 A(M—4) = — A(w~3) S_ j + A(n—2) S_ 2
— A^” ^ S q + aWs_4,
’i+i"
— Si'+i"
In like manner, when four different powers of the roots
are multiplied together, we get
2. aft'y*" ft " — S • ft' ft’ y' X S^/,
ti + i"
i'-t- i"
— 2
— 2
/3* *
a ■ p 7
pj »
P 7
pi %
P 7
.3
&c.
from which it appears that the values of all the quantities
S
p S 2> S 3> &c. will be obtained by means of this
expression, viz.
and we have onty to apply the preceding case in order ^
obtain the expression of the quantity sought in terms o
the sums of the like powers of the roots.
According to the procedure just explained, the ca^
where any number of powers are multiplied toget er,
reduced to the simpler case where the powers multip i
are one less. There would be no great difficulty m
E Q U A
Inducing a general formula for the sum when the products
contain any proposed number of different powers; but
this would lead to calculations incompatible with the
length of this article; and it may be doubted whether the
use of such a formula is preferable in any cases likely to
occur in practice, to the application of the principles here
laid down.
The theory of symmetrical functions is of the most ex¬
tensive use in every branch of the doctrine of equations.
Thus, if it be required to form an equation, the roots of
which shall be any combinations of the roots of a given
equation; it is manifest that the co-efficients of the equa¬
tion sought will be symmetrical functions of the roots of
the given equation ; and hence they may be found by cal¬
culating these functions in terms of the co-efficients of the
given equation.
The theory of symmetrical functions is also of use in
approximating to the roots of numerical equations. Sir
Isaac Newton seems to have had this application in view
in giving his rule for computing the sums of the like pow¬
ers of the roots. He observes that the powers of a great
number increase in a much higher ratio than the same
powers of less numbers; and hence the Sr111 power of the
greatest root of an equation will approach nearer to the
sum of the 2rth powers of all the roots as r is greater.
Wherefore, neglecting the distinction between positive
and negative roots, if we calculate S2„ and then extract
its 2rth root, we shall have an approximation to the root
of the equation greatest in point of magnitude; and the
approximation will be so much more accurate as r is
greater.
But there is a more convenient wray of approximating
to the greatest and least roots of an equation, by means
of symmetrical functions. For, since
S,+1 =ar+l + (3r+1 +,&c.
S = ar + /3r +, &c.
we have
S
1 +
13"
,r+l
r+1
/■+1
&C.
I3r
1+' +,&c.
a
Now, a being the greatest root, the fraction on the right-
hand side will approach to unit when r is sufficiently
S.
large, in which case
"r+l
will be nearly equal to a.
Hence, if we compute a series of consecutive sums, viz.
Sr, Sr+1, Sr+2, &c.; the values
T I O N S, 329
much more to a, the least root of the equation, as r is Equations,
greater.
Trinomial Divisors.
10. We proceed next to consider the trinomial divisors
of a given polynome; and, in order to avoid reference to
other treatises, we shall begin with a short investigation
of a preliminary point.
We have this identical expression,
*2 — ^ = O+y) • (* —■ 2/);
consequently,
(a:2—/)” = (x+y)n . (x—y)*;
and again,
- {(x+y)n+(x—!/)ny
—5 • |<>+y)n—(*—so” j
Now, using the letters H and G as the characteristics of
the particular functions under consideration, let
H«0, y2) = l • { O+s')n+o—s')”} >
G fr -x _ 1 0+3')” —O—S')”
^«0> &)- 2- y  5
or by expanding the binomial quantities in series,
Hn0> i/) = xn + n . 'Xn — 21f+, Sec.
GnO> y*) — nx +n. —. ~y~x y +’ &c’;
then, by means of these notations, the preceding expres¬
sion will be thus written, viz.
O2—s'2)” = | h„o> s'2)} — S'2 • { G«0> S'2)}2-
This equation is identical; that is, when the expres¬
sions on both sides of the sign of equality are expanded
in series of terms containing the powers of y2, they will
consist of the same quantities with the same signs. It is
evident, therefore, that the equation will still be identical
if we change y1 into —y1; for by this change the simple
quantities of the developed expressions will not be affect¬
ed, and no alteration will be produced, except in the
signs of the odd powers of y2, which will now be contrary
to what they were before. We therefore have
(o^+t/2)” = | Un(x,—y2)^ + y2. jGnO,—s'2)! ;
in which equation it is to be observed that the functional
expressions are not, as in the former instance, susceptible
of an abridged algebraic notation, at least without intro¬
ducing a new sign ; but they can be exhibited in series,
^+1 s
r+2 ^r+3
&c.
IInO> — S'2) —
n—1
r+l r+2
will approach nearer and nearer to the greatest root of
me equation.
In like manner, if we take the sums of the negative
powers of the roots, we shall have
+ n
i.n — 2.n — 3 n — 4 2
x
y2—,&c.
Gn(x, — y2) = nx11 1—n.
2.3.4
n — 1 . n — 2 n — 3
tf”“V+>&c.
1+—+,&c.
-r—1
r+]
1 +
from which it appears that
/3r+1
S—r
2 . 3
Now put x = r cos. <p, y = r sin. p, x1 y2 — r2 \ and
let f/”) denote an arc, depending, in a certain manner,
not yet discovered, upon the arc and the index n ; then,
in consequence of the equation obtained above, we shall
have
rn cos. p(”) = Hn (x, — y2),
rn sin. = yGn (x, — if).
will approximate so Again, multiply both sides of the same equation last
referred to by x2+y2; then
2 x
+ ,&c.
VOL. ix.
330
Equations
equations.
;• (x2 + iff + 1 = |. Hn(x, — if) — i/Gn(x,—f) |
+ f | Hn(x, —y2) + xGn(x, —/) |
words, when, by means of the ordinary operations of ana-Eq,
lysis, it has been proved that an even or odd function of C
an indeterminate quantity is equal to zero, it is by means
“'j <? / < ' of the impossible sign that the same equation is extended
. # ^ , to the case when the square of the indeterminate quantity
but, since the equation alluded to is general for all the .g ne atjve> Every function of the indeterminate quantity
values of«, we may write w+ 1 for n; and thus we get b  
+ 1 = { H„ + jO, —/) }
+/{G„+ i(*.—/)}2;
therefore, by comparing the two values of 02+/)w4'1
/)=« • Hn(*»—/) —/G(ir, — if),
yGn+l{x,—yl)=yKn(x,—yi)+yxGn(x,—y2):
and finally, by substituting the values of the functions in
terms of the arcs, <p, <p^n\ <p (w+1\ we shall obtain
cos.^w+1^=cos.pcos.?)W —sin.fsin.^"^ cos. + f), llullo  v :  . . v —
. (ti) . . iziM  • /^(n) i -\ thev are identical, or consist of equal quantities with op-
s|n.f(«+»=c„s.fs,„.fW + s,n.fcos.f' '=Sm.(P' >+t), ‘X^jhat Mutually de8troy one another; in.],id,
^(«+l) _ 9{n) + ^ case the°latter equations will also be identical. The sign
Now if we make n successively equal to 1, 2, 3, &c. the of impossibility, as it has been called, is therefore one as
'. -ii i truly significant as any other in analysis. It has, indei
x may be thus represented, viz.
<p (x2) x ¥ (a:2) ;
and the substitution of xV—I in place of x, has no other
effect than to change the preceding expression into the
one following, viz.
<p ( — x2) r±= T . ¥ (—x?);
and from this it is obvious, that the same operations which,
in the one case, lead us to the equations <p (a;2) = 0 and
xY^2) = 0, will, in the other, necessarily conduct us to
the equations <p (— x2) = 0 and x. Y (— x2) = 0. It is to
be observed, too, that the truth of the two latter equations
is involved in that of the former. For the former equa¬
tions cannot be generally true for all values of ^ unless
results wall be,
,(2)-
p~' = 2<p,
p(3) = 3<p,
&c.
= n<p.
and generally,
Thus it appears that
r” cos. n<p =■ Hn(x, ■
-tf),
-ix5^ = G»(x,
sin. f
■/);
     ^ It has, indeed,
no consistent meaning when we consider it as only affect¬
ing x, or the indeterminate quantity to which it is joined;
but it becomes perfectly intelligible when we contemplate
the real changes produced by it in the functions of even
and odd dimensions, in which its conclusions are always
ultimately expressed. When the true import and real ef¬
fect of the imaginary sign are clearly apprehended, the truth
of its conclusion is no longer doubtful or mysterious, but fol¬
lows as a necessary consequence of a fundamental principle
of analytical language. Proceeding on this principle, we
or.
may even lay aside the imaginary character ; and, in every
if we take the expanded expressions of the functions, tjcu]ar casej wit}1 the assistance of a proper notation, ar-
*. i iv  4-k« ooywq nnnpliKinn tn
n
r ~ cos. n<p = xn — n
■ 1 . n—2 .:
«—2 2 i
-x y2+
ri-
ii ,
^ n—4 s
—x y
—, <Src.
« i w sin.wa w_i
rn x ——- = nx
n — 1
sin. y 2.3
in which formulae, x zr r cos. <p, y — r sm. <p.
n ^x y2 "p, &c.
i^ai     — x * - .
rive, by the ordinary operations, at the same conclusion to
which it leads, as has been done in the preceding instance.
It is to be observed further, that the imaginary arithmetic
is not merely a short method of calculation convenient in
practice, and that it may be dispensed with ; it is strict¬
ly a necessary branch of analysis, without which, or 8012,6
equivalent mode of investigation, that science woul c
extremely imperfect. The equations <f> (x“) — 0 an^ ^
A Li C-Ill Cl jr   r \ / * U
The functions here designated by the letters H and G it is
maybe expressed by means of the imaginary sign; for ^ ... f ^ •’ .   pniia-
wTe have
Hk (x, — if)
_ (x + yV —l)w + (x—yV—\)7
Gn(x, —y
^ _ (x + yV— \)n — (x — y V — l)1
impossible to deduce, in a direct manner, the related equa¬
tions 9 (— x2) =: 0 and x Y (— x2) = 0: although the lat¬
ter are equally true, of as frequent occurrence, and as ex¬
tensive application, as the former. \\ ithout the impos
sible sign the operations of algebra would, therefore, dj
defective; since there are analytical truths that cou
not be investigated in a direct manner by means o
elementary signs usually admitted. It is to supp y )
_(cos. 9 + sin. <pV—l)w+ (cos. <p—sin. <pV-
COS* ^(p g
But the mode of investigation we have followed is n- 11. livery polynome or oua a . . . , that factor, be
gorous ; and it has the advantage of leading to the true one binomial factor, it may, by dividing y iower. And
import of the imaginary sign, and of putting in a clear reduced to another polynome one degree our at.
light its real effect in analytical operations. The real use hence, in this part of our subject, we may c also
of this sign may be shortly described by saying that it tention to polynomes of even dimensions. , t;on i)ave
performs for even and odd functions the same office that suppose that the even polynomes under consi ^ case
the negative sign does for ordinary functions; in other no double, triple, &c. factors of any kind. s >
2yV — 1
And, in the case of r. = 1, the formulae obtained above are elementary signs usuany aummeu. xt - - “"vv ^
equivalent to the expressions known in analysis since the defect that the imaginary ant me ic las analysis;
time of Dr Moivre, viz. and has grown up to be an extensive branch c anal) ;
-r\n advancing at first by slow steps, because the P
-A of the character it employs, and the real effect o
rations, were neither clearly perceived nor c J ^
(cos. 9+ sin. pV—l)”—(cos.9—sin. <pV—I)” st00(L But havinS of the
sin. n<p  —   ==     . present purpose, we proceed to the mvestig
2^—1 trinomial divisors of rational functions. . ^ ]eag{
But the mode of investigation we have followed is ri- H* Every polynome of odd dimensions
EQUATIONS.
331
ation ny such are present, they can be found separately and
“ , liminated by division.
Suppose, then, that/(#) represents any polynome of
ven dimensions ; let g -{- w be substituted in place of x ;
nd, by using the notation of the differential calculus, the
:iven polynome will be transformed into
M +
Mil.
ds
u + l
Mi)
df
. M2 +, &C.
Sinceis an even po.ynome, the equation = 0
dx
be the sole root of -- — 0, when it has but
one.
iP +, &c.
2 </g2 ‘6
It readily appears, from what was formerly proved (Sect.
= 0, exceeds the
, . cdf(x)
), that g, the greatest root of —
ve a positive result, all the quantities
1 cPf(x)
reatest root of any of the equations, 0- = 0,
/W ClOu
(P f {%')
‘ dx^ = 0, <^C’’ an^ ^ecause’ any equation, the
ibstitution of a value greater than the greatest root must
I Mi) I Mi)
2* df ’6* df
c. will be positive. With regard to/(g) it may be either
jsitive or negative, but not equal to zero ; since this last
ise can happen only when the polynome has equal roots,
be original polynome will, therefore, assume this form,
z.
-y\- A(2V + A^m3 + A (4V... + A)2n-%2n-1
■u2n, in which expression y, A(3^, &c. represent
iy positive quantities.
The most interesting proposition in the branch of the
bject under consideration, is to prove that every poly¬
line of even dimensions has a quadratic divisor, either
the form (u + a)2 — r2, which admits two real bino-
lal factors, or of the form (w — a)2 -j- r2, which has two
laginary factors. By the preceding transformation this
oposition is brought under two cases, according as y is
'tected with the sign minus or plus; the quadratic divi-
r being always of the form (w + a)2 — r2 in the first
se, and always of the form {u — a)2 -|- r2 in the other
se; a distinction that agrees with what was before
oved, Sect. 8.
Now the first of these cases is attended with no diffi-
Ity. For two values of u, one negative and one positive,
ay be found that will satisfy the equation, Sect. 4.
y = A(2)M2 + a(3)m3 + . . . + m2\
f these values, it is obvious that the negative one will
always greater than the positive one ; and they may,
erefore, be represented by — (r + a) and r — a : where-
re, the polynome
—/+ Am2 -f A^m3 + A<4V + w2”,
11 be divisible by each of the binomial factors,
w + r + a,
i i n • ‘ u —r + “;
ukewise by the quadratic factor,
. (w 4" a)2 — r2,
°duced by their multiplication.
But the same mode of reasoning will not apply when y Equations,
has the sign plus ; in which case the demonstration must
be deduced from other principles.
12. If we put
A(2V + A^u3
</> (u) = A^u* + AWm3 + a(4V ... + u
the transformed polynome, supposing y to have the sign
plus, will become
y + p (m).
Let (m — a)2 + r2 be a quadratic divisor of this poly¬
nome, and put u — a — z, oxu — then, by substi¬
tuting a + z for «, and writing all the terms of the trans¬
formed function p (a + z) in two lines, one containing all
the even and the other all the odd powers of z, the
polynome y + £> (u) will be equal to
U + <p(a)+ -•-^-z2 + i +J&C
j-r j-r 2 ^ -r 24
2n
rill be one of odd dimensions, having at least one root,
.et
nd the greatest root when it has several; then, because
= 0, the transformed function will become
'k ,n , i Mi) , i
1 > d3<p(c&)
da * 6 da3 z2+>&c-|-
By the same substitution ofzforw—a, the divisor (u—a)2
+ r2 is changed into the binomial quantity z2 + r2; which
will be a divisor of each of the preceding lines, if — r2,
when it is substituted for z2, render each of them equal
to zero, Sect. 3. Hence we obtain the two following equa¬
tions, viz.
(O
If two numbers, a and r2, can be found that will satisfy
these equations, it is evident that z2 + r2 will be a divi¬
sor of each of the two lines that compose the transformed
function y + p (a + 2); consequently it will be a divisor
of the sum of both lines, or of the function itself, that is,
(u — a)2 + r2 will be a divisor of the proposed polynome
y + We are now to prove that two such numbers
may be found.
Substitute X2 a2— s for r2 in the equations (C), X being
a quantity to be afterwards determined; and, in order to
shorten expressions, put
24
(X2 a2 — s)2 — &c.
+&c
da o da3
And the two equations (C) will be thus written, viz.
y + M = 0,
N = 0.
In these equations a and s are always supposed to repre¬
sent positive numbers, in which case the equation N = 0
cannot take place when s is greater than X2 a2 ,• for then
all the terms of N would be positive.
Considering N as a function of a, the part of it that
does not contain a is evidently
A^s + A^i2 + aWs3 +,&c.
which is always positive. The highest power of a con¬
tained in the same function is a2n and we shall obtain
cyn
all the terms of N that contain this power by putting a
for <p(a) in the expression
d<P(a) 1 . rf3P<»,2 „2a_ _L. X4 a4.
-X2 a2 4-
da 6 da3 120 da5
which terms are therefore as follows, viz.
-, &c.;
2 71 1
^2n —
2n.
2n — 1.2ft — 2
2 . 3
X2 +
I
332
Equations.
EQUATIONS.
'■In.
2w —-1 • — 2 • — 3.2n 4 + ? &c \
2 . 3 . 4 . 5 J
Again, if we substitute first 5 and a, and then « + ajE(
2 . 3 . 4 . 5
Now, in the expression obtained in Sect. 10, viz
2n—1 v sm
r X
= '•inx
2n—l
— 2n.
2n — 1.2n — 2
a a wd***)    in
and a + da, in the function M, we shall get
3M = -r-.3a + -j- .Ss.
da as
^ n
sin. <f>
2w—3 »
x y
+ , &c.
if we put X2 = fr = tan-2 and divide both sides by
2w—we shall obtain
But, by comparing the functions M and N, the following
properties will readily be discovered, viz.
dM . dM -- -rfN
da
2n—1   2/t—1
X — T COS
!®L=I.!§L + x*«
ds 2 da
ds
dN_
ds
1 -9 9n.2«-1.2« _g^+,&c.;
whence,
sin. <p
2n—1^,
COS. f
from which formula It follows, that the polynom^on the nt,
right-hand side of the sign of equality will be equal to no u ^
dM XT
_ cZN /. o o \ dfN *  o\ 4 ^
^-r-fX2®2 — i) — —X2a —2X4a2—
ds K 'da ds
thing, where 90°’ Wl beinS ^integer nUm‘
3M
ber less than n, zero not included. Wherefore the first,
third, &c. roots of the polynome will be expressed by the
formula
„ 2£ + 1. Qn
X2 = tan.2 —  90,
xte+{14!-+x!,“
^ix^a —2X^a2«^
da ds
JN
ds
r}
ds:
2^+1 representing any odd number less than n; and
the second, fourth, &c. roots by the formula
2^ + 2 Qno
X2 = tan.2  90 ,
and, if we observe that N = 0, and substitute the value of
3a found above, we shall get
A/r f „ /dN\2
3M =
, v . 1/dN ,
s) +2bir+
„ 0 rfN \2
2X2 a I
■57 }’
in which expression all the quantities are essentially posi-
<ZN
2^ + 2 being any even number less than n. And it is
evident that the polynome will be negative for every value ^ e t which is always negative, as may be
of X2 that lies between any odd root and the next e e
root, that is, for every value between these limits, viz.
X2 > tan.
2k + 1
90°,
X2 <C tan.2
2A + 2
90°
Thus, an indefinite number of values of X2 may be found
that will make the polynome negative.
Having assumed such a value of X, let any positive
number whatever be substituted for s, and N will be con- rfN .
verted into a rational function of a ; the greatest power of quently is negative
The quantity s remaining invariable, if we make a = 0,
the function N will be positive ; for it is equal to
A + A(5V + A^s3 +, &c.;
and the same function will continue positive, while a in¬
creases from zero to the least root of the equation N - V.
At this limit N is first equal to zero, and then becomes
negative; it must, therefore, be decreasing, and conse-
It may indeed happen, that, for
a, or a \ being odd, and having a negative co-efficient; particular values of s, the co-efficients of N may be such,
2n—1
that N and^- shall be both equal to zero at the same
da
time
but, in such cases, it will readily appear that ^
and the term which does not contain a being positive
Wherefore at least one positive value of a may be found
that will satisfy the equation N = 0; and, as has already
been observed, this value of a will be such as to make X~
a2—s a positive quantity. It is possible indeed that, in i „prn Wherefore 3M
the equation N = 0, there may be several values of a for and 5M will likewise be equal to zero.
every^assumed value of s; but we here confine our atten- will be negative ; at least, if it l3600"16 ie positive.
tion to the least positive value, which is distinguished by any particular values of s and a, it cannot be I ^
this circumstance, that it vanishes with the absolute term It follows, therefore, that the function r I from
of the equation, or with s; whereas, when s is equal to variably negative, while s and a increase i g
zero, all the other roots of the equation N = 0 have finite zero to be infinitely great. . . f mzer0
values depending upon the given co-efficients. _ Now assume a series of values ot s increas g
Now, if we suppose s to increase from zero to infinity, without limit, viz.
and assume two values, s, and s + 3s, very near one an¬
other, according to what has been proved, we shall have 0,s^\ s^ \ / \ s ,s . , .
the corresponding values a and a + 3a, such, that the an(1 havjn„ substituted these in the function N, bn , ?
equation N = 0 will be satisfied by substituting both s means of the equation N = 0, the corresponding value
>) >+!),
and a, and likewise s + 3s and a + 3a.
N = 0, and 3N = 0, we get
<ZN 4 . dN
sr-J“ + -d;
3s
Hence, because
means of the equation N
a, viz.
, 3s — 0,
and, 3a =
■(f)
X T-
rfN
ds
0,aV\aWaV\  ^ * * *, 11 obtain
then, by substituting these values in M, we sha °bzer0
a series of results all negative, and increasing
without limit, viz. .
- M®. - m<3>. . -
0,
EQUATIONS.
333
.and whatever be the magnitude of the positive quantity
it must be contained between two consecutive terms
of this last series, viz. between and But as
the values of s may be assumed as near one another as we
please, it follows that M(,r) and M^x+1) may be made to
approach to one another and to y, within any required de¬
gree of accuracy. Thus two values of s and a may be
found that will satisfy both the equations,
y + M = 0,
N = 0;
and having found these values, we shall obtain the quad¬
ratic divisor of the proposed polynome y + <p («), viz.
(m — a)2 + *2) or
(u — a)2 + ^2a2 — s.
In the preceding demonstration it is supposed that M
increases without limit, as s becomes indefinitely great;
which may be thus proved: The values of M and N will
coincide nearly with the terms containing the highest
powers of s and a, when these quantities are very great;
and ultimately the functions may be considered as equal
to those terms alone. In such circumstances, therefore,
the values of the functions will be found by writing ct2rt
for p (a ); whence we get
M = a2" — 2n •—g—- • a""-2 (X2a2 — s) +, &c.
N = 2 w a2'*-1 — 271.(W — s) + , &c.
and if we put X2a2 — s = far, or a2 = -y1 ^ ,
— y + M — 0, Equations.
Now, by pursuing the steps of the foregoing analysis, we
may prove, first, that, for every assumed value of r2, a ne¬
gative value of a may be found, which will satisfy the
equation N =: 0; and, secondly, that when the values
which satisfy the equation N = 0 are substituted in the
function M, the results will be invariably positive ; whence
it follows that a positive value of r2, and a negative value
of a, may be found that will satisfy both the equations,
whatever be the magnitude of y. The analogy between
the two cases is thus placed in a strong light; and a
little reflection will even bring us to this conclusion,
that in reality the one case is a necessary consequence
of the other. For since a and r2 depend only upon y,
and the given co-eflicients of the polynome, they will be
functions of y; wherefore, in the equations of the first
case, viz.
— y + M = 0,
N = 0,
a being negative, and r2 positive, we may suppose — a
— 1/9 (y) and r2 = U 'V(y)’ these values being such as to
render each of the equations identical; and then the quad¬
ratic divisor (u—a)2 — r2 will become
+ j —
But, because the foregoing equations become identical
by the substitution of the values mentioned, it is a ne¬
cessary consequence that the equations of the second case,
viz.
then M
_ 2rt—
N = «
= 11-
'iin —
- 2n — 1 1
2n.—-- . tz +, &c. >
_ 2n — \'2n — 2 )
2n . 7, - . £2 +, &c. >-
2 • 3
Now, s remaining invariable, a will increase as t2 in¬
creases; and the least value of a that will satisfy the
equation N = 0, corresponds to the least value of t2 that
will make the polynome in the expression of N equal to
zero; which value, according to what was before shown,
is
t2 — tan.2 — X 90°.
n
But, if we put t — tan. p, we shall get
M = .i» X <^1^.
cos.2n <p
or, because a = i X 90°; cos. p = ———,
r n r VI + *2
and a2 =
\2—t2'
M
t2)
which proves the point assumed in the demonstration.
By a similar mode of reasoning, we may likewise prove
the former case of the proposition, when y is negative.
In this case the quadratic divisor is (u — a)2 — r2 ; and
if we proceed as before, or, which is the same thing, if we
change the signs of y and r2 in the equations (C) already
obtained, and put
M = p (a) + -
1 ^©(a)
da2
— • r2 +, &c.
N_^W. &c.;
da ^6 da3 ’
we shall get
y + M = 0,
N = 0,
in which the signs of y, a, and r2, are contrary to what
they were in the former equations, will likewise be iden¬
tical, when — a. — — y<p (—y) and r2 = —yY (—y) ;
and the quadratic divisor, (u — a)2 — r2, will now become
|m —^p(—.y)| +yY(—y).
Thus, when the quadratic divisor of the first case is ex¬
pressed in terms of y, we have only to change the sign
of that quantity, in order to have the quadratic divisor of
the second case. It is not difficult to perceive, that what
has now been proved is nothing more than another appli¬
cation of the principle employed in Sect. 10; a princi¬
ple which is the real foundation of the imaginary arith¬
metic, with the processes of which the preceding investi¬
gations are intimately connected. None but real quan¬
tities have occurred in the analysis we have pursued, be¬
cause we have sought to investigate r2, which is always
rational; whereas, if we had proposed to find r, we should
inevitably have been led to the real quantity Vj/ in the
one case, and to the impossible quantity V—y in the
other. These few observations are made for the purpose
of throwing light upon a part of analysis which is cer¬
tainly obscure in its principles, although there is no ques¬
tion that it is a useful, and even a necessary branch of
the art of calculation. A fuller elucidation of the sub¬
ject would be unsuitable to this place; but enough has
been said to show that we must seek in the principles of
analysis itself for the explanation of the operations it em¬
ploys ; and we may with great probability conclude that
no satisfactory account of the imaginary calculus will
ever be obtained by having recourse to fanciful geome¬
trical constructions, or to the analogy between the circle
and the hyperbola, or to the metaphysical proposition,
that all processes with general symbols, whether signifi-
334
equations.
Equations, cant or not, are equally entitled to be considered as de-
monstrative.
13. Having now proved, in a rigorous manner, that
every polynome of even dimensions has at least one quad¬
ratic divisor of the one kind or the other, it follows that
it may be reduced by division to another polynome two
degrees lower: in like manner, this last polynome will
admit of being lowered two degrees more; and by re¬
peating the same process, the first polynome will at
length be completely exhausted by quadratic divisors.
If, therefore, we recollect, that every polynome of odd
dimensions has one binomial divisor, we shall arrive at
this general conclusion, “ That every rational polynome
can be completely exhausted by binomial and trinomial
divisors; and, consequently, that it is equal to the pro¬
duct of a certain number of factors of the two first do¬
ing lines, will be expressed by the following equations,Equate
o + r4-’m
° - ~^T 6 da* ^ 120 da* ^ ’ *c>
In these formulae substitute the expanded values of
ffa) &c.; and class together all the homogeneous
terms of the same order, that is, all the terms in which
the exponents of a and r amount to the same sum, then
we shall have
grees.
It appears also that the binomial factors of any poly¬
nome are such only as arise from the resolution of the
quadratic divisors; and they are, therefore, either rea
or imaginary. And thus we finally obtain the following
proposition, which was assumed by Harriot, and is the
foundation of the received theory of equations, namely,
« Every rational polynome has as many binominal fac¬
tors, and as many roots, real and imaginary, as it has di¬
mensions.” ,
The necessity of confirming, by a general demonstra¬
tion, the assumed theory of the impossible roots of equa¬
tions, was early felt; and accordingly, this point has en¬
gaged the attention of all the great mathematicians to
whom analysis is indebted for the progress it has made in
the course of the last and the present centuries. An ac¬
count of their several researches would greatly exceed
the limits of this article ; but the reader will find all the
information he can wish for in two long notes (9 and 10)
of the Traite des Equations Numeriqim, by La Grange,
in which the author, with his usual elegance, has ex¬
plained and commented upon the various modes of inves¬
tigation that have been proposed. It will be sufficient to
observe here, that all the demonstrations that have ap¬
peared are either calculations with impossible quantities,
or they proceed upon the assumption that every equation
has as many roots as dimensions, and thus involve the
very thing to be proved. # #
14. The general cases in which mathematicians have
been successful in resolving rational functions into their
trinomial factors, are confined to the theorem of Cotes,
and to a more general proposition of a similar kind, for
which we are indebted to De Moivre. These instances
are of great importance in analysis, and we shall there¬
fore subjoin an investigation of them, because they are
deduced in a very direct manner from the method we have
followed.
0 = an —
+ A(1)
1 n—2
r~ +, &C.
. 1 — n — 1 • ““2“ •a” 3 ^ +>&c.j
• 3 n—4
+ A(2). a n—2 — n — 2
n n 1 „
0 —n a — n
&c.
ti—1. n—2 n 3
+ A^. —1)“”
2 . 3
2
r* +,&c.|
r~ +, &C.
n—2. n—3 n_4
n—1. —^ s_a r +,
3
&c.
l'2'l f ✓ n 3 o n—^ . n—4 n—5 , 1
+ A^2). 4 (n—2)an—* —n—2.  g—a ^ +,
&c,
1
&c.
Now, put a — r cos. <p, r — r sin. <p; and, by what was
proved in Sect. 10, the two foregoing equations will be¬
come
rn cos.n<p+A^rn 1 cos.(«—l)p + A^” cos. f
+ A W= 0, (E)
A-{
sin. <p l
n 1
r sin. n <p
+ A^V* 2 sin. («—1) <p
+ A^” ^ sin. <p =0:
And the quadratic divisor (a?—a)2 + v2 will be changed
into
Suppose, as before, thaty’(.'c), or a:M-[-A
A^x11—2 .. + A^” + A^w\ is a rational polynome
of n dimensions, and {x — a)~ + r2 one of its quadratic di¬
visors ; put z=- x— a, substitute a + z for x, and write
the transformed function in two lines, one containing all
the even, and the other all the odd powers of z; then
the polynome will be equal to
x2 — 2r cos. <p.x + r2.
When sin. p = 0, and p = 0 or 180°, the preceding equa¬
tions coincide with these, viz.
r”db:A(1) r”—1 + A^2) rn~2 =±=, &x. = 0
1 ^(w—^A^V1—2 + («—2)A(2)rw—3 =±=,&c..=0,
24 rfa4
, &c.
+ Z
which express the condition that the given polynome bas
two or more factors equal to x r; at which linuts a
quadratic divisor changes from being of the form
— r2 to be of the form (x—a)2 + r2, or the contrary. Ihus
we learn that, in the equations (E), sin. <p must always
have a finite value, and then the denominator of the se-
^ (df(a) , 1 d‘lt\a)^ J_tf/(q) \ Cond equation may be neglected.
^ I rfa + 6 du? ~ ^ 120 da* ' 'J Let the preceding investigation be applied to find
- • - - - » • quadratic factors of a:"—an. In this case the two equa¬
tions (E) will become
r" cos. n<p — an = 0
By the same substitution of z for a: — a, the divisor
(a? — a)2 + r2 will become z2 + r2; and, as before, the
conditions that z2 + r2 shall divide each of the forego-
EQUATIONS.
/
whence
r"-1 X^*?=0;
Sin. If)
r = o,
cos. ntp — \,
sin. ntp
By means of the equations (E) we get
r2n cos. 2n<p —2anrn cos. d cos. nf> + aln = 0,
335
Equations.
1 x sin. 2nf>
and hence
sin. <p
2aBr” 1 X ^ X cos.« = 0;
sin. ^
sin.
^ — 0.
P
Now, excluding the cases when p = 0 and <p — 180°, the
2k A- \
last equation will be satisfied when ® —-— X 180°,
n
2k
or <p = — X 180°, the numerators of the fractions repre¬
senting all the odd and even numbers less than the com¬
mon denominator; but the second equation will be satis-
2k
fied only when <p =z —x 180° ; wherefore all the quadra¬
tic factors of the function xn — an will be comprehended
in the formula
2k
it? — 2ax X cos. — X 180° + a2.
n
When w is an even number, the quadratic factors will
7X" 2
amount to—^—; and if to them we add the simple fac¬
tors xAr a and x — a, we shall have the complete resolu¬
tion of the function. When n is odd, the number of quad-
71 '' 1
ratic factors is —^—, to which must be added the bino¬
mial factor x —'a.
By proceeding in a similar manner in the case of the
function xn + a", we shall have the equations
r — a,
cos. n<p = — 1,
sin, n <p_ q
sin. <p
Excluding the cases when <p = 0 and p = 180°, the se¬
cond and third equations will be both satisfied, when p =
2k + l
- X 180°, the numerator of the fraction represent¬
ing any odd number less than n. Wherefore all the quad¬
ratic factors will be comprehended in the formula
2k 4- 1
x?— 2ax X cos. X 180° + a2.
n
When n is even, the number of quadratic factors is
and they exhibit the complete resolution of the function.
W hen n is odd, the number of quadratic factors is —\
to which the binomial factor x Ar a must be added.
Eet us next take the more general function.
x2” — 2[3xnan -}- «2n.
And, m the first place, when (3 is greater than unit, the
mnction is equal to
63+v7/'?—Tj | x | *»—— 1) } ;
S^coStred? &Ct0rS may be f°Und by the °ases al-
j tioSbfrltVwm be"1'’ ,e‘ ^ = *’ and ‘he fU"C-
x2n — 2anxn cos. 6 + a2n.
r = a,
cos. 2n<p — 2 cos. 6 cos. «p + 1 = 0,
sin. 2na> ^ sin. n<p
—t T _ 2 -—^ X cos. 6 = 0.
sm. p sin. p
But, cos. 2np + 1 = 2 cos.2 «p; and sin. 2«p = 2 cos. n<p
X sin. «p; wherefore the two last equations will be¬
come
2 cos. n<p (cos. nf — cos. 6) = 0,
„ sin. «p .
2 —:   (cos. Me — cos. 0) = 0 :
sin. p v r y
and these, supposing cos. 6 different from unit, can be sa¬
tisfied only by making cos. nrp — cos. 0 = 0, or
cos. «p = cos. i.
Now, cos. £ = cos. (rn X 3G0° + 0), m being any inte¬
ger number whatever, zero included ; and hence
_m X 360° + 0 , . ,
P  , which formula comprehends all the
values of 0 that will satisfy the above equations. Where¬
fore all the factors sought will be contained in this gene¬
ral expression, viz.
o o mx 360° A- d , „
  2ax cos.   h a2;
ji
in which, if for m we substitute all the integer numbers
less than n, zero included, we shall obtain the n quadratic
factors of the proposed function.
15. The quadratic divisors (x — a)2 — r2 and (x a)2
+ r2, have hitherto been considered separately; but they
may be both represented by (x — a)2 — s, which will coin¬
cide with the one or the other, according as s is positive
or negative. And, if we now proceed as before, we shall
get the following equations, which express the conditions
necessary, in order that the polynome / (x) of any pro¬
posed dimensions, as n, shall be divisible by (x— a)2 $,
viz.
da1 ^24 <fc< +j*c.
0 = rf«2) +I sP/O) s <?/(«)., .
da +6' ' + 120' da‘ s+'&c-
By eliminating s we shall obtain an equation, viz.
A = 0,
in which a is the unknown quantity. As the process of
elimination is independent of the particular values of the
co-efficients of+ (a?), the degree of the resulting equation
will be the same when the polynome / (x) has as many
real roots as dimensions, and when the case is otherwise.
But when/(«) is equal to the product of n real binomial
factors, the multiplication of every two of them will form
a quadratic factor. ,lhe number of such factors will,
therefore, be equal to w X —-—, which expresses all the
combinations made with n things taken two and two.
Consequently, there will be just so many different values
of a that will satisfy the equation A = 0, which will,
1
2
It thus
therefore, have its exponent equal to n X
appears that the equation A == 0 rises in its dimensions
very rapidly above the given polynome, on which account
little advantage is derived from this procedure.
EQUATIONS.
Again, by eliminating a from the same two equations,
we shall obtain one, viz.
S = 0,
in which s is the unknown quantity. This equation,
which has already been alluded to (Sect. 8), rises to the
same dimensions with the former equation, A = 0; but it
is possessed of some useful properties, derived chiefly from
the consideration that every positive root gives a quadra¬
tic factor of the form (x — a)2 — r2 in the polynome/ (#),
and every negative root a quadratic factor of the form
/x — a)2 ^ in the same polynome.
The quadruple of s is equal to the square of the differ¬
ence of the two binomial factors of (x — a)2 — s ; whence
it follows that the quadruples of the several roots of the
equation S = Oare equal to the squares of the differences
of the roots of / (x) = 0. If, therefore, we put a/,
&c. for the roots of/(a?) = 0, the roots of S = 0 will be
to a certain number of binomial factors of the forms x —
and x + a, multiplied into a supplementary polynome ofw
even dimensions, which, not being capable of having a ne¬
gative value, will have its last term positive (Sect. 5). It
is manifest, therefore, that the last term of S = 0 will be
positive or negative, according as the number of factors
of the form x —a is even or odd, that is, according as the
equation has an even or odd number of real and positive
roots. But every two real roots in the equation/(x) = 0
give one real and positive root in the subsidiary equation
S = 0; wherefore, if m denote the number of real roots
in the former equation, the number of real and positive
roots in the latter will be equal to m X
m— 1
and the
^(x'—o2, O2’ ;|0"—O2’ &c-;
last term of the subsidiary equation will be positive or ne-
m — 1 . ,,
gative, according as m X —^— is an even or an odd
number.
and from this it is manifest that the co-efficients of the
same equation will be known symmetrical functions of the
quantities x', x", x", &c. or of the roots of/ (x) = 0. The
rules formerly explained may, therefore, be emplos ed for
calculating the co-efficients of S = 0 ; and this method of
forming the equation is not only more convenient than the
process of eliminating, but it likewise has the advantage
of enabling us to find any one co-efficient separately with¬
out computing the rest. Thus, if we put
K(n)= (a? — x")2 • (^~ tf")* • — O2 • &c-
and expand this product, and in place of the symmetrical
functions of which it is composed, substitute their values
in terms of the given co-efficients of/(x) — 0, we shall ob¬
tain the value of ; and the last term of the equation
S =: 0 wdll be equal to
K(«)
2n(n — 1)
In a cubic equation x3 + px + 9 = 0, m is either one
or three. In the first case, the equation S = 0 will have
no positive roots, and the last term will be positive; in
the second case, it will have three real and positive roots,
and the last term will be negative. Now the dimensions
of S — 0 being odd, the function will be negative in
the first case and positive in the second. \\ herefore
the given cubic equation will have one real root, or three,
according as the function K^, that is,
(^ _ af'f m ^ . (*" — x")2,
or — 4^3 — 27g(J, is negative or positive.
In a biquadratic equation x4 + px2 + yx + r = 0, m
is equal to zero, or two, or four. In the first case the
equation 8 = 0 has no positive roots, in the third it has
six, and in both cases the last term is positive. In the
second case the same equation has only one real and po¬
sitive root, and the last term is negative. The dimen-
4X3
sions of S = 0, equal to——, being even, the function
the upper sign taking place when 7i X ^—, the dimen¬
sions of the equation S = 0 is even, and the lower sign
when the same number is odd.
If we suppose the given equation / (x) = 0 to be pos¬
sessed of as many real roots as dimensions, or to have n
real binomial factors, the product of every two of these
will be a quadratic factor (x—a)2 — s, in which s is po¬
sitive; wherefore, the roots of S = 0 will be all real
and all positive. On the other hand, wdien the given
equation / (x) = 0 has not as many real roots as dimen¬
sions, it will be divisible by one or more quadratic factors
not resolvable into real binomial factors, and in which s is
negative; consequently, the equation S = 0 will have one
or more negative roots. It is, therefore, a property of the
auxiliary equation S = 0, that when the roots are all real
they are all positive, and when they are not all real some
of them are negative. Now the rule of Descartes will
enable us to find whether the roots are all positive or not;
and by this means we shall discover whether the roots
of the given equation / (x) = 0 are all real or not. From
what has been said, we may lay down this rule : “ The
proposed equation/(x) = 0 will have all its roots real when
the auxiliary equation S = 0 has as many variations from
one sign to another as it has dimensions, or when its terms
are alternately positive and negative ; otherwise the pro¬
posed equation will have one or more quadratic factors of
the form (x — a)2 + r-, but the number of such factors
cannot exceed the continuations of the same sign in the
auxiliary equation.”
Again, in the equation S = 0, the polynome S is equal
K ^ will be positive in the first and third cases, and ne¬
gative in the second case. Wherefore the proposed bi¬
quadratic equation will have only two real roots when the
function K^, that is,
(a/—x*)2. (x*—x"')2. (x'—xIV)2. (x"—x")2- (x—xn)2
-xIV)2, or, 2o6r3— 128p2r2 + 144?2/>r + IfipV-
• (X*' _ , , , . - .
27/ — d/-//3, is negative ; and when the same function is
positive, the proposed equation will have four real roots,
if the terms of the auxiliary equation S = 0 be alternate¬
ly positive and negative; otherwise it will have no real
roots.
In an equation of the fifth degree, ?n is equal to one, or
three, or five. In the first and third cases the last term
of S = 0 will be positive, for there are either no positive
roots or ten; in the second case the last term is negative,
the number of positive roots being three. The dimen¬
sions of S = 0, equal to—, being even, the function
K ^ will be positive in the first and third cases, and ne¬
gative in the second. Wherefore the given equation ot
the fifth degree will have three real roots when the func¬
tion Kfis negative ; and when the same function is po¬
sitive, it will have five real roots if the terms of t e
auxiliary equation S 0 be alternately positive and nega¬
tive ; otherwise it will have but one.
Resolution of Algebraic Equations.
16. When the co-efficients of an equation are given in
EQUATIONS.
>.M' <
fcub K l 11 •—   ~ * 1_{J1 LOt-llLCL*
“‘uati D^a’ b’ c’ an“ “aving interchanged these letters among:
i one annthpr 1 T Cl 1 I C C* 11— A. •
ms.numbers, we may investigate the numerical value of any
■ ^ one root separately, by first seeking the limits between
which it lies, and then narrowing those limits to any re¬
quired degree of approximation. But this process is not
what is meant by the general solution of algebraical equa¬
tions, which supposes that the co-efficients are denoted by
general symbols, and consists in finding such a function
of those quantities as shall, by the multiplicity of its va¬
lues, represent all the roots. An algebraical expression
is susceptible of many values, by means of the different
radical quantities it contains ; but these radical quantities
being themselves the roots of an equation, it follows that
the general formula for the solution of any proposed equa¬
tion can be nothing more than a function of the given co¬
efficients combined with the roots of another equation.
The solution of quadratic equations has been known
since the origin of algebra; it is found in the work of Dio-
phantus, the first treatise on the science extant, if it be
not the very first that was written. The Italian mathe¬
maticians, who are the founders of the modern algebra,
discovered the solution of cubic and biquadratic equations.
The rules they invented for this purpose are, however,
rather the result of particular artifices than deductions
from any profound views of the structure of the equations
they considered. In the course of the last and the pre¬
sent centuries, the general solution of equations has been
the subject ofalmost innumerable researches by all the ma¬
thematicians of the first rank; but their labours have not
been successful in advancing this branch of the science
beyond the steps made by the first algebraists.
The rules usually given for the solution of cubic and
biquadratic equations are to be found in all the elemen¬
tary books, and it would be superfluous to repeat them
here. An account of the attempts that have been made
to obtain a general theory for solving algebraic equations
would greatly exceed the limits we must prescribe to our¬
selves. What has most impeded the progress of alge¬
braists in their researches on this subject, is the difficulty
of treating it by a perfect analysis, or of arriving at gene¬
ral conclusions by a process of reasoning founded solely on
the principles of the inquiry, and disengaged from parti¬
cular artifices of calculation, and from particular supposi¬
tions. In what follows, we shall endeavour to lay before
our readers the general principles on which is founded all
that has been successfully accomplished in this theory.
Let the three roots of a cubic equation be represented
337
one another, in all possible ways, we shall get the six per¬
mutations following, viz.
abc, cab, bca,
T _ act, bac, cba.
Ihe combinations that stand first on the left are formed
{Fv1*111? t^le same letter to the permutations made
1 e other two; and those on each line are derived
rom one another by making the last letter of one stand
m that which follows, while the other two letters pre¬
serve the same order.
natLn" let 1 = 0 5 and let the letters of first combi-
‘ n of each line be prefixed in order to the three terms
011 + ? + g2; then we shall get
and ‘f t = a,'^ h +c£2> s — a+ce + bf-,
ftrtherobtain11^ * ^ * by ^ ^ successively> we shall
: = a + s = a + eg + hf,
A-6 S£ = b + as + cf,
The c+k +
value^thTf11111^8 J s> SS’ ¥’ comprehend all the
l°rmed by C°mb‘ninS with 1 + S
obvious that taLen ln any order whatever; and it is
Vot< ix G cubes aH these six quantities, being
, li
each equal either to t3 or s3, have no more than two va-Equations,
lues.
And because t3 and s3 have only one value each, any
symmetrical functions of them, as ^ and t3 s3, will
have determinate values, which remain the same, how¬
ever the letters a, b, c be interchanged among one ano¬
ther. The quantities ^ ^ and t3 s3 must, therefore, be
symmetrical functions of a, b, c • and, consequently, they
can be found in terms of the co-efficients of the given equa¬
tion. ° ^
By actually involving to the third power, we eet
zr a3 + i3 + c3 -j- 6 abc
+ 3 (a2b + t^a) . p
+ 3 (a2c + c2^ + i2 a) • f,
s? =z a3 + IP + c3 + 6 abc
+ 3 (a2e + c2b -f- . p
+ 3 (a2b + b2c + (Pa) . p2.
and likewise
(a + 6 + c)3 =a3 + lP + c3 + 6abc
+ 3 (a2b + IP c + c2a)
+ 3 (a2c + c2b + b2a).
Now 1 + g + g2 = 0, when g is any root of p3 — 1 =0
different from unit; therefore, by adding the last three
expressions, we get
t3 + s3 = 3 (a3 + IP + c?) + 18 abc
— (a + b + c)3.
Again, by actually multiplying
ts a2 IP cP
+ (ab + be ca) . £
+ (ab + 6c + ca) . g2;
and, because g + g2 = — 1,
ts — a2 IP (p
— (ab + 6c -f- ca).
By means of the preceding formulae, we can compute
the values of ^ + s3 and ^ .s3 ,• and these values being the
co-efficients of a quadratic equation having its roots equal
to tP and s3, we can thence find t? and s3, and t and s. Now
t and s being known, we have
a4'^4“C=:a-j-64-c,
t = a + b£ + cf,
* = a + eg + 6g2;
wherefore,
a = 1 (a + 6 + c) + ^ (* + 5),
b = o (a + ^ + c) + ^ (Vg2 + sg),
C ~ 3 (a ^ + c) + | + sf)-
3 V . - . -y . 3
To apply the foregoing investigation, we shall take a
cubic equation, otP — 3px — 2q — u, which is so prepar¬
ed as to want the second term, then (Sect. 9)
a + 6 + c=0,
ab + ac + 6c — — Sp,
+ IP + (P Gp,
+ 6s + c3 = Gy,
abc ~ 2q ;
consequently ^ + s3 = 33 X 2o; ts = 9o, and t3 i3 = 33
X 3s. p3. Hence
^t=(q +V(f—jP)i,
-s = (q — Vq2—p3)3,
\\ herefore, by substituting these values in the expres¬
sions of the roots, we get
— (q +Vq2 — />3)3 + (q—V<f — p3)^,
b — f‘(q + V q2 —pp)5 + £’(q — V q2 — p3)2
2 u
338
Equations.
The preceding investigation, as well as all other me-
thods that have been proposed for cubic equations, leads
to the same result with the rule invented by Cardan ; and,
like that rule, it becomes in some cases insufhcient tor
arithmetical computation, on account of the imaginary
EQUATIONS.
i |2Hl (7,ys,) j 36?'—y'A {2iyMs)J- —2,7=0;;
, •  KointT frnp for nil valllPS nf n nnA w...-.
which equation, being true for all values of q and ^2,must
be identical, or, when expanded, must consist of a series
of quantities that mutually destroy one another. Now
the equation will still be identical, when y~ is changed
into — y2; so that we shall have
arithmetical computation, on account oi me ”" - ' . 3 i f ,
quantities that appear in the expressions of the roots. / ^ J- —3(q2+?/2) • J ] 2 H, (?,—/) I
What is now mentioned is notan accidental circumstance, ( ^ J 0 _ n. ^
VV liai 11UVV     , , n . , • _ " Q „—A .
but a necessary consequence of the method of investiga- Zq-U,
tion pursued, and of the introduction of the imaginary anj pV0Ves that the equation
roots of the equation - 1 = 0. When a, b, c, are real
1
roots ui me cuuanw.r g , ■ , . ; ■ . > „
quantities, the value of t and s will be both imaginary, be-
_1 + V—3 . —l—V—S
cause they involve g and f, or
-and-
2 ~ 2
In this case, therefore, although the three roots of the
proposed equation are all real, yet the algebraic expies-
sions of them are all imaginary, and useless for the purpose
of numerical calculation ; and the former circumstance is
precisely the reason of the latter. On the other hand,
when one root a is real and the other two imaginary, the
impossible quantities destroy one another in the expres¬
sions of t and s, which are, therefore, real quantities ; and
in this case the algebraic formulae answer for finding the
numerical values of the roots. The distinction here point¬
ed out depends on the radical V <f —p*, which is real or
imaginary, according as the equation has one or three
real roots, because q1 — pP is always positive in the first
case and negative in the second.
Much labour and thought have been bestowed in order
to free the formulae for the roots of cubic equations from
the imaginary expressions that render them unfit for
arithmetical computation. In particular instances . the
difficulty disappears ; namely, when the radical quantities
are perfect cubes, in which cases the impossible parts of
the cube roots destroy one another, so as to leave none
but real quantities in the expressions of the roots of the
equation. And, by expanding the radical quantities, we
may in all cases obtain the roofs of a cubic equation in
series of an infinite number of terms free from the ima¬
ginary sign. But when it is required to transform the
formulae for the case of a cubic equation with three real
roots, into finite expressions free from impossible quanti¬
ties, and to do so without employing any other than the
received notations of algebra, all attempts to solve the
problem have led to equations in the same circumstances
with the one proposed, and have ended in bringing back
the same difficulty; in so much that equations of the
description mentioned are said to be in the irreducible
case.
It is, however, possible to transform the formulae for
the roots of a cubic equation in the irreducible case into
real expressions, although not so as to fulfil all the con¬
ditions above mentioned. Let q* — p3 — y2 \ then p
= (qz — ?/2)^ : wherefore . the equation a? — Spx — 2q
— 0, wall become
tf3— 3 (?2 + y*y.x — 2q = 0... (2)
is solved by the formula
x = 2Ul(q,—y2).
~5
As the investigation in Section 10 is equally true, whe¬
ther nbe a. whole or a fractional number, we may apply
it to find the value of the symbol 21^ (q,—yz).
For this purpose, let
q z=. r cos. p> — r cos. (p + 360°) zr r cos. (p + 2.360°),
y — r sin. <p — rsin. (p + 360°) rz r sin. (p -j- 2.360°);
then r — V(f + yl; and, according as we take one or
other of the angles that have the same sines and cosines,
we shall obtain three different values of 2H! (?,—/),
J
of of x, viz.:
=z 2rf
<P
cos. |
b Z= 2r3 . cos.f? + 120°
i
c — Zr5 . cos
(I + 840°>
By putting/) = (g2 + ?/2)3, the equation (2) will assume
the same form as at first, namely,
— 2>px — 2/ zz 0;
and because pz ~ ql + yl — r2, and y =zVpP — q\ if we
determine the angles by means of their tangents instead
of their sines and cosines, we shall get Vp_
— = tan. p
= tan. (9 + 360°) = tan. (9 + 2.360°) ; and the three
roots of the equation will be
9
3’
a z= 2Vp . cos..
b — 2Vp . cos
c — 2Vp . cos
+ 120°
'>
+ 240°).
• 3 (q2—y-y* x — 2<7 = 0 . . . (1).
By the preceding formula the value of x in this equa-
Every cubic equation falls under one or other of the
formulae (1) and (2), except when y = Q, ov f - f>
which takes place when an equation changes from one
class to another; and in this case we have
■ 3<73 .x — 2(7 = (x—2 q3).(x + q3). (x + tf)-
tion will be
a; zz (? + ?/)3 + (? — y)^;
or, according to the notation of Section 10, making
1
The several rules that have now been given, theretor,
include every possible case. .
The difficulty attending the irreducible case arises t10
a real distinction between the two subordinate classes 0
cubic equations, and is insurmountable by the ordinary
operations of algebra. There is no permanent distinction
n~3’
of equations belonging to the same order, when we
sider their roots as positive or negative; because, in
x zz 2H
By substituting this value of x, we get
1 V2)-
3
any proposed equation, all the roots, or as many of
as we please, can be changed from positive to nega 1 >
by the simple artifice of increasing or diminishing tn
Equal
equations.
..all by a given quantity. But the case is otherwise when
1 we consider the roots of an equation in their character
of real or imaginary quantities. No transformation can
change an equation with one real root into another with
three real roots, without involving the operations of the
impossible arithmetic. If, therefore, we lay down this
condition, namely, that the formulae for the roots of equa¬
tions must be in a shape fit for numerical calculation, we
may conclude that in fact there is no resolution of equa¬
tions except what consists in reducing all those of the
same class to some one of that class, the most simple and
convenient in its form that can be found. If we examine
the preceding investigation, it will appear that it is mere¬
ly an attempt to reduce all cubic equations to the form
x3—A=0; and this readily succeeds without impossible
operations, when the proposed equation, and that with
which it is compared, have their roots of a similar descrip¬
tion; and it as surely fails when the case is otherwise.
In geometry, where the relations of the magnitudes
under consideration are never lost sight of, there is no
tendency to refer the solution of a problem to a class to
which it does not belong. The ancient geometer could
never be in danger of applying the problem for finding
two mean proportionals to a case that can be constructed
only by the trisection of an angle. The modern analyst,
dismissing the original magnitudes of his problem, and re¬
ducing all possible relations to equations in abstract num¬
bers, is apt to overlook distinctions, and sometimes to
waste his labour, in seeking to accomplish what a due se¬
paration of cases would show to be impossible. There is
the same distinction between the class of cubic equations
with one real root, and that with three real roots, that
there is between the two geometrical problems alluded
to above; and the algebraist who attempts, by means of
the ordinary operations of his art, to transform Cardan’s
formula so as to make it apply to the irreducible case, is
precisely in the same situation with the geometer who
should set about trisecting an angle by finding two mean
proportionals.
The power and force of the algebraic method does not
consist in breaking down real distinctions, but in connect-
ing, by sure and general principles, many truths which
in geometry are joined only by vague analogies, and even
have no affinity at all. This advantage is derived chiefly
from the doctrine of negative quantities, and- from the im¬
possible arithmetic. By means of the first, a formula
which is obtained by considering only one state of the
data of a problem, applies, necessarily and by the very
structure of analytical language, to the same problem in
all possible conditions of the data. On the other hand,
when the relations of the data vary, the geometer is oblig¬
ed to subdivide his problem into cases, or into other sub¬
ordinate problems; and although it may be perceived that
great similitude prevails among all the subdivisions, yet
it is impossible to reduce the analogy between them to
determinate rules, as is done in algebra. But in the whole
compass of geometry there is nothing that bears any re¬
semblance to the imaginary arithmetic. When the geo¬
meter has fixed the determination of his problem, or ascer¬
tained the limits within which it is possible, he has drawn
^ me that must be the boundary of his investigation.
_ ow it is to truths lying beyond this line that the mean-
ing ot the comprehensive expressions of the imaginary
aut unetic must be referred. It is not to be understood
a a problem can be solved by algebra, which is impos-
e m geometry; but the analytical formulae, at the
me ^lni® ^lat they mark the limits of the problem, go
o^yond them, and point out connected truths, that require
»io^ ^n11 chan8es t0 be made in the algebraic expres-
ns> m like manner as all the possible cases of the same
339
problem are derived from one only, by means of the vari- Equations,
ations of the signs.
If «, b, c, d, represent the four roots of a biquadratic Biquadra-
equation; and if we prefix the same letter a to all theticequa-
permutations made with the other three, we shall get thetions-
six combinations following, viz.
abed, adbc, aedb,
adeb, acbd, abde.
In the first line, the letters b, c, d, are made to circu¬
late, by placing immediately after the immoveable letter a
that which stands last in the combination preceding; and
in the second line the moveable letters have respective¬
ly an inverted order to what they have in the first line.
Let j2 — 1 =0; and let the four letters taken in the
several orders of the six combinations be prefixed to the
terms of I+g + £2 + g3; the results of the first line being
t, If, t", and those of the second line s, s', s"; then
t = a + bg + cf + df, s = a + dg + cf + bf,
t’ — aJrd£Jrb£Jr ef, s' = <2 + + bf + dg3,
£' = « + + df + bf, s" =■ abg-\- df + cf.
Now, in the equation f — 1 = 0, £ is either equal to + 1
or to — 1; and whether we take the one value or the
other, it is apparent that t = s, t' = s', t” = d'.
Again, from every one of the six foregoing combina¬
tions, four others are derived by circulating the letters
continually from the last place to the first; and in this
manner we obtain twenty-four permutations, which are all
that can be made with four letters. Thus, if we take
abed, and move the letters as directed, we shall get these
four combinations, viz.
abed,
dabc,
edab,
beda.
And if we multiply £ by £ continually, observing to re¬
tain the three first powers of g, and to make g4 rr 1, we
shall get
t =■ a + + cf + df,
f(> — d-]r ag-\- bf + eg3,
^ c + + of + bf,
tf = 6 + eg + df + af ;
so that t, tg, tf, tf, are the functions formed by prefixing to
1 + g + £2 + g3, the letters of the four combinations; and it
is obvious that these functions have all the same square,
equal to f.
Wherefore, if the four letters, taken in all possible or¬
ders, be prefixed to the terms of 1 +g+g2 + g3J the squares
of the twenty-four resulting functions will be equal to one
or other of the six quantities, t2, If2, tn, s2, s'2, s"2; and
since it has been proved that f=- s, l' — sf, t" = s", it fol¬
lows that the twenty-four squares have no more than three
different values, equal to P, if2, t"2.
And because f2, tf2, t"2, can have no more than one value
each, any symmetrical functions of them, viz.
# + t*+t"2,
tftfH"2,
will have determinate values independent of the order of
the letters a, b, c, d. The same functions will therefore
be symmetrical expressions of the roots of the given bi¬
quadratic equation, and they will be known in terms of the
co-efficients of that equation.
Supposing g z= — 1, we get
t — a — b-\-c— d,
t' — a — d-\-b — c,
tf — a — c~\~ d— b ;
and hence
£2 _ a2_p J2_|.C2_J_^2
— 2(a5 + ac?+&c+cd) + 2(ac+bd),
= (a + 6+c+d!)2— 42.a6+4(ac+6c?) *,
n
340
EQUATIONS.
Equations, the symbol 2. ab being used here, as in Sect. 9, to denote
the sum of the products of every two of the roots.
Wherefore, if we put
M = (a + 6+c+e?)2—42 . ab,
m— ac+bd,
m'— ab + dc,
m"— ad-\-bc,
then
f = M + 4ra,
tn — M + 4m',
j"2 = M + 4m" ;
and hence
= 3M + 4(m + »i'+»«")»
fp+^"2 + ^^"'2 = 3M2 8M(m + »»' + m")
+ 16(mm'+'mm"+m'm").
But it will readily appear that
m + m' + m" — 1 . ab
mm'+mm" + m'm!’ — (a + i + c + rf) X2.afo
— kabcd.
Now, by substituting these values, we get
f + tP + t"2 = 3(a + 6 + c + rf)2 — 82 . ab,
fp + etfi + iPf1 = 3(a + 6 + c + c?)4— 16(ct + ^ + c
+ rf)2 X2 .
+ 16(a + & + c + c?) X 2 . abc+ 16(2 . ab)2
— §\abcd.
Again, if we multiply the expressions of t, t', f, we
Wet!' — (a — c) . (a2 — c2) + (i — d) . (Vs — d2)
— (a + c) (b — d)2 — (b + d) (a — c)2;
or, tM' = a3 + lri+c3 + d3 + 2?, . abc
 (a2b + a2c + aVi+tfa + b‘lc + &d
+ c2a + c2& + c^+rf2a + + fc);
and finally, by means of the formulae in Sect. 9,
U!? = (a + ^+c + ^)3+82 . abc
— 4(a + 6H-c + c?)X 2 . fl!&.
If now we substitute the values computed by the pre¬
ceding formulae in the cubic equation
o = m3 —(<2+*'2+<"2K
+(^+*2<"2+*,2r2)w
— fW'2,
we shall obtain the values of <2, f72, and consequently
of t, tf, f, by solving that equation ; and when t, V, t?\ are
known, we have
a + 6 + c + ^ = rt + ^ + c + c?,
t = a + bz + eg+df.
If — a-icdg + bf + cf,
f — a-\-cg-\-d£-\-b(P;
wherefore, because 0—1+ ^-f-g2+g3, we get
a-ff-b-^rc-\-d^t-^rt
i=i| a+b+c+d+tf+tf+e's},
c:=^{ a + i + c + c?-f #g2 + ^g + <"g3 j-,
And finally, by making g= — 1,
a + 6+c+c?+<+^+f' j,
a + 6+c+c? — j-,
c=^| a + b + c+d+t — t' —
^ a + i-j-c + c? — t — tf -\-i? .
In applying these formulae, it is necessary to observe,
that as the quantities t, tf, t", are found by extracting thel^y
square root, they may each have either the sign plus or ■ ^
the sign minus prefixed. But all ambiguity from this
cause will be taken away, if it be observed that the ex¬
pressions of a, b, c, d, will always give the same results,
provided the signs of t, tf, t", be so determined as to sa¬
tisfy the equation,
ttft',=-(a-\-b-\-c-\-d)3-\-&?> . abc
— 4(« + & + c + «0x 2 . ab.
For, if we suppose that the signs of t, t, tf, are so deter¬
mined as to satisfy the equation mentioned, they cannot
be varied so as still to satisfy the same equation, unless
two of them be changed together; for, if one sign only be
changed, or if all the three be changed together, the pro¬
duct Oft" will have an opposite sign to what it had before,
and the equation will no longer be satisfied. But the ex¬
pressions of a, b, c, d, give the same set of values when
the signs of any two of the letters t, t', tf', are changed
together ; so that, in order to have the true values of the |
quantities sought, no other rule for the signs of t, t\ f,
is necessary than that they must be such as to satisfy the
equations alluded to.
To apply the preceding investigation, we may take the
equation
xi+pcc2 + qx + r=Q,
which wants the second term. Then,
o—a-{-bd,
j)=2 • ab,
— 9=2 . abc,
rz=.abcd :
hence
e+tf2+t?*= — §p,
pp 4- Pt*i 4- w2 = 16^2 — 64r,
aft?— 89 .•
and t2, tf2, f2, are the roots of the cubic equation
u3 + 8jom2 + 1 G^p2 — 4r)« — 6492=0.
Having solved this equation, and found the values off, i\ f,
the signs of these quantities must next be determined so
as to satisfy the equation,
tt’f— — 89 ;
and then we have these formulae for computing the roots
of the proposed equation, viz.
t+tf+tr
a— : >
4
b=
.t+tf—t"
c—-
d=-
4
t _ t’—t"
4
.t—tf+t"
These formulae coincide with the method of solving
biquadratic equations first proposed by Euler in his Alge-
bra. But, in order to take away the ambiguity arising
from the double sign of the square root, that celebrate
mathematician uses two sets of expressions for the roots
of the equation, viz.
a=-
t+f+tf
. —t+tf—t"
O— : ,
b =
C —
■t"
, —t—tf+t!'
a—-
d=
-.t — tf — t?
Z~ 4
t — t + tf'
4 ’
—t+e+e
Z 4
t+t' — t"
4. 7 "7 4
of which one set is the same with the formula g‘ve3
above, and the other is obtained by changing t, tf, t,ID
— t, — f, — t" i the first set being directed to be u»e
EQUATIONS.
341
ons.when 89 is positive, and the other set when the same
quantity is negative. This procedure is not so simple as
that we have followed, which requires only one set of
formulae. It has even been the occasion of leading into
error, in as much as it makes the signs of t, if', depend
entirely upon the sign of the given quantity'—897 whereas
it is indispensable that, regard being had to the nature of
the quantities t, f, f, their signs shall be determined so as
to satisfy the equation #V= — Sq. This inadvertence of
Euler has escaped the observation of most of the authors
who have treated of biquadratic equations, and was first
noticed by M. Bret, in the second volume of the Corre-
spondance sur TEcole Poly technique.
It may not be improper to notice briefly some of the
other rules for biquadratic equations. These are chiefly
two; the method of Descartes, which resolves the given
equation into two quadratic factors; and the oldest me¬
thod of all, invented by Louis Ferrari, a pupil of Cardan,
which proceeds by transforming the given equation, so
as to make it equal to the difference of two complete
squares, and then extracting the square roots. However
different from one another these two methods may at first
seem, they are at bottom the same; and they are so far
connected with that already investigated, that all the three
lead to the same cubic equation.
Suppose that ay h, c, d, are the roots of the biquadratic
equation
x4 — Aa^ + Ba-’2—Ca: + D = 0;
then x2 — (0 +A) x + ab—0, and x2 — (c+c?) x + «/=0,
are two quadratic factors, the product of which is equal
to the given equation. Now,
A.—a “F c + c?,
t—a-\-b — c — d ;
wherefore, if we put ab=p-\-y, cd=p—y, the two fac¬
tors will become
x2—-^(A + 0tf+j9+y=0,
x2 — I (A — t)x+p—#=0:
and if we multiply them, and equate the co-efficients of
the product to the co-efficients of the given equation, we
shall get
2/’+3;a*-5(J=b>
Ap+ty=C,
p1—^2=D.
And it is to be observed that, on account of the first two
of these equations, p and y are both real quantities when
t is a real quantity; so that, provided a real value of t can
be found, the given equation is always resolved, by this
method, into two quadratic factors free from imaginary
expressions.
Now, by combining the equations just found, we shall
get
0—— (3 A2 — 8B) • J4
+ (3A4—16A2 B+16B2+16AC—64D) • C-
— (A3 —4AB + 8C)2,
?=5B-§A!+^
y=y(!B-§A2+H8-D-
Ihe first of these equations is a cubic, of which the root
; and it is precisely the same with the cubic of the
ormer method. As the last term of this equation is es¬
sentially positive, it follows that there is always one posi¬
tive value of <2, and one real value of t; w herefore, in
consequence of what has been proved, the values of p and
y, derived from the positive value of are in every case Equations,
real quantities, which is no doubt an advantage in the
practical application of the method.
If we wish to follow the process of Louis Ferrari, we
may assume p, t, y, so as to render the expression
— \ A^+p) — -°
identical with the given equation; and as this expression
is no more than the product of the two quadratic factors
of the last method, the quantities to be determined will
be found by the formulae already given.
The theory of permutations, which is successful in Equations
solving cubic and biquadratic equations, applies likewise of the fifth
to those of the fifth and higher orders. But, to use the degree,
words of Lagrange, “ Passe le quatrieme degre, la methode,
quoiqu’ applicable en general, ne conduit plus qu’a des
equations resolvantes de degres superieurs a celui de la
proposee.” Thus, in the case of equations of the fifth
degree, the theory leads to a biquadratic equation, of
which the co-efficients are to be found by resolving an
equation of the sixth order.
There is, however, no doubt that the doctrine of per¬
mutations contains the principles from which we are to
expect the resolution of equations of the higher orders, if
the problem be possible. It may be alleged, with great
probability, that the theory succeeds in the less compli¬
cated cases, because when the number of the roots is
small, their permutations are soon exhausted, and we
speedily arrive at those combinations of them which re¬
main invariable, whatever be the order of the quantities
combined. But when the number of the roots is greater
than four, their permutations are very numerous, and at
the same time the functions produced by combining them
are very complicated; on which accounts it is difficult to
conduct the investigation so as to arrive at a satisfactory
conclusion, either accomplishing the intended purpose, or
proving that the undertaking is impossible.
In the twelfth volume of the Italian Society, and in a
work published at Modena in 1813, M. Paolo Ruffini has
proved that no function of five letters can exist that is
susceptible of only three or four different values when the
letters are interchanged among one another in all possible
ways. M. Cauchy, in the sixteenth volume of the Jour¬
nal de TEcole Poly technique, has demonstrated that a func¬
tion of n letters, unless it have no more than two different
values, cannot have a number of different values less than
the prime number next below n. On these grounds it
has been inferred that the resolution of equations of the
fifth degree is in reality an impossible problem. (Lacroix,
Compt. des Elem. d'Algebre, p. 61.) And if it be admit¬
ted that, in the process of resolution, no equations can oc¬
cur except such as have symmetrical functions of the five
letters for their co-efficients, the inference founded on the
labours of the eminent mathematicians we have mention¬
ed would be indisputable. But it is not impossible that
the resolution of equations of a high order must be ef¬
fected by gradually depressing an equation at first of great
dimensions ; and in this procedure we may arrive at equa¬
tions, the co-efficients of which, although functions of the
roots of the proposed equation, are not symmetrical func¬
tions, but partial expressions, susceptible of several values,
according as the order of the letters that denote the roots
is made to vary. On this supposition, the resolution of
equations above the fourth order, by means of equations
inferior in degree, would not be inconsistent with what has
been proved.
17. A method for solving equations of one order ma}^Some par-
be generalized so as to extend to a certain class in all ticular
orders. Thus De Moivre has found a species of equations cIasses of
equations.
342
EQUATIONS.
Equations, of every degree that have their roots similar to those of
cubics, and which are solved by the formula
i 2
x = (q + + (9-
differing in no respect from the expression for resolving
cubics, except that n is written in place of 3.
An equation may be depressed to a lower order when
it is known that the roots have a given relation to one an¬
other. An instance of this has already occurred in the
case of equal roots; for, the equal roots having been first
found, the equation can be lowered by division. Recipro¬
cal equations furnish another example of depression to a
lower order, on account of a relation subsisting among the
roots. A reciprocal equation is one of even dimensions,
such that half the roots are respectively the reciprocals
of the other half, in which case no alteration is produced
in the equation when - is substituted for x. In equations
of this kind, the same co-efficients occur in the same order,
and with the same signs, reckoning from either end ; a de¬
scription that likewise applies to some equations of odd di¬
mensions, which, however, do not constitute a new class,
bein<>- merely reciprocal equations, as defined above, mul¬
tiplied by the factor a; + 1. A reciprocal equation may
always be depressed to half the dimensions, by transform¬
ing it so that the new unknown quantity shall be equal to
I
2. It is sufficient to have mentioned these cases,
x
which are fully treated of in all the elementary books.
Equations with only two terms, as — 1=0, are the
most extensive class that have been resolved by a general
method. The successful application of analysis^ to this
class of equations is extremely interesting, both in itself^
and likewise because it is connected with the division of
the circle into equal parts, and has occasioned the disco¬
very of some curious and unexpected results respecting
that problem. For these reasons, it appears proper to lay
before our readers a short view of this branch of the doc¬
trine of algebraic equations.
We have already shown, that, admitting the theory of
angular sections, every equation with only two terms, as
by making k equal to all the integral numbers less than p£qV L
in the one case, and less than p— 1 in the other. No-^'v
thing, therefore, can be more simple than the computation
of the roots of such equations by means of the trigonome¬
trical tables. But in seeking a general solution, it is re¬
quired to investigate the roots without resorting to. the
properties of the circle, unless in so far as this may be ne¬
cessary for solving similar equations inferior in degree to
the one proposed. In this view the resolution of the equa¬
tion x^ — 1 = 0, is equivalent to the division of the circle
into p equal parts, granting the like division for all num¬
bers less than p. And in order to render the investiga¬
tion of the problem as simple as possible, it may be fur¬
ther observed, that it will be sufficient to consider the
case when the exponent is a prime number; because,
from this case, the other, when it is a composite number,
can be readily deduced.
It will be proper to premise here a property of the roots
of equations with only two terms, to which we shall have
occasion continually to refer. The property in question
depends upon this theorem, namely, when k is any num¬
ber not a multiple of the prime number p, the remainders
of the terms of the series
1 X A 2 X £, 3 X A ... (p — 1) X £,
when each is divided by p, are all different from one an-
other; and, consequently, without regard to the order,
they will coincide with the numbers 1, 2, 3, &c. less than
p. If, therefore, we take any one of the impossible roots
of the equation x? 1, viz.  
r = cos. A p + sin. — 1,
all its powers with indices less than pt viz.
r2 = cos. 2A p + sin. 2k <p . V — 1,
r3 = cos. 3A p + sin. 3k p . V— 1,
&c.
will be different from one another; and likewise they will
coincide, without regard to the order, with the like powers
of any other impossible root of the same equation: be¬
cause, whatever number k stands for, the arcs are all dif¬
ferent from one another, and, neglecting whole circum¬
ferences, constitute the same series of terms, although in
different orders. Wherefore, p being a prime number, if
XP— 1 0, may be completely resolved into its binomial
and trinomial factors ; and hence all its roots, possible and
impossible, may be computed by means of the trigonome-
360°
trical tables in common use. lr we put p = , and
p
denote by k any number less than we have found that
r be one of the impossible roots of the equation xp — 1
= 0, all the roots will be represented by the terms of the
geometrical progression
‘/'Qj 7*2 y3, .... ^ ;
for every one of these terms satisfies the given equation,
and it has been shown that they are all diffei'ent from one
another.
the equation xp — 1 = 0 is divisible by the quadratic fac¬
tor a? — 2x, cos. p + E and, consequently, that it has the
two impossible roots,
x = cos. A p + sin.kip.V — 1,
x = cos. A p — sin. k <p .V — I :
and, because cos. A p = cos. (p—A)p, and—sin. Ap = sin.
(p — A) p, the same two roots may be otherwise more sym¬
metrically represented thus,
x = cos. A p + sin. k <p . V — 1,
x = cos. (p — A) p + sin. (p — k) <p . V — 1.
Therefore, when p is odd, the equation xp— 1 =0 has
one real root equal to 1 ; and when p is even, it has two
real roots equal to z±z 1 ; and in both cases the remain¬
ing roots are all impossible, and are found from the for¬
mula
x = cos. A p + sin. k <p . V — 1,
When /> is a composite number, the same property does
not belong to all the roots of the equation xp— 1=0, but
only to some of them. It belongs generally to the root
r — cos. A p + sin. k<p . V — 1,
when A is either equal to unit, or to any number that has
no common divisor with p ; in which cases all the powers
of r are roots of the equation xp— 1 = 0, and all different
from one another, when the exponents are different and
less than p.
If the equation xp— 1 = 0 be divided by the binomial
factor x — I, we shall get
xV-l +*P-2+£Ci’-3.... + x+ 1=0;
and this being a reciprocal equation, it can be farther de¬
pressed to half the dimensions. In this manner we obtain
the solution of x"1 — 1 = 0, which is reduced to a cubic,
but, by the same procedure, the equation next in ordei,
Equa
EQUATIONS.
viz. a:11 — 1 = can be lowered only to the fifth degree,
^ for equations of which class there is no rule. Neverthe¬
less this last equation has been solved by Vandermonde,
to whom, and to Lagrange, we are mainly indebted for dis¬
engaging the resolution of equations from the complicated
operations of algebra, and for substituting, in their place,
reasonings founded on the doctrine of combinations. The
author has not explained particularly the process by which
his solution was obtained ; he gives it as a result of his
theory, which, although it fails in general for equations
above the fourth degree, succeeds in this instance on ac¬
count of particular relations between the roots. Similar
relations subsist between the roots of any other binomial
equation when the exponent is a prime number ; and, in
consequence, a like mode of investigation will apply, as
indeed the author has expressly said. But this procedure
would unavoidably be attended in every new instance with
very long calculations ; and it appears hardly possible to
arrive in this way at any general method that would apply
to all equations of the class in a regular manner, and with¬
out considerations drawn from each particular case.
M. Gauss, in a work entitled Disquisitiones Arithmetics,
replete with original and important matter, applied a pro¬
perty of prime numbers to the solution of binomial equa¬
tions, which removed every difficulty, and led to a theory
that unites simplicity and generality. If we suppose that
pis a prime number, and resolve — 1 into its compo¬
nent factors, so that p — 1 = a* .£/\c 7 . &c., a, h, c, &c.
being prime numbers, M. Gauss has proved that the solu¬
tion of the equation — 1=0, or, which is the same thing,
the division of the circle into jt? equal parts, can be effect¬
ed by solving successively ~h equations of a dimensions, p
equations of b dimensions, y equations of c dimensions,
&c. Thus, if jo = 13, then, because 13 — 1 = 3 X 2Z,
the roots of a;13 — 1 = 0 can be found, or a polygon of 13
sides can be inscribed in a circle, by solving a cubic and
two quadratic equations in succession. In certain cases,
when a prime number comes under the form 2re+ 1, as
17, 257, &c. the division of the circle will require the so¬
lution of equations no higher than the second order;
whence this unexpected consequence has resulted from
the theory of M. Gauss, that the inscription of a polygon
of 17, or 257 sides in a circle, which are problems that
have always been understood to transcend the limits of
the elementary geometry, can, nevertheless, be construct¬
ed by the operations admitted in that science.
A work replete with so many interesting discoveries as
the Disquisitiones Arithmetics could not fail to excite the
attention of mathematicians. Legendre, in republishing his
Essay on the Theory of Numbers, has added to it an expo¬
sition of M. Gauss’s theory of binomial equations ; and the
same theory is the subject of the 14th note in the second
edition of Lagrange’s Treatise on Numerical Equations.
Part °f the mathematics could pass through the hands
of men of so much ability without receiving great improve¬
ment. Lagrange has shown that it is not necessary to go
through the several intermediate equations that make so
essential a part in the investigation of M. Gauss ; and, by
tns means, he has reduced the solution of equations with
two terms to the utmost simplicity of which it is capable.
ut, in one respect, it must be admitted that the proce-
_ uieyf the illustrious geometer is imperfect. Although
it arrives, by a short investigation, at the partial quantities
)at by their additions form the expressions of the roots
sought, it leaves indeterminate the order in which they
aro to be combined. M. Gauss has avoided ambiguity in
'is respect by deducing from one of the quantities all the
er parts of the same expression ; but, amidst a multi-
343
plicity of different systems of values that maybe dedu-Equations,
ced from the partial quantities, Lagrange has given no clue
to guide to the true one.
In laying before our reader some account of this inte¬
resting branch of the theory of algebraic equations, we
shall view the subject in a light somewhat different from
that in which it has hitherto been placed. Instead of
seeking directly the roots of binomial equations, we shall
apply the principles of M. Gauss’s theory immediately to
the division of the circle into equal parts, by taking the
arcs of the circumference in that order to which the me¬
thod owes all its success. This procedure is attended with
some advantages. In the first place, the algebraic expres¬
sions of the quantities sought, represented by cos/- *
P
are more simple than those of the imaginary roots of the
corresponding binomial equation ; and, in the second place,
the same expressions, having always real values, are bet¬
ter fitted for application than the roots of binomial equa¬
tions, wdiich require to be further reduced to prepare them
for calculation.
Before entering on the principal problem, it is neces¬
sary to say something of that property of numbers on
which the whole theory depends. Supposing p to be any
prime number, Euler has distinguished by the name of a
Primitive Root any number less than p — 1, such that, if
we take the series of all its powers with indices less than
p, and in each power reject the multiples of jo it contains,
the several remainders are all different from one another,
and,' consequently, paying no regard to the order, they
will coincide with the numbers 1, 2, 3, &e. less than p.
It has been proved that, for every prime number, there
are as many primitive roots as there are numbers less than
p — 1, which have no common divisor with it. The ex¬
istence of such numbers in every case is therefore demon¬
strated ; but no direct method of finding them has yet
been published with which we are acquainted.
We gladly seize the present occasion of laying down a
rule for finding the primitive roots of a prime number.
But first we must premise, that when any proposed num¬
ber is said to satisfy the equation + 1 = 0, it is al¬
ways understood that the multiples of the prime number
p are rejected; and the meaning is, that, when the given
number is substituted for x, the whole result is divisible
by p without any remainder.
Now, let p be a prime number, and 2, a, b, c, &c. the
prime divisors of p— 1, so that p — 1 = 2^ . a* . . cy.
&e.: then every primitive root will satisfy the first of
the following equations without satisfying any of the
rest, viz.
P — 1
+ 1 = 0,
P—1
x 2a +1=0,
P — 1
x 2b +1=0,
p— 1
x 2c +1 = 0,
&c.
And, on the other hand, every number not a primitive
root, which satisfies the first equation, will at the same
time satisfy one, or more, or all, of the other equations.
But the numbers which satisfy the first equation are
exclusively those which are not found among the re¬
mainders of the series of square numbers divided by p.
344
E Q U A
Equations. Wherefore, setting aside the first equation, if we seek
1 J among the non-residual numbers for such as satisfy none
of the remaining equations, the numbers so found will be
the primitive roots sought.
When one primitive root is found by this method, all
the rest may be directly obtained from it. For, if 1,
w, ul, w", &c rcW, represent all the numbers less than
p — 1 and prime to it; then a being one of the primitive
roots, all the roots will be equal to the series of powers,
a, a
a
w' w"
,0)
rejecting always the multiples of/?.
The demonstration of these properties would lead us
aside from our present purpose; and we shall be content
with adding some examples for the sake of illustration.
p— 1 _
Let /> = 11: then —
5, and
V— 1 _
2.5
= 1; so that
in this case, tne only equation of exclusion is # + 1 —
which admits only one solution, viz. a? = /? — 1 = 10.
Therefore all the non-residual numbers except 10 are the
primitive roots; namely, 2, 6, 7, 8. We may extend this
conclusion to every case when is a prime number,
as 7, 23, 47, &c.; in all which instances all the non-resi¬
duals, except/? — 1, are the primitive roots.
Next, let /? = 17; then = 8 = 23; and there are
no Equations of exclusion. In this case, therefore, all the
non-residuals, without exception, are primitive roots; and
the same thing is true of every prime number of the form
2" + 1, such as 5, 257, &c.
Let /? = 13; then = 2X3; and the only equa¬
tion of exclusion is
a?2 + 1 — 0,
which admits only two solutions, viz. x = 5 and a? = 8.
In this instance, therefore, all the non-residual numbers,
except 5 and 8, are the primitive roots.
= 3X5; and we have two
T i o N S.
360° E«ic
side. Let <p = —; and put u for the arc intercepted ^ 10“
between the diameter and any angle of the polygon, then
we shall have this equation, viz.
0=cos.w + cos.(p-f w) + cos.(2p + u) +cos.(2wp + M))
which is no more than the analytical expression of the
geometrical property just mentioned. Now, suppose that
the diameter passes through one of the angles of the poly¬
gon ; then m = 0, and the equation becomes
0 = 1 + cos. <p + cos. 2<p + cos. 3<p ... . + cos. 2n<p.
Let a be one of the primitive roots of the prime num-
ber p; then rejecting multiples of p, and paying no re¬
gard to the order, the terms of the geometrical progression,
a, a2, a3, a* a2n,
will be equal to the several numbers less than p. Where¬
fore, in the two series of arcs,
a<p, a2<p, a3<p, a*<p a2n(p,
<p, 2<p, 3<p, 4<p 2n<p,
every arc in the geometrical progression will either be
equal to some one in the arithmetical progression, or will
differ from it by a whole circumference, or circumferences.
Hence the cosines of the first series of arcs may be sub¬
stituted in the last equation for the cosines of the other
series ; and thus we have
— 1 = cos. atp + cos. «2<j5 + cos. a3<p .. . + cos. a2n<p.
Again, by Fermat’s theorem, a2n— 1 = (an + l)(an—1)
= a multiple of/?; and because no primitive root of a prime
number is the remainder of a square divided by that num¬
ber, we have an + 1 = a multiple of/?; and consequent¬
ly a” + x + ax = a multiple of /?. It follows, therefore,
that an + + ax p is equal to a multiple of the circum¬
ference of the circle ; and hence,
cos. an ^ x<p — cos. ax <p
/?—i _
Let /? = 31; then
equations of exclusion, viz.
^+1 = 0,
ar5 + 1 = 0.
The non-residual numbers are
3, 6, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17, 21, 22, 23, 24, 26, 27, 29, 30.
Of these numbers the first, viz. 3, is a primitive root,
since it satisfies neither of the two equations; and as the
numbers less than 30, and prime to it, are 1, 7, 11, 13,
17, 19, 23, 29; all the primitive roots of 31 are as fol¬
lows : viz. 31 = 3, 37 =.- 17, 311 = 13, 313 = 24, 31? = 22,
319 = 12, 323 = 11, 329 = 21. With respect to the other
non-residual numbers, it will be found on trial that the
first equation is satisfied by 6 and 26; the second by 15,
23, 27, 29; and both equations by 30.
We are now prepared to enter upon the solution of the
proNem for dividing the circle into as many equal parts
as there are units in the prime number/? = 2ra + 1. If
we conceive a polygon of p sides, to be inscribed in a
circle, it will be admitted that the centre of gravity of
the polygon coincides with the centre of the circle.
Wherefore, if perpendiculars be drawn to any diameter
of the circle from all the angles of the polygon, it follows,
from the nature of the centre of gravity, that the sum of
the cosines lying on one side of the centre of the circle
will be equal to the sum of the cosines lying on the other
(A)
From this it appears that the cosines in the last equation
may be distributed into two equal sums; one containing
the cosines of all arcs from a<p to anp inclusively, and the
other the remaining’cosines ; consequently
— i cos. acp + cos. a2<p + cos. a3<p . . . cos. an<p;
and because cos. an<p = cos. <p,
— cos.p + cos.erp + cos.a2^ + cos.an V’ 0)
Let r =
360°
; and put
e =. cos. r + sin. tV — 1;
then all the powers of e with indices less than n will be
different from one another, and all of them roots of the
equation en —1=0, the solution of which requires the
p i
division of the circle into only n, or —, equal parts.
In what follows, we shall have continual occasion to
consider the expression
cos.a* p + em cos.ax^p + e2W cos.ax^2 p . • • +e^
cos. ax + n — 1<p; and it will therefore be convenient
to adopt an abridged mode of writing it. Now, the ex¬
pression will be wholly known, and can be constructe
when the two indices X and m are given; and we may
therefore denote it by the symbol f (X, m), placing alwajs
the index of a before the other. We shall invariably ma e
the index of a positive, and suppose it reduced be ow w
by means of the formula (A). In like manner we s a
suppose that the index of e is always reduced below n y
EQUATIONS. 343
^.suppressing the multiples of n ; and we shall write it in which principally consists the improvement that thisEm,!™,
^sometimes positive and sometimes negative, observing thenrv tn M Equations.
  » . . . - ---o > observing
that the negative indices may be always rendered positive
by supplying the proper multiples of n; thus,
e_ m __ g«—im _ ggre — im — gn — im ^
According to the notation just explained, we have
theory owes to M. Gauss. The solution of the problem
turns upon finding those functions of cos. <p, cos. 2<p, cos.
3<p, &c. which have determinate values independent of the
cosines; which functions, it has been proved, remain in¬
variable when any of the multiple arcs 2®, 3®, &c. is sub¬
stituted for p. Now, although the substitution of any
"r, " r; aiuiuugu Uie suostitution of any
/(o,m) = cos.p + ew cos. op + e cos. a* p^ multiple arc, in place of the arc itself, always reproduces
ms. nn — ]r7i s^me series of cosines, yet the order is irregular and
varies with every different multiple arc; and this circum-
/(<>.
cos. cr — Jp,
- w) = cos. p + e m cos. op -f- c — 2m
— (n— l)m
e K 1 cos.
cos. o2p ... +
n — 1
p.
And because e° = e” = e —” = 1, the symbols / (o, o),
/(o> n)> f(°> — n)> wiH represent the series of cosines in
the equation (1); so that we have
— I =f(°> °) =f(o, n) =f(o, — n).
The following formula is no more than a corollary from
the preceding notation, viz.
e—\m —/(X, m).
stance makes it difficult to investigate what change the
substitution will effect in a given function. On the other
hand, by introducing the arcs in geometrical progression,
the same order is still preserved, whatever substitution
be made; and by this means every facility possible is ob¬
tained for investigating the functions sought.
The following properties are deducible from what has
been proved, hirst, if m, m', m", &c. be any numbers,
none of which is equal to zero, or a multiple of n, and
such that their sum is equal to n, or to a multiple of n,
the product
„ „ , f(o> m) X /(o, m>) X f(o, m”), &c.
p3„nc0«ToTthe coriajfn,r»n of the cosine, of .and i«s mu,tipleS>
and its^multiples may be reduced to a series of'te^s! 17,! 1107^^^00X3 the P0""8 °f '
rrmWghlefoie:bCeZseeS erXP =d..bayndg',rwlsrbt FOr th"
cause the cosines of all arcs greater than pp, 2p<p, Spp, &c.
may be reduced to the cosines of arcs less than yjp, it fol¬
lows that every rational and integral function of cos. p,
cos. 2p, cos. 3p, &c. may be brought under this form of
expression, viz.
A + B cos. p + C cos. 2p + D cos. 3p . .. + N cos. 2n<p.
Now, if we suppose the function we are considering to be
such, that it retains the same value when any of the mul¬
tiple arcs 2p, 3p, &c. is substituted for p, the transformed
expression will be possessed of the same property. But
if we actually substitute the arcs 2p, 3p, &c. for p in the
foregoing expression, it will become successively
A + B cos. 2p 4- C cos. 4p + D cos. 6p + , &c.
A + B cos. 3p + C cos. 6p + D cos. 9p +, &c.
&c.
e-XmX/(o,m)
e Xf(o,m') =/(X, m’)
e X /( «, m’) = f(x, m‘)
&C. Sec.
Therefore, by multiplying and observing that e
X e Xm' X
e ' X>&c.=r 1, because X X (w+»»'
each line containing the same cosines, although in a dif¬
ferent order, because the series of arcs is the same when
" \0 e1]CIFCUmferences> or the multiples of/>p, are rejected ;
and aJUhesejjxpressions cannot have the same value un-
eAs.. T ^ ~ ^ = ^c> j that is, unless the expression be
ot this form, viz.
A + B (cos. p -f cos. 2p + cos. 3p ... -f cos. 2rcp),
" nch, in consequence of what was before proved, is equal
+ , &c.) is a multiple of », we get
/(o, m) X /(o, m’') X /(o, m"), &c. =/(X, m)
X /(X, m') X/(X, m'% &c.
which shows that the product in question is not altered
when p is changed into axp. Consequently, according to
what was before proved, the product is independent of
the cosines.
It follows, as a corollary, that the product
f(o,m)Xf(o,—m)
is independent of the cosines.
Next, if m, m\ m", &c. be any numbers, and s = m
+ rri m", &c.; and if neither s nor any of the numbers
m, m', m", &c. be a multiple of n, we shall have
to A „ -  o. uciure jiiuveu, is equal ></(»><> X/(»><>. &c-= M X/(<>, S),
Itio 1, 3 ■ B *s tilerefpre demonstrated that every ra- th.6 fiuantity M being independent of the cosines, and con-
i . .a, ant* lategral function of cos. p, cos. 2p, cos. 3p, &c., taining only the powers of e multiplied by numeral co-ef-
Vsil1™-118 uncl?anSed when any of the multiple arcs Acients.
^ V substituted for p, has for its value an ex- For> by the property already demonstrated, and its cor-
Ion without cosines, and depending only upon the rolIary, we have
7::\leJUnC«°n- • . . f(o,m)Xf(o,m)Xf(o>m>')Xf(o,-s) = A
n arithmpt-0 iUCe t lC a^CS in. geometrical instead of those f(0 s) x f(0  s') — A! ’
utioh of thrmdtipfearcTL1^® ^fs ^ ^ W A and A' being (luantities independent of the cosines.
Theref°re’ ^ get
S'S"'lalSe6 whtC; t changed ^ M) X ^ X X = X- ^ »
ines, or has ^C" ** a independent of the co- The foregoing properties are the foundations of the the-
he cosines are 'f ^ exp.ressed by a function from which ory. But it is not enough to establish the principles by a
What has now , . . Seneral demonstration; it is also necessary to be able to
^ advantage • ,een Proved wdl enable us to appreciate compute the numerical values that occur in the applica-
eotnetrical m ySing /°P1 introduction of the arcs in tion to particular problems. Therefore, supposing that
vol ix P aCe °‘ 110Se *n ^itbmetical progression, m and rri are two numbers, and s = m + »?', none of the
2 x
34G
EQUATIONS.
Equation,, three numbers s, m, m’, being a multiple of n, it is pro
J posed to find the value of A m the equation
/(„, m) X/(o, m’) = A X f(o, s).
For this purpose, set down the several terms of/(o,m)
in their order; and below them write the terms of/(o,m),
Next, when A is not equal to zero, let h (A) and h (X)E [io^
denote the numbers derived from A by means of the equa- ^ ^
tions
placing first any term, as cos. a% and the rest in their
order, in this manner:
„f + em cos.o?+ c-”cos.a2f +«
”"1 P.
cos.
cos. a
e cos.a r
;cos.ux+V+^+2>”‘
x+2
cos.a ^ 9
a* +1 = a8 (x),
ax-l=a^);
then, by substituting a1 ^ and d1'^ for w and we shall
get
T(A) = |/ (h<S)> s) + \ f (h' (x)> s) :
and, on account of the formula (B),
Y(A)= {\r^S + le-h'Ms} ./(o,S).
Now% collecting all the parts in the expression of
s. . - /% S fX   4- flX/XO/X 4-/-VV* >1 I Ort TTIfy •
/(o, w) X /(o, w') = A x /(°>5)
A =ie-” + + lem-h^>
. 1 2m—h(2)s i 1 2m—h'(2)s
+ 2S + 2
(2)
. 1 3wi—h(3)s . 1 Jim A'(3)»
+ 5r +r
&c. &C
jr e^+n~1)m cos.ax+n V
Now, let every term in the lower line be multiplied into
that which stands above it; and, separating the factor e > NoWj coiiecting all the parts in the express!
which is common to each product, let the symbol e X ^ ^ (o> m) x y (0j ^ we shall get these formulae, viz.
(A) represent the sum of all the products; then f(n x f (o, m') = A X f (o, s) 1
^ x+1 i (n—l)s
cos. <p cos. ax<p + e cos. a 9 cos. <p -r e
cos. an~~l <p cos. ax+n 1 9-
If we repeat this operation, so as to make every °
the lower line stand first in succession, it is evident that,
by this means, every term of/(u, m') will be »ul JP ed by
‘ill the terms of f(o, m) ; so that the sum of all the re ,
fits wi l be the product sought. We therefore obtain nothi cha in the expression of A except the
flo, m) X /(», rn') indices m and s, it may be denoted by the abridged ym-
, , , mv,!\ P» w2) + e<"-0-»T _ 1). bol (M, ,), in which it is obvious that m may be substi-
= T (0) + C Y(l) +e -r e V y tuted for m . So that
Let + 1 = w, and ax — 1 = then, because the A - (m, s) = (m', s).
product of the cosines of the two arcs is equal to half the when s is equal to n, and m’ = n — rn, the produ^>“
sum of the cosines of the sum and difference of the two tion becomes / (o,’m) X /(o, — m), which has been
arcs, we shall have proved to be a quantity independent of the cosines.
Y (A) — tbis caSe, therefore, we shall have
ijcos. 019 + es cos. a . C09 + e2s cos.C09+, &c. | B being a quantity from which the cosines are eliminated,
+ i|cos.«/9 + eScos.a.«/9+e2?cos.^.M/9 + ’&c-}- ^if^the fiTregoing case, we^uppose and
In the first place, when A=0, w = 2, ^ = 0; there- s — n, we shall get
fore
Y(o) =
^ cos. 29 + e cos. a . 29 +e2s cos. a~.2<J>
(?1
0 x
—72—1
> COS. CL
•29>}
/(o, r)i) X f (o, — m) =.
T (o) + e- Y (1) + e2wi T (2) . . . e(n~Vm *(»- 0:
but here, because e* = e” = « and its powers disappear
from the expression of Y (», and we have
Y(A) =
+ l|1+e* + ^ + ^... + e(—
put — 1 = 0 ; and hence ens — 1 = b ; or
cos. 9 cos. ax 9 + cos. a<p cos. a
x + 2
A. 4- 1
<p + cos.tfyX
cos. a" ' " 9 + 5 &c.;
0= ( 1—1 + + e2* -fj&c**** + }
and, according to the value assumed for e, the equation
and, by expanding the products of the cosines, as be
Y (A'l =
i| cos. w<p + cos.a.tvip + cos.a2«?9 • • • +
1 c* 0 cannot take place when s is not a multiple of
n; wherefore
cos. a
n — 1
w<p
}
0 = l+/ + e2s + e3’-.- + 2
(^_1> 4--1 cos.iv'jr-f cos.a.it'P + cos.a1 .rdf ■
; • 2 1
Now, if we put a =: 2, we shall get
Y(o) = =
I |cos. .a 9 + e* cos. a + 1 9 + e2s cos.a + 2 9+,&c. j
Wherefore, on account of the formula (B), w'e finally get
cos. a1 ^ • ic'9 j *
When A = 0, w = 2, «/ = 0; therefore
Y(o) =
Y(o)=ie isXf(o,s).
-. | cos. 29 + cos. a . 29 + cos. a2.29
2 }
+
cos. a
n — 1 \
EQUATIONS. 347
+ 1 j. a”d’ squaring and observing that, by equation (3),Equations.
IqJ,ns +Ul + 1 + 1 + 1 + 1  ....
But no alteration is made in equation (1) when we ^ub- 1 ^ V ’ 2/ / k’ we Set
stitute, instead of the arc <p, any one of its multiples, or, _ / \2
which is the same thing, change <p into a<p, a2<p, &c.; be- pn “ O* 2)2 • (1> 3)2 • C1* 4)2 . . . (l, ^ j . kr. (5).
cause such substitution or change continually reproduces • i j V 2/
the same cosines. Thus it appears that the sum of the ^ ien n 18 an number, we have, in like manner,
P^= (1, 8). (1, 3). (1, 4)... (l, 1+i) X
but, by equation (3),/ (o, X / -+ 1 j = ft.
n cosines in Y (o) is equal to — -; and we have
For every other value of X, w and w' are neither of them
equal to zero, nor to a multiple of n; wherefore, accord¬
ing to what has just been said, the sum of- the n cosines
in each of the two parts of Y (X) is equal to — ^ ; and
thus, when X is not equal to zero, we have
Y(X)~2 X ~2 + 2 X ~~2=~2' wherefore P* = (1, S)2. (1, S)4. (1, 4)2 -
By substituting the values of Y (o) and Y (X), we get / w 4. 1> \ 2 J
f(o, m) X — =
| (em + e2m + e3m ... + ln— ASain> from the preceding expressions we get
But, as was already proved,
— 1 = e™ + 2m + e3m +c(« —1)«.
wherefore
\ n 1|1 2n +1 1
/(°,2)=(I72)-p‘i
and, by equation (4),
In like manner,
/(0, 3) 1> —3)
.P2.
k2
•P3,
k2 ft 12 >
&c.
2 4 1 2 4 ~4J
Now, if we put ft =z -p) we have finally
/(o, m) X f (p, — m) = ft (3).
When n is an even number, it is obvious that f ^o,
— f(n . tharofnra r . These formulaB need onIy be continued till we obtain
-/1°> —2) ’ therefore it follows as a corollary, that in . f n 2\
1 this case t^le va^ue the function/^o, —~-.j when n is even, and
(0’ i) (°’ — I) — — ^ 2~) w^en n *s odd; the remaining functions
By applying the equation (2), first to the indices m and H the S,ame thing’
m\ and then to the indices n-m and or to m and ^( ’ T ),/( 7 V’ ^ 1enV.ed from preced-
m' taken negatively, we deduce or to ^ and ,ng values merely by changing the signs of the different
r? N : indices of e. Ihus, if we write P' for f Co  n wp
f(o, m) X f(o, m') = (m, s) X f(o, s), shall have J ( ^ We
/(o, _ »t) x / (o, — m!) = (_ m, —s)X f(o, —s): oX _ (1, 2)
ft
•P'2,
and by multiplying we shall get, on account of equation
(jj) tins remarkable formula, viz. /,
(m, s) X (—m., — s) = ft ... (4). /(o, — 3) = (-l_J.Ll_J.p/3j
By successive applications of the equation (2), we get n o\ n n
/(<.,j)xmn = (i,2)x/(<,,2)/ /(0>_4) = ^.(^).^i.).p.;
/ 0,1) X f(o, 2) = (1, 3) X f(o, 3), „ k h
/(o,l)X/(I,,3) = (t>4)xy(o,4), .&c- ,
&C. Now, g being any number less than n, it has been shown
we deduce1"8 theS6 equations> and writing P for/, (o, 1), that
P3 = (n,S'/(°, 2)’
P3 = (1, 2) . (1, 3) ./(0j 3),
P&=(1’ • (1> 3) • (1, 4) ./(o, 4),
Wherefore, when n is an even number,
P5 = 0.2).0,3).(1>4) (l.g ./(„,?);
o = I + ef + e22 + e3e + g(«— k):
and hence if we attend to the nature of functions f (o, o),
f (°> 1)?/(°3 ^)> &c. we shall readily get
cos. a? <p —
+S • {e~{ l)+«-2£/(». 2) +
/(o, 3) + , &c.| ;
348
Equations, or, by arranging the terms differently, and because
, N 1
/(o, o)= —^
equations.
&c. successively for s, in the expression of A, equation (2).E
The half of these functions that have negative indices are *
deduced from the other half, merely by changing the signs
of the several indices of e, or by means of equation (4).
All the cosines sought are found by substituting o, 1,2,3,
&c. successively for g. Although the function P is sus-
tirni
cos.a^= — ^ + ^e ^/(o, 1) +ei — ^ ^ ^  o
If 9 i 2* /v ceptFble of n different values, represented by a, ex, e%
+ -. ^ e > ./(o, 2) + e ./ (o, — j &c . ^et tjie game cosines are deduced from any one of
n I , vnluPB. Rv this means all ambiguity is avoided
, j   . . . - . of
1 , these values. By this means all ambiguity is avoided
+ ±Je—3e.f(o, 3) + e32 ./O,—3)1 with regard to the system of values that represent the
yt ^ ' cosines * but the numerical value that must be attachei
cosines t but the numerical value that must be attached to
each particular cosine remains quite indeterminate, because
and it is to be observed that, when » is even, the last „ . , , 360° Q ^ 360° Q ^ 360°
may equally stand tor —- > * X ~ , o a 9 &c.
&c.
term is the single quantity n^e
— -e
2 X
/ «\ . , P P P
lerm is uic ^ ^ /(°> 9)’ whlCh The adaptation of the numerical quantities to the geome-
n ; . X . , trical cosines must be made out by means of their relative
has no corresponding part. Now, this quantity is entirely magnitudes . the largest number answering to the great-
« * est cosine. But when the value of one cosine is fixed, the
known. For, since e”=l, we have e2 — e ^ — 1 ?
but e has been so assumed, that none of its powers with
indices less than n are equal to unit; and, therefore,
«  
e 2 — — l,ande = (—
(3)>/(°’|) ^ wherefore we have
2 _
1
—. e
n
Cob CA/OllJV/* ^ —    '
rest are unambiguously determined by means of their in¬
dices.
In the formula for cos. a^<f> all the terms in which two
quantities are combined have real values, although their
forms are imaginary. But it is not difficult to transform
Again, by equation them intQ equivaient quantities without the imaginary sign.
It is manifest that the functions (1, 2) and ( 1, 2)
are of this form, viz.
(1, 2 ) = A + Be + Ce2 + De3 .. + Ne w—1
1 + Ce 1 + De~3
On the whole, the preceding analysis brings us to the
following formulae, which contain the solution of the pro¬
blem, viz.
when n is even, by equation (5),
It
P5 = (l,2).(l,3).(l,4)....(l,|)x =ti;
when n is odd, by equation (6),
/ n — 1\2 / . w T" 1\
P" = (l,2)«.(l,S)'(l,4)*...(l.-g~) . fl.-g-J
and by equation (2), PP =
Finally, by substituting the values of/(o, 2), f(o, 3),
&c.f(o, —2), f(o, —3), &c. in the expression of cos.
atp, we get
(— 1, — 2) = A + Be
Ne-
A, B, C, &c. denoting given co-efficients.
But we have generally
e = cos. Xr + sin. AtV —
+
1,
e~x = cos. Xr — sin. XrV — 1
k*
wherefore, by combining the two expressions of (1, 2) and
(— 1, —2), we shall readily get
(I, 2) + ( 1, 2) ^ £ C0S- r + C cos. 2r +, &c.
B sin. r + C sin. 2r +,&c.
cos. = —9- + -•
k f e'
2n ‘ n ’ t
+ A-
n
+ A-
n
\i=zhs
l k
Jtzhl
1 k
■2)
.2)
-«P e«P)
k ^ k )
q> 2)
k
e?n
+
(1,2)
(1, 3) ^efFyj.
-p, &c.
the series of terms must be continued till the last index
„e eP . esP'. n—1 , • a71’
of  and —r is —tt— when n is odd, and —
wThen
n is even; and, in this last case, the quantity - X (—1)?
X =+= A, must be added, prefixing to k the same sign that
(1, 2) —(— 1,-2) _
2
But, on account of equation (4), we may assume
(1, 2) = A(cos./3 + sin./3v'—1),
(— 1, —2) —k (cos. ft— sin./SV — 1);
and, by substituting these values in the last expressions,
we get , _
k cos. /3 = A + B cos. r + C cos. 2r +, &c.
k sin./3 = B sin. r + C sin. 2r +, &c.
by which means the arc is determined without ambi¬
guity, since both its sine and cosine are ascertaine . 11
like manner are determined the several arcs in the fornrn <£
(l, 3) = k (cos. ft + sin. ftV —1 ),
(— 1, — 3) =k (cos. ft — sin. ftV — 1),
(1,4) = ^ (cos. ft' + sin./3'V— 1),
(— l} — 4) = ^ (cos. ft' — sin. ftV — 1),
&c.
Again, because PP' = k2, we may assume
P = £ (cos. 10 + sin. wV — 1),
P'—k(cos.w—sin. miV—1),
And if these values, and the similar values of the functions
2
is given to it in the value of P . n
The solution of the problem is thus reduced to the com- ,, j nf P^
putation of the functions (1, 2), (1, 3), &c. which requires (1, 2), (1, 3), &c. be substituted m t e
no more than the substitution of 1 for m, and of 2, 3, 4, shall readily deduce, when n is an even number,
we
Xq'
EQUATIONS.
ns. — /3 4- g' 4- fl" 4. See. primitive root or n, we may suppose a — y. In order to
2 ’ . find the numbers ^(X) and A'(X), write down the series 1,
When n is an odd number, we must separate the function 2, 3, &c. as far as rc or 5; and, above each number, write
/ 1\ p 1 . A ?* + 1\ ^le Power of a equal to it when the multiples of 11 are
(1, g ) ^rom t‘ie rest’ supposing f 1, g--) — ^ rejected, taking always the least remainder, whether po-
349
primitive root of 11, we may suppose a — <2. In ordef to Equations,
find the numbers h(X) and A'(X), write down the series 1,
(cos. y + sin. yV — 1) :
and then, by means of equation (6), we shall easily obtain
=: 2 (/3 + /3' + /3V + > &c.) + y.
The two last formulae determine the arc iv ; and we like¬
wise have
e °P
T
k
— cos. (w ■
= cos. (w-
k)
- jr) + sin. (w ■
~ST) — s‘n- (w~
-pr)V— 1,
1 ;
and, by putting w^' = w — ^r,
^ = cos. w^ + sin. V— 1,
k
e«P
sitive or negative : thus,
a0 a1 a3 a2 a4
1 2 3 4 5.
In this arrangement of the powers of a, it is evident
that, X denoting any index, h(\) is the next on the right
hand, and A'(X) the next on the left hand : we have, there¬
fore,
2 — I,
^(1) = 3, ’A'(1) = 0,
h (2) r= 4, h’ (2) = 3,
h(3) = 2, /l'(3) = \,
h (4) = 4, h’ (4) = 2.
Now, substitute these numbers in the expression of A,
equation (2), and likewise put m — then
= cos. w ^— sin. 10'°^ V—1.
A = -e-
4 .1—3i
2
'+7;e-os + i-e
Finally, by substituting the different values exhibited
above in the formula for cos. we shall get
- , —.Jo
2?i n
2k
-.cos. (2wz — /3)
1 1 2—, 1 2-
+ 2e +2C
-3#
1 2k
cos. = —— + —. cos. w'
+
+ |e3-a
, I 3—t
1“ ~ t
1 1 4—4 s 1 1 4—2s
+ 2e +2C •
(?)
-P-P)
— /3 — /S' — ft")
In order to find (1, 2) and (1, 3), we have only to sub¬
stitute 2 and 3 for s in the expression of A ; hence
(1, 2) = l+2e + ^ + <*,
(1, 3) = l + ±e + 2e°~ + e3;
which values will, in this case, be rendered somewhat
the series of terms being continued till all the arcs (3, /S', more simple by combining them with the equation 0 = 1
/3", &c. are taken in when ?i is odd ; and till they are all + e + e2 + e3 + e4: and thus we get
taken in except the last when n is even, in which case also o 1 3_
1 (i, 4;—e e~ ^ e —m,
1)4-must be added.
' nil
.
+ —.cos. (3w
n v
+ — .cos. (4?^^9
n v
&c.
the quantity (-
(l, 3)=ez — e4—-e—fj..
By the preceding analysis the division of the circle into
p equal parts is accomplished, when y? is a prime number, The functions (— 1, — 2) and (— 1, — 3) are found by
, . p 1 subtracting the indices of e in the values of (1, 2) and
y dividing a given arc into n or ^—equal parts. And (1, 3) from 5, which is equivalent to changing the signs
♦Kic ,,™„i • -.i. .1 , . . „ , of the indices; therefore
tins conclusion agrees with the general proposition of M. j
Gauss. For the nth part of a given arc is found by bisect¬
ing as often as n is divisible by 2, trisecting as often as it
is divisible by 3, and so on. When w is a power of two,
as in the case of the polygon of 17 sides, the solution is
e ected by repeated bisections, and thus comes under the And it will be found, by actually multiplying, that
elementary geometry. Supposing the division of the circle
to be accomplished, we must further resolve the quadra¬
tic equation
(-
-1, — 2)=e4
(-1.
3)—e3 — e —-e4=/x'.
z + -= 2 cos.
x
X X 360°
P
in order to find the roots of the binomial equation x? — 1
... following examples are subjoined for the sake of
°f Cal,Culat7r And’, in theiirf and hence £ =
1 e, we may take the case of /> = 11 equivalent to find- k J ^ ,
n? tHe/°°ts tlle equation xn — 1 — 0, which was first
0 ve by Vandermonde, and has been considered both by
and [iw'=hzzz~.
4 4
These values being found, we have, according to the
foregoing method,
P5=(l, 2)2 • (1, 3) • W—ni1 /j. • k2,
MO
P'5=p5=::(— lj —2)2 . (— 1, —3) pj. k* ;
Lagrange and Legendre.
360°
Here, n =: 5; A = - Vll
P2
k
m' P2_l/ , x
equations.
This last formula coincides with the calculation of Le-;yj
  gendre.
cos. ^ 2 • OV . kz)k + ~ . (mV . A2)^ The next example shaU^be the case of p= 17. Then,
350
Equations, wherefore we have
+ 5
P-2g
2e
. (m>2 . k2)} • (m/2 . k^j.
1   360° .to , , .
7i=83 k = ^\/n , r= —=45°, and e=z cos. r+sm.
5 ' ta/—1 ; and, 3 being one of the primitive roots of 17, we
If, in this expression, we make S=0, and substitute the may take a=3 Now arranging the powers of a as
numerical values of k2, and of e and its powers, in the t e as examp e> w 3 E
quantities under the radical sign, the result will coincide
with the formula of Vandermonde, and with the calcula- 1> > > > > >
tion of Lagrange.   and hence,
The expression just found being imaginary, if it be re¬
quired to reduce it to a form fit for calculation, we must
begin with substituting the values of e and its powers in
m and /*: then
i=6
m)=6,
h'(2)=z3,
h'(3)=l,
m— (cos. r— cos. 2r— - cos. 3r)
A'(4) = l,
A'(5)=4,
1 .
+ (sin.r—sin.2r—-sin. 3r) . */—\t
i«.=(cos. 2r—cos. 4r—« cos. r)
+ (sin. 2r— sin. 4r—-x sin. r) . —1.
A(l)=4,
A(2)=2,
A(3)=2,
A(4)=5,
A(5)=7,
A(6)=l, A'(6)=0,
A(7)=3, A'(T)=5.
By substituting these numbers in the expression of A,
and likewise by putting m=l, we get
A=4e-6* +lel-*s +l^~es
Now, cos. r=cos.4r= — and cos. 2r=cos. 3r_
2~ * 2
—I — ta/5; also sin. r z=—sin. 4r, and sin. —sin.
4 4
+L3-2s+ie3-7*
3r: wherefore
+ 1 4-S. ■ 1
+i^
m=(cos. r — rjcos. 2r) + (sin. r—-sin.2r) . —l,
g j _   
/a=(cos. 2r — ^ cos. r) + (sin. 2r+osin* r) • V—1.
+±e5-7'+le5-1'
+iee-'+ie(i
Again,
consequently
m=k (cos. (3 + sin. /3 . \/—l),
p=k (cos. y +sin. 7 V'—0 5
+ ^7-3i+ie7-5,.
^ 1 ^ ^ o \ — l+^-v/S
cos. /3 =- (cos. r — - cos. 2r) _ 4a/—
4-v/ 11
sin. ^ (sin* r — 2sin’2r)’
In order to have the functions (1, 2), (1, 3), (1, 4), no¬
thing more is necessary than to substitute 2, 3, 4 fori
in the expression of A : then, observing that e-be5 —^
e24-e6 = 0, e3-}-^7 = 0, we readily get
3  3
(1, 2) = HC4+e7+e5=—h —=
1, 0 3 1 + 5^/5
cos. 7=T (cos. 2t g cos. r) . :7=
4-v/ll
sin. 7—^- (sin* ^r+2 s’‘n* r^‘
(1, 3) = 1+ ^ e4+2e6 = | — 2^/_i = «,
(1, 4) = |+e+e3—| + 2 = m •
Hence
/3= 23° 2(y 46",
7=140 7 6L
5w=2j3+7=186 48 38|,
w= 37 21 44,
»®=u — sxl2°:
and hence
(—1,—2) = l^+e+e3 = —1+v/—2 = ~~m'’
(—1, _3)=l+le4 + 2e2 = ^+2^/_l = «',
cos.agp= — 1 ^ cos. + cos. (2we—/3)|-
(_1,  4)= 1 + 67 + ^ = | - >/-2 = W'-
5   —-Z— • ^ tua. w -- I UUO. I *B/*  V I r m ■ , , . „ . ^ .
These values being found, we next have
By making g successively equal to 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, the P4 = (1, 2) . (1, 3) . (1, 4) ./(0, 4);
formula will give all the ten cosines of a polygon of /(0, 4) = :±= A ;
., . i • - , , 360° therefore, making f (0, 4) = — k,
eleven sides inscribed in a circle; because cos. ^y- P4 — 7h2w&
1n 360° 0 360° _ _ 360° ^ _ , V* - — - tn*n'k •
=cos. 10 . —r, cos. 2 . -—=cos. 9 . —&c. It de- 1 — p4 — m »«,
H ’ 11 — n
termines also the order of the arcs to which the numerical an^ ^ience
quantities belong; so that when the value of one cosine 1 p _ 1 (rrfnky^• - . P' = i (mPn'hj* ;
is fixed, the values of all the rest are likewise ascertained. k ^ ’ k’
E Q U
nk;
" k V k
m P2 1 .—9
'T'Tf=~ k^nl!
Equej
rri
m niM
k'k' k3
= —j (nfink)4 ;
wherefore
^(cos. f+cos.a4f)= 1
E Q U
jf(0)j2 = 2£* + A;
\/l7 1
16
16 8
V2k* + k,
cos.<rV = -i-(-I)'. '/17
16
1 . | e t(jn?nk)4 + e? (m^n’k)4 |-
. {e-\nkf + e2? (n'kf}
 1 e ^ (m2nfk) 4 + (m,2nk) 4 j- .
In order to reduce this expression, we shall put
p(g) = e 2° Vnk-\- Vn'k,
Y(g) = e " 4 + e'(7n'2n,k)i
— e '0’e (m^n'kyl—e'^ (m'~nk)4.
And because e4=e 4=: — 1, we get eG» = e 2?=(—])?
. e2?, and e“ = e2j= ( — 1)? .e 2?. Wherefore, by
squaring,
!»({)} *=a'-6*(-i/+3Kf)-2i. t(i).(-iy.
Now, in the formula for cos. a^cp, viz. cos. at®——-E
16
-( — — g Kg) — g Y(g)» if we change g into
f+4, no alteration will be produced, except that Y(g) will
change its sign ; for it is obvious that
T(g+4)=e*.Y(S)=-Y(S).
Hence we readily deduce these two equations, viz.
^(cos. «V+cos. ae+4p)= — -i —(—1/ .
l (cos--cos- «e+V)2= ^ x { Y(s)}2-
If we suppose g = 0, then
^ (cos. p — cos. «V)2 = E . 14A2 __ __
XV2F+1 J.
And, when g = 2, then
?(2) = e*.<p(0)=—<p(0);
wnererore
-(cos. a2<p+cos. a6(p) =-
1 v/iT , 1
16
+-y2A2+^
16 ' 8
z(cos-
a6py =1.|m2-6A + (2^- 3)
X vw + k\.
Next, suppose g = 1, then
{ p(l)}' = 2J2-4,-
wherefore
^ (cos. ap + cos. a5<p) =
1
-E 4- Kl? J_ l\f2k2 k
16 ^ 16 ^ 8
| (cos. atp — cos. acp)2 = — . M2 + 6^ + (2A + 3)
) .
V2k2 — h
r
and, finally, making g = 3, we get
P(3) = ^XK1) = -P(1);
wherefore
^ (cos. a3p + cos* a7K ::= — 17: +
2
16
16 8
i(cos. a3p—cos.a79)J + ^ • -^4^J+6/e—(2A + 3)
V2fti—k
r
V2k2— k,
These formulae enable us to find the numerical values
of all the cosines sought; observing always that <p is inde¬
terminate, and varies with the primitive root from which
the solution is deduced. (k. k.)
EQUATOR, or ^Equator, in Astronomy and Geogra¬
phy, a great circle of the sphere, equally distant from the
two poles of the world, or having the same poles with those
ot the world. It is called the equator, because when the
i sun is in it the days and nights are equal; w hence also it
is denominated the equinoctial, and, when drawn on maps
and planispheres, the equinoctial line, or simply the line.
Every point of the equator is distant a quadrant from the
poles of the world ; and hence it follows that the equator
Hides the sphere into two hemispheres, in one of which
18 Pn7T°r^ern’ an(^ t^le °ther the southern pole.
EQUERY, or Ecury, a grand stable or lodge for horses,
l™ed whh all suitable conveniences, as stalls, manger,
raf. ’ . _ The word is formed from the French ecurie,
^ ic signifies the same thing. Some, again, derive ecurie
rom the Latin scuria, which not only denotes a place
i easts to be stalled in, but also a grange or barn. But
frn °re Pr°hahle derivation is from equile, a stable for horses,
m equus, horse. Some think that the word stable pro¬
perly relates only to bullocks, cows, sheep, hogs, &c. and
equery to horses, mules, &c.
A simple equery is that provided for one row of horses;
a double equery that provided for two, with a passage in
the middle ; or two passages, the horses being placed head
to head.
Under the term equery are sometimes also comprehend¬
ed the lodgings and apartments of the equeries, grooms,
pages, and others.
Equery (ecuyer) is also an officer who has the care and
management of the horses of a king or prince.
EQUES Auratus is used to signify a knight-bachelor,
called auratus, because anciently none but knights might
gild or beautify their armour or other habiliments of war
with gold. In law this term is not used, but instead of it
miles, and sometimes chevalier.
EQUESTRIA, among the Romans, a place in the
theatre occupied by the equites or knights.
EQUESTRIAN {eqmstris), a term chiefly used in the
352 E Q U
Equestrian phrase equestrian statue, which signifies a statue represent-
Games [ng a person mounted on horseback. The word is formed
r jl from the Latin eques, knight or horseman, from equus, horse,
^quites^ Equestrian Games, among the Romans, horse-races,
of which there were five kinds; the prodromus or plain
horse-race, the chariot-race, the deemsory-race about fune¬
ral piles, the ludi sevirales, and the ludi neptunales.
EQUIANGULAR, in Geometry, an epithet applied to
figures the angles of which are all equal; such are a square,
an equilateral triangle, and the like.
EQUIDISTANT, an appellation given to things placed
at equal distances from some fixed point or place to which
they are referred.
EQUILATERAL, in general, something that has equal
sides ; as an equilateral triangle.
EQUILIBRIUM, in Mechanics, is when the two ends
of a lever or balance hang so exactly even and level that
neither ascends or descends, but both remain in a position
parallel to the horizon ; which is occasioned by their being
both charged with an equal weight.
EQUIMULTIPLES, in Arithmetic and Geometry, are
numbers or quantities multiplied by one and the same num¬
ber or quantity. Hence equimultiples are always in the
same ratio to each other as the simple quantities before
multiplication; thus, if 6 and 8 are multiplied by 4, the
equimultiples 24 and 32 will be to each other as 6 to 8.
EQUINOCTIAL, or ^Equinoctial, in Astronomy, a
great and immoveable circle of the sphere, under which
the equator moves in its diurnal motion.
The equinoctial, or aequinoctial line, is ordinarily con¬
founded with the equator; but there is a difference, the
equator being moveable and the equinoctial immoveable ;
the equator being drawn about the convex surface of the
sphere, and the equinoctial on the concave surface of the
magnus orbis.
Whenever the sun, in his progress through the ecliptic,
comes to this circle, the days and nights are equal all over
the globe; for then he rises due east and sets due west,
which he never does at any other time of the year ; and
hence the denomination, from cequus, equal, and nox, night,
quia cequat diem nocti.
The equinoctial, then, is the circle which the sun de¬
scribes, or appears to describe, at the time of the equi¬
noxes ; that is, when the length of the day is everywhere
equal to that of the night, which happens twice a year.
Equinoctial Points are the two points in which the
equator and ecliptic intersect each other ; the one, being in
the first point of Aries, is called the vernal point or equi¬
nox ; and the other, in the first point of Libra, is denomi¬
nated the autumnal point or equinox.
Equinoctial Dial, a dial, the plane of which is parallel
to that of the equinoctial. See Dial,.
EQUINOX, or Equinox, m Astronomy, the time when
the sun enters one of the equinoctial points.
The equinoxes happen when the sun is in the equinoc¬
tial circle, and the days are equal to the nights throughout
the world, which is the case twice a year; namely, about
the 20th of March and the 23d of September, the former
being the vernal and the latter the autumnal equinox.
EQUIPOLLENCE, in Logic, is when there is an equi¬
valence between any two or more terms or propositions;
that is, when they amount to the same thing, though they
express it differently. Such terms or propositions are said
to be equipollent.
EQUIRIA, in Antiquity, a festival instituted by Romu¬
lus, and celebrated on the 27th of February, in honour of
Mars. There were horse-races at this festival.
EQUITES, an order of men in the commonwealth of
Rome, to which we can furnish no exact parallel in mo¬
dern times. They seem, indeed, to have resembled in
E Q U
some degree the gentry of England; with this difference, 1
however, that they enjoyed peculiar privileges, and were jvl
more of a separate caste than any body of men which can ' j
now be pointed out. Their origin goes back to the earliest
times of Roman history, though we can perceive, even from
the legendary statements of Livy and Dionysius, that their
constitution and mode of selection had been changed in the
course of ages. During the reign of the kings they evident¬
ly appear to have been of noble birth, the younger branches
of patrician families. This we may infer from the statement
of Polybius (vi. 20), when he says that the knights wow are
chosen according to fortune, evidently intimating that their
selection had depended on a different principle at a previous
period. Romulus is said to have divided them into three
centuries; and the very names of Ramnenses, Titienses,
and Luceres, by which he designated them, point out dis¬
tinctly their high origin. Both Tullus Hostilius and Tar-
quinius added to their number; but it was Servius Tullius
(576 b. c.) who first organised them into a distinct body,
and compelled the state to contribute annually to their
maintenance. It is difficult to perceive in what way we
are to explain the statement of Livy (i. 43), that the sum
of ten thousand pounds of brass was given to each for the
purchase of a horse; an enormous sum, when compared
with that at which oxen and sheep were rated in the table
of penalties. They were bound of course to be provided
with a noble steed, and may have been obliged to replace
it if it fell from any casualty in war. The accoutrements, too,
and a slave to take charge of it, were possibly all included
in this large sum. But whether, when the censor ordered
the knight to sell his horse, it was the intention that the
outfit money should be refunded to the state, we have now
no means of determining. Livy tells us also that a tax was
imposed on each vidua, of two thousand pounds of brass,
to maintain a knight’s horse. This certainly sounds very
strange ; for it seems inconceivable that there should have
been such a large number of rich w idows; and even though
we understand by the word vidua every single woman,
maiden as well as widow, we do not think that we thereby
get out of the difficulty.
As early as 400 b. c. we find that a certain fortune was
required to enable a man to be raised to the rank of eques.
In that year, at the siege of Veii, we are told that those
who possessed the requisite fortune, but to whom horses
had not been assigned, offered to provide these at their own
expense. This proposal was accepted; and then it was, ac¬
cording to Livy (v. 7), that they first received regular pay.
In 303 b. c. the censors Q. Fabius and P. Decius esta¬
blished a law, by which it was ordained that every fifth
year a procession of the equites should take place, and that
those who had misconducted themselves should be degrad¬
ed from their rank. They now evidently became a very
powerful body in the state; yet in 186 b. c. we find it allowed
as a reward to P. iEbutius, that the censor should not as¬
sign him a public horse, and thereby compel him to serve
as an eques against his will. This proves that the duties
must have been burdensome, and regarded by many with
distaste. In the later times of the republic they increased
in power and consequence, when the judicial functions w ere
transferred from the senate to the body of equites by t ie
Sempronian law, passed by C. Gracchus about 123 b. c.,
and a short time afterwards they became the farmers ol t ie
public revenues, which enabled them to amass immense
riches. Sylla deprived them of their judicial powrers, u
they now possessed too much influence in the state to ^
excluded from the higher and more dignified offices. A e
his death they were again admitted to their former power,
which, however, they shared with the senate.
Towards the end of the republic, and under the e,U,e^
rors, the fortune requisite for an eques seems to have eeI
* tu
ERA
four hundred sestertia, equal to about L.3229 of our mo¬
ney ; and even at this time knights’ horses were furnished
i- by the state, as we find by ancient inscriptions of that pe¬
riod. (Gruter. Liscrip. 404.)
J EQUITY, in a general sense, the virtue of treating other
men according to reason and justice, or as we would be
treated ourselves when we understand aright what is our
due.
Equity, in jurisprudence, is defined to be a correction
or qualification of the law, generally made in that part in
which it either fails or is too severe. It likewise signifies
the extension of the words of the law to cases unexpressed,
yet having the same reason ; so that where one thing is
enacted by statute, all other things are enacted which are
of the same degree.
Equity, in Mythology, sometimes confounded with Jus¬
tice, a goddess amongst the Greeks and Romans, represent¬
ed with a sword in the one hand and a balance in the other.
EQUIVALENT is understood of something that is equal
in value, force, or effect, to another.
Equivalent Terms, are where several words which dif¬
fer in sound have yet one and the same signification; as
everybody was there, and nobody was absent; nihil non, and
omne.
EQUIVOCAL Terms or Words, among logicians, are
those which have a doubtful or double meaning.
EQUIVOCATION, the using a term or expression
which has a double signification. Equivocations are expe¬
dients to avoid telling the truth, yet without telling a direct
falsehood. Some of the fathers are great patrons" of equi¬
vocations and mental reservations, and hold that the use of
such shifts and ambiguities is in many cases allowable.
EQUULEUS, or Ecculeus, in Antiquity, a kind of rack
used for extorting a confession. At first it was chiefly prac¬
tised on slaves, but was afterwards made use of against the
Christians.
The equuleus was made of wood, with holes at certain
distances, and provided with a screw, by means of which
the criminal was stretched to the third, and sometimes to
the fourth or fifth hole, while his arms and legs were fast¬
ened on the equuleus with cords, and thus hoisted aloft and
extended in such a manner that all his bones were dislo¬
cated. In this state red-hot plates were applied to his
body and he was goaded in the sides with an instrument
called an ungula.
Equuleus, Equiculus, and Eauus Minor, the horse’s
bead, m Astronomy, a constellation of the northern hemi¬
sphere.
pp i’ ^nTChronology. See Chronology.
EKAMNOO, an island at the entrance of the Gulf of
u c , on the western coast of India, containing a town of
11 pdTx "A?6, LonS- 68- 40- E. Lat. 22. 32.‘ N.
fcMNARCHA, a public officer among the ancient
weeks, whose business it was to preside over and direct
be aims and provisions allotted for the poor. Cornelius
i epos, in his Life of Epaminondas, describes the office thus :
l or W, PT0n Was retiucccI to poverty, taken captive,
wmi c daUghte!' t0 mari7> whioh he could not effect for
and n? ?rey’ the eranarcha called an assembly of friends
estatP bTS’ and ta5fed each according to his means and
son ’ m °rder t0 contribute towards the relief of such per¬
son or persons, 1
islmid of rSTRATU^’ a Physician of Julis, a town of the
seems to L eos’now. ^ea> °ff Cape Sunium, in Attica, who
was * n ,have flourished from about 300 to 258 b. c. He
son o Aristotle, his mother being daughter of that
era
353
philosopher. He seems to have been in high favour at Erasmus.
the com t of Seleucus Nicanor, whose son Antiochus he is   
said to have recovered from a dangerous illness in a some¬
what extraordinary manner. Antiochus was violently ena¬
moured of his mother-in-law Stratonice, but seeing no
prospect of honourably succeeding in his desires, he deter-
rmned to rid himself of life. His physician Erasistratus
easily discovered that his distemper was love, but found
it difficult to conjecture who was the object. By close ob¬
servation however he soon perceived that Stratonice was
the cause of his illness; and having informed his father
that monarch was so fond of his son that he allowed him
to marry her.
In his old age he renounced the practice of medicine,
and, retiiing to Alexandria, devoted himself more particu¬
larly to the study of anatomy. His description of the brain
and nei \ es is said to have been far more correct than that
of any of his predecessors. He was the founder of a school
of medicine, which flourished long at Smyrna, and the
numerous disciples of which, under the name of Erasistei,
continued to exist till the time of Galen, upwards of 400
years. He is mentioned in several passages of the ancient
authors Suidas; Strabo, x. 486; Plutarch, Demetr. 38 :
Appian. Syr. 59.
ERASMUS, Desiderius, was born at Roterdam on
the 28th of October 1467.1 His father, who bore the
name of Gerard, was an inhabitant of Tergou; his mo¬
ther, named Margaret, was the daughter of Peter, a physi¬
cian of Sevenbergen. He had an elder brother, called
Peter, but their parents were never married, though a pro¬
mise of mariiage is said to have preceded their intercourse.
I he brothers of Gerard, who was a young man of wit and
gaiety, endeavoured to secure his patrimony by compelling
him to become an ecclesiastic. Finding himself very un¬
comfortable in his own country, he wrent to Rome, where
he employed himself in transcribing ancient authors; for
the recent invention of printing had not entirely supersed¬
ed this more slow and expensive method of multiplying
copies of books. In the mean time, his relations sent him
a false account of Margaret’s death ; and his grief for her
supposed loss led him to adopt a resolution to which he
could not be impelled by their importunities. Having ta¬
ken orders, he returned to Holland, and found that she was
still alive; but he could not now fulfil his promise of mar¬
rying her, and she never would marry another, nor did she
continue to cohabit with him after he became a priest.
He did not neglect the education of a son who was destin¬
ed to reflect so much lustre on the age and nation to which
he belonged. The boy was sent to school when he was
only four years old; and, when he was still very young,
his musical voice procured him a place among the choiris-
ters in the cathedral church of Utrecht. At the age of
nine he was removed to the school of Deventer, where his
master was Alexander Hegius, and one of his school-fel¬
lows was Adrianus Florentius, who continued to be his
friend when he was long afterwards elevated to the papal
chair, under the name of Adrian the Sixth. At this early
period, he exhibited uncommon powers of memory; and it
has been said, perhaps with some degree of exaggeration,
that he could repeat all Terence and Horace. His affec¬
tionate mother, who had likewise fixed her residence at
Deventer, died of the plague when he was about thirteen ;
and his father, deeply affected with her loss, speedily fol¬
lowed her to the grave. They had both of them attained
the age of about forty.
Gerard had recommended his hopeful son to the care of
but the inserip ti or^ofh issHn n ^ V5™' Pj 1091; Several biographers refer the birth of Erasmus to the year 1465 s
V°I" IX. ^ U S statue at Roterdam assigns the date of 1467.
2 Y
354
ERASMUS.
Erasmus. Peter Winckel, master of the school of Gouda, and to that
of other two guardians, but they all seem to have been
alike unworthy of such a trust; for with the view of divid¬
ing his slender patrimony among themselves, they agreed
to urge upon him the necessity of embracing the monastic
state. They accordingly compelled him to betake him¬
self to a convent of friars at Bois le Due in Brabant, where,
as he has himself stated, he lost three years of his existence.
No artifice or persuasion could at first induce him to be¬
come a friar, nor did any length of time subdue his utter
repugnance to a monastic life. Even at this early period,
as has been well remarked, he could discern that religion
was the thing least regarded in religious houses. He was
afterwards placed in the convent of Sion near Delft; and
having next been removed to that of Stein near T ergon,
he reluctantly submitted to pass his year of probation, and
to take the vows as a canon regular of St Augustin. His
brother, who had likewise been devoted to the monastic
profession, made an abrupt retreat from his convent, and
led a profligate and dissolute life ; but Erasmus, though he
also quitted his monastic state, to which, as Du Pin ob-
serves, ** he held no inweird voCcition, conducted hirnself
with sobriety, and prosecuted his studies with great assidu¬
ity. In 1490 he left the monastery to reside in the house¬
hold of Henry de Bergues, bishop of Cambray ; and in 1492
he was ordained priest by the bishop of Utrecht. He had
quitted the convent with the consent of the bishop, of the
prior, and of the general of the order. He wore the habit
as long as he conveniently could ; but when he resided in
Italy he was obliged to lay it aside, on account of its re¬
semblance to the dress of those who attended persons in¬
fected with the plague. From Julius the Second he ob¬
tained permission to wear it or not, according to his own
convenience, but on condition of still bearing some mark
of his order; and from the same pope, or from his succes¬
sor Leo the Tenth, he obtained an absolution from his
monastic vows. For the name of Gerardi he had substi¬
tuted that of Erasmus, as bearing a more classical form,
w ith the same signification. This name is of a Greek ori¬
gin, though its proper form is Erasmius ; and, prefixing a
Latin name of similar import, he adopted the appellation
of Desiderius Erasmus, instead of Gerard Gerardi.
In the year 1496 he was prosecuting his studies in the
university of Paris, where he became a member of the Col¬
lege of Montaigu, and was led to contract a friendship with
our learned countryman Hector Boyce, afterwards princi¬
pal of King’s College, Aberdeen. The bishop of Cambray,
who was more liberal of his promises than of his money,
had undertaken to assist him with a small pension ; but as
he excited hopes which were never realized, Erasmus was
left to the usual expedients of a scholar placed in such
circumstances. He laboured very diligently to increase
his own stock of learning, and endeavoured to earn his
subsistence by taking private pupils: thus he gradually
established a high reputation, and secured the friend¬
ship of individuals distinguished by their rank and in¬
fluence, as wTell as by their talents and learning. One
of his pupils was Lord Montjoy, in whom he found a
steady friend, and who afterwards bestowed upon him an
annual pension of a hundred crowns. It was apparently
through his connexion with this young nobleman that he
was induced to visit England. The plague drove him from
Paris in the year 1497 ; and after passing through the
Netherlands, where he was kindly treated by the mar¬
chioness of Yere in the castle of Tornenhens, he proceed¬
ed to London and Oxford. He now formed an acquain-;
. -« -w- I 1 J _  A ^ r-i'C d 4- D*-** .19— 1
tance with John Colet, afterwards dean of fet 1 auls, and <
with Thomas Linacre, William Grocyn, and William La¬
timer, three individuals who each contributed to promote
among their countrymen a more general taste for the ele¬
gancies of classical literature. He is said to have resided
for some time in St Mary’s College, Oxford ; but not long
afterwards we again find him at Paris, and he likewise ap¬
pears to have visited Orleans. His Enchiridion Militis
Chnstiani he had begun in 1494, at the castle of Tornen¬
hens, but it was not completed till after an interval of se¬
veral years. This little book became very popular, and
was translated into various languages. An English ver¬
sion, ascribed to Tindall, was printed by Wynkyn de Worde
in 1533.1 About the same period he was preparing one of
his most elaborate works, the Adagia, first printed at Paris
in 1500, and was strenuously applying himself to the study
of the Greek language. He mentions to one of his cor¬
respondents, that as soon as he could get any money, he
would first purchase books, and afterwards clothes. He
had already published several of his smaller tracts, and had
laid the foundation of that celebrity which long continued
to increase, and which that of very few modern scholars
has exceeded. He had not however secured any adequate
provision ; and as he lived somewhat precariously, and
wandered from one place to another, he was too frequent¬
ly compelled to solicit the bounty of those to whom for¬
tune had been more propitious.
It appears from his correspondence that he was occasion¬
ally residing in Paris in 1504 and the two succeeding years.
To the study of the Greek language, to which he closely
applied for the space of three years, he was induced to add
that of the Hebrew; but, as Dr Jortin has remarked, “he
soon grew tired of the attempt, in all probability for want
of proper instructors and helps ; else he did things infinite¬
ly harder than it is to learn Hebrew.” The necessity of
taking pupils interfered with his own plans of study, and
prevented him from executing some literary projects which
he had now formed. In 1506 he again made his appeai-
ance in England, and is then supposed to have visited
Cambridge.^ During the same year, he returned to Pans,
and took with him the sons of J. Baptista Boeria, first phy¬
sician to Henry the Seventh. He next directed his course
towards Italy; and while he was prosecuting his journey
on horseback, he composed a poem on the infirmities of
old age, and addressed it to \\ illiam Cope, another physi
cian. Although he had not completed his fortieth year,
he considered himself as already numbered with the aged.
His constitution had never been vigorous; and he was
subject to various distempers, which his habits of unrenut
ting application to study did not contribute to alleviate.
At an earlier period of life, he had expressed some au^ie y
to visit Italy, in order to take a doctor’s degree; whicti,
as he was sufficiently aware, makes one neither better nor
wiser ; “ but it must be done,” says he, “ if a man would ne
esteemed in the world.” He accordingly took the egree
of D. D. in the university of Turin. Having resided about
fifteen months at Bologna, when he superintended te e u
cation of Boeria’s two sons, he afterwrards went to emc j
and there published a third edition of his Adages,
spent a winter at Padua, and repaired to Rome in the e -
suing year. At Venice he contracted an acquain un
with Marcus Musurus and Scipio Carteromachus, w)
taught the Greek language at Padua and Bologna, a
he availed himself of so favourable an opportunity o o
This was soon followed by another edition, printed by John Byddell, and bearing the following title : “ Enchiridion Militis Chu
tiani, whiche may be called in Englvsshe the hansom Weapon of a Christen Knyght; replenvshed with many goodly and g°D ] ..
' * - “ ‘ - - - - rinted” Lond. 1534, 8vo. Many Eng^
ceptes: made by the famous clerke Erasmus of Roterdame, and newly corrected and imprinted,
translations from Erasmus are mentioned in Mr Lowndes’s Bibliographer’s Manual of English literature, vol. ii. p.
673.
ERASMUS.
is. taining a solution of some of the difficulties which had oc-
w CUrred to him in the explication of Greek proverbs. It
was at this period that he became the tutor of Alexander
Stewart, a natural son of James the Fourth, by Margaret the
daughter of Archibald Boyd of Bonshaw. His pupil, who
was a youth of an amiable disposition and of promising ta¬
lents, had been sent to the continent under the direction
of Sir Thomas Halkerton, and, having travelled through
France, became a student in the university of Padua; but
it was at Sienna that he studied grammar and rhetoric
under Erasmus, who has left a very pleasing account of
his character, and who affectionately bewailed his prema¬
ture death. At a very early age, he became archbishop
of St Andrews, and obtained in commendam the abbacy of
Dunfermline and the priorship of Coldingham. To these ec¬
clesiastical preferments he added the office of lord chancel¬
lor ; but having accompanied his father in the unfortunate
expedition to England, he was slain, along with other war¬
like churchmen, at the battle of Floddon-field, before he
had completed the twentieth year of his age.1
Erasmus experienced a gracious reception from the pope
and some of the cardinals, but Rome had not sufficient at¬
tractions for a person of his disposition. We again find
him in England about the beginning of the year 1510. On
his arrival, he took up his abode with Thomas More, who
was then a young man, and who afterwards rose to great
eminence. It was at this period that he composed one of
his most popular works, Stultitice Laudatio, or the Praise
of Folly, which has been translated into all or most of the
cultivated languages of Europe. In this lucubration, which
he dedicated to his friend More, he treated the pope and
the court of Rome with but little ceremony ; so that, as
Dr Knight has observed, “ he was never after this looked
upon as a true son of the church.” The king, before the
death of his father, had addressed a very friendly letter to
Erasmus when he was in Italy, and he now received him
with courtesy, although it does not appear that he ever be¬
stowed upon him any very substantial proofs of kindness.
To the king, as well as to Cardinal Wolsey, he owns him¬
self indebted, not for magnificent benefits, but for magni¬
ficent promises. His chief patron was William Warham,
l archbishop of Canterbury, and chancellor of the kingdom ;
who, besides many occasional gratuities, bestowed upon
him a living worth about a hundred nobles, the rectory of
Aldington, near Ashford in Kent.2 This however he
speedily resigned, reserving to himself a yearly pension of
twenty pounds ; to which the archbishop added an equal
sum from his own purse. He was invited to Cambridge
by Dr Fisher, bishop of Rochester, president of Queen’s
College, and chancellor of the university, who entertained
him in his own house, and procured him the appointment
of Lady Margaret’s professor of divinity, and that of Greek
professor. Of these offices however, the honour apjiears
to have exceeded the emoluments, nor did he long con¬
tinue his residence at Cambridge. In the Greek chair he
was succeeded by Richard Croke, who had previously
taught that language in the university of Leipzig. His
treatment in England reflects no particular credit on the
| character of those who had the chief distribution of eccle¬
siastical preferments. The king, though capable of per¬
ceiving his merit, had not sufficient generosity to reward
it; and the lordly churchmen reserved their best benefices
or those who had other recommendations to their protec¬
tion and favour. He has himself stated that if the promises
made to him had been realized, he would have spent the
remainder of his days in England ; but having been invit¬
ed to Brabant, to the court of Charles archduke of Austria,
he again returned to the Netherlands, where he appears
to have been residing in the beginning of the year 1514.
With the honorary title of counsellor to that prince, he
obtained an annual pension of two hundred florins, which,
if it had been regularly paid, would have placed him in
circumstances sufficiently easy. He was presented to a
canonry at Courtray, but this he likewise resigned, reserv¬
ing to himself a pension out of its yearly revenue.
He had for some time been laboriously employed in pre¬
paring an edition of the Greek Testament; and in the
course of the same year -he proceeded to Basel, for the
purpose of printing it at the celebrated press of Froben.
He likewise carried with him the epistles of St Jerom, il¬
lustrated with his notes, and some other books intended for
publication. To the writings of this father he had devot¬
ed much attention, and, on his arrival, he was therefore
gratified to find that an edition of his works had already
been sent to the press. His edition of the New Testa¬
ment was first printed in 1516 ; and other editions issued
from the same press in 1519, 1522, and 1527. At Basel
he now spent several months, much to his satisfaction, and
was particularly gratified with the reception which he ex¬
perienced from the bishop of that see. Returning to the
Netherlands, he learned that Charles, who afterwards be¬
came emperor of Germany, had nominated him to a vacant
bishopric in Sicily, supposing it to be at his own disposal;
and, finding the right of nomination belonged to the pope,
that he had solicited this preferment for Erasmus. But
the recommendation, which perhaps was not very urgent,
failed to produce any effect; nor did he hear of any effort
to procure him a bishopric, where the patronage was more
free from entanglement. In the year 1515, he appears to
have paid another visit to Basel, and likewise to England.
To this country he made another excursion in 1517. Of
the domestic habits of the English, he has drawn a picture
which now seems not a little antiquated. The plague, from
which that country was scarcely ever free, and the sweat¬
ing sickness, he partly ascribes to the incommodious form
and bad exposition of the houses, to the filthiness of the
streets, and to the sluttishness within doors. “ The floors,”
says he, “ are commonly of clay, strewed with rushes, under
which lies unmolested an ancient collection of beer, grease,
fragments, bones, spittle, excrements of dogs and cats, and
every thing that is nasty.”
Francis the First had invited him to fix his residence in
France, and had promised him a benefice of a thousand
livres; but of this offer he could not be induced to avail
himself. He still lingered in the Netherlands; and we
find him occasionally residing at Louvain, the seat of a uni¬
versity which was long conspicuous for the bigotry of its
theologians, some of whom had appeared as his professed
antagonists.3 An event of great moment in the history of
mankind was now impending. In the memorable year
1517, the reformation of religion in Germany began by
Luther’s bold and decided opposition to the scandalous
traffic in indulgencies; one of the most corrupt practices
of a most corrupt church. From this beginning, apparent¬
ly trivial, arose many important events; and although Eras¬
mus did not possess the undaunted spirit of a genuine re-
formei’, his writings were not without considerable influ¬
ence in preparing the way for those salutary changes which
Crawfurd’s Lives of the Officers of State, p. 59. Edinb. 1726, fol.
z K mrrhf’a T IX* ^ ^ 1   . I
, mght’s Life of Erasmus, p. 154. See Dr Middleton’s Free Inquiry, p.
ubi th 6a/U* Rh~s mentions his having taught at Louvain. “ Docuit Lovanii, Cantabrigire in Anglia, Lutetixe etiam privatim,
retun^d f 86 juvenis operam.” Erasmus, in his short account of his own life, has stated that he went to Louvain after he first
356
Erasmus.
ERAS
now began to take place. The edge of his wit and ridicule
was very sharply directed against monastic ignorance and
grimace, against the vain observances which were so gene¬
rally substituted for real piety.1 Many of his publications
had a powerful tendency to promote a critical knowledge of
the Scriptures and of ecclesiastical antiquity, and conse¬
quently were opposed, though indirectly, to the cause of
popery. But he never had the courage to avow his adhe¬
rence to the cause of reformation; and he himself admit¬
ted that he was not endowed with the spirit of a martyr.2
He was sufficiently ready to condemn the heat and violence
of the German reformer : but the task undertaken by Lu¬
ther was not to be executed by a man of a cool and balan¬
cing disposition ; and without a large portion or his un¬
flinching impetuosity and undaunted resolution, his dispu¬
tation and his preaching would, to all human appearance,
have been utterly unavailing. No sudden and beneficial
change in the affairs of mankind will ever be effected by
those who, like Erasmus of Roterdam, keep themselves
aloof from all danger, and recommend gentleness and mo¬
deration to others, when they have to contend against tem¬
poral power, fortified by inveterate prejudice, and roused
by the most intense feelings of selfishness.3 He was how¬
ever very far from approving of the violent proceedings of
Luther’s adversaries. In the year 1520, he was consulted
at Cologn by Frederick elector of Saxony, and gave a very
favourable opinion of the reformer. Luther, he remarked,
has been guilty of two offences ; he has touched the crown
of the pope and the bellies of the monks. He added, in a
more serious strain, that he had justly censured many
abuses and errors, which it was necessary to reform and
correct; that his doctrine was essentially right, but that it
had not been delivered with a proper temper, and with due
moderation. Although his conduct did not fully satisfy
the Lutherans, it still less satisfied the papists. The publi¬
cation of his Colloquia did not contribute to recommend
the author to the genuine sons of the Romish church : it
exposed him to new accusations of laughing at indulgen-
cies, of disregarding auricular confession, and of deriding
the pious use of fish, instead of flesh, on certain appointed
days. This book, the most popular of all his performances,
was published at Basel: an impression, said to consist of
twenty-four thousand copies, was printed in 1527 by Coli-
net at Paris, and dispersed with amazing rapidity. The
sale was promoted by a rumour, which is supposed to have
been circulated by the printer, that the work was on the
point of being suppressed. During the preceding year, the
theological faculty of Paris had censured it as a book in
which the fasts and abstinences of the chureh are slighted,
the suffrages of the holy virgin and the saints are derided,
virginity is placed below matrimony, Christians are discou¬
raged from a monastic life, and grammatical is preferred
to theological erudition. In the year 1549 a provincial
council, held at Cologn, condemned the Colloquies of Eras¬
mus as unfit to be read in schools.
The latter years of his life he spent in Switzerland,
chiefly at Basel and Friburg. In the summer of 1522 he
M U S.
paid a visit to Constance, professing an intention of repair- jL
ing to Rome, for the purpose of waiting upon his oldl'
school-fellow the new pope ; but to one of his correspon¬
dents he mentions that he had fallen sick at the former
city, and was deterred by rumours of war from prosecuting
his journey. It is however more than probable that he
had no great inclination to proceed. Adrian offered him a
good deanery, which he did not think it advisable to ac¬
cept ; for he apparently considered it in the light of a re¬
taining fee from the pope. In Switzerland he had many
friends, and was only prevented from liking the country by I
the suffocating heat of the stoves, and the bad quality of
the wine. Being subject to the stone and gravel, he found
the new and acid beverage unsuitable to his constitution,
and was obliged to procure wine from Burgundy. As he
kept two servants and two horses, it may be inferred that
he was enabled to live in sufficient comfort.
Ulrich von Hutteh, a distinguished adherent of Luther,
passing through the city of Basel in 1522, solicited an in¬
terview, which the caution of Erasmus prevented him
from granting.4 A slight of this nature was more than
sufficient to rouse the vehement indignation of the German
knight, who speedily discharged his spleen in a publication
entitled “ Ulrici ab Hutten cum Erasmo Roterodamo,
Presbytero, Theologo, Expostulatio.” This satirical effu¬
sion was followed by the “ Spongia Erasmi adversus Ad-
spergines Hutteni.” Hutten’s insolence and ferocity were
blamed by Melanchthon, and by Luther himself.
In the year 1523, Adrian was succeeded in the papal
chair by Clement the Seventh, who sent Erasmus an ho¬
nourable epistle, accompanied with a donation of two hun¬
dred florins. After many solicitations from different quar¬
ters, he was at length induced to write against Luther,
but not on a subject which involved the chief points of
debate between the protestants and papists. His tract
J)e Libero Arbitrio was printed in the year 1524. “ Lu¬
ther,” says Dr Jortin, “ was an admirer of Augustin, and, .
like the Thomists, held a physical predetermination, which
entirely subverts human liberty, and which, under the
pretence of making the creature dependent upon the Cre¬
ator, deprives it of all active powers, so that it can do no¬
thing without being necessarily determined by the influ¬
ence of God. If there was any difference between Luther
and the Thomists of the church of Rome, it was this, that
Luther spake more simply and sincerely and openly than
they ; for he absolutely denied that there was any such
thing as free-will, whilst they admitted it in words. This
perhaps deceived Erasmus, who imagined that he was only
disputing against Luther, whilst he was really disputing as
much against Thomas Aquinas and his followers, as against
the reformer. Be that as it will, Erasmus makes many
good remarks against the sentiment which he opposes, and
justly insists upon it, that the human wall co-operates with
the grace or assistance of God.”5 In 1525 Luther return¬
ed an answer, in a treatise De Servo Arbitrio, where his
antagonist is treated with much scorn and contempt. Eras¬
mus immediately replied in the first part of his Hyperas-
1 Dr Robertson has remarked that “ there was hardly any opinion or practice of the Romish church which Luther endeavoured o
reform, but what had been previously animadverted upon by Erasmus, and had afforded him subject either of censure or raillery.
(Hist, of Charles Y. vol. ii. p. 142.) See likewise Archdeacon Blaekburne’s Confessional, p. 409. The worthy archdeacon describes
Erasmus as “ one of the most illustrious characters in all history.”
2 J. A. Fabricius has written a tract on the religion of Erasmus, which may be found in his Opuscidorumhistorico-critico-titeranorvm
Sylloge, p. 357- Hamb. 1738, 4to.
3 “ As the man,” says Dr Paley, “ who attacks a flourishing establishment writes with a halter round his neck, few ever wil e
found to attempt alterations but men of more spirit than prudence, of more sincerity than caution, of warm, eager, and impetuous
tempers; consequently, if we are to wait for improvement till the cool, the calm, the discreet part of mankind begin it, till enure
governors solicit, or ministers of state propose it—I will venture to pronounce that (without His interposition with whom nothing13
impossible) we may remain as we are till the renovation of all things ” (Sermons and Tracts, p 43.)
4 See Schubart’s Leben und Charakter Ulrichs von Hutten, S. 131. zweit. Ausg. Leipzig, 1817, 8vo.
s Jortin's Life of Erasmus, vol. i. p. 335.
ERASMUS.
Erasr
pistes, and the second part appeared in the year 1527 ;
) ]jUt) Upon the whole, he appears to have had no reason to
congratulate himself on the issue of the controversy.
About this period, Erasmus prepared various other works.
In 1525 he published “ Lingua, opus novum, et hisce tem-
poribus aptissimum.” In 1528 he published, in one volume,
two of the most conspicuous of his literary compositions.
The first bears the title, “ De recta Latini Graecique Ser-
monis Pronuntiatione Dialogusthe second, “ Dialogus
cui titulus, Ciceronianus, sive de optimo Genere Dicendi.”
Both these works were printed at Basel. His dialogue on
the pronunciation of the classical languages excited much
attention, and occasioned much controversy.1 The pro¬
nunciation of Greek which then prevailed, was in some
countries denominated the Reuchlinian, from its having
been adopted by Reuchlin, who died in the year 1521, af¬
ter having been chiefly instrumental in the introduction of
classical learning into Germany. It essentially coincided
with the pronunciation of the modern Greeks. In the co¬
pious grammar of Scot,2 first printed in the year 1593, we
still find the same system recommended. To the letter /3
he assigns the name of vita, to £ of zita, to n of ita, to 6 of
thita. According to this system, the vowels i, v, and the
diphthongs e/, oi, have no variety of sound, but ought to be
pronounced as the French pronounce the letter i. Thus ryj,
n, rv, ru, roi, have one and the same sound, instead of five
distinct sounds. This however is not the only peculiarity
of the system. Reuchlin’s mode of pronunciation was al¬
most entirely supplanted by that of Erasmus, although se¬
veral learned men have at a much more recent period en¬
deavoured to restore the old method. In his other inge¬
nious dialogue, the Ciceronianus, he ridicules some modern
scholars, chiefly Italians, who studiously rejected every
word or phrase which had not been sanctioned by the au¬
thority of Cicero. Of the dead and the living he speaks
with his usual freedom ; nor did this publication contri¬
bute to diminish the number of his enemies. It was at¬
tacked with great ferocity by Julius Caesar Scaliger, who
writes in a style by no means Ciceronian.
In the year 1529, after the mass had been abolished at
Basel, he removed to Friburg, where he purchased a house,
and repaired it at considerable expense. In 1533 he pub¬
lished at Antwerp a treatise bearing the title of “ Liber
de sarcienda Eccleske Concordia.” On the same subject,
he has introduced many suggestions into his epistles ; but
the peace of the church was not to be patched up by any
expedients which Erasmus was capable of devising. His
“ Ecclesiastes, sive de Ratione Concionandi,” appeared in
1535; and while it was printing at Basel, he returned to
that city, and there he completed his earthly pilgrimage.
On the accession of Paul the Third, a design was enter¬
tained of elevating Erasmus to the rank of a cardinal; but
he had never been ambitious of ecclesiastical dignities,
and now the state of his health was such as to deprive all
sublunary honours of their usual attractions. The pope
nominated him provost of the college of canons at Deven¬
ter; but already considering himself as standing on the
^erge of the grave, he declined an office which he proba-
, Y would not have accepted in the vigour of his life. He
ad left Friburg in a bad state of health, nor were his ma-
adies alleviated by his removal to Basel. He became worse
during the summer, and for about a month was afflicted Erasmus,
with dysentery. Disregarding those formal and minute
devotions which he had so much derided in the monks,
he fervently implored the mercy of God through Jesus
Christ; and retaining his reason unimpaired till his last
moments, he calmly expired on the 12th of July 1530,
when he had nearly completed the sixty-ninth year of his
age. A great concourse of people attended his funeral in
the cathedral church of Basel. By his will, dated in the
month of February, he bequeathed handsome legacies to
several of his friends, and directed the residue of his pro¬
perty to be distributed by his executors, in relieving the
poor and the sick, in marrying young women, and in as¬
sisting young men, such as they should judge to be neces¬
sitous and deserving.
Erasmus, though somewhat low in stature, was well
formed, and had an easy and genteel air, nor was he slo¬
venly or negligent in his apparel. He had a fair complex¬
ion, with grey eyes, and, during his youth, his hair was of
a pale yellow. He had a cheerful countenance, with alow
voice, and a pleasing elocution. He was a steady friend,
and an agreeable companion; and indeed if his conversa¬
tion displayed any portion of the wit and vivacity which
distinguish his writings, his society could not fail of being
delightful. Ardently devoted to letters, he kept his mind
uncontaminated with that avarice and ambition by which
churchmen have in too many instances been secularized.
In disseminating a love of elegant letters among his con¬
temporaries, he had no small influence, and equally con¬
spicuous were his merits as a theologian. For the lifeless
formalities of scholastic theology he had little respect, and
less relish ; but by his labours on the New Testament, and
more especially by his publication and elucidations of the
original text, he gave a new impulse to the students of that
age, and directed their minds to a more edifying species
of knowledge. To him belongs the honour of being the
earliest editor of the Greek Testament; for although the
Alcala edition, inserted in the Polyglot Bible, bears the
imprint of 1514, it was not published till the year 1522.
Of his paraphrase of the New Testament, an English
translation was printed at an early period ;3 and so high
was the estimation in which it was held, that a copy of it
was directed to be placed in every parish-church in the
kingdom.4 The works of the ancient fathers of the church
he had studied with much assiduity. To editions of Ire-
nams, Chrysostom, Cyprian, Hilary, Ambrose, Jerom, Au¬
gustin, and Arnobius the younger, he contributed more or
less aid; and he translated particular treatises of Origen,
Athanasius, Basil, and Chrysostom. His labours like¬
wise served to render the writings of the ancient classics
more accessible. Of the Geography of Ptolomy, the Greek
text was first edited by Erasmus. He published editions
of Livy, Seneca, Suetonius, and other authors ; and if he
seldom added notes, his prefaces were considered as no
small recommendation. He translated into verse the He¬
cuba and Iphigenia of Euripides, and into prose detached
works of Galen, Plutarch, Lucian, and Libanius. The
labours of Erasmus were multifarious, and his composi¬
tions are very numerous; for our scanty limits have only
afforded us an opportunity of specifying the more re¬
markable. An ample and elegant edition of his works
j ?f ^1S ^ous controversy a detailed account may be found in the Foreign Quarterly Review, vol. xiii. p. GO.
Alexander Scot, LL. D. was a native of Scotland, but he appears to have spent the greatest part of his life in France, and to
]• e exercised the functions of a judge at Carpentras. “ Alexander Scotus Aberdonensis, rnagni nominis, sed majoris meriti, utriusque
j. .■USe Peritus5.juris civilis scientia in paucis clarus, Carpentoractensis praefectus juri dicundo, quo in munere non minorem integri-
eru<flti°ms famam acquisivit.” (Dempsteri Historia Ecclesiastica Gentis Scotorum, p. GG4.) We use the third edition
“s Unhersa Grammatica Grccca. Lugduni, 1G14, 8vo. This is not the only work which Scot published.
Dilid' ™-r 2 vols. fol. The translation was executed by Miles Coverdale, Nicholas Udall, John Olde, and others. See Dr
* rS EvP0graphical Antiquities, vol. iii. p. 491.
uniet s History of the Reformation, vol. ii. p. 27.
358
ERA
ERE
Erastians was published by Le Clerc, to whom we are likewise in-
II debted for a discriminating account of the author’s hie and
Eratosthe-c|laracteri
, _ne^ , Dr Jortin has remarked that “ the style of Erasmus is
”f-'- ^ia^- 0f a man who had a strong memory, a natuial elo¬
quence, a lively fancy, and a ready invention, who compos¬
ed with great facility and rapidity, and who did not care
for the trouble of revising and correcting; who had spent
all his days in reading, writing, and talking Latin; for he
seems to have had no turn for modern languages, and per¬
haps he had almost forgotten his mother tongue. His
style therefore is always unaffected, easy, copious, fluent,
and clear, but not always perfectly pure, and strictly clas¬
sical. He hath been censured, as a dealer in barbarisms,
by persons who not only had not half of his abilities and eru¬
dition, but who did not even write Latin half so well as he.
His verses are plainly the compositions of one who had
much learning and good sense, and who understood proso¬
dy, or the technical part of poetry, but who had not an
equal elegance of taste, and an ear for poetical numbers.
So that upon the whole he is rather a versifier than a
poet, and is not to be ranked amongst the Italian poets of
those days, Sannazarius, Fracastorius, Vida, &c. many of
whom wrote better than any of the ancients, except Lucre¬
tius, Virgil, Horace, and a few more.” (x.)
ERASTIANS, a religious sect or faction which arose in
England during the time of the civil wars in 1647, and
were so called from their leader Thomas Erastus, whose
distinguishing doctrine it was, that the church had no right
to discipline, that is, no regular power to excommunicate,
exclude, censure, absolve, decree, or the like.
ERATO (from igau, I love), in Mythology, the name of
one of the nine muses, who presided over amatory poetry.
To this muse some have ascribed the invention of the lyre
and the lute. She is represented with a garland of myrtles
and roses, holding a lyre in one hand and a bow in the
other, and at her side is a Cupid with his torch. There
is also a Nereid of the same name.
ERATOSTHENES, the son of Aglaus, was born at
Cyrene, on the northern coast of Africa, 275 b. c., and
died at the advanced age of eighty, 194 b. c. We are told
by Suidas that he studied under the philosopher Aristo of
the island Chios, the grammarian Lysanias of Cyrene, and
the poet Callimachus, whilst Strabo mentions that he re¬
ceived instruction from Zeno the Citian. He was invited
from Athens by Ptolemy Euergetes to take charge of the
celebrated library at Alexandria; and here he continued
to reside under the successors of this prince, till, having
lost his sight from old age, he put an end to his life by
means of hunger. Though the ancients were divided in
their opinions respecting his merits, there is good reason
to believe that he was a man of distinguished talent, and
intimately acquainted with the whole circle of science then
known to the world. He was a geometer, astronomer, geo¬
grapher, philosopher, grammarian, and poet, and left works
behind him in each of these departments; but they have
all disappeared in the lapse of ages. It is in geography that
he seems to have been most distinguished; the first two
books of Strabo are almost entirely occupied with an exa¬
mination of his system, and a correction of some of the er¬
rors into which he had fallen respecting the western parts
of Europe. We do not think that Strabo does full justice! oitn.
to Eratosthenes, expecting more accuracy than the state of
geographical knowledge in that age would warrant. But
all later writers, including Strabo himself, borrowed largely
from him; and where they have ventured to correct his
observations, they have only more clearly proved their ig.
norance of the subject. Thus Eratosthenes is nearer the
truth in respect to the length of the Mediterranean from
Gibraltar to Sicily than Polybius, who found fault with him.
The fragments of his works have been collected and pub¬
lished at Oxford in one vol. 8vo; also by Seidel, Gottin¬
gen, 1789, and Eratosthenica, by Bernhardy, Berlin, 1822.
For a list of his works, see Clinton’s Fasti Hellenici, vol.
ii. p. 513.
ERATOSTRATUS, an Ephesian who burned the fa¬
mous temple of Diana, the same night on which Alexander
the Great was born. This burning, as some writers have
observed, was not prevented or seen by the goddess of the
place, who was then present at the labour of Olympias,
and at the birth of the conqueror of Persia. Eratostratus
committed this crime merely to eternize his name by a
memorable though infamous action.
ERBIL, a town of Persia, in the pachalic of Bagdad;
the ancient Arbela, where Alexander the Great defeated
Darius. It is situated on an eminence commanding an ex¬
tensive plain, which abounds in grain and fruit. It is sur¬
rounded by walls, but is now a poor place, containing about
2000 or 3000 Kurds or Chaldeans. It is sixty miles east
of Mosul. Long. 43. 20. E. Lat. 36. 11. N.
EREBUS, EgsCoj (from my, night), in Mythology, a term
denoting darkness. According to Hesiod, Erebus was the
son of Chaos and Night, and the father of the day. This
was also the name of part of the inferi among the ancients;
and a peculiar expiation was provided for those who were
detained in Erebus.
Erebus was properly the gloomy region, and distinguish¬
ed both from Tartarus the place of torment, and Elysium
the region of bliss. According to the account given of it
by Virgil, it forms the third grand division of the invisible
world beyond the Styx, and comprehends several particu¬
lar districts, as the limbvs infantum, or the receptacle for
infants; the limbus for those who had destroyed themselves,
the fields of mourning, full of dark groves and woods, in¬
habited by those who died for love; and beyond these, an
open champaign country for the accommodation of depart¬
ed warriors. ,
ERDING, a bailiwick in the circle of the Isar, in the
kingdom of Bavaria, extending over 308 square miles. It
contains three large and fifty-six small towns, 262 villages,
and 6632 dwelling-houses, with 28,370 inhabitants. Re
chief place, of the same name, is a walled town situated on
the river Sempt, containing 275 houses and 1890 ^1 2‘iabl‘
tants, employed in various trades. Long. 11. 49.48. E. Ea •
48. 18. 23. N.
EREKLEE, a town of Asiatic Turkey, in the province
of Caramania, situated on the left bank of the river Ka ys
in the centre of a fertile country. It stands in front o a
hill, and, though it is of considerable size, has a mean ap
pearance, the houses being constructed of mud, with sun
dried bricks. The gardens yield much fruit, especia J
nears. It is said to be the ancient Heraclea. Long.
' W
1 Desiderii Erasmi Opera omnia emendatiora et auctiora. Lugd. Bat. 1703-6, 10 tom. fol. Le Clerc’s account 0^®rasmuS’ oUS.
derived from his letters, may be found in the Bibliotheque Choisie, tom. v. p. 145, tom. vi. p. 7- His other biographers are nuni ^
and we shall mention the most considerable lives which have appeared in a separate form. Knight’s Life of Erasmus, morePalj'r|:n’|
ly that part of it which he spent in England. Cambridge, 1726, 8vo. Burigny, Vie d’Erasme. Paris, 1757, 2 tom. 12mo.
Life of Erasmus. London, 1758-60, 2 vols. 4to. Hess’s Erasmus von Itoterdam nach seinem Leben und Schriften. Z\inc ’ ^
2 Bde. 8vo- Of M. de Burigny’s work, a German translation, with corrections and additions, was published by Professor
Halle und Helmstiidt, 1782, 2 Bde. 8vo. Dr Knight’s work had been translated into the same language by Theodor Arnold,
zig, 1735, 8vo.
ERF
E R I
359
34. E. Lat. 37. 30. N. This is also the name of a sea¬
port in Asiatic Turkey, situated on the Black Sea. It is
100 miles east of Constantinople.
/ ekeMIEU, a town of the department of the Isere, in
France. It is surrounded with walls, and was the former
residence of the dauphin or sovereign of Dauphine. It con¬
tains 590 houses, and 2184 inhabitants, who are chiefly em¬
ployed in making hempen cloth.
EREMONVILLE, a. village in the department of the
Oise, in France, containing 470 inhabitants. It is cele¬
brated on account of a palace built by Henry IV. for his
fair favourite Gabrielle, and afterwards the residence of
Rousseau.
ERETRIA, a city on the western coast of the island
Eubcea, founded along with Chalcis by a colony of Athe¬
nians, who were afterwards joined by a band of iEolians
from Elis. Its extensive commerce raised it to consider¬
able eminence at an early period; it founded colonies in
the peninsula of Pallene, and also at Cumae in Italy. It
had under its dominion many of the neighbouring islands,
as Andros, Ceos, and Teos, and was for many years the
rival of the neighbouring city of Chalcis. Strabo (x. 448)
states, as a proof of the wealth of the ancient inhabitants,
that the festival of the Amarynthian Diana was often at¬
tended by 3000 soldiers on foot, with 600 cavalry and sixty
chariots.
Eretria assisted the lonians in their attempt to shake off
the yoke of the Persian king, and was on that account ex¬
posed to the vengeance of Darius. It w ithstood for six
days all the forces that could be brought against it; but
it was at last betrayed into the hands of the enemy by the
treachery of two of its principal citizens. The city was
destroyed, and the inhabitants transported to Susa, whence
Darius sent them to settle in the country of the Cissad
(Herodot. vi. 99, 119). Those inhabitants who had escap¬
ed rebuilt the city in a somewhat more northerly direc¬
tion, as soon as the Persians had been compelled to retire.
From this time it seems to have been subject to the Athe¬
nians, and to have continued in so peaceful a condition, that
many of the learned, anxious to escape from the tumults of
war, selected it as their residence. In later times it attached
itself to the cause of Philip III. of Macedonia, and was on
that account attacked by the Romans and plundered of all
its statues and works of art (Liv. xxxii. 16). After the con¬
quest of Greece by the Romans, it was declared free; but
it never recovered from the blow it had received (Polyb.
xviii. 28). Its ruins are to be found near a promontory which
is situated opposite to the mouth of the river Asopus in
Bceotia.
ERFURT, a city of the Prussian province of Saxony,
and the capital of a circle of its owm name, as well as of
the provincial government. It is strongly fortified, and is
defended by two forts, the Petersburg and the Cyrials-
burg, both of most skilful construction. It is situated in
a district of peculiar fertility, especially in garden fruits and
seeds, the latter of which supply the seedsmen in distant
parts of Germany. It sells large quantities of annis, canary,
coriander, cummin, mustard, and poppy seeds ; and much
surplus corn. There was formerly a university, but it has
declined, as well as most of the convents and monaste-
nes which existed before its secularization. It now pos¬
sesses a gymnasium and elementary schools, as well as
many charitable establishments. It is a clean and w'ell-built
C1ty, containing an ancient cathedral, with a lofty spire,
and a bell weighing fourteen tons ; eight Catholic and eight
Lutheran churches, 2897 houses, and (in 1817) 18,218 in¬
habitants, now much increased in number. There have
been lately erected some cotton spinning-mills ; and other
manufactures have since the peace very greatly extended.
Being on the great road from Frankfort to Dresden and
Leingie-, it has a considerable transit trade. Long. 11. 57. Ergastu-
17 E. Lat. 50. 59. 8. N. lum
ERGASTULUM, amongst the Romans, was a prison, . II
work-house, or house of correction, where slaves were by .
the private authority of their masters confined and kept to
hard labour for their offences. The Greeks had a place
of confinement of the same sort.
ERIDANUS, a river celebrated in Mythology for the
fall of Phaethon, and the metamorphosis of his sisters into
long and slender poplars. Astronomers placed Eridanus
in the heavens, and made it one of the southern constella¬
tions. It was supposed to be the ancient name of the river
Po, but the difficulty of explaining the tradition of amber
being gathered on its banks has excited doubts respecting
the correctness of this information. Cluverius has sug¬
gested that the Eridanus of Herodotus may be the Rho-
daune, a tributary of the Vistula ; whilst others, knowing
that amber was the staple product of the Baltic, are inclin¬
ed to believe it the name of that sea, applied to it by my-
thologists, who were little acquainted with geography.
(Virg. Georg, i. 412 ; JEn. vi. 659.)
Eridanus, in Astronomy, a constellation of the southern
hemisphere, supposed to have the form of a river.
ERIE, a great lake of North America. It is about 280
miles in length from south-west to north-east, from ten to
sixty-three in breadth, and about 658 in circumference. It
has a depth of 120 feet; and its surface, which contains
12,000 square miles, is elevated 334 feet above that of Lake
Ontario, with which it is connected by a canal, and 565
feet above the tide water at Albany, with which it is join¬
ed by the great Erie Canal. Through this immense sheet
of water runs the boundary line which separates Canada
from the United States. On its northern shore there are
numerous projecting rocks, which render the navigation
dangerous, particularly as there is no shelter from storms
in that quarter. On the southern shore, however, there
are several tolerably good harbours. The lake is navigat¬
ed by a number of steam-boats, which of course are con¬
tinually increasing in number, as civilization advances and
commerce extends. The navigation upwards is rendered
tedious, on account of a constant current which sets down
the lake; and this is increased by the north-western and
south-western winds, which here prevail. Long. 78. 35. to
83. 10. W. Lat. 41. 20. to 42. 50. N.
ERIGENA, Joannes Scotus, a famous scholastic di¬
vine, was born about the beginning of the ninth century;
but where, is a matter of dispute among authors. Bale
and Pitts affirm that he was born at St David’s in Wales;
Dempster, Mackenzie, and Henry, that he was a native of
Scotland. Dempster contends that he was born in Ayr,
and in order to suit the name to the hypothesis, he de¬
scribes him as Joannes Airigena. Du Pin, Sir James
Ware, and Dr Ledwich have with greater probability as¬
serted that he was by birth an Irishman, Ireland being in
those days called Scotia, and by the natives Erin. Vari¬
ous writers agree in relating that he travelled to Athens,
where he acquired a competent knowledge of the Greek
and oriental languages ; and that he afterwards resided
many years in the court of Charles the Bald, king of France,
who, on account of his singular abilities, treated him as his
intimate friend and companion. He slept frequently in the
royal apartment, and was constantly admitted to the king’s
table. “ We may judge,” says a modern historian, “ of the
freedom which he used with Charles, by the following re¬
partee. As the king and Scotus were sitting one day at
table, opposite to each other, after dinner, drinking a cheer¬
ful glass, the philosopher having said something that was
not quite agreeable to the rules of French politeness, the
king in a merry humour asked him, Pray, what is between
a Scot and a sot? To which he answered, “ Nothing but
360
E R I
E R I
Krigone
II
Erivan.
the table.”1 During his residence with Charles, he wrote
several books of scholastic divinity, and was not so fortu¬
nate as to escape the imputation of heterodoxy. On that
account the pope commanded Charles to send him to Rome,
but the king had too great a regard for his companion to
trust him with his holiness. One of the chief controver¬
sies in which Erigena was engaged, and with which the
pope was much oftended, was concerning the real presence.
His opinion of this weighty matter is expressed in these
few words: “ What we receive corporally is not the body
of our Lord, but that which feeds the soul, and is only
perceived by faith.”
Whether Erigena ended his days in France is a matter
of doubt. Some of our historians tell us that he quitted it
in the year 864 ; and that, after residing about three years
in Oxford, he retired to the abbey of Malmesbury, where
his scholars stabbed him with their pen-knives. There is
no foundation for this story. Probably he died about the
year 874; but whether in France or England, is uncer¬
tain, and of little importance. Some have related that he
was invited to England by King Alfred ; but they have
apparently confounded him with John abbot of Etheling,
wdio was assassinated in 895; and to this mistake the va¬
rious accounts concerning Erigena are to be attributed.
Besides many other works, he composed the following.
1. Excerpta de Differentiis et Societatibus Grccci Latini-
que Verbi. 2. De Divisions Naturce. lib. v. 3. De Prce-
destinatione Dei. 4. De Visions Dei. 5. De Corpore et
Sanguine Domini. 6. Ambigua S. Maximi, sen Scholia ejus
in difficiles locos S. Gregorii Nazianzeni, Latine versa.
7. Opera S. Dionysii quatuor in Latinam linguam con-
versa. Most of these works have been printed. There is
an edition, somewhat recent, of his books De Divisions Na¬
tures. Oxon. 1681, fol. The author was formerly deno¬
minated the Glory of the Greeks ; an appellation to which,
in the opinion of Montfaucon, he was not sufficiently en¬
titled.2 For the age in which he lived, he however appears
to have been a person of eminent learning ; and his trans¬
lation of Dionysius Areopagita has received no mean com¬
mendation from Huet.3
ERIGONE, in fabulous history, daughter of Icarus.
She died of grief on account of her father’s death, was
translated into heaven, and formed the sign Virgo.
FRITH, a town of the county of Kent, in the hundred
of Lessness and lathe of Sutton, fourteen miles from Lon¬
don. It stands on the right bank of the Thames. It is
chiefly inhabited by fishermen and other seafaring people;
but Belvedere House, on the site of an ancient monastery,
is one of the most striking objects to passengers in vessels
ascending or descending the Thames. The population
amounted in 1801 to 969, in 1811 to 1119, in 1821 to
1363, and in 1831 to 1533.
ERIVAN, a province of Persia, bounded on the north
and west by the Mossian Hills, on the south by the Arax-
es, and on the east by the districts of the Karabang and
Karadang. It is of considerable extent, and has a salubri¬
ous climate, though the winter is of long duration. It pos¬
sesses, according to Sir R. K. Porter, by whom it was visit¬
ed in 1817, every natural beauty which a fine assemblage
of mountain, dale, and water can bestow. The principal
towns are Erivan and Nackshivan. This province is ruled
by a sardar, who differs from most others in the empire,
as he pays no tribute to the king, holding his station by a
military tenure, by which he is bound to furnish to the
royal army in time of war a certain quota of troops. To
him is entrusted the defence of the frontier within the limits
of the province ; so that he more resembles a prince in his
authority, as well as in all his appointments, than a provin- ||511 J
cial governor. He has immense wealth both in money and • lijJ
in land. The province is 200 miles in length and 100 in 1 rCI
breadth. According to a general census taken in 1814, the
number of inhabitants capable of bearing arms amounted
to 18,000. The annual revenue is 150,000 tomauns, or
L.75,000 sterling.
Erivan, Irwan, or Irivan, the capital of the above pro¬
vince, situated in an angle of a great plain at the foot of
the Mossian Hills, on the banks of the river Zengui, which I
rises from a lake about seventy miles farther north, and
falls into the Araxes about three leagues below the town.
It is defended by a fortress of an elliptical form, upwards of
6000 yards in circumference. The city is of considerable
extent, but, as generally happens in Persia, ruins mingle
everywhere with the habitable parts of the town. The
north-west side of the town is built on a precipice impend¬
ing over the river, to the height of 600 feet. The fortress
spreads over a great deal of ground. It is fortified in the
mixed ancient and modern Asiatic manner; and has been
lately strengthened by European engineers. But it is com¬
manded on every side by hills at a distance of scarcely 6000
yards. The Zengui flows close past the north-west front,
which is on the summit of a perpendicular rock seventy
feet deep, forming a natural ditch. “ Nothing,” says Sir
R. K. Porter, “ can exceed the grandeur of these bulwarks
of nature, which so frequently present themselves around
fortified places in those precipitous countries ; their vast¬
ness, simplicity, and impregnable appearance being far be¬
yond the powers of man to imitate.” The walls of Erivan,
with their numerous towers, make a line of defence exceed¬
ing 2000 yards. Immediately beyond them a fine stone
bridge crosses the river, which is almost the only object in
the town that does not appear in a state of ruin or decay.
Erivan has been so often the scene of devastation, plunder,
and massacre, that the population has dwindled to about
15,000 persons. The singular old tower described by
Chardin being struck with lightning and greatly damaged,
has been pulled down, and the materials appropriated to the
repairs of the town. The city is well supplied with water
from the little river Querk-boolak, which has its source in
the great lake, and runs thence north-east, but on approach¬
ing the city is divided into numberless little canals for the
irrigation of the surrounding gardens, or for other purposes.
Sir R. K. Porter supposes that the Erivan was founded
sixty-five years before the Christian era, by Ervandus, one
of the Armenian kings. In 1635 it was taken from the
Turks by the Persians, and its position changed to its pre¬
sent site. It was besieged in 1724 by the pasha of Diar-
bekir, who in four successive attempts to storm it lost
about 24,000 men. It afterwards capitulated, after a brave
defence. It was taken by Nadir Shah in 1748, and has
since remained in possession of the Persians. In 1808 it
was blockaded for six months by the Russians, who, in
attempting to storm, were repulsed with great slaughter,
and lost half their army in its retreat to Tiflis. It was
taken by them in 1829, and given up to Persia by the
subsequent treaty of peace. Long. 44. 35. E. Lat. 10.
9. 30. N.
ERIPHYLE, in fabulous history, a sister of Adrastus
king of Argus, who married Amphiaraus. She was daugh¬
ter of Talaus and Lysimache. When her husband concea-
ed himself in order that he might not accompany the Ar-
gives in their expedition against Thebes, where it ha
been predicted he was to perish, Eriphyle suffered herse
Henry’s History of Great Britain, vol. i. p. 344. * Montfaucon Pateographia Gneca, p.
3 Huetius de Interpretatione, p. 154.
E R N
to be bribed by Polynices with a golden necklace which
had been formerly given to Hermione by the goddess Ve-
• nus, and discovered where Amphiaraus lay hidden. This
treachery of Eriphyle compelled him to go to the war;
but before he departed, he charged his son Alcmaeon to
murder the betrayer as soon as he received information of
his death. Amphiaraus perished in the expedition ; and
his death was no sooner known than his last injunctions were
obeyed, and Eriphyle was murdered by the hands of her son.
ERIS, the goddess of discord among the Greeks. She
is the same as the Discordia of the Latins.
ERISICHTHON, in fabulous history, a Thessalian, son
of Triops, who derided Ceres and cut down her groves.
This impiety irritated the goddess, who afflicted him with
continual hunger ; in consequence of which he squander¬
ed all his possessions in order to gratify tire cravings of
his appetite, and at last devoured his own limbs for want
of food. Some say that his daughter had the power of
transforming herself into whatever animal she pleased, and
that she made use of this artifice in order to maintain her
father, who had sold her,- after which she assumed another
shape, and again became his property.
ERLANGEN, a city of the circle of the Rezat, in the
kingdom of Bavaria. It stands on the river Wernitz, is
surrounded with ancient walls and towers, and though an¬
tique, is well built, and has broad streets. It contains a
royal palace, three Lutheran churches, two Reformed, and
one Catholic, and 815 houses, with 9800 inhabitants. It is
the seat of the only exclusively Protestant university in the
kingdom, which has twenty-six professors, and about 200
students, with a library of 80,000 volumes, a botanic gar¬
den, and several museums, with an anatomical theatre, and
a chemical laboratory. There are numerous manufactures
carried on, of cottons, hats, hosiery, gloves, paper, cutlery,
&c. Long. 9. 1. 5. E. Lat. 49. 35. 36. N.
ERLAU, or Eger, a city of Hungary, in the circle of
the Hither Theiss. It contains an Episcopal palace and ca¬
thedral, a university with ten professors, an observatory
and public library, three cloisters for monks and one for
the Brethren of Mercy, with 1710 houses, and 16,112 in¬
habitants. There are here manufactures of linen and wool-
I len goods, and much good wine is also made. Long. 20.
17. 51. E. Lat. 47. 53. 36. N.
i ERMIN, in Heraldry, denotes a white field or fur, pow¬
dered or interspersed with black spots, called powdering.
Ermin, an order of knights instituted in 1450, by Fran¬
cis I. duke of Bretagne, and which formerly subsisted in
1 ranee. The collar of this order was of gold, composed of
ears of corn in saltier, at the end of which hung the er¬
mine, with the inscription d ma vie. But the order ex¬
pired when the dukedom of Bretagne was annexed to the
crown of France.
ERMINES, in Heraldry, the reverse of ermine, that is,
"lute spots on a black field.
ERMINOIS, in Heraldry, signifies the field or, and the
spots black.
ERNATIA, a town or Asiatic Turkey, in Natolia, situ¬
ated on the Gulf of Satalia, sixteen miles north-west of Sa-
tal1^- Long. 30. 24. E. Lat. 36. 50. N.
nn ^TI, J0HN Augustus, one of the most illustri¬
ous philologers and theologians of the last century. He was
Dorn on the 4th August 1707, at Tennstadt, of which place
1S, ^ther, likewise a distinguished theologian, was pastor,
n superintendent of the electoral dioceses of Thuringia,
a z, and Sangerhusen. After having received his first in-
rucUon in the learned languages, under the domestic dis-
towV* ^a^ier’ and Ei the gymnasium of his native
s"’ f ^as sent at the age of sixteen to the celebrated
vea °n C ?ls^er school of Pforta. Here he continued four
vm ^ ^ie aSe twenty he entered the university of
E R N
W ittemberg, where he studied eloquence and ancient life
i atm e under the celebrated Berger, theology under Werns-
doit, and tire Wolfian philosophy under Schlosser. From
Yv ittemberg he passed to the university of Leipsig, where
re applied himselt to the mathematical sciences under
Hausen, following the courses of Boerner and Deyling on
theology, and the lectures of Gottsched on German elo¬
quence. In 1730 he was made master in the faculty of
philosophy. In the following year he accepted the office
ot com ectoi in the I homan school of Leipsig, of which J.
M. Gesner was then rector ; and on Gesner’s vocation, as
professor of eloquence, to Gottingen, he succeeded him
as lector. In this situation, by his erudition, diligence,
and the elegance of his methods, he surpassed all his con¬
temporaries, and created an epoch in Germany for the
study of the ancient authors. From this office, in opposi¬
tion to the present custom, which precludes a translation
into the universities to the masters of the subordinate
schools, he was, in 1742, named as extraordinary profes¬
sor of ancient literature in the university of Leipsig, and
in 1756 promoted to the ordinary professorship of elo¬
quence. In both these chairs he knetv how to combine
more intellect, philosophy, and taste, than had been done
by any of his predecessors. His reputation as a scholar,
and his rational treatment of the biblical exegesis, paved
the way for his entrance into the theological faculty.
Through the elegance of his learning, and his manner of
discussion, he co-operated with Baumgarten of Halle in
disengaging dogmatic theology from the scholastic and
mystical excrescences with which it was then deformed;
and thereby contributed greatly to the new revolution in
theology, although he himself never deyiated from the an¬
cient system. In these deserving labours, and with un¬
broken health, he attained an honourable old age; and
died, after a short illness, in his seventy-sixth year, on 11th
September 1781.
Whether Ernesti be considered as a philologer or theo¬
logian, it is perhaps as much from the impulsion which he
gave to sacred and profane criticism in Germany, as from
the intrinsic excellence of his own works in either depart¬
ment, that he must derive his reputation. With Gesner,
he instituted a new school in ancient literature ; and, after
Crocus, Melanchthon, and Camerarius, has been perhaps
the greatest reformer and promoter of classical learning in
Germany. With Semler he partially co-operated in the
great revolution of Lutheran theology ; though he is guilt¬
less of all participation in the deductions Yvhich many of
those who profess themselves his disciples have drawn from
the principles which he established.
An enthusiastic and enlightened study of the ancient
Greek and Roman authors is the well-merited boast of the
present German literature. This commenced, in its exist¬
ing form, towards the middle of the last century. Not
that Germany, before that period, had neglected ancient
literature, or could not enumerate her proportion among
the great names of classical erudition. No nation, in fact,
had produced so many, or more illustrious, scholars imme¬
diately after the Reformation ; but for a long time polite
literature had become deformed, if not neglected, in pro¬
portion as religious wars and polemical theology had ex¬
hausted and engrossed her governments and universities.
The German scholars were chiefly theologians, and theo¬
logians who had studied every thing in reference to their
peculiar profession. Add to this, that the most disgusting
and inefficient methods had been introduced, whereby the
spirit of the instruction was at utter variance with the object
of the study. Accordingly, during the whole of the seven¬
teenth and the first half of the eighteenth century, Ger¬
many was far excelled by Holland in the number and ex¬
cellence of her philologers ; and it was not until the appear-
2 z
361
Ernesti.
1
362
Ernesti.
E R N
ance of Gesner and Ernesti, with their somewhat earlier
contemporaries, Cortius, Daniel Longohus, and Michael
Heusinger, that she could oppose above one or two rivals
to the great critics of the Dutch schools. Gesner and Er¬
nesti, however, through the influence ot their lectures at
the greater universities of Gottingen and Leipsig, through
the wider extent of their labours in philology, and still
more through the greater excellence ot their methods, are
alone entitled to be held the founders of the new German
school of ancient literature. Both excelled their philolo¬
gical countrymen in taste, in the elegance ot their Eatin
style, in a philosophical spirit, and in a wider acquaintance
with the subsidiary branches of erudition. Both made an
advantageous use of their critical knowledge ot the langua¬
ges ; both looked at once to the words and to the subject
of the ancient writers, established and applied the rules
of a legitimate interpretation, and carefully analysed the
meaning as well as the form of the expression. Both con¬
tributed effectually to expel the old absurd and disgusting
methods of instruction from the schools and universities,
and to introduce an improved and more effectual system.
To the epoch whffch they formed, many circumstances in¬
deed contributed:—their acquaintance with the Dutch cri¬
ticism ; the universal enthusiasm of the Germans for esta¬
blishing a national literature, and for becoming at the same
time reformers in the departments of ancient learning , and
withal the spirit of philosophy which at that period in Ger¬
many began more and more to blend itself with every part
of science and literature. It is also true that their editions
do not possess the complement of erudition and criticism
which distinguish those of many of their contemporaries;
their commentaries have the precision, but how infeiior
are they in certainty, copiousness, and depth of illustration,
to those of the philologers of Holland? In their editions
of the Latin classics, they returned back to the somewhat
inconvenient method of Cellarius, collecting their principal
illustrations into an Index Rerum et Verborum, as is done
by Gesner in his Quintilian, and by Ernesti in his Cicero ;
not, however, that they did not possess the means of illus¬
trating their author with a rich critical and philological
commentary, of which the former has given ample proof in
his editions of the Scriptores de Re Rustica, and in his
Claudian, and the latter in his two most valuable labours, his
Suetonius and Tacitus. Both, but especially Ernesti, have
detected grammatical niceties in the Latin tongue, which
had escaped all preceding critics; such, among others, are
the use of the subjunctive mood after the pronoun qui, and
the legitimate consecution of the tenses. His canons are,
however, not without exceptions. As an editor of the
Greek classics, Ernesti deserves hardly to be named beside
his Dutch contemporaries, Hemsterhuis, Yalkenaer, Ruhn-
ken, or his colleague and enemy the learned and unfortu¬
nate Reiske. How insignificant are his own labours in his
editions of Homer and Callimachus ? In regard to the
higher criticism, it was not even attempted by Ernesti.
But to him and to Gesner the peculiar praise is owing
of having formed, partly by their discipline, and partly by
their example, philologers greater than themselves ; and to
them is due the honour of having so strongly excited in
Germany that enthusiasm for ancient learning, which has
now, unfortunately, no parallel in the other countries of
Europe.
As a theologian, Ernesti is far less conspicuous than as
a scholar, and his influence not so marked either on his
contemporaries or on his successors. Before the middle of
the eighteenth century, the Spenerian pietism had been al¬
most banished from the Lutheran theology ; and the pro¬
fessors of that faculty in the Protestant universities of Ger¬
many no longer excluded philosophy from all interference
in the doctrine of Christian belief. It had then been bold-
E R N
ly proclaimed and maintained with pre-eminent ability by l f8l
Semler, that Luther had commenced and not finished the ^ ^
of* religion but that this deformation must
still proceed, and that religion, like other branches of know¬
ledge. must become purer and more perfect in proportion
to the increase of knowledge and the development of the
human mind. At this date, accordingly, the theologians
of Germany had begun to disregard the nonconformity of
their doctrines with the formula of the Lutheran church;
and after this period few were at all apprehensive of openly
controverting its tenets when at variance with the results
of their own speculations. From the unrestrained freedom
of thought in matters of religion which was now indulged, if
not even encouraged, by the governments in their different
universities, every one was at perfect liberty, without any
derogation from his ciiaracter as a clergyman or instructor,
to maintain and promulgate what opinions in religion he
chose ; and it must be acknowledged that the theologians
have made, and are still making, every use and abuse of
this license, and have arrived at every conclusion that piety
and learning, as well as presumption, folly, and irreligion
can suggest. It was at the commencement of this impor¬
tant era that Ernesti flourished as a theologian.
Of the three sciences subsidiary to theology, philosophy,
history, and grammatical exegesis, the first had been im¬
perfectly applied, and without any interesting result, by
Baumgarten, a scholar of Wolf; but the second, the histo¬
rical interpretation, had, in the hands of Semler, been pro¬
ductive of conclusions subversive of much that had been
hitherto held orthodox and even sacred. In the gramma¬
tical interpretation of the New Testament some imperfect
progress had been made by Bengel; but the new epoch in
the biblical exegesis commences with John David Michaelis
for the Old, and with Ernesti for the New Testament. It
is, indeed, chiefly in hermeneutic that Ernesti has any claim
to the character of a great theologian. But here his merits
are distinguished, and, at the period when his InstiMio
Interpretis N. T. was published, almost peculiar to himself. '
He applied himself to the interpretation of the sacred
Scriptures, after a long and familiar acquaintance with the
Greek and Roman writers, and when formed in his mind
and taste by a constant study of these patterns. His in¬
terpretation of the New Testament bears the character ot
both these circumstances. It is not only the matter, but
at the same time the manner in which it is conveyed,—it
is the selection of subjects, with the precision, the preg¬
nant brevity, the elegance and simplicity, in winch they
are expressed,—that confers on this little book so high ana
so singular a value. We find in it the principles of a ge¬
neral interpretation, and this without the assistance °^ny
particular philosophy, not even of the Wolfian, to wmc
Ernesti was attached ; but consisting of observations ana
rules, which, though already enunciated, and applied in tne
criticism of the profane writers, had never rigorously been
employed in the biblical exegesis. He admits in the sa¬
cred writings only one acceptation, and that the grammatica ,
convertible into and the same with the logical and historical.
The Scriptures, therefore, having this in common witn a
other writings, it follows that they can only be explame
like mere human compositions ; that the rules ot in^erP
tation are the same in both; and that only throng so
peculiar constitution of speech and writing could any po
sible distinction between these subsist.. He theretoie ju
ly censures the opinion of those who, in the illustia 10
the Scriptures, refer every thing to the illumination o
Holy Spirit; as well as that of others who, in contemp
all knowledge of the languages, would explain woras j
things, and thus introduce into the holy writings t ei 1 ^
culiar glosses and opinions. The analogy of jai
rule of interpretation, he greatly limits, and teaches
E R N
E R P 363
. can never alone afford the explanation of words, but only
j determine the choice among their possible significations,
and must always stand in need of philology as an assistant.
The spirit of Ernesti’s interpretation gives no countenance,
however, to the results which many of his followers have
deduced from the grammatical and historical exegeses.
Every principle of his interpretation rests on the assumed in¬
spiration of the holy books; and there is not perhaps a better
antidote to the poisonous tenets of many of those who pro¬
fess to be of his school, than the diligent study of his In-
terpres, and the relative Acroases of Morus. In the higher
criticism of the sacred books Ernesti did nothing. In dog¬
matic he always expressed great contempt of strict syste¬
matic theology; and though he lectured for many years on
the Aphorisms of Neumann, it was rather in refutation than
in support of his text-book.
Among his works the following are the more important:
I. In profane literature :
Initia Doctrinm Solidioris, 1736, 8vo ; many subsequent
editions. A work not only valuable by reason of the real
excellence of the matter, but more particularly deserving
an attentive study, on account of the purity of the Latin,
in discussing subjects of philosophy known only to the mo¬
derns.
Initia Rhetorica, 1730.
Xenophontis Memorabilia Socratis, cum notis, 1737; of¬
ten reprinted.
Ciceronis Opera cum clave, 1737 ; 2d edit. Halae, 1757 ;
3d edit. ibid. 1776, 8vo, 6 vols.
Suetonius cum Animadversionibus, 1748 ; 2d edit. 1775-8.
Taciti Opera cum notis J. Lipsii, Jo. Fr. Gronovii et
suis, 1752; 2d edit. 1772; 8vo. Another edition, with
many additions and improvements, has been procured by
Oberlin.
Aristophanis Nubes cum Scholiis Antiquis et prcefatione,
1754, 8vo.
Corradi Qucestura cum prcefatione, 1754, 8vo. SeeWyt-
tenbach in his Vita Ruhnhenii.
Hederici Lexicon Grcecum, multis Vocabulorum millibus
Auctum, 1754-67, 8vo.
Hormri Opera Omnia, ex Recensione, et cum Notis Sam.
Clarkii, accessit Varietas Lectionum MS. Lips, et Edit.
Vet. cura J. A. E. qui et suas Notas adspersit, 1759-64,
5 vols. 8vo.
Callimachi Hymni et Epigrammata, cum Notis Var. La-
tine vertit atque Notis adjecit. Lugd. Bat. 1761, 8vo, 2
vols.
Polybius cum Notis Var. Prcefationem et Glossarium
Polyhanum adjecit. Viennse et Lips. 1764, 3 vols. 8vo.
Archaologia Litter aria, 1768. A new and improved edi¬
tion by Martini.
Horatius Tursellinus de Particulis, 1769, 8vo.
Fabricii Bibliotheca Latina nunc melius delecta, rectius
digesta et auxta, vol. i. and ii. 1773; vol. iii. 1774, 8vo, un¬
finished.
II. In sacred literature :
Antimuratorius sive Confutatio Disputationis Muratori-
anx de rebus Liturgicis, 1755-58.
Neue Theologische Bibliothek, vol. i. to x. 1760-69, 8vo.
Institutio Interprets Nov. Test. 1761, reprinted in the
same year at Leyden; 2d edit. 1765; 3d edit. 1775; 8vo.
Neueste Theologische Bibliothek, vol. i. to x. 1771-75, 8vo.
Besides these, he published above a hundred smaller
works in the form of prefaces, academical dissertations,
programmata, memoriae, elogia, epistles, orations, transla¬
tions, &c. Many of these have been collected in the three
ollowhig publications:—Opuscula Oratoria, Lugd. Bat.
2d edit. 1767 ; 8vo. Opuscula Philologica et Cri-
Lugd. Bat. 1764; 2d edit. 1776; 8vo. Opuscula The-
ologica, Lips. 1773, 8vo.
EROS (from tgws, love), in Mythology, one of two chiefs Eros
of the cupids, being the cause of love. II
EROSION, among physicians, denotes nearly the same Erpemus.
thing with corrosion, only in a stronger degree. —Y-1-
EROTIA, a festival instituted in honour of Eros, the
god of love. It was celebrated by the Thespians every
fifth year, with sports and games, when musicians and others
contended. It any quarrels or seditions had arisen amongst
the people, it was then usual to offer sacrifices and prayers
to the god that he would totally remove them.
EROTIC (derived from love, whence ggwmof) is
applied to any thing which has a relation to the passion of
love.
EROUAD, or Erroad, a town of Hindustan, in the pro¬
vince of Coimbetoor. It contained during the reign of
Hyder about 3000 houses, but was reduced to one third
in the reign of Tippoo ; and during the invasion of General
Meadows the town was destroyed. It is now fast recover¬
ing, and contains about 400 houses. It was taken by the
British in 1768, and retaken the same year by Hyder. It
was again taken by the British in 1790, and retaken by
Tippoo ; but it came into the final possession of the Bri¬
tish, along with the province, in 1799. A canal has lately
been cut in its vicinity, and is expected to be productive
of much benefit to the inhabitants. Long. 77. 50. E. Lat.
11. 19. N.
ERPENIUS or d’Erpe, Thomas, a celebrated orien¬
talist, born at Gorcum in Holland, on the 7th September
1584. Observing his aptitude for learning, his father sent
him to Leyden at the early age of ten; and it was in that
city that he commenced his studies. At the end of seve¬
ral months, however, he went to Middelburg, where he
remained some time ; but in about a year he returned to
Leyden, where he had opportunities of indulging his tastes
with greater facility. His progress was so rapid, that at a
very tender age he was admitted into the university of that ’
city, and in 1608 took the degree of master of arts. At the
solicitation of Scaliger he learned the oriental languages
whilst taking his course of theology, and even then gave
promise of the distinction which he was destined to attain
in that department of learning. After he had completed
his studies he travelled in England, France, Italy, and Ger¬
many, forming connections with learned men, and availing
himself of the information which they communicated. Du¬
ring his stay at Paris, he contracted a friendship with Ca-
saubon, which lasted during his life, and also took lessons in
Arabic from Joseph Barbatus, otherwise called Abu-dakni.
At Venice he held conferences with both Jews and Mahom-
medans, and profited by his residence in that city to perfect
himself in the Turkish, Persic, and Ethiopic languages.
After a long absence, Erpenius returned into his own coun¬
try in 1612, rich in the learning which he had acquired du¬
ring his travels, as well as beloved and esteemed by all the
learned whom he had visited. His acquirements being
already known and appreciated, he was, on the 10th Fe¬
bruary 1613, appointed professor of Arabic and other orien¬
tal languages, Hebrew excepted, in the university of Ley¬
den. From this period he devoted himself solely to the
teaching of these languages, to facilitate the study of them,
and to extend a knowledge of them by means of his works.
Animated by the example of Savary de Breves, who had
established at his own charge an Arabic press at Paris, he
caused new Arabic characters to be cut at a great expense,
and erected a press in his own house. In 1619 the curators
of the university of Leyden instituted a second chair of He¬
brew in his favour. In 1620, the States of Holland sent
him to France, to endeavour, by the promise of a chair of
theology, to induce Pierre Dumoulin or Andre Rivet to
settle in that country; but this first journey proved unsuc¬
cessful, and was followed, the year after, by a second, which
n
364 E R P
Erpenius. had the desired effect, as Rivet closed with the terms offered
him, and passed into Holland. Some time after the return
of Erpenius, the States appointed him their interpreter ; an
office which imposed upon him the duty of translating and
replying to the different letters of the Moslemin princes of
Asia and Africa. The king or emperor of Morocco, it is
said, took great pleasure in reading his Arabic letters, and
in pointing out the elegance and purity with which they
were written. But be this as it may, tjie reputation of
Erpenius had now spread throughout all Europe ; and se¬
veral princes, the kings of England and Spain, and^ the
archbishop of Seville, made him the most flattering offers ,
but he constantly refused to leave his native country, and
died of a contagious distemper on the 13th of November
1624, at the early age of forty. Erpenius left several works,
which are doubtless not perfect; but if we consider that he
lived in an age when pursuits like his were exceedingly
rare, if not wholly new, that he had little oi no assist¬
ance of any kind, and that in fact he formed himself; and
if we judge him, not according to the present state of orien¬
tal literature, but by what he actually achieved under every
disadvantage, we must conclude that, in the immensity and
difficulty of his labours, he probably surpassed all the orien¬
talists who have followed him ; and that if his career had
not been cut short by a premature death, he would have
greatly enlarged the boundaries of that literature of which
his name will always remain one of the greatest ornaments.
The following is a list of his works1. Oratio de Lingua
Arabica, Leyden, 1613, in 4to; 2. Annotationes in Lexic.
Arab. Fr. Raphelengii, ibid. 1613, in 4to; 3. Grammatica
Arabica, qiiinqae libris methodice explicata,1 ibid. 1613, in
4to; 4. Proverbiorum Arabicorum centuries, dues, ab ano-
nymo quodam Arabe collectce, ibid. 1614 and 1623, in fevo ;
5. Locmani sapientis Fabides et selecta quesdam Arabum
Adagia, cum interpretatione Latina et notis, ibid. 1615, in
8vo ; 6. Pauli Apost. ad Romanos, Arabice, ibid. 1615, in
4to; 7. Novum D. N. J. C. Testamentum, Arabice, ibid.
1616, in 4to; 8. Pentateuchus Mosis, Arabice, ibid. 1622;
9. Historia Josephi Patriarchs ex Alcorano, cum triplici
versione Latina et scholiis Th. Erpenii, cujus preemittitur
Alphabetum Arabicum, ibid. 1617, in 4to; 10. Grammati¬
ca Arabica dicta Giarumia et libellus centum regentium cum
versione Latina et Commentariis, ibid. 1617, in 4to; 11.
Canones de litterarum Alif, Waw, et Ye apud Arabes na-
turo et permutatione, ibid. 1618, in 4to ; 12. Rudimenta
Linguce Arabics ; accedunt Praxis Grammatica et consi¬
lium de studio Arabico feliciter instituendo, ibid. 1620, in
8vo; 13. Orationes tres de linguarum Ebres et Arabics
dignitate, ibid. 1621, in 12mo; 14. Historia Saracenica,
ibid. 1625, in fol.; 15. Grammatica Ebrsa Generalis,
ibid. 1621, in 8vo; 16. Grammatica Syra et Chcddsa,
ibid. 1628; 17. Psalmi Davidis, Lyriace, ibid. 1628 ; 18.
Arcanum punctuationis revelatum et Oratio de nomine Te-
tragrammato ; 19. Versio et Nots ad Arabicam Paraphra-
sin in Evang. S. Joannis, Rostock, 1626; 20. De Peri-
grinatione Gallicd utiliter instituenda tractatus, ibid. 1631,
in 12mo; 21. Prscepta de Lingua Grscorum communi,
Leyden, 1662. Erpenius had projected several other
works, particularly an edition of the Koran with notes, and
an oriental library; and in the prefaces of his grammars
he also speaks of a Thesaurus Grammaticus, which, how¬
ever, has not seen the light. For further information re¬
specting this celebrated orientalist, the learned reader may
consult Vossius, Oratio in obit. Th. Erpenii, Leyden, 1625,
E R S
in 4to, and Scriverius, Manes Erpeniani, quibus accedunt
Epicedia variorum, ibid. 1625.
ERPETOLOGY. See Reptilia.
ERRATIC, in general, something that wanders, or is
not regular. Hence the planets are called erratic stars.
ERROMANGO, an island in the South Pacific Ocean,
one of the New Hebrides, about ninety miles in circum¬
ference. The inhabitants are black. Long. 169. 20. E.
Lat. 13. 50. S.
ERROOR, a fortified town of the south of India, in the
province of Mysore. The Hoggree river runs close past
the fortifications, to which there is a flight of steps from
the water’s edge, built by some pious Mahommedan. It
was plundered by the Mahrattas in 1790. Long. 76. 39. E.
■ 'atic
■ line, ^
Lat. 13. 48. N.
ERROR, in Philosophy, a mistake of the judgment, or
giving assent to that which is not true. Mr Locke reduces
the causes of error into these four : first, want of proofs; i
secondly, want of ability to use them ; thirdly, want of will |
to use them ; and, fourthly, wrong measures of probability.
ERSKINE, Thomas, Lord Erskine, a distinguished
lawyer and statesman, was the third and youngest son of
David Llenry Erskine, tenth earl of Buchan, in Scotland.
He was born in Scotland, and received his education part¬
ly at the high school of Edinburgh, and partly at the
university of St Andrews. From the contracted resources
of his family, it was necessary for him to fix upon a
profession. He chose the navy, and having embarked
at Leith as a midshipman, he quitted his native country,
which he did not revisit until a few years before his
death. In the navy he experienced no advancement, and,
after four years’ service, he entered the army in the year
1768. In 1770 he married, and shortly after this event
he accompanied his regiment to Minorca, where he re¬
mained during three years. It is not certain whether his
abilities as an officer ever rendered him conspicuous, but
tire versatility of his talents, and the acuteness of his in¬
tellect, thus early brought him a high reputation. By the
earnest persuasion of his mother, who, it would appear, was
a woman of more than ordinary penetration, he was in¬
duced to quit the army after six years of military proba¬
tion. The legal pi'ofession was the one which appeared
best adapted for the character of his mind; and in 177/
he entered as a fellowT commoner at Trinity College, Cam¬
bridge, for the purpose of obtaining a degree, which he
was entitled to as the son of a nobleman, and thereby of
shortening his passage to the bar. At the same time he
entered himself as a student at Lincoln’s Inn. In 1778 he
was called to the bar, where his success was immediate and
remarkable. In a case of libel, in which he advocated the
cause of Captain Baillie, the defendant, he displayed so
much eloquence and talent, that the legal world was asto¬
nished, and thirty retainers were put into his hand by at-
tornies before he left the court. A few months after this
event he was honoured by being chosen to appear at the
bar of the House of Commons, as counsel against a bill o
Lord North’s to restore to the universities the monopoly
in almanacks. The bill was lost by a large majority, and
the speech which Mr Erskine made upon the occasion so
established his reputation for forensic skill, that he was
from this period engaged, either on one side or another, m
every case of importance, during a practice of twenty-fbe
years. To this period also belongs his famous speech m
defence of Lord George Gordon, which was a case of w ia
This grammar, says Schnurrer, which may be regarded as the first composed in Europe, has not only been often repnnte , ^
it has so made the law, or, in other words, served as a model, that several professors, particularly in Germany, who have pu ^
Arabic grammars under their own names, have followed the footsteps of Erpenius, and have never ventured to deviate Iro
course marked out by their guide. • • . ■ '
Er&
E R S
is called constructive treason. Erskine procured a clear
I aCquittal of his client, which was for the time a deathblow
to the tremendous doctrine of constructive treason. In
May 1783 he received a silk gown, and the same year was
elected member of parliament for Portsmouth, for which
borough he was on every election re-chosen, until his ad¬
vancement to the peerage rendered that honour unneces¬
sary. When the eldest son of George III. obtained his
establishment as Prince of Wales, he chose Mr Erskine as
his attorney-general. But there is nothing in the life of
this eminent man which reflects so much honour on his
memory as his exertions in defence of the privileges of
juries. The rights of those pro tempore judges he stre¬
nuously maintained upon all occasions, particularly in the
celebrated trial of the Dean of St Asaph, for libel, when
Justice Buller refused to receive the verdict of guilty of
'publishing only, as returned by the jury. In 1789 another
opportunity was afforded him to display his peculiar powers.
This was the defence of a Mr Stockdale, a bookseller, who
was tried on an information filed by the attorney-general,
for publishing what was charged as a libellous pamphlet in
favour of Mr Hastings. The situation of the latter, whose
celebrated but protracted trial was then dragging its slow
length along, gave Erskine admirable scope for that ani¬
mated appeal to the feelings, by which his speeches are so
much distinguished. It is one of his finest orations ; and,
whether we regard the wonderful skill with which the ar¬
gument is conducted, the soundness of the principles laid
down, and their happy application to the case, the vivid¬
ness of fancy with which these are illustrated, and the touch¬
ing language in which they are conveyed, it is justly to be
regarded as a consummate specimen of the art of address¬
ing a jury. This masterly defence procured a clear acquit¬
tal for Stockdale, although the fact of publication was ad¬
mitted. Not long afterwards he advocated the cause of Mr
Perry, editor of a London newspaper, w ho wras also charged
with publishing what the jealous loyalty of those times con¬
strued into a libel; and his speech produced a similar re¬
sult. But the most arduous effort of his professional life
arose out of the part cast upon him, in conjunction with
Mr, afterwards Sir Vicary, Gibbs, in the trials of Hardy,
Tooke, and others, for high treason in 1794. These trials
lasted several weeks, and the ability displayed by Mr Erskine
upon this memorable occasion was acknowledged and ad¬
mired by men of all parties. His speech in defence of Mr
Frost, which, however, preceded those above mentioned,
is another of those almost miraculous exertions, which, in
that momentous crisis, Mr Erskine made for the liberties
of his country. Frost was accused of uttering seditious
"ords, which, however, turned out to have been spoken at
random in a coffee-house whilst the accused was in a state
bordering on intoxication. In the violence of that day, the
exertions of Erskine failed of their accustomed effect, and
Frost was found guilty. But the impression of his defence
j'as not lost; and it deterred the government from risking
its credit on such precarious speculations, until, as we have
noticed, the charges of high treason were brought forward,
when the whole force of the bar was marshalled against the
prisoners, and every effort used to beat down and paralyse
11-eii undaunted defender. But his spirit rose superior to
every difficulty, and then it was that his consummate talents
s mne forth in their native lustre. His indefatigable pa-
mnce, his sleepless watchfulness, his unceasing activity of
-y-d mind, his untameable spirit, his quickness and
Ml . y intellect, together with a herculean strength of
constitution, counterbalanced the host to which he was op¬
pose . Such were the gigantic powers of the man; the
E R Y
365
wonderful eloquence of the forensic orator is only to be
PMeVf a-S SeC0nd t0 these*
r Erskine was a warm partizan of Mr Fox, and the
liberal party of that time. He strenuously opposed the Erskine
war with F rance, and published a pamphlet against it, en- jl
titled A View of the Causes and Consequences of the War Erysipelna.
with France, which had an immense sale. In 1802 the
Prince of Wales not only restored him to his office of at¬
torney-general, of which he had been deprived, but made
him keeper of the seals for the duchy of Cornwall. On the
death of 1 itt in 180G, when Lord Grenville received or¬
ders to form a new administration, Mr Erskine was created
a peer, by the title of Lord Erskine, of Restormel Castle
in Cornwall, and elevated to the dignity of lord high chan¬
cellor of Great Britain. His previous experience in the
courts of common law scarcely fitted him for the judicial
functions of this dignified office; but there seems little
doubt that his natural quickness of intellect would have
triumphed over every difficulty, had not a dissolution of the
administration of which he formed part been accelerated
by the obstinacy of the king on the subject of the Catholic
claims. His public career may be said to have terminated
with this event, and the remainder of his life was undis¬
tinguished by any great exertion, whilst it was unhappily
embittered by pecuniary difficulties, which were enhanced,
it is said, by an unfortunate second marriage. His mind,
however, retained its native elasticity, and in his retire¬
ment he employed himself in editing several of the state
trials. He also wrote the preface to Fox’s speeches, a
political romance entitled Armata, and several pamphlets
in support of the Greek cause. Whilst accompanying one
of his sons by sea to Edinburgh, he was seized with an
inflammation of the chest, which compelled him to land
at Scarborough. He reached Scotland by easy stages, but
expired on the 17th of November 1823, at the seat of his
brother, situated a few miles from Edinburgh. The pecu¬
liar character of Lord Erskine’s eloquence has already in
some measure been described. In his capacity of advo¬
cate he possessed the power of summoning upon the in¬
stant all the resources of his mind, and bringing them to
bear upon the subject before the court with extraordinary
effect. In this respect his speeches bear a resemblance
to those of Mr Pitt, whilst they far surpass them in im¬
passioned fervour, in brilliancy of imagination, in copious¬
ness of imagery, and in that quality of mind expressed by
the emphatic word genius. His dexterity was likewise
unrivalled at the bar; and these qualifications, united with
a courage which nothing could daunt, and a firmness which
was never overcome, rendered him almost irresistible on
the defensive side of political persecution. Amidst all the
struggles of the constitution in parliament, in council, and
in the field, during that momentous period of our national
history, there was no man to whose individual exertions
it owred so much as to those of this celebrated advocate.
In stemming the tide of state prosecutions, this single pa¬
triot may be said to have saved his country from the hor¬
rors of a general proscription. As a senatorial orator his
claims were but secondary; and as a political writer he is
not entitled to much distinction. His sphere was the bar,
and there, as the advocate of injured worth or persecuted
political honesty, he never had a rival before, and he has
left no equal behind him.
By his first wife, who died in 1805, Lord Erskine had
three sons and five daughters. His speeches have been fre¬
quently printed ; the last edition is in 5 vols. 8vo. (a. R. R.)
ERYMANTHUS, a mountain, river, and town of Ar¬
cadia, where Hercules killed a prodigious boar, the car¬
cass of which he carried on his shoulders to Eurystheus,
who was so terrified at the sight that he hid himself in a
brazen vessel.
ERYSIPELAS, in Medicine, an eruption of a red or
fiery kind, from which no part of the body is exempted,
though it chiefly attacks the face.
366
Erythrae
II
Erzerum.
E R Z
ERYTHRiE, in Ancient Geography, a port of iEtolia,
on the Bay of Corinth. The Erythraeans considered the
Sibyl Herophile as their countrywoman, and she was thence
surnamed Erythrcea. Erythrae was famous for an ancient
temple of Hercules.
ERYTHRiEUM Mare was used, at the time when the
Greeks possessed little accurate information respecting
India, to designate the whole ocean to the south of Asia,
which washed the coasts of Arabia, Persia, and Western
India. The boundary of the Erythraean Sea was deter¬
mined by a line drawn from the outlet of the Red Sea or
Arabian Gulf, to the southern extremity of India. Its name
was probably derived from that of some prince ; for we can
scarcely ascribe it to any supposed redness of colour, which
the word in the Greek language means. In course ot time,
however, it was restricted to the sea south of Arabia; an
in this signification it was understood by Strabo (xvi. fbo,
766). Herodotus (i. 180), indeed, seems to have known
nothing of the Persian Gulf, but to have considered the river
Euphrates as falling at once into the Mare Erythrmum.
ERYX, a son of Butes and Yenus, who, relying upon
his strength, challenged all strangers to fight him with the
cestus. After many had yielded to his superior dexterity,
Hercules accepted his challenge, and Eryx was killed in
the combat, and buried on the mountain, where he had
built a temple to Venus (Virg. 2En. v. 402). A mountain
of Sicily near Drepanum also received its name from
Eryx, who was buried there. This mountain was so steep
that the houses which were built upon it seemed every
moment ready to tumble down ; but Daedalus enlarged the
top, which he enclosed with a strong wall, and also conse¬
crated to Yenus Erycina a golden heifer, which so much
resembled life that it seemed to exceed the power of art.
ERZERUM, the capital of one of the most considerable
pashaliks in Armenia, of the same name, which is ruled by
a pasha of three tails. It is surrounded on all sides by
mountains, the highest peaks of which are covered with
snow; and it lies in a valley beneath. The streets are in
general paved, and the houses are built of stone, with i af¬
ters of wood and terraces. On the tops of these the glass
grows, and they afford pasture for sheep; so that when
seen from a distance they appear to form part of the plain
in front of the town, which is about twenty miles in cir¬
cumference, and is embellished with upwards of sixty vil¬
lages. Towards the south the town is protected by a cita¬
del, mounting twenty pieces of cannon of different calibres.
It is surrounded by a double wall of stone, and has four
gates covered with plates of iron. On the eastern face this
work assumes a modern appearance, having regular embra¬
sures ; but, from its want of solidity, it is equally defenceless
with any other part of the castle. In the eastern part of
the city is an old brick tower, the loftiest building in the
place, with a clock on the summit which strikes the hours
with tolerable regularity. It contains forty-five mosques
and two churches. Two of the most ancient of the
mosques are beautifully ornamented with bricks and coloured
tiles, which lofty domes, together with the glittering mina¬
rets of others, give a delusive appearance of splendour to
the city when seen from a little distance, which totally va¬
nishes on a nearer view. There are, besides, a Greek church
and a large Arminian chapel; and at some distance from
the city are three celebrated monasteries. The bazars
are extensive, and well supplied with provisions, except¬
ing fruit, which is brought by the Georgians from the pro¬
vince of Akiska, a distance of three or four days’ jour¬
ney. It has manufactures of considerable importance, and
carries on an extensive trade in copper, and in articles
from Persia, and from the countries to the north-west of
Hindustan. In winter the cold is intense ; it commences
in August, and snow lies on the ground from October to
ESC
March. The air is however pure, the water good, and jj ^
the inhabitants in general healthy. The town was visited D
by the plague in 1807, which carried off a great number of
the inhabitants. The population amounts, according to ^ l™t.
some, to 100,000 or 130,000, and consists of Turks, >
Greeks, Persians, and Armenians. Sir R. K. Porter’s es-
timate is only 6000 Christians and 50,000 Mahommedans.
It is two hundred and fifty miles north-north-east of Aleppo.
Long. 40. 57. E. Lat. 39. 57. N.
ESARHADDON, the son of Sennacherib, and his suc¬
cessor in the kingdom of Assyria. He is said to have
reigned twenty-nine years at Nineveh, from the year 3294 to
3322 ; besides which he reigned thirteen years at Babylon,
making in all forty-two years. He died in the year of the
world 3336, and was succeeded by Saosduchinus. Esar-
haddon Sir Isaac Newton considers as the same with the
Sardanapalus, who, according to Clectarchus, died of old
age, after the revolt of Syria; the name Sardanapalus
being derived from Asserhadon Pul.
ESCALADE, or Scalade, an attack of a place without
proceeding in form, or carrying forward regular approaches.
It is usually made by means of ladders, which are employ¬
ed for enabling the assailants to descend into the ditch,
where such exists, and then to scale the rampart.
ESCHEAT, in Law, signifies any land or tenement
that casually falls to a lord within the manor.
ESCHENBACH, a bailiwick of the circle of the Upper
Maine, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending 264 square
miles. It contains two cities, three towns, 166 villages,
and 2480 houses, with 15,316 inhabitants. The chief town,
of the same name, once fortified, containing 180 houses,
and 1056 inhabitants, employed in making linen cloth.
ESCHERSHAUSEN, a town in the Weser district of
the duchy of Brunswick, on the river Lenne, containing,
with Wickersen, 146 houses, and 1046 inhabitants. It is
the capital of a bailiwick, which has 20b0 houses, and
15,890 inhabitants. j
ESCHEVIN, or Echevin (Scabinus), in the French
and Dutch polity, a magistrate elected by the inhabitants
of a city, to manage their common concerns, and promote
the good order, convenience, and decoration of the city.
ESCHRAKITES, or Esrakites, a sect of philosophers
amongst the Mahommedans, who adhere to the doctrines
and opinions of Plato. The word is derived from the
Arabic schraka, which in the fourth conjugation signifies
to shine or glitter like the sun, so that Eschrakite seems to
signify illuminated. _
The Eschrakites, or Mahommedan Platonists, place their
highest good and happiness in the contemplation of the
Divine Majesty, despising the sensual imaginations in t e
Koran concerning paradise. They are careful in avoiding
all vice; they preserve an equal and easy temper, love
music, and divert themselves with composing little poems
or spiritual songs. „
ESCHWEGE, a city of the province of Lower Hesse,
in the principality of Hesse Casel. It is situated on t e
river Werra, and contains four churches, 782 houses, an
4845 inhabitants, employed in making cloth and tanning
leather. It has some navigation on the Werra. m
vicinity a considerable quantity of tobacco is cultiva e •
ESCOBAR, a town of Andalusia, in Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Jaen. It is situated on the declivity of the moun¬
tains of the Sierra Morena, near the descent of the rive
Jandula, which runs into the Guadalquiver. ...
ESCUAGE, in our old customs, a kind of kmSnt'bt
vice, called service of the shield, by which the tenan
bound to follow his lord to the wars on his own c arg •
ESCULENT, an appellation given to plants or ro
which may be eaten; as beets, carrots, artichokes, >
onions, parsnips, potatoes, radishes, and the like.
Escu
ESC
ESCURIAL, a monastery and royal palace in Spain.
,/ ^ is situated to the north of Madrid, in a country the sur¬
face of which is covered with rocks, and where there is
little shelter from the winds, which makes this elevated
place very cold in the winter months. It is dedicated to
St Lawrence, on account of Philip the Second having gain¬
ed the battle of St Quentin, in 1557, on the day sacred to
the memory of that saint. It is whimsically built in the
form of the gridiron, on which that saint is said to have
been broiled alive.
The cross bars of the gridiron, forming ranges of build¬
ings, between which are courts, are inhabited by monks
and ecclesiastics, and the pile of building which represents
the handle is the royal palace.
The square part of the building is six hundred and forty
feet in length, and five hundred and eighty^ in breadth.
The projection which forms the royal palace is four hun¬
dred and sixty feet in length. It is about sixty feet in
height, and at each angle is a square tower two hundred
feet high. It is one of the largest, and perhaps one of the
most tasteless, buildings in Europe.
The church, in the centre of this uncouth mass of stone,
is very large, rich, and of a species of architecture calcu¬
lated to fill the mind with awe on entering it. The high
altar is most profusely adorned with marbles, agates, and
jaspers, and the gold and silver furniture are of the most
costly kind. The cupola which covers this church is the
most correct object in the whole of the vast pile. The
Pantheon, a repository beneath this church, is the place
of interment for the royal family, the bodies of whom are
deposited in tombs of marble placed in niches, one above
another. The richest part of this palace, however, was
that which contained the valuable pictures to be seen in
almost every part of it, and which altogether formed the
best collection of the productions of the first masters that
any place in Europe displayed. We speak of what it was ;
for the French, when in possession of the Escurial, robbed
it of some of its best treasures, and it is not accurately
known what portion has been left in the place. The best
productions of Reubens, Titian, Spagnoletti, Raffaelle,
Baroccio, Velasquez, Murillo, and others, adorned this
place, and were little known except by the descriptive ca¬
talogue, as very few travellers have heretofore visited
Spain with a view principally to the contemplation of the
fine arts.
The most valuable treasures of the Escurial are, how¬
ever, the immense collection of ancient manuscripts which
is preserved in the library of that place. Thousands of
volumes of the Arabian writers are buried, and their names
scarcely known, which, if carefully examined, would throw
much light on the history of science and the arts at that
period when the mind of Europe, emerging from the dark¬
ness of the middle ages, first began to develope those high¬
er qualities, the improvement of which was prodigiously
accelerated by the invention of printing, and the impulse
which the reformation gave to the minds of men in all
parts of Europe. It would be doing injustice to the lite¬
rary character of Spain not to state that the learned so¬
cieties of Madrid have, as far as their limited powers would
admit, examined, classed, and described these treasures,
ome °f them have been translated into Latin, others into
astilhan, and more attention was being given to the sub-
jea than it had previously attracted, when the irruption of
e french suspended every pursuit that was not directed
wards the purposes of warlike defence.
tfre are somc good statues, busts, and medallions in
e Lscurial. That of St Lawrence, the patron, is very
hp^ r11!’ s.a^ to au antique; but some of the
frn ° ^16 .l!an^8^ artists have averred that the head was
0(1 an ancient statue of Bacchus, and the body of more
ESN
367
modem workmanship, but nearly approaching in execution Escutcheon
to the original portion. These kinds of treasures are, how¬
ever, less valued by the monks who show the place, than
the autographs of several of the saints, which, as they affirm,
are preserved here, and certainly exhibited with great ve¬
neration, and implicit faith in their genuineness.
As this place has been chiefly occupied by the royal
family for the sake of the sports of the field, for which the
surrounding country affords ample means in game of every
description, it has been generally inhabited during the
winter months, when, from its exposed situation, it is a
most uncomfortable place of residence. To obviate some
of the evils of the situation, a town has been built near
the monastery; but, like all forced operations of the kind,
it has never flourished, and is now rapidly declining. The
centre of the monastery, by accurate observations, is in
west longitude 3. 37. 35. from London, and in north lati¬
tude 40. 35. 50.
ESCUTCHEON, or Scutcheon, in Heraldry, is de¬
rived from the French escusson, which is a corruption of
the Latin scutum, and signifies the shield on which coats
of arms are represented or emblazoned. Most nations,
even from the remotest antiquity, were wont to have their
shields distinguished by certain marks painted on them;
and to be able to display these on their shields was a token
of honour, none being permitted to have such until they
had performed some honourable action.
ESDRxlS, a Jewish priest, and doctor of the law. Ar-
taxerxes Longimanus sent him with rich presents for the
adornment of the temple at Jerusalem, which was rebuilt
under Zerubbabel; and the king also ordered the neigh¬
bouring governors to provide him with whatever might
conduce to the pomp of the Jewish religion, as well as to
the exemption of the priests from paying taxes. He is
supposed to have been the collector of the canon of Scrip¬
ture, and to have added by divine inspiration some things
which happened after the deaths of the authors. It is
conjectured that he wrote the Chronicles, besides those
books which bear his name, the last two of which are ex¬
ploded even by the church of Rome.
ESHER, a town of Surrey, in the hundred of Elmbridge,
on the road to Portsmouth, seventeen miles from London.
An ancient palace of the bishops of Winchester, but which
has been celebrated as the residence of Wolsey, continues
in a modernized form to be an object of attention, but es¬
pecially its park, through which meanders the river Mole.
The population in 1801 amounted to 846, in 1811 to 951,
in 1821 to 1108, and in 1831 to 1215.
ESK, the name of several rivers both in England and
Scotland, particularly of one which forms part of the
boundary between the two kingdoms. It runs from north¬
east to south-west, and gives name to the district of Esk-
dale.
ESKI-HISSAR, a small town of Asiatic Turkey, in Na-
tolia. It is supposed to stand on the site of the ancient
Stratonica, which was founded by a colony of Macedo¬
nians. The neighbouring plain is fertile in tobacco, which
is collected by the inhabitants, who hang it up in their
cottages to dry. It is situated sixteen miles westward
from Mogla.
LSNE, or E§neh, a considerable town of Upper Egypt.
“ Esneh,” says Denon (Travels, ii. 103), “ is the ancient
Latopolis. Some remains are still visible of its port or
quay on the bank of the Nile, which has often been repair¬
ed, but, notwithstanding all that has been done for it, still
remains in a very miserable condition. This town also
contains the portico of a temple, which appears to me to
be the most perfect monument of ancient architecture. It
is situated near the bazar in the great square, and would
make an incomparable ornament to this spot, if the inha-
368
Espalion
ESS
bitants had any idea of its merit; but instead of this, they
have deformed it by the most miserable ruined hovels, and
Essay. have devoted it to the vilest purposes. The portico is very
—'> ' well preserved, and possesses great richness of sculpture.
It is composed of eighteen columns with broad capitals.
these columns are noble and elegant, though they now ap¬
pear in the most disadvantageous light: the rubbish should
be cleared to find if any part of the edict remains. bee
article Egypt.
ESPALIERS, in Gardening. See Horticulture.
ESPALION, an arrondissement of the department ot
the Aveiron, in France, extending over 639 square miles.
It is divided into nine cantons and 101 communes, and
contains 63,376 inhabitants. The capital is a city ot the
same name, situated on the river Lot, on which are some
mills for spinning cotton, and establishments for curing va¬
rious kinds of leather. It contains 2038 inhabitants.
ESPLANADE, in Fortification, is the sloping ot the
parapet of the covered-way towards the field, and the same
as the glacis of the counterscarp; but it has become in a
great measure antiquated in this sense, and is now only
applied to the empty space between the glacis ot a citadel
and the first houses of the town.
ESPOUSALS, in Law, signify a contract or promise
made between a man and a woman to marry each other ;
and in cases where marriages may be consummated, es¬
pousals take place previously. Marriage is termed an espou¬
sal de prce&nti.
The espousals amongst the Jews were either by writing,
' or by a piece of silver given and received, or by cohabita¬
tion. Amongst the Greeks, after the parents and friends
of the young people had finished their negotiation, the
couple themselves pledged their faith to each other; the
man swearing that he would be constant and tiue, thewo-
e s s:
Essay, in Literature, a peculiar kind of composition, &
the character of which is freedom, ease, and natural simpli¬
city, without being confined to strict order and method,’'
or worked up and finished like a formal system.
ESSAYING, or Assaying. See Assaying.
ESSEDARII, a sort of gladiators, mentioned by Sene¬
ca, Suetonius, and Cicero, who on some occasions engaged
one another from chariots called esseda. The essedum
was a sort of heavy chariot from which the Gauls and Bri¬
tons engaged the Romans. See Gladiator.
ESSEN, a city of the Prussian province of Cleeve-Ju-
liers, the capital of a circle of the same name. It' is situ¬
ated on the river Berne, is surrounded with walls, and con¬
tains two Catholic, a Lutheran, and a Reformed church,
with 799 houses, and 5100 inhabitants, employed in mak-
in<r ironmongery articles, especially coffee-mills and cards
for dressing cloths. Near to it are some very valuable
coal-mines. Long. 6. 56. 1. E. Lat. 51. 27. 49. N.
ESSENCE, in Metaphysics, that which constitutes the
particular nature of each genus or kind, and distinguishes
it from all others.
ESSENES, or Essenians, in Jewish antiquity, one of
the three ancient sects amongst that people. They believ¬
ed in a future state, but denied a resurrection from the
dead. Their way of life was singular, inasmuch as they
did not marry, but adopted the children of others, whom
they bred up in the institutions of their sect, and, despising
riches, had all things in common, never changing their
clothes till these were entirely worn out. When initiated,
they were strictly bound not to communicate the mysteries
of their sect to others ; and if any of their members were
found guilty of enormous crimes, they were expelled. Pliny
tells us that they dwelt on the western side of Lake Asphal-
tites ; that they were “11 solitary kind of men, living with-
5|" bo.
man swearing tnat ne woum uu uuhsuiul iuiu nuw, ~ j ^ f ■“ r ,i
man that the would marry him, and make him master of out women or -non a ftedrng upon the fad of th
all she had. , They then ratified their agreement by a kiss
and by joining right hands.
Amongst the Romans the espousals consisted in an en¬
gagement of friends on both sides, whether absent or pre¬
sent, in public or without witnesses. But the common
way was by means of writings drawn up by common con¬
sent, and sealed by both parties ', and besides this, the man
sent a ring to the woman, consisting of iron, and without
a stone.
ESQUIMAUX, a people of North America, inhabiting
the vast tract of land known by the name of Labrador.
They differ very considerably, both in aspect and manners,
from the other American nations, and agree in most respects
with the inhabitants of West Greenland.
ESQUIRE (from the French escu, and the Latin scutum,
in Greek exuros, which signifies a hide, of which shields
were anciently made, and with which they were afterwards
covered) was originally he who, attending a knight in time
of war, carried his shield; from which circumstance he was
called escuier in French, and scutifer or armiger in Latin.
It is a matter somewhat unsettled, says Blackstone (b. i.
ch. 12), what now constitutes this distinction, or who is a
real esquire ; for it is not an estate, however large, that
confers this rank upon its owner. Camden, he adds, dis¬
tinguishes them the most accurately, and he reckons four
sorts of esquires : 1. The eldest sons of knights, and their
oldest sons, in perpetual succession ; 2. The eldest sons of
younger sons of peers, and their eldest sons, in like succes¬
sion ; 3. Esquires created by the king’s letters patent, and
their eldest sons ; 4. Esquires by virtue of their office, as
justices of the peace, and others bearing any office of trust
under the crown.
ESSAY, a trial or experiment for proving the quality of
any thing ; or an attempt to ascertain whether or not any
invention will succeed.
palm-tree ; and that they were constantly recruited by
new-comers, whom ill fortune had made weary of the world.
The reason why we find no mention made of them in the
New Testament may be their recluse and retired way of
life, no less than their great simplicity and honesty, in con¬
sequence of which they did not lie open to censure or re¬
proof.
ESSENTIAL, something necessarily belonging to a
thing, and from which it cannot be conceived as distinct.
Thus the primary qualities of bodies, such as extension,
figure, number, and so on, are essential or inseparable from
them in all their changes and alterations.
Essential Oils are such as are. really contained in a
plant, and are drawn from it by distillation. 1 hey are so
called in contradistinction to empyreumatic oils. ■
ESSEQUIBO, a river of English Guiana, in South Ame¬
rica, which discharges its waters into the Atlantic. Long.
58. 30. W. Lat. 7. N. At its mouth it is twenty miles
broad, but of difficult navigation, even for small vessels, on
account of the numerous sand-banks which run in diner-
ent directions across its entrance. There are three islan s
at the mouth of the river, and for nearly thirty miles up¬
wards there is a succession of islands. The influence o e
tide is felt for a hundred miles up the river.
Essequibo, a settlement of Guiana, on the banks o
above-mentioned river. The country is well cultivate anc
flourishing, the soil being fertile in the production o co
fee, cotton, cocoa, and sugar. Essequibo originally be 0DSe
to the Dutch, and was first settled in 1698; but an erroneou
prejudice that the land was unfit for cultivation obstruc
the progress of the colony for many years. Politica sirijS
gles, and the injudicious policy of the mother country, a
for a considerable time deprived the colonists of tie a
vantages which the country presented to them. ur -
tile American war it more than once changed mas e »
ESS
but it was finally ceded to Great Britain at the peace of
J 1814, since which period it has advanced in prosperity. It
is separated on the west from Demerara by the small river
Borasierri.
ESSEX, a county of England, is bounded on the south by
the river Thames, on the east by the German Ocean, on the
north by the counties of Suffolk and Cambridge, and on the
west by Hertfordshire and Middlesex. Its surface contains
1473 square miles, according to the last measurement of the
Board of Ordnance. The population has not increased in
this county at the same rapid rate as that of the other
counties of England, having been 226,437 in 1801, 252,473
in 1811, 289,424 in 1821, and 317,200 in 1831. As the
surface is about 942,720 acres, there is nearly one person to
every three acres ; but if the rivers and large estuaries be
deducted from the calculation of extent, the population
may be stated as still more dense.
Essex may be considered as a mere agricultural county ;
for though, from the near approach of one part of it to the
metropolis of the kingdom, there are some manufactories
established, which find both their raw materials and their
consumption in London ; and though in one district of the
county there are remains of the once extensive manufac¬
tories which were brought from Flanders to this island ; the
number of persons occupied in them bears but a very small
proportion to that part of the population which depends on
agriculture. The former manufactures of Colchester bai¬
zes for the Spanish and American markets have wholly dis¬
appeared, and those for woollen goods at Booking, Halsted,
and Coggeshall, are nearly extinct; all having removed to
the northern parts of the kingdom. On the eastern side
of the county, in the vicinity of the metropolis, are seve¬
ral large distilleries, and some establishments for bleach¬
ing and printing calicoes. There are also manufactories of
sal-ammoniac, of Prussian blue, of iron liquor for calico-
printers, and feome other chemical preparations. There is a
considerable trade in corn, and much barley is malted for
the great breweries and distilleries. The only other com¬
merce is that of supplying the inhabitants with foreign and
domestic articles of luxury.
Although nearly half the county is bounded by the sea,
or by navigable rivers, it carries on no foreign commerce ;
| and what vessels belong to it are employed either in con¬
veying to London the produce of its agriculture, or in the
oyster fishery, which occupies a considerable tonnage and
many seafaring persons. The oysters are bred both in the
river Coin and in the Crouch ; in the former they are pro¬
tected by the seignorial rights of the corporation of Colches¬
ter, and in the latter by the proprietor of that river, Sir Henry
Mildmay. The spawn is deposited in the months of April
and May; and it is said the shell about it begins to form
within twenty-four hours. The fishermen are forbidden to
dredge for them at this season. In the month of July the
dredgers separate the small oysters from the stones on
which the spawn was deposited, and on which they have
grown, and lay them down in the channels of the river till
they grow ot a size fit for consumption, which is determin¬
ed by a gage pept for purp0se by the water-bailiff of
Colchester. The stones or other substances to which the
young oysters had adhered are again thrown into the water
whence they were taken, as it is apprehended the accumu¬
lation of the ouse at the bottom of the river would other¬
wise generate such an increase of muscles and cockles as
"'(? rff destroy the breed of oysters. The number of vessels
o iiterent sizes employed in this branch of industry, from
en,to forty tons burden, amounts to nearly three hundred,
an the quantity of oysters caught, varying in different
years, is from 18,000 to 24,000 bushels. The larger de¬
scription of vessels are employed during part of the year
S l°reS Hampshire and Dorsetshire in dredging
ESS 369
for the native oysters, which are afterwards deposited in Essex,
the beds of Essex and Kent, in order to fatten for the
London market. The uncertain produce of the breeding
grounds in Essex makes it necessary to have recourse to
the more distant coasts to obtain the requisite supply.
From being almost wholly an agricultural county, the
far greater part of the inhabitants of Essex are found in
villages. The principal places, with their population, ac¬
cording to the late census, is as follows:
Colchester 16,167
Chelmsford 5,435
Walthamstow 4,258
Harwich 4,297
Saffron-Walden 4,762
Halsted 4,637
Romford   4,294
Maldon 3,831
Booking 3,128
Coggeshall 3,227
Barking 3,404
Braintree 3,422
W’altham Abbey 4,104
Besides these, the towns of Witham, Dunmow, Harlow,
Pritclewell, Finchingfield, Sible-Hedingham, Hornchurch,
and Thaxted, each now contain more than 2000 inhabi¬
tants.
The face of the county is generally very beautiful; it is
well enclosed, and for the most part displays good verdant
pastures ; the hills, none of which rise to great heights, are
cultivated to the tops; and there are abundance of trees,
especially oak and chestnut, which give a rich appearance
to the view. There is no county in England in which
the proportion of waste land is so small. The forests and
wastes can indeed scarcely be considered as utterly uncul¬
tivated, and the w hole of them do not amount to more than
14,000 acres, including the two forests of Epping and Hai-
nault. These belong to the crown, though the inhabitants
of many surrounding parishes have the right of pastur¬
ing their cattle upon them. The king has an unlimited
right to keep deer on all the enclosed woods, and the occu¬
piers of land in the various parishes included within the
ancient boundaries of the forests have a right to feed horses
and cow s, but not other cattle. The numerous common
rights have led to considerable devastation of the timber of
these forests, and occasioned no small injury to the property
of the crown ; but plans have lately been adopted for pre¬
serving the trees, and converting a part into a nursery for
growing timber for the royal navy. The vicinity to navi¬
gation makes these forests well deserving of being appro¬
priated to this purpose. *
That part of Essex which lies on the banks of the
Thames, and on the shores of the ocean, is a rich alluvial
soil on a subsoil of very tenacious clay. It produces, with
good cultivation, most abundant crops of wheat, beans, oats,
and clover. It is found necessary to the cultivation to
fallow very frequently, and repeated ploughings is a prac¬
tice very generally adopted. The swing plough is much
used, and sometimes a wheel plough drawn by two, and
occasionally by three horses abreast, which are guided with
long reins by the ploughman. In fallowing it is common
to plough the land six or seven times, and it is not unusual
with the best cultivators to plough it eight or even ten
times. After the summer fallow, by which the soil be¬
comes completely pulverized, and rendered as fine as a
garden, it is sometimes the practice to sow wheat in the
autumn ; but it is more common to let it remain throughout
the winter, and then, after a spring ploughing, to sow bar¬
ley or oats. The rotation of crops which usually succeed
to a fallow is, 1. barley or oats; 2. clover, red or white,
mostly the former; 3. wheat; 4. beans, twice hoed at
-i
370
ESSEX.
Essex. least s 5. wheat. After this course the land is again fill-
lowed. The whole produce of the course ot crops is said
to depend on the accuracy and skill exercised in the pro¬
cess of fallowing. -
There is in this district some land adapted tor turnips,
and the rotation on such soils is usually, 1. turnips ; 2.
oats or barley ; 3. clover ; 4. wheat; 5. beans ; 6. wheat.
These courses are occasionally varied, tares being intro¬
duced when the clover fails, and peas being sometimes
substituted for beans. The best cultivators often omit the
second crop of wheat, and fallow again atter the beans,
rotation which is sanctioned by some very skilful agricul¬
turists is the following: 1. fallow; 2. barley or oats; 3.
clover; 4. beans; 5. wheat; 6. tares or peas; 7. wheat.
In this case the manure is laid on the clover ey for the
bean crop. In the district we are describing all the iarins
have a portion, more or less extensive, of rich marsh land,
on which oxen are fed, which supplies hay for winter con¬
sumption, and is consequently the source whence the manure
is derived. The best wheat that is brought to the market
of the metropolis is raised in the part of Essex of which
we are speaking, and which is usually denominated the
hundreds. It has the convenience of water-carriage to
London ; the rent of land is comparatively low, and it is of
extraordinary fertility; but it suffers from a scarcity of
good water. It is, especially in the autumn, a very ague-
ish county; and though of late the roads have been much
improved, they are still in such a state as, added to its
insalubrity, prevents the gentry from residing on their
estates.
The middle part of Essex rises above the level of the
marshy lands, but partakes, in a considerable degree, of
their unhealthiness. Around the town of Colchester, for
a considerable distance, the soil is a dry loam, well calcu¬
lated for turnips; and then the most general system adopt¬
ed is the four-course husbandry of Norfolk, viz. turnip,
barley, clover, and wheat. A variation is in some instan¬
ces introduced by taking a crop of peas after the wheat,
and occasionally tares are sown after the barley instead of
clover, as that latter plant will sometimes fail if too fre¬
quently repeated. The greater part of the district is, how¬
ever, of a clayey loam, on a subsoil of clay, and too tena¬
cious for the turnip system. Much of this is good old pas¬
ture land, used solely for feeding, and to which the plough
is never applied. The arable land is highly productive;
the crops of wheat and beans especially are very luxuriant,
and their produce of the best quality. The practice of fal¬
lowing is pursued as in the district before described, but
so many ploughings are not deemed necessary. The rota¬
tion is various, but it rarely occurs that wheat is sown imme¬
diately after the fallow. Most commmonly the succession
is as follows : 1. fallow ; 2. barley ; 3. beans ; 4. wheat; 5.
tares; 6. barley; 7. clover. When the land is more wet,
which, in spite of excellent draining, is frequently the
case, the rotation is, 1. fallow; 2. oats; 3. clover; 4.
wheat. When manure is abundant, the heavy soils are
cropped in the following rotation with great success: 1.
fallow ; 2. beans ; 3. wheat; 4. tares; 5. barley ; 6. clover ;
7. beans; 8. wheat. In this rotation the clearing of the
ground from weeds depends on the use of the hoe, which
is applied most carefully to the crops of beans.
The western part of the county, especially where it bor¬
ders on Hertfordshire, is, in general, land of a very inferior
quality, and, without very expensive cultivation, yields but
light crops. In one extensive district, called the Rodings,
is still practised a most singular system of husbandry, known
now in Essex only, though formerly it was adopted on poor
lands in some other counties. It is, I. a year’s fallow ; 2.
wheat; 3. fallow; 4. barley, and then a repetition of the
same-course ; thus having one half the arable land constant¬
ly without any crop. The soil is a tenacious clay, of a red-
dish colour, upon a subsoil of white clay. It is difficult to U
pulverize, and, with wet, potches so much as not to admit
of ploughing when the atmosphere is moist. There are
but small parts of this district which produce clover, peas,
tares, or beans; and what hay is grown is confined to the
narrow borders of the rivulets which rurt in the valleys.
In the south-western part of the county the agriculture
assumes that system which is adapted to the supply of the
wants of the metropolis. A great portion of the land is in
permanent pasture, or grows hay to furnish the markets of
Smithfield and Whitechapel. The arable land is generally
cultivated with a rotation of three crops, viz. potatoes,
wheat, and clover ; and, as London supplies abundance of
manure, by applying it very liberally to the young clover,
after the wheat is harvested, such culture produces most
abundant crops, and the land is cleaned by the potato cul¬
ture. In this kind of husbandry, which, indeed, can only
be conducted where manure is to be obtained with great
facility, the plough is only used once in the rotation after
the clover; as the potatoes are planted, and the digging
them up sufficiently prepares the land for wheat.
Essex feeds some sheep, but very few are bred in the
county. Calves are suckled to a great extent, and the
rearing them to furnish veal for the London market is the
principal dependence of many farmers. The whiteness of
the veal is produced by a great attention to cleanliness, by
regular periods of suckling, and by giving them a small
portion of barley-meal mixed with chalk. The tendency
to fatten is promoted by administering narcotic drugs,
which keep the young animals in a quiescent state. Though
the county affords such abundance of excellent pasture, yet
the fattening of calves is so much more profitable than the
dairy, that it is supplied with butter from other counties.
Epping has indeed been celebrated for its excellent but¬
ter ; but the greater part of what is sold in London under
that denomination is the produce of Northamptonshire,
Buckinghamshire, and other counties. London is supplied
with much of its beef from Essex. The bullocks, in a lean
state, are brought from Scotland, from Wales, and some
from Devonshire, and are fattened in this county, some¬
times on the rich natural meadows, and sometimes on tur¬
nips, with the addition of oil-cake.
Several other agricultural productions are cultivated m
Essex. Hops are grown near Chelmsford, and in a few
other districts. Saffron is cultivated near Saffron-Walden
with great success. Mustard is an advantageous crop m
the islands of Foulness and Wallasea, and on the embanked
marshes. On some rich old pasture land, when first
broken up, three crops are raised together, viz. carraway
seed, coriander seed, and teasels for the baize manufac¬
turers. The three kinds of seed are sowed together in
the spring of the year. The harvest of the coriander takes
place in the following autumn. The carraway is a bien¬
nial plant, and the seed is fit to be gathered m July of ne
succeeding year ; and in September ot thesame year
teasels are cut. The carraway sometimes produces a crop
second, or even the third year. This cultivation is c e
an excellent preparation for the growth of wheat, on
which are so prolific as to require some degree o ex ‘
tion, as, the hoe being very liberally applied in the p
of this triple cropping, it keeps the ground free from ^
There are few counties in England, taking vj.
them together, in which the agriculture is so skilful y
ducted, or where the productiveness is so great.
The landed property in Essex, as in other conn \ ^
to the metropolis, is very much divided; there ^
overgrown estates, though some of considerable va >
longing to a few individuals; but the.greater par .
moderate-sized farms, which can be easily dispose >
E S T
E S T
Es«
II
Esta
«^v
which are frequently purchased from the savings of the
commercial class in London.
The only good harbour in this county is Harwich, whence
)K the packets for Holland are dispatched, and where there is
a royal dock-yard, in which some frigates are built and
repaired. The river Coin is navigable for small vessels to
Colchester, and the Blackwater river to Walden. The
Crouch is navigable for the largest ships; but, passing through
an unhealthy country, and having few inhabitants on its
borders, it is useless for the purposes of commerce. The
river Lea is navigable by barges a distance of twenty-five
miles. There are no canals in this county, but one is pro¬
jected to unite the river Lea with the Cam, and thus create
internal navigation from Lynn to London.
This county gives the title of earl to the family of Capel,
and of Rochford to the family of Nassau; that of Baron
Colchester to the family of the late Speaker of the House
of Commons, Abbot; and that of Baron Western to the
late representative of the county.
The members of the House of Commons elected in
Essex are ten, being two for each of the boroughs of Col¬
chester, Harwich, and Maldon, and four for the county,
which, for election purposes, has been divided into the
northern and southern districts. The polling places of the
former are Braintree, Colchester, Saffron-Walden, and
Thorpe; and of the latter, Chelmsford, Billericay, Rom¬
ford, Epping, Rochford, and Maldon.
The most remarkable seats of noblemen and others are
Audley-End, Lord Braybrooks; Thorndon, Lord Petre;
Wanstead, now dilapidated, Hon. William Wellesley Pole ;
Easton Lodge, Lord Maynard; Felix Hall, Lord Wes¬
tern ; Mistley Hall, C. Manners Sutton; Dagenham Park,
Sir Thomas Neave ; the Hyde, Theo. Disney, Esq.; Chig-
well, Sir Eliab Harvey; Hill Hall, Sir William Smyth ;
Cranham Hall, Lady Davy; Weald Hall, Christopher
Tower, Esq.; Boreham House, Sir John Tyrell; Coped
Hall, Mr Conyers ; Mark Hall, Mr Arkwright; Stansted
Hall, Mr Fuller Maitland; and many others.
Essex, a post-town in Essex county, New York, on
the western shore of Lake Champlain. It is fourteen miles
south-west of Burlington, and sixteen miles from Eliza-
| bethtown. In this township there is a village situated on
the lake, which is very flourishing, and enjoys a considera¬
ble trade. Essex is the name of several counties in the
United States, which will be found described as they occur
under the heads of the respective states.
ESSLINGEN, a city of the circle of the Neckar, in the
kingdom of Wirtemberg, capital of a bailiwick of the same
name. It is situated on the river Neckar, in a fertile dis¬
trict, and contains five churches, 980 houses, and 5591
inhabitants, who carry on woollen and cotton manufactures
by machinery. Long. 9. 13. 25. E. Lat. 48. 44. 27. N.
ESTAIRES, a city of France, in the department of the
jWth, on the navigable river Lys. It is an ill-built manu¬
facturing town, producing table-linen, lace, and other goods,
with 557 houses, and 5913 inhabitants.
ESTACHAR, Estaker, or Istakhar, a town of Persia,
in the province of Kuzistan. near to which are the ruins
of the celebrated city of Persepolis. It is thirty miles
north-north-east of Schiraz, and 160 south-south-east of
Ispahan. Long. 53. 40. E. Lat. 30. 5. N.
ESTAMBOLIC, or Istambel, a town of Arabia, in the
jurisdiction of the schereef of Mecca, near the coast of the
p ^<ia' ^ miles north-north-west of Medina.
ESI ATE, in Law, signifies the title or interest which a
person has in lands, tenements, or other effects. A fee-
sinrple is the amplest estate the law admits of.
Estates, in a political sense, is a term used to denote
er the dominions of some prince, or the general classes
mto which the people are divided.
In Britain, the estates are the king, lords, and commons ;
or rather the lords and commons, who meet the king in
parliament, for the purpose of reforming abuses, and en¬
acting good and wholesome laws.
ES IE, a city of Italy, in the Austrian government of
Venice, situated on the canal of Monfelice. It is fortified,
and contains a cathedral, several palaces, and 7534 in¬
habitants, who carry on a brisk trade in spinning silk and
making silk goods. It is rich in antiquities, and is the
place whence originated the family which at present sits
on the British throne. Long. 21. 25. 30. E. Lat. 45. 31.
21. N.
ETAWEH, a town and fortress of Hindustan, in the
province of Agra, and capital of a district of the same name.
It is situated on the east ern bank of the Jumna, many parts of
which, during the dry season, are sixty feet in height. The
town is built on the heights, and, as it approaches the river,
is divided into separate hills by deep ravines. It was for¬
merly the residence of a rajah, and a place of considerable
consequence ; and it still carries on a considerable traffic
in grain, sugar, and cotton. There is also an extensive ma¬
nufacture of coarse cotton cloths in the vicinity. It is
now the station of the civil establishment of the district.
Long. 78. 58. E. Lat. 26. 46. N. The district is situated
in the Doab, or between the Ganges and the Jumna, and
about the 27th degree of north latitude ; and, with the rest
of the Doab, it was ceded to the British by the nabob of
Oude in 1801.
ESTELLA, a city of Spain, upon the Ega, in the pro¬
vince of Navarre, containing 4600 inhabitants. It pos¬
sesses an old castle and a college. Many distilleries of
brandy and wine are carried on here, as well as a manu¬
factory of cloth, which supplies the army.
ESTEPONA, a small town on the shores of the Medi¬
terranean Sea, in the province of Granada, in Spain. It
contained nearly 5000 inhabitants before the ravages of
the epidemic fever in 1804, which almost desolated the
coast on which it stands. On this occasion it lost one
third of its inhabitants. The principal occupation of the
people consists either in fishing, or in cultivating fruits of
various kinds, and conveying them to the British garrison
of Gibraltar ; in making earthenware and bricks ; and in
the manufacture of linen, which employs twenty looms.
ESTHER, a canonical book of the Old Testament, con¬
taining the history of a Jewish virgin, dwelling with her
uncle Mordecai at Shushan, during the reign of Ahasuerus,
one of the kings of Persia. The great beauty of this Jew¬
ish maiden raised her to the throne of Persia, by which
means she had an opportunity of saving her countrymen,
whose destruction had been plotted by Haman, a favourite
of Ahasuerus.
The learned are not agreed as to who this Ahasuerus
was. Archbishop Usher supposes him to have been Darius
Hystaspes, and Artystona Esther. Scaliger makes him the
same with Xerxes, and supposes his queen Hanestris to be
Esther ; but Josephus, on the contrary, positively asserts
that the Ahasuerus of the Scriptures is the Artaxerxes
Longimanus of profane history; and the Septuagint,
throughout the whole book of Esther, translate Ahasuerus
by Artaxerxes. Most people subscribe to this last opinion ;
and indeed the kindness which Artaxerxes showed to the
Jews can scarcely be accounted for otherwise than by
supposing that that people had so powerful an advocate
as Esther to plead in their behalf. It may be observed,
however, that the ancient Persians, who were singularly
intolerant of idolatry, and the fierce destroyers of idols,
wherever such were to be found, might, for this reason,
be supposed favourable to a people whose religion admit¬
ted not graven images, and who, like themselves, were pure
theists.
372 . E S T ETC
Esthonia ESTHONIA, or Esthland, a province of the Russian one in that kingdom which does notin some of its borders Es
empire, on the Baltic Sea, extending over 7106 square join to fepain. 1 hough Lisbon and its great population
Estrema- miies< xt is divided into four circles, viz. Revel, Hapsal, forms part of this province, it is not so thickly peopled as ^ \
dura, weisenstein (formerly Jerwen), and Wesenburg (formerly either Entre-Douro-e-Minho or La Beyra. Its extent is w' P
Wierland). It contains five cities, one market-town, forty- 823 square leagues, and its inhabitants amount to 826,680
seven parishes, and 630 estates of nobles, with 30,000 pea- souls. The province of La Beyra surrounds Estremadura,
sants’ dwellings. The whole population amounts to 4-12,000 excepting where the sea or the river Tagus are its limits,
persons. It is a level and generally a sandy district, but The soil produces some wheat, maize, and millet, much wine
mixed with portions of clay and stones. It is full of brooks and oil, and abundance of fruits and culinary vegetables,
and morasses. As agriculture is the chief employment, Its shores abound with fish, as well as the fiesh-water rivers,
the land produces rather more corn, chiefly rye, than is re- On the coast great quantities of salt aie made by the eva-
quired for the consumption. The fishery occupies a num- porating power of the sun alone, and consequently much
ber of hands. The manufactures are of a domestic kind j cheaper and better than in our more noithein climate,
and, during the long winters, coarse linen and woollen cloths ihe only river oesides the I agus that inns into the sea is
are spun and woven for their own clothing in each family, the Lis, which empties itself near Leyria. Ihe Tagus,
The capital, Revel, is the chief place of foreign trade, from which crosses Estremadura, has its course so interrupted
which is exported corn, spirits, butter, salted fish and flesh, by rocks and cascades, as to be incapable of navigation
and tallow, with a small quantity of flax and flax seed. above Abrantes ; but from that city to Lisbon, a distance
ESTOILEE, or Cross Estoillee, in Heraldry, a star of thirty leagues, shallops regularly navigate. The right
with only four long rays in the form of a cross, and, accord- bank, after the Tagus enters Portugal, is mountainous;
inoly, broad in the centre, but terminating in sharp points, but the left bank is marshy, sterile land. From Santarem
ESTOPPEL (from the French estouper, oppilare, obsti- there is a constant gradual declivity to the city of Lisbon,
pare, to stop or block up), in Law, an impediment or bar and, though fourteen leagues asunder, the capital may be
of action, arising from a man’s own act or deed. seen from the former city. The rivers which from the
ESTREMADURA, a province of Spain. It is bounded north increase the waters of the Tagus, are the Pouzut, the
on the north and east by New Castille, on the south by Lysa or Laca, and the Cecere. These descending from the
Andalusia, and on the west by Portugal; the southern part mountains of La Beyra, have an unequal and sometimes
being divided from that kingdom by the river Guadiana. dangerous degree of rapidity, being at one time mere ri-
It is the most thinly peopled of any part of the kingdom vulets, almost dry, and at others rapid torrents, which in-
except Cuenca, and the density of its population very little undate the country ; but when they do so, they afford
exceeds that province. Its extent is 1199 square leagues, means of defence against an invading enemy. Some
and its population amounts to 428,493 souls. The soil in ranges of high mountains run northward from the Tagus
general is fruitful, and produces vines, oil, hemp, silk, towards Busaco. One spot in these will be long celebrated,
corn, and fruits. Its mountains abound in chestnuts, in The lines of Torres Yedras will not be forgotten as the
oaks, and the other timber trees. Its pastures feed large place where Lord Wellington made his successful stand,
flocks of sheep, both of the migratory and fixed breeds, and caused to roll back on the invaders the desolation they
The breeds of horses are excellent; and the pigs are cele- had spread in their advancing course,
brated throughout Spain, the hams and sausages made from ESZEK, a city of the Austrian kingdom of Hungary, in
them being preferred to all others. In spite however of the the province of the Farther Theiss, and the capital of a
capacity to yield these valuable productions, much of the circle of its own name. It is situated on the river Drave,
land is uncultivated, and many parts of it are without inha- is strongly fortified, and defended by a citadel. It is a place
bitants. The backward state of the agriculture is generally of considerable trade in corn, cattle, and hides, and contains
attributed to vast tracts of land, susceptible of the best cul- three Catholic and one Greek church, with 10,850 inhabi-
tivation, being destined solely to the pasturage of the Me- tants. Long. 18. 36. 45. E. Lat. 45. 34. 13. N.
rino flocks. As the pastoral life requires but few labourers, ETAMPES, an arrondissement of the department ot
and extensive open fields, where sheep flocks are managed the Seine and Oise, in France, extending over 380 square
so very injudiciously as they are in Spain, it has a tendency leagues, divided into four cantons and'101 communes, and
to check the increase of population and cultivation. The containing 37,922 inhabitants. The capital, ot the same
northern part of this province extends to the banks of the name, is situated on the river Juine, in a most delightfully
Tagus, into which, after their junction, run the two rivers fruitful neighbourhood. It contains 982 houses, and 7198
of that district. These are the Xerte and the Alagon. The inhabitants, who make hats, caps, and hosiery, and dress
middle of the province, between the upper part of the Gua- much leather. Long. 2. 1. E. Lat. 48. 25. N.
diana and the Tagus, is a very dry country, with no great and ETCHING, a method of engraving on copper, in which
few small streams. The southern part has the river Gua- the lines or strokes, instead of being cut with a tool or
diana, a muddy and often stagnant stream, and some tribu- graver, are eaten in with aquafortis. See Engraving.
tary rivers. It is the best cultivated part, but between it Etching, though not very modern, is of later invention
and Seville are ranges of mountains, which hold out little than engraving with the tool, of which it was at first only
inducement to any other system of farming than that of an imitation, practised by painters and other artists, as
feeding sheep for the sake of their valuable fleeces. There they could much sooner form their hands to, and attain
are some mines of silver and of platina in this southern di- a facility of, working in this way than with the graver,
vision of the province. The yearly produce of this pro- But being nevertheless considered as a counterfeit kino
vince is 6000 cwt. of pepper, 5925 of flax, and 875 of of engraving, and therefore inferior to the other, it nas
hemp; of wine 4376, of brandy 53,125, of vinegar 1000 cultivated in a very confined manner ; the closeness o
ohms ot oil 50,259, of sumach 9800, of madder 45, of the resemblance of the work to that performed by the too
woad 100, and of silk 2041 cwt. The annual produce of being made the test of its merit, and consequently the pnn'
honey is 3375, and of wax 600 cwts. In manufactories of cipal object of aim in those who pursued it. This ser-
cloth there are employed 726, and of linen 2168 looms, vile restriction of the art of etching to the imitation o
There are also 155 tanneries, twenty-five hat manufacto- the original kind of engraving was a great cause ot rotar
ries, and seventy-three soap-boiling houses. ing its advancement towards perfection, as many of t e
ESIREMADURA, a province of Portugal, the only most able masters cramped their talents by the observ
ETC
ance of so narrow a rule. This may be seen in the in¬
stances of Sadelers, Swaneberg, Villamena, and particular¬
ly Le Bosse, who, in his treatise on engraving, has laid it
down as a principle, that the perfection of this kind con¬
sists in the close similitude of the work to that executed
with the tool. But this absurd prepossession has been
since worn out; and the method of working with aquafortis
has been so far improved, that instead of being now deem¬
ed a spurious kind of engraving, it evidently appears, in
many modern works, the'foundation of an excellence that
could never have been produced without it; since, though
the neatness and uniformity of the hatches which attend
the use of the tool is more advantageous with respect to
portraits, yet the liberty and facility of the other manner
gives a much greater opportunity to exercise the force of
genius and fancy in historical engraving, where the eftect
of the whole, and not the minute exactness in finishing all
the parts, constitutes the principal value.
There are two methods practised of engraving in this
way; the one with a hard varnish or ground, and the other
with a soft. The former was at one time much used, be¬
ing better accommodated to the intention of imitating the
engraving with the tool; as the firmness of the body of
the varnish gave more opportunity of retouching the lines,
or enlarging them with the oval-pointed needles, called by
the French echoppes, as was practised by Le Bosse and
others for that purpose. The latter has now almost wholly
superseded the use of the other, by the free manner of
working it admits of; which affords a power of expression
^compatible with the greater inflexibility of the hard var¬
nish, that confines the lines and hatches to such a regula¬
rity and sameness, as give stiffness of manner and coldness
of effect to the work.
The combination of the use of the tool and aquafortis,
ivhich are now both employed in many cases, has, how¬
ever, given that perfection to engraving which it at present
assesses. The truth and spirit of the outline which the
nethod of working with aquafortis affords, and the variety
3f shades which the different kinds of black produce in
-his way, as well as other means of expressing the pecu-
iar appearance and character of particular subjects, fur-
lish what was defective in the sole use of the tool; whilst,
m the other hand, the exactness and regularity of the
ines, which are required for finishing many kinds of de¬
igns, are supplied by the graver ; and by a judicious ap-
ilication of both, that complete finishing is obtained which
;ither of them alone must necessarily want.
The manner by which this is performed, is by covering
he surface of the plate with a proper varnish, or ground,
is it is called, which is capable of resisting aquafortis, and
hen scoring or scratching away, by instruments resembling
leedles, the parts of this varnish or ground, in the places
'here the strokes or hatches of the engraving are intend¬
'd to be; then, the plate being covered with aquafortis,
he parts which are exposed by removing the ground or
rarnish are corroded or eaten away by it, whilst the rest,
>eing secured and defended from the action of the acid,
'emain untouched.
There are two methods of etching, as has been already
observed, the difference of which consists as well in the
kind of the varnish or ground as in that of the aquafortis
adapted to each kind; but the general methods of per-
orming them are alike in both cases. These varnishes or
grounds are distinguished by the names of hard or soft;
or in their consistence, or the resistance which they give
[o the needles, lies their essential variation from each other.
e varnish, it is with good reason conjectured, was
not the first in use, but soon took the place of the other,
in was for some time the most received in practice, on
iccount of its admitting the work to be made more like
E T C
that of the graver ; the soft has since, however, in its turn
prevailed, to the exclusion in some degree of the hard,
except in the case of particular subjects, but not so en¬
tirely as to take away the expediency of showing how it is
performed. The manner ot etching with the soft varnish
is now, however, one of the most important objects of the
art of engraving; and it is at present in universal use,
sometimes alone, but more frequently intermixed with the
work of the tool, and in some cases writh great advantage,
even where the whole is intended to pass for being per¬
formed by the graver.
Preparation of the soft varnish, according to Mr Law¬
rence, an eminent English engraver at Paris “ Take of
virgin w ax and asphaitum each two ounces, of black pitch
and Burgundy pitch each half an ounce. Melt the wax
and pitch in a new earthenware glazed pot, and add to
them, by degrees, the asphaitum, finely powdered. Let
the whole boil till such time as that, taking a drop upon a
plate, it will break wLen it is cold, on bending it double
two or three times betwixt the fingers. The varnish, being-
then enough boiled, must be taken off the fire, and, letting
it cool a little, must be poured into warm water, that it
may work the more easily with the hands, so as to be
formed into balls, which must be rolled up, and put into a
piece of taffety for use.”
It must be observed, first, that the fire be not too vio¬
lent, for fear of burning the ingredients, a slight sim¬
mering being sufficient; secondly, that whilst the asphai¬
tum is putting in, and even after it is mixed with them,
the ingredients should be stirred continually with the spa¬
tula ; and, thirdly, that the water into which this compo¬
sition is throw n should be nearly of the same degree of
warmth with it, in order to prevent a kind of cracking
that happens when the water is too cold.
The varnish ought always to be harder in summer than
in winter; and it will become so if it be suffered to boil
longer, or if a greater proportion of the asphaitum or
brown resin be used. The experiment above mentioned,
of the drop suffered to cool, will determine the degree of
hardness or softness that may be suitable to the season
when it is used.
Preparation of the hard varnish used by Callot, com¬
monly called the Florence Varnish.—Take four ounces of
fat oil, very clear, and made of good linseed oil, like that
used by painters; heat it in a clean pot of glazed earthen¬
ware, and afterwards put to it four ounces of mastich w ell
powdered, and stir the mixture briskly till the whole be
well melted ; then pass the wffiole mass through a piece of
fine linen iqto a glass bottle with a long neck, that can be
stopped very securely ; and keep it for the use that w ill
be below explained.
Method of applying the soft varnish to the plate, and of
blackening it.—The plate being well polished and bur¬
nished, as also cleansed from all greasiness by chalk or
Spanish white, fix a hand-vice on the edge of the plate
where no work is intended to be, to serve as a handle for
managing it when warm; then put it upon a chafing-dish,
in which there is a moderate fire, and cover the whole plate
equally with a thin coat of the varnish; and whilst the
plate is warm, and the varnish upon it in a fluid state,
beat every part of the varnish gently with a small ball or
dauber made of cotton tied up in taffety; which operation
smoothes and distributes the varnish equally over the plate.
When the plate is thus uniformly and thinly covered
with the varnish, it must be blackened by a piece of flam¬
beau, or of a large candle which affords a copious smoke ;
sometimes two or even four such candles are used toge¬
ther, for the sake of dispatch, that the varnish may not
grow cold ; which if it does during the operation, the plate
must then be heated again, that it may be in a melted
374
ETC
E T E
Etching, state when that operation is performed ; but great care
V-^Y"W must be taken not to burn it, which, when it happens, may
be easily perceived by the varnish appearing burnt and
losing its gloss. The following expedient is made use of
for the more commodiously blackening the varnish, and is
particularly necessary where the plates are large : Fix a
strong hook in the roof of the room, through which pass
four pieces of cord of equal length, at the end of which are
fixed four iron rings of about four inches in diameter, for
supporting the corners of the plate. The plate, being thus
suspended in the air, with the varnished side downwards,
may be blackened with great convenience ; but this is not,
however, absolutely requisite, excepting in the case of
large plates, which could not, without difficulty, be sus¬
pended, unless this or some other such contrivance weie
made use of. '
It is proper to be very cautious in keeping the nambeau
or candle at a due distance from the plate, lest the wick
should touch the varnish, which would both sully and mark
it. If it appear that the smoke has not penetrated the var¬
nish, the plate must again be placed for some little time
over the chafing-dish ; and it will be found that, in pro¬
portion as the plate grows hot, the varnish will melt and
incorporate with the black which lay above it, in such a
manner that the whole will be equally pervaded by it.
Above all things, in this operation, the greatest caution
should be used to keep the fire all the time moderate ; and
to move frequently the plate, and change the place of all
the parts of it, that the varnish may be alike melted evei y-
where, and kept from burning. Care must also be taken,
that during this time, and even till the varnish be entirely
cold, no filth, sparks, or dust, fly on it; for they would
then stick fast and spoil the work.
Method of applying the hard varnish—This is pre¬
cisely the same as that for the soft; it is spread equally
over the warm plate with the taffety-ball, and smoked in
the same manner; only, after it is smoked, it must be baked,
or dried over a gentle fire of charcoal, till the smoke from
the varnish begins to decrease; taking care not to over¬
heat the plate, which would both soften it and burn the
varnish.
The plate being thus prepared, and an exact drawing of
the outlines of the design made upon thin paper, the other
side of the paper must be well rubbed with chalk or Spa¬
nish whitening, or, which is better, with red chalk scraped
to a powder : the loose chalk is then cleared off with a linen
rag, and the stained side of the paper is laid upon the
varnish, fixing the corners to the plate with wax or wafers,
to prevent its shuffling; and with a blunted needle or poin¬
ter the drawing is slightly traced, and communicates to the
varnish an exact outline of the design to be etched.
A variety of pointers is necessary for the work. Those
used for the broad large strokes ought to be very blunt, ex¬
ceedingly round, and well polished at the point; the sole
of a shoe answers very well for polishing the points. The
finest ought to be as sharp as a needle. If any scratches or
false strokes happen in the working, they are to be stopped
up with a hair pencil dipped in Venetian varnish mixed
with lamp black, by which means these places will be de¬
fended from the action of .the aquafortis.
The next operation is that of eating or corroding the
plate with aquafortis, in order to which a border of soft wax,
being a composition of bees-wax melted and tempered
with a little Venice turpentine and tallow, must be fasten¬
ed round the plate about an inch high, in the form of a
little wall or rampart, to contain the aquafortis. At one of
the corners of this border a gutter is usually made, which
serves for commodiously pouring the aquafortis off the plate.
The plate being thus bordered, take a due quantity of the
refiner’s aquafortis, mix it with half its quantity of com¬
mon water, and pour it gently on, till it rise above a fin- f
ger’s breadth above the surface of the plate ; then, if all (
things have been rightly conducted, it will soon be seen ^ tj,
that the aquafortis exerts its action in the hatches which ^ v
have been strongly touched; but those more weakly en¬
graved will appear at first clear, and of the colour of the |
copper. The menstruum must therefore be suffered to I
continue on the plate till its effects become visible on the
more tender parts; then the aquafortis should be poured
off, the plate washed with clean w ater, and dried before the
fire; after which take a small pencil dipped into the Ve- |
netian varnish, and cover with it the lighter parts of the
plate. This being done, the aquafortis must again be pour¬
ed on, and suffered to continue a longer or a shorter time,
according to the strength of the menstruum or the nature
of the engraving ; after which it must be poured off as be¬
fore, and the plate immediately washed with water.
It may not be improper to observe, that, when the aqua¬
fortis is on the plate, a feather should be used to cleanse
away the foulness of the verdigris that gathers in the hatch¬
es when the aquafortis operates on them, and to give it
more room to exert its action ; for by moving the aquafor¬
tis to and fro on the plate by the feather, and brushing
away the black saline matter where it appears to be form¬
ed, the hatches will be cleansed, and the aquafortis exert its
whole force equally on every part.
The plate being thus sufficiently corroded by the aqua¬
fortis, and well washed with water, it must be warmed at
the fire, and the border of wax removed; after which it
must be made hotter till the varnish melt; then it must
be well wiped with a linen cloth, and afterwards rubbed
well with oil of olives, when it will be ready to be retouch¬
ed and finished by the graver.
ETELENT, a town of the Arabian Irak, on the river
Tigris, 66 miles north-north-west of Bassora.
ETEOCLES, in fabulous history, a son of (Edipus and
Jocasta. After his father’s death, it was agreed between
him and his brother Polynices that they should both share
the royalty, and reign a year each alternately. Eteoclesby
right of seniority first ascended the throne ; but after the
first year of his reign had expired, he refused to give up
the crown to his brother, according to their mutual agree¬
ment. Resolved to punish such an open violation of a so¬
lemn engagement, Polynices went to implore the assistance
of Adrastus, king of Argos, received that king’s daughter
in marriage, and was soon afterwards assisted with a strong
army, headed by seven famous generals. Whilst these hos¬
tile preparations were making, Eteocles on his part did not
remain inactive. He chose seven brave chiefs to oppose
the seven leaders of the Argives, and stationed them at
the seven gates of the city; he placed himself against his
brother Polynices, and opposed Menalippus to Tydeus,
Polyphontes to Capaneus, Megareus to Eteocles, Hyperbnis
to Parthenopaeus, and Lasthenes to Amphiaraus. Muc
blood having been shed in light and unavailing skirmishes,
it was at last agreed between the two brothers that the war
should be decided by single combat. An encounter ac¬
cordingly ensued, and was conducted with such invetera e
fury that- both combatants fell; nay it is even preten e
that the ashes of these two brothers, who had been so mi¬
mical to each other while living, separated on the burning
pile, as if sensible of resentment, and hostile to reconci 1a
tion. ,. • c
ETERNITY, an attribute of God, expressing his iw<-
nite or endless duration.
Eternity, in Mythology, a divinity among the Kom >
who had neither temples nor altars, but who was yeP
sented under the figure of a wroman holding the Sl‘n'n
hand an4 the moon in the other. The symbols of t is
vinity w ere a phoenix, a globe, and an elephant.
E T H
Ete:
II
Ether
ETESLEj or Etesian Winds, are such as blowat stated
times of the year, from what point soever of the compass
:they come. They are so called from the Greek word erog,
' ^ year, being yearly or anniversary winds, such as are now
called monsoons and trade-winds, which in some parts of
the world continue constantly blowing in the same direc¬
tion during stated seasons of the year. Thus the north
winds, which during the dog-days constantly blow upon
the coasts of Egypt, and prevent all ships sailing out of
Alexandria for that season, are called etesice in Caesar’s
Commentaries; and in other authors, the west and east
winds are called etesice when these continue blowing for
certain seasons of the year.
Cellarius endeavours to prove that those winds are pro¬
perly etesian which blow from that part of the horizon
which is between the north and west about the time of the
solstice. In ancient writers they are represented as of a
very mild and gentle kind ; and are called somniculosi and
delicati, from their sleeping or ceasing to blow in the night.
ETFU, or Edfou, a town of Upper Egypt, celebrated
on account of the sublime temple of Apollonopolis, which,
Denon observes (Trav. ii. 277), is “ the most beautiful of
all Egypt, and, next to those of Thebes, the largest. Be¬
ing built,” he adds, “ at a period when the arts and sci¬
ences had acquired all their splendour, the workmanship of
every part is equally beautiful, the hieroglyphics are admi¬
rably executed, the figures more varied, and the architec¬
ture of a higher order, than in the Theban edifices, the
building of which must be referred to an earlier age. See
article Egypt.
ETHER, an extremely volatile fluid, produced by the
distillation of alcohol with an acid. See Chemistry.
ETHERIDGE, or Etherege, Sir George, a wit and
comic genius in the reigns of Charles II. and James II. w as
descended from an ancient family in Oxfordshire, and born
in 1636. He travelled in his youth ; and, not being able
to confine himself to the study of the law, devoted himself
to the acquisition of lighter and gayer accomplishments.
His first dramatic performance, entitled Comical Revenge,
or Love in a Tub, appeared in 1664, and introduced him to
the leading wits of the time ; in 1668 he produced a comedy
I called She would if she could; and in 1676 he published
his last comedy, called the Man of Mode, or Sir Fopling
Flutter, wdiich is certainly an elegant comedy, and contains
much of the real manners of high life. This piece he de¬
dicated to the Duchess of York, in whose service he then
was, and who entertained so great a regard for him, that
when, on the accession of James II. she became queen, she
procured his being sent as ambassador first to Hamburg
and afterwards to Ratisbon, where he continued until his
majesty had quitted the kingdom. Our author being ad¬
dicted to certain gay extravagances, had greatly impaired
his fortune, in order to repair which, he paid his addresses
to a rich widow ; but the lady being ambitious, had deter¬
mined not to condescend to a marriage with any man who
could not bestow upon her a title ; and on this account he
was obliged to purchase a knighthood. None of our wri¬
ters has exactly fixed the period of Sir George’s death,
though all seem to place it not long after the Revolution.
Some say that on this event he followed his master King
James into France, and died there ; but the authors of the
lographia Britannica mention a report that he came to
^n untimely death by an unlucky accident at Ratisbon.
aving entertained some company at his house, where he
1 ad taken his glass rather too freely, and being, through
|s Sreat complaisance, forward in waiting on his guests
a their departure, he is said to have tumbled down stairs,
E T H
broken his neck, and thus fallen a martyr to mirth and
jollity. As to the literary character of Etheridge, he seems
to have possessed a genius the vivacity of which requir¬
ed little cultivation; for we have no proofs of his having
made any attainments in scholarship. His works, how¬
ever, have not escaped censure on account of that licen¬
tiousness which pervades and renders them dangerous to
young unsophisticated minds; and the more so on account
of the lively wit with which it is as it were gilded or lac¬
kered. The only prose production of Etheridge is a short
piece entitled An Account of the Rejoycing at the Diet of
Ratisbonne, performed by Sir George Etherege, Knight, re¬
siding therefrom his Majesty of Great Britain; upon occa¬
sion of the birth of the Prince of Wales. In a Letter from
himself Printed at the Savoy, 1688.
ETHICS, the doctrine of manners, or the science of
moral philosophy. The word is formed from rjOcs, mos,
tlllrj, mores, manners ; because it is the object of ethics to
investigate the manners or conduct of man. See Moral
Philosophy.
ETHIOPIA, a name which, as vaguely applied by the
ancients, comprehended all Africa south of Egypt, and of
the mountain range of Atlas, including Nubia and Abys¬
sinia, but which is, in its more restricted and proper signi¬
fication, applied to the country which was bounded on the
north by Egypt, on the west by Libya Interior, on the
east by the Red Sea, and on the south by a part of Africa
unknown to the ancients. (See articles Abyssinia and
Africa.) Although this vast tract of country must at dif¬
ferent times have varied in extent, particularly on the side
of Libya Interior, where it had no definite or ascertained
boundary, yet it seems for many ages to have comprehend¬
ed the kingdoms of Dongola, Sennaar, and Abyssinia, with
part of Adel or Zeila, to have extended seventeen degrees
in longitude, and to have reached from the tropic of Can¬
cer to within six degrees of the equator.1 In a still more
limited sense, the term Ethiopia was applied to the island of
Meroe, included between the main branch of the Nile and
the Astaboras or Tacazze, the capital of which was also
called Meroe; and it seems to have formed no part of
the country which is now denominated Abyssinia. This
region, which conquered Egypt, and which Cambyses, af¬
ter having subdued that country, vainly sought to conquer,
was long involved in mystery ; and there is no record of its
having ever been reached by any land expedition. Neither
Petronius when sent by Augustus against Queen Candace,
nor Probus in his expeditions against the Blemmyes, pe¬
netrated as far as Meroe; and, in fact, it is only in recent
times that the dark cloud under which it was so long hid has
been dispelled by the hardy enterprises of Burckhardt and
Caillaud, particularly the latter. (See article Abyssinia,
and Heeren’s Historical Researches.) To Ethiopia proper
the ancients gave various other names, an enumeration of
w hich will be found in the seventh volume of the Univer¬
sal History, part second, London, 1744, folio.
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS. A great many nations, dif¬
ferent and distant from one another, were formerly compre¬
hended under the denomination of Ethiopian. In ancient
times the natural history of man was but little cultivated.
Nations were distinguished according to the most obvious
difference in their appearance, namely, their colour; and
all who presented the most striking contrast to Europeans,
either by a very dark or completely black skin, received
the appellation of Ethiopians. Hence we find Ethiopian
nations scattered over a considerable part of the ancient
world ; and although Africa certainly contained the great¬
est number of these, yet they were by no means confined
375
Ethics
^ II .
Ethiopian
Nations.
1 Universal History, vol. vii. part 2d, p. 180. London, 1744, fol.
376
Ethiopian
Nations.
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS.
to that continent alone. A considerable tract of Asia was
occupied by an Ethiopian race; and as India was often
made to comprehend southern Africa, so, in like manner,
Ethiopia was made to include southern India. But it is of
importance that the extent of these nations, and the various
seats occupied by them, should be more accurately defined.
Anciently the native tribes of Africa were divided into
two distinct classes; the Libyans and the Ethiopians.
“ Four nations,” says Herodotus, “ occupy Africa, and no
more ; two of which are aboriginal, and two not. The Lib¬
yans and Ethiopians are aboriginal, the former being situ¬
ated northward, and the latter southward in Libya ; the fo¬
reign settlers are Phoenicians and Greeks.” This division
was exactly followed by succeeding writers. Under the
name of Libyans the father of history comprehended all
the nations inhabiting northern Africa, exclusive of the Car¬
thaginians and Greeks, the separate tribes which extended
as far as the Lesser Syrtis, and the nomadic tribes of north¬
western Africa. But the question as to who these nations
were, and whether any of their descendants may now be
discovered, cannot be answered without difficulty, owing
to the changes which the migratory invasions of the Arabs
have produced in northern Africa, f he narratives of mo¬
dern travellers, however, have made us acquainted with
two nations altogether different from the Arabs and ne¬
groes ; we mean the Tibboos and the Tuaricks. They
dwell to the south and west of Fezzan, their territory be¬
ing bounded on the south-east by Bornou, on the south by
Nigritia, and on the west by Fez and Morocco ; they aie
divided into many tribes, all speaking the same language,
which is different from the Arabic ; their lineaments have
nothing of the negro character or contour ; and their co¬
lour, which seems to vary in tint according to their place
of abode and mode of life, is of almost every shade and hue
between white and black. The Tuaricks, in particular,
are described as a very fine race of men ; tail, straight, and
handsome, with an air of independence. They are gene¬
rally white, though in their complexion considerably tan¬
ned by the climate, and their arms and bodies are as fair
as those of many Europeans. Their language is the Bre-
ber, or original African tongue ; they inhabit the immense
tract denominated the Sahara or Great Desert; they are of
numerous tribes, some of whom wander like the Arabs;
and they subsist chiefly by plunder. The Tuaricks travel
on the maherri or dromedary, by means of which they
perform long journeys in an incredibly short space of time ;
and many of their tribes are at perpetual war with the
Soudan states, from which they carry off great numbers of
slaves, the principal article of their trade. The nearest
place of this people is about ten days’ journey to the south
of Mourzouk.
The Tibboos are in every respect a different people from
the Tuaricks. Their colour is of the brightest black, but
their profile has nothing of the negro character ; they have
aquiline noses, fine teeth, and lips formed like those of Eu¬
ropeans ; in civilization they are below the Tuaricks, liv¬
ing partly in caves and partly in villages situated upon
barren rocks or hills; and they follow the slave trade, but
do not trade to Soudan. From a comparison of the Tua¬
ricks and Tibboos, Heeren has been led to conjecture that
the former spread from north to south, and the latter from
south to north. But it is nearly as difficult to draw an ac¬
curate line of demarcation between these tribes and those
of the negro race, as between the ancient Libyans and
Ethiopians. It is no doubt true that the southern bounda¬
ries of the Great Desert may in general be taken as the
limits of the negro countries; but, on the other hand, it is
certain that separate black tribes, whether completely ne¬
gro or not, have both in ancient and modern times pene¬
trated a considerable way into the Sahara or Great Desert.
From Lyon’s map we learn that at present the black popu- E, ^
lation commences about the twenty-eighth degree of north 1 os.
latitude. The circumstance mentioned by Herodotus, of^v
the Ethiopians having been hunted by the Garamantes in
four-horse chariots, and the detached tribes of this people
which dwelt along the Atlantic coast almost as far as Ceme,
show that this was also the case in early times; and from
the narratives of modern travellers we collect that, in the
Tibesti Mountains, the same territory where the Garamantes
hunted the Ethiopians, black tribes are still to be found.
If, then, the numerous interminglings of these tribes which
must necessarily have taken place in a long course of ages,
and the circumstances which, in a country like Africa, are
continually occurring to produce changes and migrations,
together with the ordinary operation of physical laws, be
all duly considered, the difficulty, if not the impossibility,
of drawing an accurate boundary line between the Libyans
and Ethiopians, will easily be perceived.
So much for the w estern nations of northern Africa. With
regard to the eastern, the inhabitants of the banks of the Nile
above Egypt, and of the adjacent countries as far as the
Arabian Gulf; as their country in general is comprehend¬
ed under the name of Ethiopia, the denomination has been
transferred to its inhabitants, who have received the name
of Ethiopians, not by reason of their descent, but simply
because their complexion happens to be dark. Herodotus
classes the Ethiopians according to the growth of their
hair, and particularly distinguishes the negroes from the
other swarthy tribes. “ The Asiatic Ethiopians,” says he,
“ have straight hair; whilst the African Ethiopians have
the most curly hair of all men.” But, as we have already
seen, he is mistaken in speaking thus of all the black tribes
of Africa, some of whom are not negroes, and, notwithstand¬
ing the black hue of their skins, have straight hair. He
judged according to what he saw of them in Upper Egypt,
the most southern point of his travels ; but, from not hav¬
ing penetrated farther into the interior of the African con¬
tinent, he judged erroneously. We are, however, indebted
to him for one important piece of infoi’mation, namely, that
the eastern districts of northern Africa, presently com¬
prehended under the names of Nubia and Sennaar, were
then occupied by tw'o distinct races ; one aboriginal, which
he includes under the general appellation of Ethiopians;
and the other immigratory, of Arabian origin, and leading
for the most part a wandering life. That such was actual¬
ly the case during the Persian period, and even as far back
as the times of the Pharaohs, there are many proofs; and
we shall soon see how the statement in question tallies with
the accounts of recent travellers. But still it would be as
difficult to draw a precise line of distinction between the
Arabian and aboriginal nations here, as between the ne¬
groes and Berbers in western Africa; more especially as
many of the immigratory tribes have intermingled with the
elder stock, and as the latter lay claim to an Arabian des¬
cent, which they have been led to consider as the more ho¬
nourable. Language, however, if due caution be used in
examining it, forms the most certain test, and indeed may
be considered as decisive on this point. For as it is impro
bable that the Arabians, who pride themselves on their
language, would ever relinquish it in order to adopt that o
a barbarous or conquered people; so, on the other han ,
all those nations who do not speak Arabic may be ran e
as aboriginal, whatever descent their traditions may c aim
for them ; and hence all of them may be included un e
the general appellation of Berbers or Barabras, a nanl
which, in the same sense, is still applied to them in Egyp >
if not in other countries.
Amongst these nations the first place is due to the
bians, who live in a land of monuments, perhaps erecte 7
their forefathers, and who, on that account, have grea
Ethic
Nati
E T HIO PIA N N A TI O N S. 377
a claims on our attention. This name does not occur until Abyssinia, where the Amhara and other dialects first begin Ethiopian
the age of the Ptolemies, and is first mentioned by Pratos- to be spoken. But the Arabic is much less general amon0- Nations.
, J thenes; but it soon came into use as the general denomi- the scattered races wandering between the valley of the
nation of all the tribes living on both sides of the Nile Nile and the Arabian Gulf; that is, among the Blemmyes,
from Egypt to Sennaar, and the ancient Meroe, and some- the Megabari, the Troglodyte, and the Ichthyophagi, the
times, in a more limited sense, as applicable only to the in- tribes noticed by the ancient writers as occupying or roving
habitants of the present Dongola. The Nubians are dis- through these parts. The principal race, however, is that
tinguished by this, that their dwellings are in the valley of to which Bruce and Niebuhr have given the name’of Bis-
the Nile, amidst numerous monuments of ancient splen- charries, the same who are called Bejas or Bedjas by the
dour and civilization. They speak a language entirely dif- early writers. That this tribe is the same as the ancient
ferent from the Arabic ; they are of a dark-brown colour, Blemmyes has been very satisfactorily demonstrated by M.
with hair either naturally curly or artificially arranged, but Quatremere. They occupy the same territory; their ha-
not at all woolly, and often formed into an elevated orna- bits have in no respect changed; they are an aboriginal
ment, as in the figures on the monuments ; and their visage people, with nothing of the Arab about them ; and conse-
has nothing whatever of the negro physiognomy. The quently they belong to the class of nations comprehended
men are well formed, strong, and muscular, with fine coun- under the general name of Berbers. The seat of the Bis-
tenances, but are something shorter in stature than the charries begins in the north, where that of the Ababdes, ex-
Egyptians ; they have only a little beard growing under tending from Cosseir to about the 23d degree of north lati-
the chin, as in the Egyptian statues ; they are thinly clad, tude, terminates, and is principally a mountain ridge, which,
indeed almost naked ; and they are all armed with a spear, rising close to the territory of the Ababdes, runs along the
a dagger, and a large shield formed of the hide of the hip- eastern coast of Africa to the neighbourhood of Suakin.
popotamus. The women are well made, wdth very pleas- This chain has from the earliest times been the abode of
ing features; and, as they are usually bought of their pa- tribes who dwell in holes and caves originally formed by
rents, they frequently intermarry with the Arabs. But the nature, but fashioned and improved by the inhabitants them-
distinctive characteristics of race have not thereby been selves, who have therefore been comprehended under the
destroyed. The Nubian has more courage and daring than name of Troglodytes, or dwellers in caves. The Troglo-
the Arab ; and his beauty is as unchangeable as that of a dytes of Ethiopia, according to Agatharcides, were herds-
statue in a rock temple. At Dongola the language chief- men, with separate chiefs, or heads of tribes, amongst whom
lyin use is the Nubian, the Arabian being but imperfectly there existed a community of women, the result probably
understood. To the south of Dongola is the country of of their manner of life. During the rainy season they re-
the Scheygias, a remarkable race of a very dark-brown or tired with their herds into the caves, where they lived
rather black complexion, but not negroes. Until recent- upon clotted milk and blood; but as soon as the weather
ly this people enjoyed complete independence, and de- became favourable, they hastened with their cattle into the
fended their liberty against the army of the viceroy of valleys, which afforded them pasturage, and which were
Egypt, under his son Ismael Pasha, with heroic courage; often a subject of violent contention. Burckhardt gives
nearly a similar description of these mountaineers, whom
he represents as a very savage people, living entirely upon
flesh and milk, and eating much of the former raw.2 Some
of these tribes spread themselves over the plains of Atba-
ra, between the lower Tacazze and the mountains ; but the
peculiarities of the climate, particularly the overflowing of
this branch of the Nile, which inundates the neighbouring
plains, compels them to undertake a yearly migration in
search of fresh pasturage. Another cause of their migra¬
tions, mentioned by Bruce, is the insect described by him
under the name of the gadfly, which, from the commence¬
ment of the rainy season, abounds on the rich lands adjoin¬
ing the Astaboras, and kills the cattle, if they are not im¬
mediately driven off to the higher sandy regions, whither
the destructive insect does not follow them.
but being overpowered by numbers and discipline, they
were almost extirpated. The Scheygias speak the Arabic,
and are probably of mixed origin. They are divided into
three classes or castes; that of the learned, who have books
and schools; that of the warriors, who are horsemen, each
armed with a double-pointed spear, a sword, and a shield;
and that of the merchants, who carry on a considerable
traffic in exchanging native products for such foreign ar¬
ticles as they require. In their country, which borders
upon that of the Berbers, are first met with the pyramidal
monuments which adorned the ancient Meroe ; the name
of which has still been preserved in that of their chief place
Merawe, though the ancient capital so called must be sought
for farther to the south. With regard to the Berbers, they
i call themselves Arabians, that they may not be confounded
with the negroes ; but, from Burckhardt’s description, there
can be little doubt that they belong to the Nubian race.1
Above these regions, beyond the Astaboras or Tacazze,
especially in Shendy, and thence along the Nile to Sennaar,
t ie Arabic prevails ; and the mass of the inhabitants may
therefore be regarded as of Arabian descent, though with
an intermixture of other blood. These places have always
icen, and still are, great resorts of trade; and this trade
j jias ever been principally in the hands of Arabians, whose
| *anguage, accordingly, extends as far as the confines of
The southern part of the territory of Taka or Atbara,
which is covered with thick forests, and overrun with sa¬
vage beasts, as lions, panthers, elephants, and rhinoceroses,
forms the seat of the hunting tribes, of whom a very accu¬
rate description has been given by Agatharcides. They
dwell on the banks of the Astaboras, which separates them
from Meroe; in other words, they are the Shangallas of
Bruce. But no modern traveller has yet visited the inte¬
rior of the district inhabited by this people. Bruce jour¬
neyed along its southern, and Burckhardt along its north-
are People of Berber,” says he, “ are a very handsome race. The native colour seems to be dark-red brown. Their features
"'hatU ■ i. ^lose. °f the negro, the face being oval, the nose often perfectly Grecian ; the upper lip, however, is generally some-
£ . lc*er than is considered beautiful, though it is still far from the negro lip. They are tall and thin, even more so than the
s u Ip?8’ ver3r healthy, sick persons being scarcely ever found among them.” (Travels in Nubia, p. 216, 233.)
and th sc^rries? who rarely descend from their mountains, are a very savage people. Their only cattle are camels and sheep,
very f6 H 1 f6 enl'irely upon flesh and milk, eating much of the former raw. According to the relation of several Nubians, they are
lifter °n(p 1 le k°t blood of slaughtered sheep ; but their great luxury is said to be the raw marrow of camels. Their language is
the/f H™111 ^le Arabic, and approaches the Abyssinian. They are divided into four tribes, which are often at war with one ano-
lisposit" 16 P^fsession °f tbe pasturages. Their women are handsomely formed, with very fine eyes and teeth, and are of a frank
VOL. ix.
They are a genuine aboriginal people of Africa.’
3 b
378
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS.
Ethiopian ern boundaries, in his route through Taka to Suakin : its
Nations, forests, its wild beasts, and its still wilder inhabitants, ren¬
der it inaccessible. The habits of these tribes have re¬
mained the same for two thousand years ; they are still the
same rude savages described by Agatharcides. The Hy-
lophagcC dwell under the branches of trees, which they fix
in the earth in order to make themselves tents; the Do-
benatis, the most powerful race of the Shangallas, live upon
elephants and rhinoceroses, the flesh of which they preserve
by drying it in the sun ; the Baasa subsist upon the flesh
of lions, and even that of snakes, which are found of an
enormous size ; and farther to the south is a tribe who, du¬
ring the summer, feed on locusts, which they preserve by
first roasting and then drying them. In the extreme east
dwell the Struthiophagi, or ostrich-eaters, who must inha¬
bit plains where alone ostriches are to be found. Lastly,
we have here a new proof of the great influence which the
natural circumstances ot country and climate exercise upon
the destiny of the human race. The various tribes of
. Shangallas still remain hunters, and completely savage, be¬
cause their soil is unfit either for agriculture or pasturage ;
whilst the Bischarries follow a pastoral life, because their
mountains alford food for flocks and herds. Where nature
compels men to follow a nomadic life, it is vain to expect
even an approach towards civilization.
But there yet remains to be noticed an Ethiopian na¬
tion, highly celebrated in antiquity, and copiously described
by Herodotus; we mean the Macrobians. For the place
which they have obtained in history this people are in¬
debted to the expedition which Cambyses, from motives of
cupidity, directed against them. A rumour of the vast
quantity of gold possessed by them determined the Persian
conqueror of Egypt to undertake this expedition ; but be¬
fore engaging in the enterprise, he sent from the city of
. Elephantis in Upper Egypt some Ichthyophagi, who un¬
derstood their language, as spies into their country, and
furnished the latter with presents for the king of the Ma¬
crobians, consisting of a purple robe, a golden necklace,
bracelets, perfumes, and a cask of palm wine. The report
of the spies, whose real vocation did not escape the pene¬
tration of this people, was, upon the whole, favourable.
The Macrobians were, according to them, a tall and hand¬
some race of men, who had their own laws and institutions,
and elected the tallest amongst them as their king. They
were not unacquainted with the use of wine; their food
consisted of boiled flesh and milk; and, according to the
account of their king, they were remarkable for longevity.
Their country abounded in gold, which was the metal in
common use among them, even for the fetters of their pri¬
soners ; their sepulchres were made of glass (uccXog); and
their dead, after being embowelled, as in Egypt, were co¬
vered over with plaster, and then placed in cases, upon
which were painted portraits of the deceased. Lastly, in
return for the presents of Cambyses, the prince of the Ma¬
crobians sent him a bow, desiring the envoys at the same
time to inform their master, that when he could bend it as
easily as a Persian bow, he might undertake his projected
expedition. These particulars are curious, as showing that
the Macrobians must have been a nation living under fixed
laws and institutions ; that they understood the working in
metals; that they inhabited the richest gold country of
Africa; that their usages were in some respects akin to
those of the Egyptians; and that they had made some pro¬
gress in the cultivation of at least one of the fine arts. It
appears, however, that they were ignorant of agriculture, A
1 1 , i . 1. • 1 1 T)., Jr
Cli I '■'Ct ^ ~ - 7     J O O V.)
as they knew nothing of bread except by report. But our
rules of judging will not always apply to the African na- ^
tions, who, proceeding from different points, and advan¬
cing in different directions, must necessarily arrive at a dif¬
ferent end from that attained by Europeans.
Much diversity of opinion has prevailed as to the part
of Africa which was occupied by this people. Bruce sup¬
poses the Macrobians to have been a tribe of Shangallas,
who dwelt in the lower parts of the gold countries, Cuba
and Nuba, on both sides of the Nile, to the north of Fa-
zukla; an opinion which he founds on the slight circum¬
stance that this race are in the habit, by means of ferules
of hides, of rendering their bows nearly inflexible, like that
sent in defiance to Cambyses. But as none of the Shan-
galla tribes have attained that degree of civilization attribut¬
ed to the Macrobians, Heeren thinks that their abode must
be sought for in another and more southern region; and
that, in fact, it can only be determined by the statement
of Herodotus that it lay on the Indian Sea, and abounded
in gold, which it either produced or imported. We are
thus carried to some seaport beyond the Arabian Gulf, al¬
though we may not be able to say with certainty which;
but a district is nevertheless spoken of where agriculture
was not in use, and its inhabitants lived, not on bread, but
on flesh; and this, Heeren, proceeding on the account
given by Cosmas, surnamed the Indian, of a remarkable
trade carried on with the rich gold country on the con¬
fines of the land of frankincense, conceives, on very pro¬
bable grounds, to have been situated on some part of the
coast between Babelmandel and Guardefui. The land of
African frankincense, according to Bruce, begins at Ba¬
belmandel, and stretches eastward almost to Cape Guar¬
defui, taking in part of Adel or Zeyla. But as the land
of frankincense adjoined Sasu, which is mentioned by
Cosmas as a country very rich in gold mines, and as Sasu
was situated near the sea, it may be concluded that the lat¬
ter formed part of the coast, and also comprehended one
or more ports at which the trade was carried on. The dis¬
tance of Axum1 from the land of frankincense, stated by
Cosmas at fifty days’ journey, agrees very well with this
conjecture, which, moreover, is confirmed by the accounts
modern travellers have given of that part of the African
coast stretching from Babelmandel to Guardefui, and which
is inhabited by a race neither completely negroes nor Ara¬
bians. The Samaulies, who are the people here alluded
to, are not savages, but a friendly, well-disposed race, en¬
gaged in commerce, which they carry on between Africa
and Arabia. Gums, myrrh, and frankincense, cattle and
slaves, are the commodities exported by them, in exchange
for which, as well as for gold and ivory, they receive the
productions of Arabia and India, particularly the latter.
The profits of this trade are very great; and the commerce,
if it were not checked by the exorbitant customs imposed
by the native rulers, would be immense. Taking the nar¬
ration of Cosmas, therefore, in conjunction with the cir¬
cumstances stated by Herodotus, it does seem probab e
that the Macrobians of the latter should be sought for w
this region, that is, on some part of the coast not far from
Cape Guardefui; and if the particulars mentioned by the
former be applied to the same people, then every materia
difficulty vanishes, and the whole appears in a natural am
satisfactory light.2 , „ ,
The Ichthyophagi derive their name from their too >
plan
1 The capital of Ethiopia. .
2 See Lord Valentia’s Travels, vol. ii. p. 370-378. The vast quantity of gold is easily accounted for; it was either a natural P
duct of the country, or the inhabitants had accumulated it by commerce; and hence the presents of the Persian king, cona ?
partly of golden ornaments, seemed to this people a mockery,’which their prince was justified in taking as an insult, and retu
by defiance.
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS.
Ethi<
Nati
n which consisted of fish; and, besides the tribes in Africa,
l some also on the coasts of Persia and Arabia received the
L same appellation for the same reason. The African Ich-
thyophagi belong properly to the Troglodytae, or dwellers
in caves, and are only distinguished from others of this
class by their food and manner of life. It is a remark
which the whole history of the human race confirms, that
the nations or tribes which subsist on fish are the very
lowest in the scale of civilization; and the wretched sa¬
vages we have mentioned form no exception to the truth
of the observation. Strangers to all domestic ties; with
no dwellings excepting clefts and holes; and without evdh
fishing implements, as they fed only on those fish which
were left behind by the retiring floods, they seem to have
been of all savages at once the most miserable and the
most degraded. Such being their character and condition,
it seems difficult to conceive how Cambyses came to choose
from such a race, individuals to act as envoys or spies.
But as he sent for the Ichthyophagi from Elephantis in
Upper Egypt, where a party of them must consequently
have lived, and as his choice was no doubt determined by
their acquaintance with the country and language of the
Ethiopians, it is probable that they belonged to the roving
tribes, who carried on the trade between Egypt and Ethi¬
opia, and formed the caravans which travelled from the one
country to the other. There was in fact no other way of
passing from Egypt to the country of the Macrobians but
by a caravan; and these people, as they understood the
language spoken in the latter, must have journeyed thither
once or oftener. Heeren intimates a conjecture that they
belonged to the Ababdes, whose country stretches to the
neighbourhood of the region above described, and who,
from the most remote times, have been carriers of mer¬
chandize.1
The Ethiopian nations with which we have thus become
acquainted must obviously be-ranked, as a whole, in the low¬
est grade of civilization. Yet there still exists an evident
difference of improvement among them; in fact, various
gradations are observable, from the complete savage, whose
rank might be disputed by the ourang-outang, to the hunt¬
ing and fishing tribes, and from these again to the noma¬
dic herdsmen of the mountains and the plains. But we do
not anywhere discover a single nation which had united
in a settled abode, and formed itself into a great and well-
organized state. The nature of the country, and the cli¬
mate, seem to have opposed a barrier which, in modern
times at least, has not been overcome. Anciently, however,
there did exist a better cultivated, and to a certain degree
civilized Ethiopian people, who dwelt in cities, erected
temples and other edifices, which they inscribed with hie-
roglyphics, lived under government and laws, and were
famed over a considerable part of the earth for their pro¬
gress in knowledge and the social arts. That state was
Meroe.
Celebrated for upwards of two thousand years, Meroe,
from its distant situation, has, until of late years, been in¬
volved in mystery and obscurity. But the hardy enter¬
prises of Burckhardt and Caillaud, particularly the latter,
nave at length dispelled the dark cloud under which it was
so l°ng hidden; Meroe has at length been disclosed ; and
a new world of antiquities, the existence of which had not
eyen been imagined, has been laid open, as it were, to our
view. The southern boundary of Egypt had hitherto been
considered as the utmost verge of ancient civilization and
science. But more distant regions have at length been
exp ored. Bruce and his predecessors led the way by cross¬
ing the Nubian desert, and others soon followed, who, pe- E
netrating the upper countries situated on the Nile, dis- ^
covered that succession of monuments on its banks which ^
has excited so much astonishment amongst antiquaries, as
well by their number as their magnitude. Temple after
temple appeared, some erected upon and others excavated
in the rocks and the earth; scarcely was one passed when
another appeared in view; colossal figures, buried up to
their shoulders in sand, projected their enormous propor¬
tions ; and an immense number of pyramids, with temples
and ruins of cities close by or intermingled with them, rose
to the sight of the astonished beholders. At last appear¬
ed the distant Meroe itself, with the ancient temple of Am¬
mon still erect and majestic in its ruins.
The course of the Nile above Egypt, before its conflux
with the Astaboras, lies through a valley enclosed on both
sides by chains of hills, which sometimes recede and some¬
times advance, until they almost approach the banks of the
river. Any great deviation in the course of the stream is
thus rendered impossible, though nothing exists to obstruct
lesser windings in the wider portions of the enclosed val¬
ley. But as the soil of this valley was undoubtedly at one
time as fertile in the upper regions as it is in Egypt itself
(for where it could remain in that state it is still found so),
we may conclude that it was at one time a highly culti¬
vated country, with a numerous population, and a long suc¬
cession of cities. As the mountain chains which enclose
the valley are, however, succeeded on both sides of the
river by sandy deserts,—on the east by the Nubian, and on
the west by the great sandy waste which stretches right
across Africa,—the sand has proved a still more formidable
enemy here than in Egypt; and the lower chain affording
but a slight defence, this deadly foe of all civilization has
not only penetrated into the valley, but frequently buried,
in part or in whole, the monuments which abound in it.
The same cause must have occasioned some alterations in
the course of the river itself, forcing separate branches into
one channel, and joining small islands to the mainland.
At all events, the valley of the Nile was certainly very dif¬
ferent from what it is now, traces of old canals formed for
extending its periodical overflow being everywhere visible ;
and these changes alone would have been sufficient to af¬
fect the condition of the inhabitants, even if other events
had not conspired to accelerate the progress of decay. The
river, deviating from its generally straight course, forms a
bend or bow from 19° to 23° by running into the west,
deeper into Libya; and the inner part of this incurvation
is occupied by the Nubian desert. But the stream soon
winds again to the eastward, and resumes a northerly direc¬
tion, which it preserves throughout Nubia and Egypt.
For the first accounts of the course of the Nile above
Egypt we are indebted to Herodotus, who collected them
in Egypt, probably at Thebes or at Elephantis, beyond
which he never proceeded. According to the information
which he received, he states that, beyond the Egyptian
boundary, the country becomes higher; that in this part
a boat is dragged up the stream by means of a rope, fast¬
ened on either side, and if it chance to break, the boat is
forced back by the violence of the current; that this na¬
vigation continues four days, the Nile winding, like the
Meander, through a space of twelve schoeni or seventy-
two geographical miles ; that the traveller next arrives at
a plain where the Nile flows round an island named Ta-
chompso; that the parts above Elephantis are inhabited
by Ethiopians, excepting one half of the island, which is
held by Egyptians; that close to the island is a vast lake,
Heeren, Historical Researches into the Politics. Intercourse, and Trade of the Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, vol. i. p. 388.
English Translation. Oxford, 1832, 8vo.
379
thiopian
380
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS.
Ethiopian after crossing which the stream of the Nile, lost for a time
Nations. in this expanse of water, is again met with ; that a journey
of forty days is then performed on the bank of the river;
that in this part of the Nile sharp rocks rise above the
water, and numerous shoals are met with, amongst which
it is impossible to navigate ; and that having passed through
this country, the traveller again embarks in another boat,
and, after twelve days’ navigation, reaches an extensive
city, the name of which is Meroe. Such is the statement
of Herodotus, founded upon the information which he had
collected in Egypt. In comparing it with the accounts o
recent travellers, we shall find that all those objects, sue i
as cliffs and rocks, which are not liable to change, still an¬
swer to his description ; whilst, in other respects, suppos¬
ing Herodotus to have been correctly informed, material
alterations appear to have taken place.
Amongst the moderns, Norden was the first who at¬
tempted to navigate the Nile above Egypt, and to draw
maps of its course. These, which reach only to Dein, L)e-
rar, or Deir, the end of his journey, are, notwithstanding
all that has since been done, still the fullest in particu¬
lars. Burckhardt, in his first journey, kept near the banks
of the river, and only penetrated as far as the frontiers
of Dongola; in his second he traversed the Nubian de¬
sert. The journey and map of Legh extend no farther
than the second cataract; and the magnificent work of
Gau only reaches to the same place. The statements of
Senkowsky, up to this limit, are also exceedingly accu¬
rate. Above the second cataract, from Wady-Halfa to the
boundaries of Sennaar, or the ancient Meroe, Wadding-
ton and Hanbury have given a map of the course of the
Nile ; and for the more distant regions the authorities are
Bruce, Burckhardt, and particularly Caillaud.
The winding course of the Nile above Syene is shown
in Norden’s twenty-fourth chart. The river here holds a
serpentine course, but without any considerable curvature.
Its current is so strong that Norden was obliged to quit
his bark ; Legh also found it difficult to make head against
the stream ; and, in the territory of Kalabsche, where it is
confined within a channel about thirty 37ards in width, its
impetuosity becomes so great as to render navigation ex¬
ceedingly hazardous. As the voyage to the island of la-
chompso is stated by Herodotus to be twelve schoeni, or
seventy-two geographical miles, which, navigating against
the stream, it required four days to perform, this island
may therefore be that now called Kalabsche, or another,
named Ghyrshe, about twenty miles farther. The river
contains many islands of which an accurate account is
still wanting; but the great difficulty is the lake through
which it is said to have flowed. The river, it is true,
spreads out sometimes to a greater and sometimes to a
less extent, but a lake is nowhere to be found. It follows,
therefore, either that Herodotus was misinformed in re¬
gard to this particular, or that the features of the region
in question have undergone a change, whether from the
accumulation of sand, or from the gradual detrition of a
natural barrier, which had originally dammed up the
stream to a certain height, and formed the lake men¬
tioned by him. We incline to the latter opinion, which
is strengthened by what is known to have taken place at
the cataracts; for, owing to the diminished obstruction,
these rapids no longer answer the description of them
given by the ancients. It may also be added, that, at
the time of the annual floods, the Nile, in those parts
where the mountain chains recede and suffer its waters
to cover the valley, presents the appearance of a lake.
From the site of the supposed lake the navigation of the
stream continues unobstructed as far as the second ca¬
taract, near Wady-Halfa (21° bO7), a view of which is
given by Gau; but above this cataract the bed of the
river is often interrupted by rocky shoals, which cause l
rapids. Of these, one is near Wady-Attyr, another near 1
Wady-Ambigo, and a third near Wady-Lamule (un-^
der 21°); beyond which Burckhardt met with two others,
the farthest being on the northern boundary of the king,
dom of Dongola (19° SO7). But the obstruction of the
navigation does not stop here ; for Caillaud continues
it as far as Merawe, where the great falls commence.
Above the northern boundary of Dongola, the features
of the country become much changed ; the mountain
chains recede much farther; and the Nile, hitherto fre¬
quently compressed into a narrow channel, here spreads
out into many branches, enclosing a number of fruitful
islands adorned with palm-groves, vineyards, and mea¬
dows covered with numerous herds, especially of camels.
Every thing, says Hanbury, might here be found in abun¬
dance ; nature has done her part, if man had performed his.
But at this time the country appeared to great disadvan¬
tage, owing to the wanton devastation committed by the
Egyptian army under Ismael Pasha. Having thus reach¬
ed the immediate vicinity of the junction of the Astabo-
ras or Tacazze with the Nile, or, in other words, the an¬
cient island of Meroe, we shall, before entering the latter,
pause for a little, to contemplate the monuments scatter-
ed along the Nubian portion of the valley of the Nile, the
external features of which we have just described.
That the Nubian valley was once covered, on both sides
of the river, with towns or villages, containing a numerous
population, cannot possibly be doubted. Of these, Pliny
has left us the names, and only the names, of twenty on
each side. In his time they no longer existed, and it is
probable that they were destroyed in the earlier contests
between Egypt and Ethiopia. They must therefore have
been very ancient; indeed the great population of the
upper valley of the Nile favours the opinion which refers
these towns to the time of the Pharaohs. But in Nubia,
as in Egypt, the great works in architecture were confin¬
ed to public edifices. The people during the day lived
almost in the open air, and their dwellings were little more
than resting-places for the night, or mere huts, which fell
into decay as soon as they ceased to be occupied, and
were speedily swept from the earth. Yet the ancient
Parembole is still found in the present Debod; the name
of Taphis is preserved in that of Tafa; Kalabsche is ma¬
nifestly the ancient Talmis ; Pselas is the present Dakke;
Metacompso nominally survives in the modern Kobban;
farther south Abrim represents the ancient Primis; and
all these places are below the first Nubian cataract. But
though the dwellings of man have vanished, not so those
of the gods: the habitations of the former, like himself,
have passed away ; those of the latter seem to be imperish¬
able. The series of temples commences on both sides of
the Nile, almost immediately above the Egyptian cata¬
racts. The first is that of Debod, twelve miles beyond
Philae (see article Egypt), on the left bank of the Nile;
at nearly the same distance is that ot Kardassy; and ony
five miles farther, that of Tafa. Next come the two tem¬
ples of Kalabsche, one built upon the ground, the other
hewn in the rocks ; at about ten miles more is the temple
of Dandour ; and again, at a like distance, that of Ghyr¬
she, partly above ground, partly hewn out of a rock, ien
miles farther up is the temple of Dakke, at the same dis¬
tance that of Maharraka, and sixteen miles farther that o^
Seboa, half built above, and half cut into the earth. Ihir-
ty miles farther stands the temple of Derar, on the rig
side; and sixty miles beyond this is the temple mtie
rocks of Ipsambul, with its colossi, forty-eight miles be o
the Nubian cataract of Wady-Halfa, near to which stan
another temple. Beyond this the chain is broken, an
does not recommence till about a hundred and fifty 1111
Eth -ai
Na s.
ETHIOPIAN NATIONS.
farther up, below the island of Sai, where there is a large
temple; and thirty miles onward appears the temple of
Soleb, which Burckhardt considers as the most southern
of those constructed in the Egyptian style. Here, in fact,
the first chain obviously terminates; but a new one also
commences on the frontiers of the ancient Meroe; and
about two hundred miles farther, near Merawe and the
adjoining mountain of Berkal, temples re-appear, accom¬
panied with groups of pyramids. About two hundred and
forty miles onward we reach the junction of the Nile and
Astaboras, crossing which we enter the island of Meroe,
and, proceeding about ninety miles farther, arrive at the
temples and pyramidal ruins of the ancient city of Meroe.
It would be inconsistent with the object of this article
to attempt any general description of the monuments
which we have just enumerated ; this may be introduced
with greater propriety under another head. But an at¬
tentive examination of these monuments suggests some
general observations both as to their character and the
history of the country where they are found, which we
shall endeavour to state as briefly as possible. And, first,
it appears that the religion, rites, and arts of Egypt, were
not confined to its proper territory, but extended to the
upper valley of the Nile, where the same deities were
worshipped, and the rites of Ammon everywhere predo¬
minated, together with those of his temple-kindred and
companions. Secondly, the character of the architecture,
between which and the ornaments it received from the
hand of the sculptor a distinction must be made, is upon
the whole the same; but there is a progress in it which
cannot be mistaken. In the monuments of Egypt, the
art.is found in its greatest perfection, perhaps also in its
decline; here, however, we observe it in its rise and pro¬
gress, from small grottos, such as those of Derar, until it
attained the sublime magnitude in which it exists at Ip-
sambul. Thirdly, as the science of architecture appears
to have commenced with grottos and tombs, and to have
been perfected by degrees, the rock-monuments probably
determined its principal character to the colossal form
which it assumed. From the grottos it first rose into the
open air; and then quitting this junction, erected monu¬
ments unconnected with such excavations. Fourthly, in
regard to the sculptures and bas-reliefs with which the
walls and columns of these monuments, below ground as
well as above, are profusely ornamented, it would seem
that, in general, they are not coeval with the edifices on
which they are found. In the architecture, and even in
the colossal statues, a progress may be traced from the
nst rude attempts to a state of comparative perfection:
ut in the reliefs nothing of the kind is discernible; all of
these exhibit, in nearly an equal degree, the most improv¬
ed state of the art; and the subject-matter of the inscrip¬
tions shows that the decoration of the walls and columns
^as posterior in date to the erection of the monuments,
tin every part of the temples of Ipsambul, Kalabsche,
eiar, Ghyrshe, and Seboa, may be read in hieroglyphics
ie name of Rhamses the Great, or Sesostris, one of whose
rs military undertakings was an expedition against Ethi¬
opia. Fifthly, the conclusion of Heeren, that these pic-
ona representations are not to be considered as mere or-
aments or fanciful creations of art, but as historical re-
r s, is supported by every thing that has yet been dis-
thp^ u-°n SU^ect* Anc*’ lastly, as it appears that
„i . V lan monuments, strictly so called, are more an-
mpm t, 3n . ose Egypt, and that the course of improve-
hiVlil aS’ u0, Seneralj followed that of the stream, it is
denn^ Pr°aaole that the latter country, whatever ascen-
a now * ^iave ^flpired when its people had become
lev nfAtiU xtdtl0n’ origina,Iy derived from the upper val-
e Mile the elements both of art and civilization.
But where, it may be asked, is the renowned Meroe
to be found? This is the question which now demands
our attention; and, without entering into the details of
the inquiry, we shall state the results which Heeren has
deduced from the statements of ancient writers, compar¬
ed with and corrected by the accounts of modern travel-
leis. The island of Meroe, then, is the present pro¬
vince of Atbar, situated between the river of the same
name, otherwise called the Tacazze, on the right, and
the Bahi-el-Abiad and Nile on the left. The point where
the island commences is at the junction of the Tacazze
and Nile ; it is enclosed on the south by a branch of the
above-mentioned river, the Waldubba, and a branch of
the Nile, called the Bahad, the sources of which are near¬
ly in the same district; it is situated between 13° and 18°
of north latitude; and in recent times it has formed part
of the kingdom of Sennaar, whilst the southern portion
belongs to Abyssinia. Meroe was therefore an extensive
district, surrounded by rivers, and in superficial content
exceeded that of Sicily by rather more than one half.
In the strict sense of the term it cannot be called an
island, because it is not completely enclosed by rivers ; but
it was taken for such because the various rivers which
flow round it were all considered as branches of the Nile;
and, moreover, in the rainy season, it becomes a complete
island by the overflowing of the rivers. Upon this island
stood the ancient city of the same name, a little below
the present Shendy, under 17° north latitude, and 5° Stf
east longitude. Its situation has been determined with the
nicest accuracy; and its ruins, which Bruce and Burckhardt
only saw at a distance, and hastily, confirm the deduction
made from the testimony of the ancients. These, which
have been carefully examined by later travellers, and placed
before our eyes by their drawings, are very extensive, not
being confined to a single spot, but found in a number of
places; indeed the whole strip of land from Shendy to Gherri
teems with them, and may therefore be considered as clas¬
sic ground. The monuments still remaining consist of
temples and pyramids, all private dwellings having long ago
been destroyed. To the east of Assur is what Heeren deno¬
minates the great churchyard of pyramids, about eighty
in number. They are divided into three groups, of which
the most northern includes the largest and best preserved.
They appear small compared with those of Middle Egypt,
but they are more wonderful on account of their number.
They are built of granite, but do not seem so massive in
the interior as the Egyptian pyramids. It has not been
ascertained whether sarcophagi and mummies are to be
found within these monuments, or whether they are to
be regarded as exclusively sepulchral structures. The
antiquities to the south of Shendy consist of temples, in
which Meroe itself was not deficient; two, a larger and a
smaller one, being laid down in the plan of Caillaud. In
these monuments, as well as in those of Naga or Naka, to
the south-east of Shendy, we discover the architecture
which attained to such perfection in the great temples
of Egypt; and also observe the worship of Ammon and his
kindred or associate gods, differing in no material respect
from that which is exhibited on the monuments of Upper
Egypt. At the distance of two days’ journey from the
pyramids, in the neighbourhood of which stood the city of
Meroe, is the Ammonium, or ancient temple of Jupiter
Ammon, within whose labyrinthine passages and courts
was contained the oracle of the king of the gods. This
has been clearly and fully established by Heeren, from
the information furnished by Caillaud, compared with the
statements of the ancient writers. The rarity of sculpture
and hieroglyphics on this monument is remarkable; no
trace of Egyptian art has been discovered here; and the
few figures on the pillars have nothing in common with it,
381
Ethiopian
Nations.
382
E T H
Ethiopian though one of them has evidently the hair dressed in the
Nations, broad Nubian fashion. Thus, then, has at length beei*as-
certained beyond all doubt that remarkable spot which an¬
tiquity generally regarded as the cradle of the arts and
sciences ; where hieroglyphical writing was first discover¬
ed ; and where temples and pyramids had been construct¬
ed,whilst Egypt still remained ignorant of their existence,
and the land afterwards called that of the Pharaohs was
unadorned with monuments. For a masterly account of
the religion, government, and laws of Meroe, as well as
illustrations of its history, the reader is referred to toe Re¬
searches of Heeren, which we have here followed.
Meroe was the capital of a country which both the
Hebrew and Greek writers describe as one of the richest
upon earth, and which, besides being reputed the cradle
of the arts and sciences, was, from the most remote ages,
distinguished for its trade and commerce. The Phoeni¬
cians, and even the Jews, were acquainted with it; tne
Hebrew poets cite the names of its various cities and har¬
bours, expatiating on the treasures which were imported
from them; and no sooner had the Greeks obtained some
knowledge of these regions, than they exhausted language
in extolling their boundless riches. From the very ear¬
liest times a close connection appears to have subsisted
between Egypt and Ethiopia. The Hebrew poets seldom
mention the one without the other, and both are repre¬
sented as commercial nations. When Isaiah celebrates
the victories of Cyrus, their submission is spoken of as his
most magnificent reward : “ The trade of the Egyptians,
and the merchandise of the Ethiopians, and of the tall men
of Saba, will come over to thee and become thine own.
When Jeremiah extols the great victory which Nebuchad¬
nezzar obtained over Pharaoh-Necho near Carchemish, the
Ethiopians are mentioned as allied to the Egyptians ; and
when Ezekiel threatens the downfal of Egypt, he unites it
with the most distant Ethiopia. Every page of Egyptian
history, indeed, exhibits proofs of the close intimacy which
subsisted between these countries; and commerce appears
to have formed the common tie which united them. Of
this commerce Heeren has collected all the particulars
which are to be gleaned from the ancient writers, sacred
and profane, and illustrated their statements with his
usual ability and erudition. The conclusions which he
has deduced from his investigations are alike curious and
important, and, resting upon grounds which cannot be
shaken, may be received as demonstrated propositions.
First, it appears that, in the earlier ages, a commercial
intercourse existed between the countries of southern
Asia and Africa, between India and Arabia, Ethiopia,
Libya, and Egypt, which intercourse was founded upon
their mutual necessities, and became the means by which
the civilization of these people was promoted. Secondly,
the principal seat of this national intercourse for Africa
was Meroe; and its principal route is still pointed out
by a chain of ruins, extending from the shores of the In¬
dian Sea to the Mediterranean. Adule, Azab, and Axum,
are links of this chain between Arabia Felix or Yemen, and
Meroe; Thebes and Ammonium are those between Meroe,
Egypt, and Carthage. Thirdly, the chief places of this
trade were likewise establishments of the priest-caste,
who, as a dominant race, had their principal seat at Meroe,
whence they sent out colonies, which in their turn became
builders of cities and temples, and likewise founders of
states. Thus the first seats of commerce were also the
first seats of civilization ; exchange of merchandise led
to exchange of ideas ; religion readily interposed its sanc¬
tion in behalf of commerce ; and “ by this mutual friction
was first kindled the sacred flame of humanity.”
On this subject the reader may consult Heeren, Re¬
searches into the Politics, Intercourse, and Trade of the
E T o
Carthaginians, Ethiopians, and Egyptians, vol. ii. Engl,
transl.; Herodotus, iv. 197, et seqq.; Lyon’s Narrative,
p. 108, 112 ; Quatremere, Memoires sur I'Egypte, vol. ii.;
Burckhardt’s Travels in Nubia.; Legh’s Narrative of a
Journey in Egypt, and the Countries beyond the Cataracts;
Waddington and Hanbury’s Travels ; Agatharcides, De
Rubro Mari, in Geog. Mm. Hudson, i.; Bruce’s Travels,
iii. p. 69-72 ; Yalentia’s Travels, ii. p. 394 ; Deutsche Mo-
natschrift, July 1799 ; Norden, Voyage dEgypte et de
Nubie, Baris, 1795; Gau, Antiquites de Nubie, Paris, 1824;
Caillaud, Voyage d Meroe, au Fleuve Blanc, etc.; Bel-
zoni, Narrative of Operations in Egypt and Nubia, p. 71,
73; Champollion, Precis du Systeme Hieroglyphique, p.
241 ; Nouvelles Annales des Voyages, xiii. 416; Europe-
ische Blatter, October, 1824; Eratosthenes apud Strabo;
Heeren, Researches on the Asiatic Nations ; Vincent’s Pt-
riplus of the Erythrcean Sea; Maillet, Description de
I'Egypte, p. 197, 216, etc.; Alvarez, Viaggio della Etiopia;
Mannert, Geography of the Greeks and Romans; Salt,
Voyage to Abyssinia; St John, Egypt and Mohammed
Ali, or Travels in the Valley of the Nile, London, 1834,
in 2 vols. 8vo. (a.)
ETHNARCHA, Ethnarch (formed of sdvoj, nation,
and ae^ri, command), a governor or ruler of a nation.
There are some medals of Herod surnamed the Great,
on one side of which is found 'HgwSou, and on the other
E^agvou, or Herod the Ethnarch. After the battle of Phi¬
lippi, Antony passed into Syria, constituted Herod and
Phasael his brother tetrarchs, in which quality he commit¬
ted to them the administration of the affairs of Judaea. He¬
rod therefore had the government of the province before
the Parthians entered Syria, or before the invasion of An-
tigonus, which did not happen till six or seven years after
Herod commanded in Galilee. Herod was, therefore, truly
ethnar'ch, for he cannot be otherwise denominated; so that
it must have been during that period the medals were
struck which gave him this title; and these medals are a
confirmation of what we read in history of the government
which that prince was intrusted with before he was raised
to royal state. Josephus gives Herod the appellation of
tetrarch instead of that of ethnarch; but the two terms
come so near to each other, that it is easy to confouna
them together. Though Herod the Great left by will to
Archelaus all Judaea, Samaria, and Idumea, yet Josephus
tells us he was then only called ethnarch.
ETHNOPHRONES, in Antiquity, a sect of heretics m
the seventh century, who made a profession of Christiani¬
ty, but joined thereto all the ceremonies and follies of Pa¬
ganism, such as judicial astrology, sortileges, auguries, and
other divinations. f
ETIENNE, St, an arrondissement of the department ot
the Loire, in France, extending over 450 square miles, t
is divided into nine cantons and seventy-six communes, ant
contains 107,506 inhabitants. The capital is the city of i e
same name, situated on the river Furand. It is a large ma¬
nufacturing place for silk ribbons and other silk goods, an
also for ironmongery, as well as for muskets, pistols, swor n
and other weapons. It contains 16,295 inhabitants.^ a
the neighbourhood is abundance of fossil coal. Long-
15. E. Lat. 45. 22. N.
ETIQUETTE, a French term, primarily denoting a
ticket or title affixed to a bag or bundle of papers, and ex¬
pressing its contents. It is also used, when applied o
Spanish and some other courts, to signify a particuar
count of what takes place daily in the king’s house i >
and of the chief ceremonies which are there obsen e •
likewise denotes those forms which regulate the
rum of conduct towards persons of various ranks an
tions. r* mp in
ETOILE, a town of the department of the Drome,
&rcb»
E T O
France, where good wine is produced. It contains 2314
1 inhabitants.
ETNA, or jEtna, a volcano in Sicily. See AEtna.
ETOLIA, a country of ancient Greece. On the east it
was separated by the river Evenus, now the Fidari, from
the Locrenses Ozolae, and on the wrest from Acarnania by
the Achelous ; on the north it bordered on the country of
the Dorians and part of Epirus, and on the south it ex¬
tended to the Bay of Corinth.
The Etolians were a restless and turbulent people, sel¬
dom at peace amongst themselves, and ever at war with
their neighbours; strangers to friendship or the principles
of honour; and ready to betray those who trusted them,
upon the least prospect of reaping any advantage from
their treachery; in short, they wrere looked upon by the
other states of Greece as but little better than outlaws and
public robbers. On the other hand, they were bold and
enterprising in war, inured to labour and hardships, un¬
daunted in the greatest dangers, and jealous defenders of
their liberties, for which they were, on all occasions, wil¬
ling to hazard their lives, and to sacrifice all that wras most
dear to them. They distinguished themselves above all
the other nations of Greece in opposing the ambitious de¬
signs of the Macedonian princes, w ho, after having reduced
most of the other states, wrere forced to grant them a peace
upon honourable terms. The constitution of the Etolian
republic was copied from that of the Achaeans, and con¬
structed with a view to form, as it were, a counter alliance;
for the Etolians bore an irreconcilable hatred to the Achse-
ans, and had conceived no small jealousy of the growing
power of that state. The Cleomenic w'ar, and that of the
allies, called the Social War, were kindled by the Eto¬
lians in the heart of the Peloponnesus, with no other view
than to humble their antagonists the Achaeans. In the lat¬
ter contest, this people, with the assistance only of the
Eleans and Lacedaemonians, held out for the space of three
years against the united forces of Achaia and Macedonia;
but they were at last obliged to purchase a peace, by ceding
j to Philip the whole of Acarnania. As they parted with this
province much against their will, however, they watched
all opportunities of wresting it out of the Macedonian’s
I hands; and with this view they entered into an alliance
with Rome, which proved of great service tt> the Romans
in their war with Philip ; but growing insolent on account
of their services, they soon made war upon their allies,
by whom they were overcome, and only obtained a peace
upon severe conditions. After the conquest of Macedonia
by Paulus Tmilius, they were reduced to a much worse con¬
dition ; for not only those amongst them who had openly
declared for Perseus, but such as were suspected of hav¬
ing favoured him in their hearts, were sent to Rome, in or¬
der to clear themselves before the senate ; and there they
uere detained, and never afterwards suffered to return to
their native country. Five hundred and fifty of the chief
men of the nation were barbarously assassinated by the
partizans of Rome, for no other crime than that of being
suspected of wishing well to Perseus. The Etolians ap¬
peared before Paulus yEmilius in mourning habits, and
made loud complaints of this inhuman treatment; but they
untamed no redress ; and ten commissioners, who had been
k senate settle the affairs of Greece, decreed
uit those who were killed had suffered justly, since it
appeared that they had favoured the Macedonian party.
the chief honours and employments in the
o ian republic were only conferred upon those who were
co°wn to prefer the interest of Rome to that of their
ROumy; and as such persons were alone countenanced of
omo, au the magistrates of Etolia became the creatures
vill mme t^le Rornan senate. In this state of ser-
e su jection they continued until the destruction of Co-
E T R 383
rinth and the dissolution of the Achaean league, when Eto- Eton
lia, with the other free states of Greece, was reduced to II
the condition of a Roman province, and called the pro- Etruscans,
vince of Achaia. Nevertheless, each state and city was
governed by its own laws, under the superintendence of
the praetor whom Rome sent annually into Achaia: the
whole nation paid a certain tribute; and the rich were
forbidden to possess lands anywhere except in their owm
country.
In this state Etolia continued, with little alteration, under
the emperors, till the reign of Constantine the Great, who,
in his new partition of the provinces of the empire, divided
the western parts of Greece from the other, calling them
JVew Epirus, and subjecting the whole country to the prce-
fectus prcEtorii for Illyricum. Under the successors of
Constantine, Greece wms parcelled out into several princi¬
palities, especially after the taking of Constantinople by
the western princes. At that time Theodorus Angelas, a
noble Grecian, of the imperial family, seized on Etolia and
Epirus, the former of which he left to Michael his son,
wdio maintained it against Michael Palseologus, the first
emperor of the Greeks, after the expulsion of the Latins.
Charles, the last prince of this family, having died without
issue in 1430, bequeathed Etolia to his brother’s son, also
named Charles, and Acarnania to his natural sons Memnon,
Turnus, and Hercules; but great disputes having arisen
about this division, Amurath II. after the reduction of
Thessalonica, laid hold of the favourable opportunity thus
offered, and in 1432 drove them all out. But the Mahom-
medans were afterwards dispossessed of this country by
George Castriot, prince of Epirus; who, with a small army,
opposed the whole power of the Ottoman empire, and de¬
feated the Turks in twenty-two pitched battles. Tfciat
hero, at his death, left the greater part of Etolia to the
Venetians; but the latter not being able to make head
against the Ottoman power, the whole country was soon
reduced by Mahommed II.
ETON, or Eaton, a town situated on the left bank of
the Thames, and connected with Windsor by a bridge. It
is situated in the hundred of Stoke, in the county of Buck¬
ingham. The chief object of attraction is the well-endow¬
ed college, the most celebrated for the classical scholars it
has produced of any institution in the kingdom. It was
founded by Henry VI. in 1440, and the foundation scho¬
lars, chosen for their proficiency, are transferred to King’s
College, Cambridge, of which they are admitted to fellow¬
ships as vacancies arise. The buildings are in the Gothic
style, well adapted for the accommodation of the provost,
masters, and scholars; but those of the latter not on the
foundation are boarded and lodged at houses in the town.
The number of scholars is about 300. The town depends
on the college, has no market, but is supplied from that
of Windsor adjoining. The population amounted in 1801
to 2026, in 1811 to 2279, in 1821 to 2475, and 1831 to
3232.
ETRURIA, an ancient province or country of Italy,
bounded on the north by Liguria, from which it was se¬
parated by the river Macra, now Magra; on the side of
Cisalpine Gaul, by the lofty ridges of the Apennines; on
the east by Umbria, from which it was separated by the
river Tiber; and on the west by the Tuscan Sea. The
country thus situated appears to have been one of the ear¬
liest seats of European civilization, and the principal source
whence Rome derived her laws, customs, and superstitions.
ETRUSCANS, or Tuscans, called by the Greeks
Tyrrhenians or Tyrsenians, and by themselves Rasena,
were the people who inhabited ancient Etruria, and who,
at a period when the rest of Europe was immerged in
ignorance and barbarism, had attained to a high degree ot
civil and social refinement.
384
Etruscans.
E T R U
The origin of this interesting race, from whom have
descended some monuments of the earliest humanity, ap¬
pears to have puzzled the ancients as much as it has per¬
plexed the moderns ; and, notwithstanding all that has
been written on the subject, particularly by the Italian
antiquaries, it is still beset with difficulties and involved
in obscurity. The question chiefly agitated amongst the
ancients was whether the Etruscans were Pelasgi from
Greece, Lydians from Asia Minor, or an indigenous and
aboriginal race in Italy; and the moderns have added
more than an equal number to the hypotheses of the an¬
cients. Herodotus represents them as a colony of Lydi¬
ans, who, having been compelled by famine to emigrate
from Asia, arrived, after various wanderings, in Umbria,
where they settled and called themselves lyrrhenians,
from Tyrrhenus, son of their king Atys, the conductor ot
the emigration. This tradition, whencesoever derived,
has been almost implicitly followed by the ancient wri¬
ters ; indeed Cicero, Strabo, Velleius Paterculus, Seneca,
Pliny, and Plutarch, all agree in repeating the assertion
that the Etruscans originally came from Lydia.
But the moderns have not in general evinced the same
deference for the authority of Herodotus in this particu¬
lar, and have advanced a variety of hypotheses, some of
them, perhaps, not much more tenable nor better founded
than the story told by the father of history. Dempster,
who may be said to have laid the foundation of an accurate
knowledge of Etruscan history and antiquities, is of opi¬
nion that there existed an original nucleus of inhabitants
in Etruria, which was successively augmented by the Ly¬
dian immigration, and by Pelasgic colonies from Ihes-
saly and Arcadia. Bochart coincides pretty nearly with
Dempster, but maintains that there must have existed a
direct intercourse between the Etruscans and Phoenicians,
as many of the fables, superstitions, customs, and monu¬
ments of the former were, according to him, of oriental
origin. Winckelman and the Count de Caylus, admitting
an ancient communication with the East by means of the
Mediterranean, substitute Egypt for Phoenicia ; and to
the supposed intercourse between Etruria and the land
of the Pharaohs the former ascribes the remarkable pro¬
gress made by the Etruscans in the sciences and liberal
arts ; whilst the latter is of opinion that this people bor¬
rowed every thing from Egypt, and that the origin of
science and art in Etruria is coeval with the commence¬
ment of their commercial connection with that country.
Improving upon these views, some writers have advanced
a step further, and maintained that the Etruscans not
merely carried on an intercourse with Egypt, but were
actually of Egyptian descent, in fact a colony or branch
of the great nation established in the Delta and valley of
the Nile. This opinion has been adopted by Buonarotti,
Gorius, Mazzochi, Maffei, Guarnacci, and Lord Monbod-
do ; but it has been strenuously opposed by a number of
the most learned Italian, French, and German archaeolo¬
gists, particularly by Bardetti, Pelloutier, Freret, Func-
cius, Adelung, and Heyne, who, though differing from
one another in some points, have generally contended for
the northern and Celtic origin of the Etruscans. Lanzi,
without pretending to investigate the origin of this re¬
markable people (who, he nevertheless seems to think,
were Lydians, augmented at different times by the acces¬
sion of Pelasgic tribes), endeavours to prove that, what¬
ever may have been their descent, the language, religion,
learning, and arts of the Etruscans, were of Greek origin ;
that the period of their greatest perfection in the arts of
SCANS.
design was posterior to the subjugation of Etruria by the! K
Romans, when the intercourse with Greece had rendered ^ f
them familiar with the beautiful models of that country;
and that, even admitting all languages to have been ori-
ginally derived from the East, and many Greek words to
have sprung from Hebrew or Phoenician roots, still there
exist in the Etruscan such evident traces of Hellenic de¬
scent, particularly in the names of gods and heroes, as
to render it almost impossible to derive their origin from
any other source. Further, in support of this theory, the
learned Italian attempts to show from the inscriptions
on the Eugubine tables, that the Etruscan was Aiolic
Greek, without either the monosyllabic characteristics of
the northern dialects, or the prefixes and affixes peculiar
to most of the oriental languages. Humboldt, again, sup¬
poses this people to have been a connecting link between
the Iberians and Latins, or a sort of transplanted offset
from the great Celtic stem. But the learned and inge¬
nious Muller adopts an intermediate opinion. Admitting
a primitive population of Etruria, as to whose origin he
does not venture to decide, he conceives that there are
nevertheless grounds for assuming that they became in¬
termingled with Pelasgic colonists from the coast of Ly¬
dia, where the latter had for a time settled, and acquired
the name which they afterwards rendered notorious by
their piracies in the /Egean Sea. It would be hopeless to
endeavour to reconcile these conflicting hypotheses, and
endless to examine their respective merits in detail.
Of all those, however, who have laboured to resolve this
qucBstio vexata in the archaeology of history, Niebuhr has,
we think, been, upon the whole, the most successful. The
origin of the erroneous opinions as to the extraction of
the Etruscans, he traces to two assumptions, which he
shows to be equally fallacious: first, that the Pelasgians
could only be derived from Greece, a supposition which
probably gave rise to the story of the migration from Thes¬
saly ; and, secondly, that because the Maeonians were Tyr- ,
rhenians, these Tyrrhenians, like those of Lemnos, were of ,
the same stock with the ancient inhabitants of Agylla and
Tarquinii, w hence arose the story of the Lydian emigra¬
tion of the ancient Tyrrhenians, as told by Herodotus.
But, on the authority of Xanthus, Dionysius proves that
the account of Herodotus was not founded upon a Lydian
tradition; and, from the complete difference of the two
nations in language, usages, and religion, he justly con¬
tends that it would deserve no credit, even if there had
been a tradition to the effect stated. He asserts that the
Etruscans spoke a language which bore no affinity to any
other known form of speech; and this assertion would
deserve full credit, even if we had only the evidence of
Dionysius, inasmuch as Etruscan was then, and for a con¬
siderable time afterwards, a living language, in which, as
w e gather from Lucretius,1 books were written and read.
It is further confirmed by the inscriptions still extant, in
which every resource of etymology' has tailed to detect
anyr analogy between the Etruscan and the Greek lan¬
guage or the kindred branch of the Latin; and these sin¬
gular monuments, which have thus resisted the utmost ei-
forts of modern scholarship and ingenuity, will to all ap'
pearance remain for ever a dead treasure, unless a key
shall accidentally be furnished for their interpretation, )
the discovery of a bilingual inscription. In opposition to
the unanimous evidence of the ancients, who distinguish t e
Etruscan from the Sabine and Oscan, it has indeed been
maintained that all the nations of Italy, remains of whose
language occur in inscriptions, spoke only dialects ot t e
1 Non Tyrrhena retro volventem carmina frustra
Indicia occultse Divum percurrere mentis.
ETRUSCANS.
385
same radical form of speech; but this opinion, which has
chiefly prevailed amongst the Italian scholars, is at va¬
riance with the results of unbiassed investigation; and it
appears to have been completely established that the
Etruscan language, being wholly original and peculiar,
bore as little affinity to the Sabine and Oscan as to the
Latin and Greek, with which fanciful etymologists have
vainly sought to connect it.1
The Etruscans, during the most prosperous period of
their history, inhabited Etruria proper, and the country
about the Po, besides distant colonies. The Raetians and
other Alpine tribes were also of Etruscan origin; and so
were the Lepontians and Camunians. perhaps also the
Euganeans, who inhabited Venetia before the founding of
Patavium. It has been suggested by Niebuhr that the
language spoken by the people of Groeden in the Tyrol,
a language which seems to stand alone in its peculiar
roots, may have some claims to be considered as a relic of
the ancient Etruscan.2 The Brenner formed the northern
boundary of the Raetians, and consequently of the Etrus¬
can race, who in the time of their greatness had probably
occupied the mountains as a bulwark against irruptions from
the north. Some, however, are of opinion that Raetia
was the original home whence the Etruscan people issued,
and spread first in Upper Italy, and afterwards across the
Apennines; and the harshness of the Etruscan language,
which seems still to survive in the Florentine pronuncia¬
tion, has been adduced as an argument for the Alpine ori¬
gin ofthe people.
In the ancient history of the Umbrians it was related
that the Etruscans had conquered three hundred towns of
their nation. The Umbrians, therefore, must have once
occupied the greater part of the countries, including Tus¬
cany, which the Etruscans possessed in the zenith of their
power. According to the tradition of the Lydian migra¬
tion, Pisa, and the whole country to the rocky summits of
the Alps, were wrested from the Umbrians by the Tyrrhe-Etruscans,
mans ; and Pliny considers the Umbrians as the ancient in-
habitants of Etruria who were expelled by the Pelasgians.
\\ ithout entering into the question whether Cortona was
Etruscan or not, still Caere, Graviscae, Alsium, and Sa-
turnia, were certainly occupied by the Etruscans as con¬
querors, after expelling the people called in Italy Sicu-
lians, and in Greece Pelasgians and Tyrrhenians. The
Pelasgians were also in possession of Tarquinii before the
Etruscans; Populonia was called a colony of the Volater-
rans, who had driven the Corsicans from the coast; and
Pisa is mentioned by Dionysius amongst the places which
the Etruscans had wrested from the Pelasgians. But all
statements, however probable or well attested, were at
length forced to give way to the story of a Lydian ex¬
traction, which of necessity placed the first settlement of
the immigrants on the lower sea, and thus involved the
whole question in perplexity. What the native annals of
the Etruscans related as to their origin we know only’
negatively; in them the Lydian legend which has creat¬
ed so much embarrassment had no place.3 According to
this view, then, there appear to have been two consecu¬
tive conquests: that of the Umbrians by the Pelasgians;
and that of the Pelasgians by the Etruscans, who, as it
were, absorbed all the others, and ultimately became the
dominant people. The principal stock of the nation, how¬
ever, seems to have been formed out of that great Pelasgian
race which at one time extended from the rivers Po and
Arno in Italy to the Phyndacus in Asia, but which, even
when intermingled by conquest with other tribes, never
succeeded in spreading itself over the whole of Northern
Italy. The Etruscans, indeed, at no period of their his¬
tory possessed the whole of Cisalpine Gaul. On the west¬
ward their territory extended only to the Ticinus, where
dwelt the Ligurians, who w^ere afterwards driven back by
the Gauls; and the land to the south of the Po was also
1 The names of Tuscan and Etruscans were as foreign to this people as that of Tyrrhenians. They called themselves Bastna, as
already stated ; and the other appellations applied to them were evidently arbitrary, accidental, or hypothetical. The ancient Homan
erms were Etruria for the country, and Tusci for the people ; that of Etruscus did not come into use till after Cato’s time, though
subsequently it became the more usual in the language of books. But the old name must have continued prevalent in the mouth
ot the people ; for under the later emperors the name of Tuscia, which had never before been used in writing, was applied to the coun¬
try, and in the middle ages passed into Toscana, whence Toscani. (Niebuhr, History of Rome, p. 90, Cambridge, 1828.) Professor Mill¬
er t us sums up his researches into the origin of the Etruscans: u It remains that we regard the Tuscan nation as an original and
pecu lar people of Italy; their language is widely different from the Greek; the names of their gods are not those which we find
among the earliest Greeks, whom we call Pelasgi, and which passed from them to the Hellenes; there is much too in the doctrine of
■ '?r Pn,es(;s foreign to the Greek theology. But it appears to have been the fate of this nation, which never displayed any
in ependent civilization, but only adopted that ot the Greeks, to have been indebted for its first impulse towards improvement to a
fee’, or at best half Greek tribe. T he 1 uscans themselves, in their native legends, referred their polity and civilization to the
nmn ime town of larquinii and the hero Tarchon, both probably only variations of the Tyrrheni. Here it was that the much-
th^fi6 • °'ans Lnded and settled, bringing with them the arts which they had acquired at home, or on their way. For
th6 h ^le ^ar^arous lan^ men covered with brass array themselves for battle to the sound of the trumpet; here first
i 'J°U<^ sounc* ,0^ t^e Lydo-Phrygian flute accompanying the sacrifice, and perhaps witnessed for the first time the rapid
t. r,|f °‘tae ufty-oared ship. As the legend, in its propagation from mouth to mouth, swells beyond all bounds, the whole glory of
Ta uscan. natne’ even that which did not properly' belong to the colonists, attached itself to the name of Tarchon, the disciple of
wW Hf38 thlaUth°r °* a new an^ b61161" era iu the history of Etruria. The neighbouring Umbrians and Latins named the nation,
in th l°ni v S ^me kegan t0 increase and diffuse itself, not from the primitive inhabitants, but from these new settlers. For since,
been f u®’,1yHle Tursce occurs along with Tuscom and Tuscer, it is impossible not to conclude, that from the root TUR have
t'i-rS'CUS’ furscusi Tuscus; as from the root OP, Opscus and Oscus; so that Tupfavtu, orTWW, and Tusci, are only the
3 ancl Italian forms of one and the same name.” (Die Etrusker, voi. i. p. 100.)
can 1 ^€sc^ic^ie von Tyrol, p. 139. This suggestion is eminently deserving of attention and verification. For as the Etrus-
^ .a . ls 'fnovv'n» the determination of a few roots would serve as a fulcrum, by means of which the great lever of tentative
‘nterpretation might he applied. b
inculcat \'s,evi^e.nt’” sa.vs a late writer, “ that the Etruscans themselves believed that they sprung from the Ly'dians, and that they
tinned b t” - 071 ot^ers" (Dunlop, Hist, of Rom. Literature, vol. ii. p. 7); and he grounds this assertion on a circumstance men-
altar t t !.aC-ltUS ^nna^ fib- iv* c. 55). Eleven cities of Asia contended, it would appear, for the infamous honour of erecting an
whom h h r|nUS ’ an^ tk'S ridiculous and humiliating question was argued in presence of the tyrant, before that degraded senate
their affi ' ^ taunted with their abject servility. On this occasion the Sardians, one of the contending parties, insisted on
afcour 1 'V to. Etruscans; in proof of which they produced a decree of that people, repeating the tale told by Herodotus, and
tus. 'VVhf 3StlD^ t^le ori^ina^ coufretemity of the Sardians with the ancient inhabitants of Etruria. This is the statement of Taci-
icause bef ae^ree credit may be due to a document founded upon a vague tradition, flattering to popular vanity, produced in such
ktermi 8 ^uc^es’ and a3 to the authenticity' of which the historian is silent, our readers will not, perhaps, find it difficult to
e- Ihe only thing surprising is, that in such a competition of servility and adulation, a grave historian should have sought
or materials t » r1 ^ in sulu <1 „
V0L 10 suPPort an hypothesis, improbable in itself, and at variance with the best authorities on the subject.
3c
386
ETRUSCANS.
Etruscans, either occupied by the latter, or rendered uninhabitable
'w—by swamps. When the Gauls made their irruption the Um¬
brians were still masters of the country now called Ro¬
magna ; but between the Veneti and the Gauls, Etruscan
settlements maintained themselves until the time of the
Romans.
This people appear to have had twelve cities to the north
of the Apennines, and an equal number to the south of that
range. Amongst the former, of which we can give but a
very indistinct account, may be classed V erona, which is
denominated a Raetian city by Pliny, and Mantua, which
is called Tuscan both by him and by Virgil. Hatria, Mel-
pum, and Felsina were also included in the twelve cities
north of the Apennines. Hatria, once a place of great com¬
merce, gave its name to the upper sea; Melpum, to the
north of the Po, was destroyed by the Boii, Senones, and
Insubres, on the same day that Camillus took Veii (in the
year of Rome 358) ; and Bononia, under the name of Enl-
sina, was once the capital of Etruria. T.he twelve cities
south of the Apennines, which were leagued together as
the chief places of their respective districts, are nowhere
enumerated by name ; but Livy incidentally mentions
eight of them, namely, Caere, Tarquinii, Populonia, Vo-
laterra, Arretium, Perusia, Clusium, and Rusellae, as hav¬
ing contributed to forward Scipio’s preparations. Cor¬
tona was also accounted one of the chief places in Etru¬
ria, and both Veii and Vulsinii were probably included
in the original number. But whether Capena, or Cossa,
or Faesulae, completed the twelve, it is now impossible to
decide. The changes produced by time and by conquest
have involved this part of the subject in impenetrable
obscurity.
The territory belonging to each of these capitals had
several provincial towns, some of them dependent colonies,
and others inhabited by subjects, the descendants of the old
population who had been subdued. But as the Etruscan
state was founded on conquest, the government naturally
assumed the character of an aristocratical oligarchy. It was
not by popular assemblies, nor even by the deliberations
of a numerous senate, but by meetings of the chiefs or
magnates of the land (principes Etruria), that the gene¬
ral affairs of the nation were decided on. The assemblies
held at the temple of Voltumna were of this exclusive
kind, and hence in no degree corresponded with the in¬
stitutions of really free nations, such as the Latins and
the Samnites. These Etrurian chiefs were the persons
from whom the Roman youth received instruction in the
sacred sciences of divination ; they were at once a war¬
like and sacerdotal caste, the Lucumones whose ances¬
tors had committed to writing the revelations of Tages.
But they were patricians, not kings, as has been commonly
supposed. Lucumo of Clusium, Lucumo who succoured
Romulus, and Lucumo who removed from Tarquinii to
Rome, were only pow erful men in their respective cities;
the Cilnii and Caecinae were Lucumones in Etruria, just
as the Claudii and Valerii were patricians in Rome, and
were not less noble in birth than the latter, though, as
Romans, reckoned only amongst the commons. But these
ruling houses were exposed to the violent revolutions
which everywhere threaten an oligarchy, even in the midst
of its own body, when it is not upheld by some power¬
ful protection from without. The chiefs expelled each
other by force of arms, or were driven into exile by the
combinations of intrigue ; and it w as in the spirit of these
feuds for the refugees to be restored by the dangerous
mediation of the common enemy, the Romans. Even so
late as the second Punic wrar, the government of the Etrus¬
can cities remained exclusively vested in the senators, or
nobility; the latter were, what Louis XIV. called him¬
self, the state; and, wdien a ferment began in Etruria, it
was entirely suppressed by securing the submission of the £
senate at Arretium. The people, who had no political C J
existence as such, were out of the question. A free and
respectable commonalty was never formed amongst the
Etruscans ; on the contrary, the species of feudal system,
anciently established by conquest, was obstinately main-
tained and extended; the mass of the population were mere
serfs; and hence arose the remarkable weakness of the
great Etruscan cities in their contests with Rome, when
the victory was to be determined by a numerous, brave,
and steady infantry. National impotence ever follows
the degradation of the people. What the Etruscans might
have been if, some centuries earlier, they had had a coun¬
try, is evinced by the effect of the Roman franchise con¬
ferred upon them at the conclusion of Sylla’s war. In
this contest the part taken by the chiefs was taken by all;
and every free man, however excluded or restricted by
the old but now expiring constitutions of his own coun¬
try, obtained the privileges of Roman citizenship; nor was
the boon either undeserved or misapplied.
The regal office, which was not hereditary in a single
family, as in Greece, but elective for life, as at Rome, con¬
tinued at Veii until its fall. At Arretium, however, the
king may perhaps have been chosen from amongst the Cil¬
nii, a family of high distinction. The twelve federal cities
nominated a common high priest, who presided at the na¬
tional festivals. In common enterprises the supreme com-
mand was generally committed to one of the twelve Lu¬
cumones, who received a lictor from each city. Even Por-
senna, highly as he is celebrated in the old legends, is in
Roman history only king or chief of Clusium; yet he had
influence sufficient to set the whole povyer of the nation
in action. In like manner all the twelve cities paid homage
to Lucumo Tarquin; and in the earlier times a closer union
seems occasionally to have been effected by the power of a
supreme chief, as Mezentius or Cceles Vibenna. But such
union appears to have been the exception rather than the
rule, and to have depended on accident rather than on or¬
ganization ; nor have we been able to discover satisfactory
evidence of the existence of a distinct federal constitution,
such as some writers have rather gratuitously imagined.
Yet loose as was the federal bond in Etruria, it seems to
have had the effect of preventing wars between the cities,
of which no trace is to be found in history. Such, then,
being the nature of their association, it is probable that
the islands subject to the Etruscans wrere not under the
dominion of the whole nation, but under that of the adja¬
cent maritime cities; and, accordingly", it seems as if the
Cserites stood alone when, leagued with the Carthaginians,
they attacked the Phocaeans of Alalia, which happened in
the year of Rome 220. The principal insular dependen¬
cy of the Etruscan states was Corsica, which paid them a
tribute ; but it is not improbable that they had also sett e-
ments in the island of Sardinia. ,
The maritime cities of Etruria having early engage
in navigation, were stigmatised and hated on account o
the piracies they committed in the western seas, w *c >
anterior to the founding of the Grecian colonies in kici yt
were thus rendered impassable to peaceful navigatois. aie
buhr is, however, inclined to think that this reproac i ma
have applied chiefly to the Pelasgian Iyrr^eri*aI]s’,w
the Etruscans afterwards subdued; and indeed all t e c
sairs of the lower sea seem to have been considere )
Greeks as Tyrrhenians. But without entering into any
tails respecting their nautical adventures, whether pi
cal or other, it may be observed, that navigation na ur
Cell UI UlllCljlL lllclj' Uc uuatl VCUj tucii/ hi* » ^ , p ] lonj
implies an interchange of commodities ; and a fruit u ^
rich in internal treasures, supplied abundant mat<:ria Lj
the commercial spirit in Etruria. From a very ear/.^coffi.
the Etruscan maritime cities appear to have engage int
ETRUSCANS.
merce ; and in the time of Aristotle, treaties, by which the
rights of trade were respectively determined and secured,
subsisted between these cities and Carthage. Amongst the
subjects of this commerce maybe mentioned the produce
of the iron mines of Elba,1 and of others upon the main¬
land of Etruria, which yielded a more abundant supply of
a purer kind of metal than any in the ancient world.
The same island also furnished copper for their coinage,
and for those w’orks in brass or bronze in which they so
greatly excelled. Muller supposes them to have also traded
in amber, which substance, he thinks, they received by
an inland route, extending from the shores of the Adria¬
tic to those of the Baltic; but as his chief reason for this
supposition appears to be, that, in Pliny’s time, amber
was conveyed by the same route into Italy, and as no
safe conclusion can be drawn respecting the extent of
early communications, from those which are found esta¬
blished at a later period, when circumstances had wholly
changed, the conjecture in question must, we suspect, be
dismissed as untenable. On the subject of Etruscan
commerce, however, the information which has reached
us is too scanty and imperfect to enable us to deduce
any distinct conclusions, either as to the extent to which
it was carried on, or the particular channels in which it
flowed.
The works constructed by the Etruscans still astonish
us even in their ruins, and could scarcely have been exe¬
cuted in small states without taskmasters and bondsmen.
The everlasting monuments of Egypt are the products of
the direst tyranny acting remorselessly upon the most ab¬
ject slavery. But the scarcely less durable works of the
Etruscans differ from those in the valley of the Nile, in
laving all of them been directed towards some great ob-
ect of public utility. Labour was not uselessly or wan-
only expended in the erection of pyramids, obelisks, and
emples, to gratify the inordinate vanity of despots, or to
:xtend the empire of superstition; if the people suffered in
he hard service imposed on them, it was not for vain or idle
)urposes; they were employed by their rulers on what-
ner seemed best calculated to promote the defence or aug-
nent the wealth of the nation at large. The walls of their
| ities, constructed of huge blocks of polygonal stones, still
ubsist in imperishable solidity, where pains have not been
aken to demolish them; the theatre at Fiesole, and a
olossal building near it, are on a scale of equal gran-
leur; and other monuments might be mentioned which
iave been constructed in the same Cyclopean style. The
ich valley of the Arno, anciently a lake and a swamp,
■ as drained by means of a cut through Mount Gonfalina,
vInch blocked up the valley, but which, by means of this
peration, was made to afford a passage for the stream
awards Pisa; the arms, too, by which the Po discharges
tself, were also excavated or directed by the Etruscans;
nd its Delta was likewise the fruit of their labours. An-
t er useful art practised by this people consisted in let-
lng off, by means of tunnels, lakes which had been formed
J tie craters of extinct volcanoes. In the territory of
erugia there are traces of many such lakes, which have
een completely dried up, by means of the tunnels, which,
ough now unknown and never cleared out, still drain off
te water as before.
Die lenown which belongs to a nation that excelled in
o arts has become as it were the inheritance of the
ruscans. But from the peculiar constitution of govern-
irpH 3n S(?ciety 111 ancient Etruria, it has been conjec-
> not without appearance of reason, that the works in
nze an(1 clay> and the bas-reliefs, attributed to them.
387
were the produce, not of the dominant race, but of their Etruscans,
subject bondsmen or serfs ; and that in reality the Etrus-
cans, properly so called, w ere as little given to the arts as
the Romans by whom in their turn they were subdued.
I he striking difference observable between Tarquinii and
Arretium in their works of art, seems to correspond with
the different origin of the earlier inhabitants of northern
and southern Etruria. Volaterra was naturally led, by the
stone quarries in its neighbourhood, to engage in the works
for which it became celebrated. The two former cities
however, wrought only or chiefly in clay. Arretium made
red vases, with elegant figures in relief, in a style alto¬
gether peculiar. Those of Tarquinii were painted, and both
in colour and design resemble some discovered near Co¬
rinth, of which Dodw'ell has given engravings. Painted
vases are found only in the district-of Tarquinii, and where
they occur those of Arretium are never met with ; besides,
they differ from the Campanian in all those peculiarities for
which the Greek works of the same kind are distinguished.
The resemblance which is thus found to exist between
the vases of Tarquinii and of Corinth irresistibly reminds
us of the story of Demaratus, who is said to have been ac¬
companied by the potters Euchir and Eugrammus; a cir¬
cumstance evidently designed to express that Tarquinii
derived from Greece her skill in handling clay, and the
elegant drawing with which her vases were adorned. The
earliest Etruscan statues were of clay; but the statues be¬
longing to the first ages of Rome were almost uniformly of
bronze, and the master-pieces which shed lustre on Etrus¬
can art are all of the same material. , That this art received
its refinement from the Greeks cannot, we think, be reason¬
ably questioned. Works of primitive antiquity attest its
original rudeness ; and to the Greeks alone, improving on
Egyptian models by a close study of the finer forms and
proportions of nature, belonged that skill which throws
life and beauty into the delineation of the human figure.
Hence the subjects of many of the most beautiful Etrus¬
can works of art are obviously taken from the Greek my¬
thology, which, in Etruria, was found as well adapted to
the purposes of the artist as in the land to which it was
native. But the Etruscans, when their taste had once
been formed, treated their own conceptions in the spirit
of their masters; and, though no doubt inferior in grace
and delicacy of execution, they acquired a correctness
in drawing which may almost be stated as a national
characteristic. In the she-wolf of the Capitol we have
an example of the perfection to which Etruscan art had
attained about the middle of the fifth century of Rome ;
nor are the finest gems probably of a much more recent
date.
As a national heroic story was wanting to Etruscan art,
it sought for subjects in the Greek mythology; and the
legends of Ihebes and of Ilium must have been familiar
to the people. The Greek poems were read in Etruria,
and Greek legends, transfused into Etruscan, lived in the
speech of the nation, or in compositions in the native
tongue. Indeed the works of art are not unfrequently
inscribed with the names of the Greek heroes, adapted to
the forms of the Etruscan language, of which it is matter
of regret that so little is yet known. Varro mentions Tus¬
can tragedies by one Volnius, who, it appears, lived not
long before, and probably intended these as an experimental
attempt to introduce a national drama. But be this as it
may, the Grecian construction of the theatre at Faesulae
is evidence that Greek dramas, either originals or trans¬
lations, were performed there, as well as at Tusculum
and Bovillae in Latium; nor can it be doubted that this
1 Insula inexhaustis chalybum generosa metallis. x. 174.)
388
ETRUSCANS.
Etruscans, theatre is much earlier than the time of Sylla, since in
   siZe and magnificence it far surpasses the scale ot a Ko-
man military colony, which, besides, cannot be supposed
to have had any taste for the exhibitions peculiar to such
a place. The amphitheatre was the only place to which
such colonists would have repaired for amusement. It is
proper to add, however, that in Etruscan inscriptions we
do not find any thing bearing the slightest resemblance to
Greek rhythms, which could scarcely have been concealed
even in an unintelligible language; and that the place
whence the Fescennine musical dialogue received its name
was a Faliscan, not an Etruscan town. .
The music of the Romans was derived from Etruria,
whence also they obtained their scenic or histrionic sing¬
ers. This is the only branch of art in which the ancients
attributed to the Etruscans the honour of invention ; but
here the invention related merely to the instrument; for we
do not read of any mood or measure ascribed to the^Etrus-
cans. This instrument was the flute, which the Romans
regarded as native to Etruria, though modern antiquaries
pretend that it is to be considered as of Lydian origin, and
even as a proof of the Lydian immigration mentioned by
Herodotus. The celebrity which the Etruscans obtained
in music, as well as in other accomplishments, was, no
doubt, in part owing to their having been the neighbours
of a rude and uncultivated people like the Romans, who
naturally admired whatever was new or strange, and who,
until they became acquainted with the Greeks, derived
all that was ornamental in their system of public and pn-
vate life from Etruria.
The literature of the Etruscans presents the singular
phenomenon of an alphabet almost perfectly deciphered,
with a language completely unintelligible. A combination
so strange has led more than one writer to maintain that the
language is Pelasgic or ^Eolic Greek, and to appeal in
proof of this to the alphabet; but, unfortunately, there is
a total want of connection between the premises and the
conclusion ; and the result of all the investigations yet in¬
stituted has been to disprove this notion. The Etruscan
characters were formed like the Greek, from that one
amongst the various Asiatic alphabets whence all the modes
of writing in use throughout Europe appear to have been
derived. That Etruria received them directly from the
Phoenician would not certainly be proved by the direction
of the writing from right to left; but when to this we add
the omission of the short vowels, the practice of noting
double consonants by a single letter, as in all the Aramaic
systems of writing, and the want ot the vowel O, which
are peculiarities purely Punic, the presumption in favour of
Phoenician origin is considerably increased. From this last
circumstance, however, nothing can be decisively deter¬
mined as to the pronunciation, inasmuch as the bemitic
languages are not defective in the vowel, which is want¬
ing to the Etruscan. The Phoenicians also distinguished
numbers by letters ; but not so the Etruscans. What we
denominate the Roman numerals are of Etruscan origin,
and occur frequently on their monuments, being probably
the abbreviated remnants of a hieroglyphical art of writ¬
ing *in use before the alphabetical, and, like the Aztecan
numerals, representing objects connected with particular
numbers. Niebuhr thinks them indigenous to the west.
But however this may be, the literal form which these
numerals have now assumed cannot mislead any one as to
their hieroglyphical origin. With respect to the Etruscan
language, which remained harsh in sound and uncouth in
its forms, all the labour which has hitherto been bestowed
in attempting to interpret it, though valuable for its col¬
lateral results, has proved wholly fruitless in reference to
its direct object. Lanzi, abandoning the oriental and
northern etymology, endeavoured to explain the Etruscan
from the Pelasgic; and for many years after the appear-1
ance of his Essay, his explanations were acquiesced in, and V
even made the basis of various etymological hypotheses.
But when at length credulity gave place to inquiry and
examination, it was perceived that his modes of proceeding
were much too arbitrary; that he had produced no evi¬
dence of the existence of the words and forms which he
had assumed to be Greek, in order to identify them with
the Etruscan ; and that other monuments, discovered since
his time, could not in any way be explained by his sys¬
tem. In short, his interpretation was purely tentative and
conjectural, without even accidental felicities of supposi¬
tion ; and hence, of all the Etruscan words, of which
pretended explanations have been given, only two (avil
ril, vixit annos, or rather perhaps atatis annos) seem to
have been really interpreted. Professor Muller’s observa¬
tions on this subject are well deserving of attention, espe¬
cially in reference to the expectations which appear to
be entertained of the enlargement of our historical know¬
ledge by the comparison of languages. _
“ We might give much ampler satisfaction,” says he,
“ if, after Lanzi’s method, we sought in the monuments
of the Etruscan language for single sounds resembling
the Greek and Latin, and, persuaded that similar sounds
must have a similar meaning, endeavoured to explain all
that could not be brought to agree, by an arbitrary pro¬
thesis, epenthesis, paragoge, and similar cheap expedients.
Without blaming the learned Italian, in whose time the
most eminent literati had very confused ideas of the for¬
mation of language, we may maintain that his leading
principle (that analogy is the character only ot cultivated
languages, and that the ruder any language is, the greater
liberty might be taken in the use ot it) is. entirely false.
This may justify us for having paid so little regard to
etymologies, which, as they are arbitrary in themsehes,
suppose an arbitrary character in the language to which
they are applied. If wre use only genuine monuments,
and require a certain evidence for every explanation ot a
root or a grammatical torm, our apparent knowledge ot
the Etruscan language shrinks almost to nothing   h
is not probable that the application of the still existing
remains of the languages of the north and north-west ot
Europe should have those beneficial results forourknovv-
ledge of Etruscan which some appear to anticipate. Ihe
Germans and Celts are originally divided in a veryn^rk'
ed manner, by their locality, from the nations of the me¬
diterranean ; they only gradually approach these and come
into collision with them; and even though the languages
of both nations may belong to that great farm y w 'c
from time immemorial has diffused itself throughout u
rope and Asia, yet they have distinct peculiarities, w ic
we have no reason to believe are found in those ot Italy.
One fundamental and indelible characteristic of t e ^
tic languages seems to be, that they mark gramma ic
forms by aspiration and other changes of the initial co •
sonants; a thing not practised in any other European
guage, but found in all the branches ot the Ce tic, as.
Welsh, Cornish, Gaelic, Irish, and Bas
lability -of the consonants is a circumstance whicn n
be perceptible even in a small number o wn en
mains, and which could not well have escape us
Etruscan been Celtic. The Iberian family, once '
diffused on the shores of the Mediterranean, may
dwelt in close vicinity to the Etruscans; but Jne[.fferent
dwelt in close vicinity to me Xiuus^auo, ^ ,];ifprent
of its language in the Basque are complete y
U1 ito v ^ 1 V* c SO lit'
from the rest of Europe ; and its grammar shovv , y
affinity with what we know of the Etruscan, as to a ^
slight support to the opinion of the affinity of tne
tions. What may have been the relation of the
the extinct Ligurian, or to the language of tio
^ 8
E T S
Etj tribes whose names alone are preserved in history, is a
[j question respecting which we have not even a glimmering
of knowledge.”1 _
Any attempt indeed to interpret the Etruscan, without
the aid of bilingual inscriptions, such as those on the Ro¬
setta stone and obelisk of Philae, which afforded a key to
the Egyptian phonetic hieroglyphics, will be pure loss of
labour. The discovery of such monuments, however, is,
in regard to time and manner, an incalculable event; but
still it is within the range of probable calculation ; and the
age which has witnessed the interpretation of Egyptian
hieroglyphics by means of such aids should not hastily de¬
spair of any thing. If a translation were discovered, not
in Latin or Greek, but in Oscan or even Umbrian, the
latter have so much affinity to the Latin, that much might
be learned from such a version for the explanation of the
Etruscan. We repeat, however, that without the aid of
bilingual inscriptions, the language of ancient Etruria is
likely to remain as great a mystery as the inscriptions
of Persepolis, or the arrow-headed legends contained on
bricks found amidst the ruins of Babylon.
Of the early history of Etruria we can only collect a
few detached facts of little importance, which are to be
gleaned from Livy, and from short notices in the Greek
historians and poets ; and must ever deplore the loss of
the works of Aristotle and Theophrastus on the civil insti¬
tutions of the Tyrrheni, as well as regret that the history
of the Emperor Claudius has disappeared. We find this
people engaged in a contest with Tarquinius Priscus (about
610 b. c.), but obliged to acknowledge at least a nominal
dependence on the power of Rome. They joined the Car¬
thaginians in an attack on the Phocseans, who having left
Asia Minor (about 547 b. c.) to escape the persecutions
of Cyrus the elder, had settled in Corsica, and threatened
to dispute with them the supremacy of the western seas.
For the next two centuries they appear to have enjoyed
tranquillity; until, roused to exertion by the ever encroach¬
ing spirit of the Romans, they determined to make an
united effort to check the power of their dangerous neigh¬
bours. The hostile forces met (309 b. c.) near Lake Va-
diman, which is still to be seen on the east of Etruria,
near the Tiber, below the modern village of Bassano ; and
the result was, as usual, favourable to the cause of Roman
supremacy. The Tuscans were completely defeated; and
from this moment were compelled to co-operate in ex¬
tending and strengthening the power of the conqueror.
They now became incorporated with the Roman people,
and can no longer be considered as a separate nation.
For a detailed account of this people, see Micali LIta¬
lia ayanti il dominio dei Romani, Milan, 1825, with An-
tiqui Monumenti per servire all Opera intitolato LTtalia,
&c., Firenze, 1821; L'Italie avant la Domination des Ilo-
mains, with historical notes and illustrations by M. Raoul-
Kochette, Paris, 1824, in 4 tomes ; Niebuhr’sHis¬
tory, English trans., Cambridge, 1828, in 2 vols.; Muller,
■Die Etrusker, vier bucher, Breslau, 1828; Inghirami, Mo¬
numenti htruschi, o di Etrusco name, 1821—1825, in 6 vols.
4to; Heyne, Etrusca Antiqua, Nov. Soc. Getting. 1766;
and Gorf Museum Etruscum. For the ancient language
of Etruria, see Dempster, De JEtruria Regali, Florence,
. > ’n 2 vols. fol.; Lanzi, Saggio di Lingua Etrusca, e
aialtre Antiche d'Italia, 1789, in 3 vols. 8vo; and Mul-
er, Die Etrusker, above referred to. (a.)
,. j"S^Fl» a circle in the Austrian province of Tyrol,
'' extends over 1400 square miles, comprehending
, ree ehies, three market-towns, 310 villages, 12,094
ouses, and 99,782 inhabitants. The chief place is Botzen.
E T T
389
ETTLINGEN, a city, the capital of a bailiwick of the Ettlingen
same name, in the duchy of Baden, in Germany. It contains II
398 houses, and 3429 inhabitants, employed in cotton ma- Etlmuller-
nufactures, and in making paper, oil, and gunpowder.
ETTMULLER, Michel, an eminent physician, was
born at Leipsic, on the 26th of May 1644. After having
studied the learned languages, the mathematics, and phi¬
losophy, first in his native town, and afterwards at Witten¬
berg, he returned to Leipsic, and, having devoted himself
wholly to medicine, obtained the degree of bachelor in
1663, and a license or diploma in 1666. But being desir¬
ous to extend his acquirements, which were already consi¬
derable, he resolved, before taking his last degrees, to visit
the countries most celebrated for the cultivation of the
sciences ; and with this view he commenced an interesting
course of travels in Italy, sojourning for some time in the
more remarkable cities of that fine country, as Naples,
Rome, Florence, Bologna, Venice, Padua, Pisa, Pavia,
Milan, and T urin. He then crossed the Alps and proceed¬
ed to Paris, where he remained seven months ; after which
he passed over into England, and thence repaired to Hol¬
land. ITis intention was to employ an entire w inter in at¬
tending the prelections of learned professors in the univer¬
sity of Leyden ; but his design in this respect was thwarted
by his sudden recall to Leipsic, where, on the 20th of Au¬
gust 1668, two days after his arrival, he received the degree
of doctor, a distinction which proved the forerunner of new
dignities. The Academy of the Curious in Nature admit¬
ted the young doctor one of its members in 1670, and the
Faculty of Medicine in 1676. About the same time the
university of Leipsic confided to him the chair of botany,
and appointed him extraordinary professor of surgery ;
offices the duties of which he discharged with distinction.
But he did not long enjoy his preferment; for, on the 9th
of March 1683, he was suddenly cut off, in consequence of
a hectic fever, occasioned, as some say, by a chemical ex¬
periment. Although Ettmuller only wrote short disserta¬
tions and mere opuscula, he nevertheless enjoyed an im¬
mense reputation. His feeblest productions were reprinted,
translated, and commented on ; nor were his lectures, col¬
lected by numerous auditors, sometimes with much inaccu¬
racy, less favourably received by the public. He had the
art of interesting and fixing the attention by a ready elo¬
cution, and by arguments much more specious than solid.
Of this any one may satisfy himself by the perusal of his
works, of which the following is a list: 1. De Singula-
ribus, a thesis defended by Ettmuller in 1663; 2. Medicina
Hippocratis Chimica, Leipsic, 1670, in 4to ; 3. Vis Opii
diaphoretica, Leipsic, 1679, in 4to; 4. Chimia Rationalis
ac Experimentalis curiosa, Leyden, 1684, in 4to ; 5. Me-
dims Theoria et Praxi generali instructus, Francfort and
Leipsic, 1685, in 4to; 6. Opera Omnia theoretica ac prac-
tica, Lyons, 1685, in 4to ; 7. Opera Omnia ; nempe Institu-
tiones Medicince cum Notis, etc. Francfort, 1688, in fol.; 8.
Opera Medica theoretico-practica, Francfort, 1676, 2 vols.
fol.; 9. Operum Omnium Medico-pbysicorum editio novis-
sima, Lyons, 1690, 2 vols. fol.; 10. Opera Omnia in Com¬
pendium redacta, London, 170], and Amsterdam, 1702, in
8vo. But of all the editions, the best is that which the
son of the author published under the title of Opera Me¬
dica theoretico-practica per jilium Michaelem Ernestum, etc.
Francfort, 1708, in 3 vols. fol. There is no complete
translation of the /works of Ettmuller, but there are nume¬
rous German, English, and French translations of the diffe¬
rent treatises.
Michel Ernest Ettmuller, son of the preceding, born at
Leipsic in 1673, was also a physician of some eminence.
1 Die Etrusker, vol. i- p. 64, et seq.
390
Etymo-
logy
II
Eubosa.
E U B
Besides collecting and editing the works of ms father,
which formed the principal labour of his life, he wrote a
number of theses and memoirs, wdiich are not destitute of
merit, and died on the 25th September 1732. (a.)
ETYMOLOGY, that branch of grammar which explains
the origin and derivation of words, and which has tor its
object to arrive at their primary signification; for which
reason Quintilian calls it originatio. The word is formed
from the Greek, iru/io;, verus, true, and Xiyw, dico, I
speak; and hence Cicero calls etymology notatio and ve-
riloquium; though Quintilian chooses rather to denomi¬
nate it originatio. .
A judicious inquiry into etymologies is thought by
some to be of considerable use, because nations who value
themselves for their antiquity have always looked upon
the antiquity of their language as one of the best titles
they could plead; and the etymologists, by seeking the
true and original reason of the notions and ideas attached
to each word and expression, may often furnish an aigu-
ment of antiquity, from the remaining traces thereof, com¬
pared with the ancient uses. Add to this, that etymo¬
logies are necessary for the thorough understanding of a
language. For, to explain a term precisely, there seems
a necessity for recurring to its original import, in order
justly and satisfactorily to explain its meaning in its se¬
condary applications. The force and extent of a woid is
best conceived when a person knows its origin and etymo¬
logy. , . .
It is objected, however, that etymology is m some mea¬
sure arbitrary, and built altogether on conjectures and
appearances; and the etymologists are charged with de¬
riving their words from whatever source they please. Nor
indeed is it an easy matter to go back into the ancient
British and Gaulish ages, and to follow, as it were, by the
tract, the various imperceptible alterations which a lan¬
guage has undergone from age to age ; and as these alte¬
rations have sometimes been merely owing to caprice, it
is easy to assume a mere fancy or conjecture as a regular
analogy; so that the public may easily be prejudiced
against a science which seems to stand on so precaiious
a'Yooting. It must be owned, however, that etymologies
are frequently so far fetched as sometimes to render it
impossible to perceive any resemblance or correspond¬
ence between roots which are alleged to be identical.
Quintilian has shown that the ancient etymologists, not¬
withstanding all their learning, adopted very ridiculous
derivations.
EUBAGES, an order of priests or philosophers among
the ancient Celtse or Gauls. According to some, the Eu-
bages were the same with the Druids and fearonidse of Dio¬
dorus ; but others maintain that they were the same with
what Strabo calls Evates.
EUBCEA, a long narrow island, now called Negropont,
which stretched along the east coast of Greece from the
Sinus Maliacus, to nearly the most southern point of At¬
tica. Its length was 1200 stadia according to Strabo, 150
miles according to Pliny, but its greatest breadth is no¬
where more than 150 stadia, or eighteen miles and a half.
High and rocky mountains rendered the eastern coast un¬
fit for habitation, but on the side opposite the mainland,
w here the ground became more level, there were several
good harbours, and in ancient times cities of no inconsi¬
derable importance. The island produced corn in suffi¬
cient quantities to serve as the granary of Athens. It
possessed warm baths, iron mines in the vicinity of Chalcis,
and salt, which Pliny considered as equal in purity to that
of Attica. The mountains furnished wood in large quan¬
tities; but as the fir was liable to rot, it was of little use
for ship-building.
Its inhabitants w7ere composed of several distinct races.
E U C
In the south dwelt the Abantes, mentioned by Homer; Eud*
and in the north were the Histiaei, who had probably pass- | i
ed over from Thessaly, where we find a district of that Eucf
name. The Leleges and Dryopes are also said to have
occupied a part of the island.
The attack of the Persians must have tended considera¬
bly to weaken the strength and power of its inhabitants.
Eretria, one of its most flourishing cities, paid the penalty
of having assisted its compatriots the lonians, by being
razed to the ground, and its people carried off to the re¬
mote regions of Asia. Before the period of the Pelopon¬
nesian war it seems to have been wholly subject to the
sway of Athens, but towards the conclusion of the contest
it succeeded in recovering its independence. The Eubce-
ans, however, do not appear to have gained much by this
change ; for they became a prey to domestic feuds, and
were at length glad to acknowledge their ancient depend¬
ence on Athens. They continued in this state till the
Macedonians had succeeded in annihilating the maritime
supremacy of the Athenians, when the principal cities of
Eubcea were garrisoned by the troops of Macedon. The
Romans once more restored it to freedom, (fhucyd. i.
114, viii. 5; Diodor. xv. xvi.; Liv. xxxiv. 51 ; Strab. x.
444.; Plin. iv. 12.) For a more full description, the rea¬
der may consult Mannert, Geographic des Griechenlundes,
Leips. 1822 (vol. viii. p. 244). See Negropont.
EUCHARIST, the sacrament of the Lord’s supper.
The word in the original Greek, Eu^ag/tfr/a, literally im¬
ports thanksgiving ; being formed from eu, belie, well, and
yays, gratia, thanks. This sacrament was instituted by
Christ himself; and the participation of it is called com-
munion.
As to the manner of celebrating the eucharist among
the ancient Christians ; after the customary oblations were
made, the deacon brought water to the bishops and pres¬
byters, standing round the table, to wash their hands; ac¬
cording to the words of the psalmist, “ I will wash my
hands in innocence, and so will I compass thy altar, 0
Lord.” Then the deacon cried aloud, “ mutually embrace
and kiss each other;” which being done, the whole con¬
gregation prayed for the universal peace and welfare ot
the church, for the tranquillity and repose of the world,
for the prosperity of the age, for propitious weather, and
for all ranks and degrees of men. After this followed
the mutual salutations of the minister and people; and
then the bishop or presbyter, having sanctified the ele¬
ments by a solemn benediction, broke the bread, and
handed it to the deacon, who delivered it to the communi¬
cants ; and in like manner afterwards the cup. The sacra¬
mental wine was usually diluted or mixed with water. Dur¬
ing the time of administration hymns and psalms were
sung ; and the whole concluded with prayer and thanks¬
giving, upon which the people saluted each other with the
kiss of peace, and so the assembly broke up.
EUCHITES or Euchitrs, a sect of ancient heretics,
who were first formed into a religious body towards the
end of the fourth century, though their doctrine and dis¬
cipline existed in Syria, Egypt, and other eastern coun¬
tries, before tbe birth of Christ. They were so called e
cause they prayed without ceasing, imagining that P^Ler
alone was sufficient to save them. They rested c ie y
on the injunction of St Paul, Pray without ceasing. e
name is formed from the Greek, prayer, whence sw
ygrai, tbe same with the Latin precatores. They were also
called Enthusiasts and Messalians, terms denoting 1 e
same thing as Euchites. .
EUCHOLOGIUM, Eo^oXoy/ov, a Greek term, signify¬
ing literally a discourse on prayer. The word is torm
form £0%?!, prayer, and Xoyos, discourse. The euchologiu
is properly the Greek ritual, in which are prescribe
E U C
£UC order and manner of every thing relating to the order
^ and administration of their ceremonies, sacraments, ordi¬
nances, and the like. Gore has given an edition of the
Greek euchologium in Greek and Latin, with notes.
EUCLID of Megara, a distinguished philosopher and
logician, who flourished about 400 years before Christ.
The Athenians having prohibited the Megareans from
entering their city on pain of death, this philosopher dis¬
guised himself in women’s clothes, in order to attend the
lectures of Socrates. After the death of Socrates, Plato
and other philosophers went to Euclid at Megara, in or¬
der to shelter themselves from the tyrants who then go¬
verned Athens. Euclid admitted but one chief good,
which he sometimes called God, sometimes Spirit, and
sometimes Providence.
Euclid of Alexandria, author of the most ancient
elements of geometry which have come down to us, and
for this reason justly regarded as one of the fathers of sci¬
ence. He has been sometimes confounded with Euclid
of Megara, the disciple of Socrates, and the founder of a
philosophic sect who pushed to an extreme the subtilties
of dialectics. The place of his birth is unknown. But Pro-
clus Diadochus, one of his commentators, informs us that
he opened a school of mathematics in Alexandria in the
reign of Ptolemy the son of Lagus; and Pappus extols
his kindness and affection for those who laboured to ad¬
vance the study of geometry. This being all that is known
of the life and character of Euclid, it only remains there¬
fore to speak of his works, some of which have been lost.
Amongst those which we possess, however, the most re¬
markable is that which is simply entitled Elements, as if
to indicate that it contained the entire body of principles
upon which the pure mathematics then rested. This
work now consists of fifteen books; but the last two are
attributed to Hypsicles, a mathematician of Alexandria
who flourished at a later period. Euclid, however, neither
was nor could be the inventor of all that is contained
in his work; for geometers more ancient than he, includ¬
ing Hippocrates of Chio, had written Elements; but, on
the other hand, there can be little doubt that he added
to the pre-existing stock of elementary truths, improved
I the demonstrations in which his predecessors had failed,
and composed a whole which, by more severe forms of
reasoning, and a more exact concatenation of propositions,
superseded all works of the same description which had
been previously w-ritten, and became the basis of instruc¬
tion in the mathematics. These Elements were first com¬
mented on by Theon, and by Proclus ; but wdiatever suc¬
cess such commentaries may have had in the school of
Alexandria, they remained wholly unknown to the occi¬
dentals of the middle ages, who derived all their know¬
ledge of geometry, such as it w7as, from the works of Boe-
cius, and from a production entitled T)e Principiis Geome¬
tric, ascribed to St Augustin.1 It was only in the twelfth
and thirteen centuries that Athelard in England and Cam-
pano in Italy laboured to decipher and translate Euclid
bom the Arabic versions, including the commentary of
t 'e Persian geometer Nazir-Eddin, which wras held in
gieat estimation among the Saracens ; for although there
*s rfason to believe that Boecius had made a complete
atm translation of Euclid, it has not come down to our
times; and, in fact, it was not till long after the revival
0 etters, and when versions had been multiplied by means
o the press, that a part of the Elements of Euclid was in-
10 need into the course of instruction in the schools.
n order to form an idea of the entire work, however, it
E U C 391
may be considered as composed of four parts. The first Euclid,
of these parts comprehends the first six books, and may
be divided into three sections, viz. the demonstration of
the properties oi plane figures treated in an absolute man¬
ner, as in books first, second, third, and fourth ; the the-
oiy of the proportions of quantities in general, which is
the object of the fifth; and the application of this theory
to plane figures, as in book sixth. The second part con¬
tains the seventh, eighth, and ninth books, which are de¬
nominated arithmetical, because they treat of the general
properties of numbers. The third part consists only of the
tenth book, in which the author considers in detail incom¬
mensurable quantities, and which he terminates by prov¬
ing that the diagonal of a square and its side cannot have
a common measure; a doctrine, we may add, which is
much more ancient than Euclid, since Plato, towards the
close of his seventh book of Laws, pronounces those who
have no idea of such incommensurability as sunk in al¬
most brutish ignorance. The fourth part, which is com¬
posed of the last five books, treats of planes and solids.
But of all this great body of geometrical doctrine, the only
portions which have been considered as adapted to the
purposes of instruction are the first six books, together
with the eleventh and the twelfth ; the propositions which
they contain having formed the basis of all the elements
of geometry which, under whatever form, have from time
to time been given to the world. The fifth book, however,
has often been omitted in such publications, because the
notation of our arithmetic, and still more that of our alge¬
bra, have greatly simplified the theory of proportions ; and,
for the same reason, the other arithmetical books, which
it is now difficult to read, are justly considered as more
curious than useful. But, in borrowing their materials from
the work of Euclid, modern authors have frequently alter¬
ed the arrangement; and on this subject there have arisen
two contradictory opinions, which have been debated with
very great warmth, yet still remain as irreconcilable as
ever. The concatenation established by Euclid, and even
the forms which he has employed in demonstrating his
propositions, are regarded by some as almost the last term
of perfection in works of this kind ; whilst others, again,
have considered these as mere essays, which, however ex¬
cellent in themselves, leave room for the introduction of
a more natural order and more simple demonstrations.
Ramus, who declared war on the dialectics of Aristotle,
accuses Euclid of omissions and redundancies, and ex¬
presses his conviction that it was with reference to these
imperfections that Ptolemy inquired if there were not a
more easy method than that usually employed for learning
geometry; an inquiry which, as is well known, elicited
from Euclid the reply, that in the mathematics there was
no road for kings. Antony Arnauld, and the author of the
Logic of Port-Royal, have also blamed the order followed
by the Greek geometer, and disputed some of his defini¬
tions ;2 but if Arnauld, either from not being very profound
in the mathematics, or by reason of the great difficulty of
the subject, failed, as Ramus and so many others had done,
in the changes which he attempted to introduce into the
Elements, his reasons for making the attempt still remain
in all their force. For, whatever may be said to the con¬
trary, it is certain that they are deficient in that order
which, causing the propositions, as far as possible, to arise
out of one another, exhibits in full evidence the analogies
which connect them, assists the memory, and prepares the
mind for the investigation of truth. But whether, in the
actual state of the science, it be practicable to reconcile
1 Montucla, Histoire des Mathematiques, tom. i. p. 212 and 492.
* See Nouvcaux Elements de la Geometric, and the Fourth Part of the Logique Port-RoyaL
E U C
this order with the rigour of demonstration, or to obviate
objections the force of which, abstractedly considered,
cannot be disputed, is a question which it would far ex¬
ceed the limits of this notice to discuss.1 If it be re¬
solved affirmatively, which appears to us possible, then no
reason would exist for giving an absolute preference to
the Elements of Euclid. As a precious relic of antiquity,
and as one of those works of science which time has
thrown least in arrear of actual knowledge, the Elements
would doubtless continue to be classed in the first raniv
of mathematical productions ; but their too arbitrary ar¬
rangement, and the style in which they are w ritten, some¬
times too prolix and at other times too concise, would no
longer constitute the essential character of the geometric
or synthetic method, in opposition to the analysis of the
moderns. The true difference of these two methods of
treating the science of quantities consists in this, that
the one is founded on the immediate consideration or toe
properties of figures, whilst the other employs arbitral y
signs, combined by the operations of calculation. I he
first is geometry itself, not that of Euclid more than of
any other; the second is an application of algebra, which
ought not to be confounded with analysis, inasmuch as
synthesis may be effected with algebraic signs as well as
w ith the figures of geometry. The latter, however, which
may also be treated analytically, presents operations equi¬
valent to the resolution of certain equations. 01 this some
propositions contained in^he book of Data are remarka¬
ble examples; propositions which, by a natural and cer¬
tain path, lead to the solution of problems otherwise un-
discoverable. The book of Data was particularly relished
by Newton, who, persuaded that a proposition scarcely
deserved to see the light unless it could be demonstrated
without the assistance of calculation, conceived that a
more profound study of this treatise would have enabled
him to dispense writh the aid of such an instrument, but
it may well be doubted, to say nothing more, whether his
successors, by pursuing a similar path, would have ever
attained those great and striking results which they have
derived from the new methods of calculation. Besides the
Elements and the Data, which are the most important
works of Euclid, Pappus and Proclus mention the followr-
ing: Introductio Harmonica, Sectio Canonis, relating to
music; Phcenomena, containing an exposition of the ap¬
pearances produced by the motion attributed to the celes¬
tial sphere, a work subjoined to the book De Sphcera Mo-
bili of Autolycus ; Optica, Catoptrica, concerning direct vi¬
sion and mirrors; Liber de Divisionibus, treating of the di¬
visions of polygons ; and the lost works, entitled Porisma-
tum libri, Locorum ad superjiciem libri, Fallaciarum liber,
and Conicorum libri. At the end of the works of Euclid
is a short fragment, entitled De Levi et Ponderoso, the
author of which is unknown; it is, however, of almost no
value. The editions of the works of this geometer are
so numerous that w^e cannot undertake to indicate all of
them, and must therefore confine ourselves to the prin¬
cipal ones. Of the complete works there are, 1. Euclidis
Opera, Greece, cum Theonis expositione, cura Gryncei,
Bale, 1530, in fob; 2. Euclidis quae supersunt omnia, ex re*
censione Davidis Gregorii, Greece et Latine, Oxford, 1703,
in fol.; 3. Les Oeuvres dEuclide, en Grec, en Latin, et en
Frangais, d’apres un Manuscrit tres ancien, qui etait reste
inconnu jusqu’a nos jours, par Peyrard, Paris, 1814, in
8vo. The manuscript here referred to was one of several
sent from Rome by Monge, and supposed to date from
the end of the ninth century ; in it the Data are placed
immediately after the thirteenth book, and thus separate
E U D
from the rest of the work the fourteenth and fifteenth M J
books, which are ascribed to Hypsicles. In 1533, Her-
vage published at Bale, in folio, a complete edition of
the Elements, in the Greek text, with the exposition of ^
Theon, and the Commentaries of Proclus on the first
book. The following are the principal Latin translations:
1. Prceclarissimum Opus Elementorum Euclidis perspica-
cissimi hi artem Geometriee, the first publication of the
Elements by means of printing, Venice, 1482; 2. Euclidis
Elementorum libri X V. una cum scholiis antiquis, a Frede-
rico Commandino Urbinate in Latinum conversi, Commen-
tariis quibusdam illustrati, Pesaro, 1572, in fol.; 3. Eu¬
clidis Elementorum libri XV. demonstrationibus accura-
Usque scholiis illustrati, auctore Christophoro Clavio, 1574,
in 8vo ; 4. Euclidis Elementorum libri XV. breviter demon-
strati, opera /. Barrow, London, 1678, in 8vo ; 5. Elemen¬
torum Euclidis libri XV. ad Greed contextus jidem recen-
siti et ad usum tyronum accommodati, edente Baermann,
Leipsic, 1769, in 8vo ; 6. Euclide Megarense philosopho,
solo introduttore delle scientie mathematiche diligentemente
reassettato per Nicolo Tartaleo Brisciano. This last, how-
ever, is rather a paraphrase than a translation. The fol¬
lowing are editions which only contain part of the Ele¬
ments: 1. Analysis Geometrica sex librorum Euclidis a,
Christiana Herlino, una cum commentariis et scholiis per-
brevibus in eosdem libros a Cunrado Dasypodio, 1566, in
fol.; 2. Euclidis Elementorum libri priores sex, item un-
decimus et duodedmus, Oxford, 1747, in 8vo; 3. Eu¬
clidis Elementorum libri priores sex, etc. sublatis Us quibus
olim hi libri a Theone aliisve vitiati sunt, et quibusdam de-
monstrationibus restitutis a Roberto Simson, Glasgow, 1756,
in 4to; 4. Elements de la Geometrie d’Euclide, ou les six
premiers livres d’Euclide, avec le XIe et le XIE, traduc¬
tion nouvelle par Frederic Castillon, Berlin, 1775, in 8vo.
The other works of Euclid, printed separately, are, 1.
Euclidis Data, Claudius Hardy Greece nunc primum edi-
dit, Latine vertit, scholiis illustravit; adjectus est Marini
philosophi Commentarius, Greece et Latine, Paris, 1625, in
4to ; 2. Euclidis Rudimenta Musices, Greece et Latine ex-
cusa, J. Pena interprete, Paris, 1557, in 4to; 3. Euclidis
Introductio Harmonica, Greece etc. Mdbomius vertit ac
notis explicavit in the Antiqui Musicee Auctores, VIE Am¬
sterdam, 1652, in 4to; 4. Optica et Catoptrica, Greece et
Latine reddita, per Jo. Penam, Paris, 1557, in 4to. lor
further details see Murhard, Bibliotheca Mathematicajm-
ii. pp. 1-48), and other similar works. We have not
thought it necessary to notice the more recent editions o
the Elements, which are in the hands of every body, (a.)
EUDIOMETER, an instrument for ascertaining the pu¬
rity of the atmospherical air, or the quantity of oxygen
contained in it, chiefly by means of its diminution, or the
absorption produced by exposing certain substances to
its action.
EUDOSIA, called Athenia before her conversion to
Christianity, a celebrated lady, the daughter of Leontius,
a philosopher of Athens, who gave her such a learned edu¬
cation that at his death he left her only a small legacy,
saying she was capable of making her own fortune. flav“
ing pleaded at Athens without success against “p1 "
brothers for a share in her father’s estate, she came
cause personally by appeal to Constantinople, recorI?/ne^
ed herself to Pulcheria, the sister of the emperor flieouo-
sius the Younger, embraced Christianity, was baptize }
the name of Eudosia, and soon afterwards married o ^
emperor. This union lasted a considerable time, u
difference having at length taken place, on account o
emperor’s jealousy, excited by Chrysapius the eunuc ,
.L
1 Lacroix, Essais sur VEnseigncment en general, et sur celui des Mathematiqncs en particulier, Paris, 1805.
Eudo
Eng
E U G
isdosia retired to Jerusalem, where she spent many j^ears in
building and adorning churches, ami in relieving the poor.
■ Dupin says that she did not return thence till after the
/ emperor’s death; but Cave states that she was reconcil¬
ed to him, returned to Constantinople, and continued with
him till his death, after which she again retired to Pales¬
tine, where she spent the remainder of her life in pious
works. According to Dupin, she died in the year 460;
according to Cave, in 459. The latter observes that on
her deathbed she took a solemn oath, by which she de¬
clared herself entirely free from any stains of unchastity.
She was the author of a paraphrase in heroic verse on
the first eight books of the Old Testament, and of a great
number of poems, which are no longer extant.
EUDOXIANS, a party or sect of heretics in the fourth
century, so denominated from their leader, Eudoxius, pa¬
triarch of Antioch and Constantinople, who was a great
defender of the Arian doctrine. The Eudoxians adhered
to the errors of the Arians and Eunomians, maintaining
that the Son was created out of nothing, and that he had
a will distinct and different from that of the Father.
EUGENE, Francois, commonly called Prince Eugene
of Savoy, one of the greatest generals of his time (since
he preceded Frederic II., and Turenne had fallen before
he became known as a commander), was born at Paris
on the 18th October 1663. His father, Eugene Maurice,
count of Soissons, was grandson of the Duke of Savoy,
Charles Emmanuel I.; and his mother, Olympia Mancini,
was niece of Cardinal Mazarin; but the latter having been
implicated in the affair of the poisonings, was forced to
take refuge in Brussels in order to avoid prosecution. Ori¬
ginally destined for the church, Eugene evinced but little
taste for theology, and occupied himself much more in
reading the lives of great warriors, and the narratives of
their exploits, than in studying the works of the fathers,
nevertheless he was of a feeble constitution; and as he
wore a dark cloak, he was known at court by the name of
the Little Abbe. Louis XIV. refused him a company in a
regimentof cavalry, because, according to some, bethought
the young prince unfit for the profession of arms, whilst, ac¬
cording to others, this refusal was owing to the disgrace of
Us mother, and the hatred which Louvois bore to her. But
however this may be, Eugene was so stung by the refusal,
that, from the moment of his repulse, he conceived for the
mg and his minister that long and fatal resentment which
at length caused so many evils to France.1 Having quit¬
ted Irance in disgust, he proceeded to Vienna, where the
Emperor Leopold, who was allied to his family, received
mm kindly, and granted him permission, along with se-
‘'era other Frenchmen of distinction, to serve against the
un(ter the banners of Austria. His first campaign
a of 1683, during which his courage appeared so
conspicuous that the emperor, by way of recompense, gave
j3 re§lnient of dragoons. After several other campaigns
e with equal distinction, at the head of the same regi-
ent, he became major-general; and it was in this capacity
1 l, ,.Serv^ at siege of Belgrade in 1688. At the
gation of Louvois, a decree of banishment from France
n against all Frenchmen who should continue
Ve ln tomgn armies. “ I shall return into France
E U G
393
in spite of him, said Eugene, when the news were com- Eugene,
municated to him; and he continued to pursue with the
same ardour the career on which he had entered in so
wi bant a manner. In his case genius was stimulated by
resentment. J
Leopold, considering him as not less fitted for diplo-
macy than for war, sent Eugene as his envoy or negotia¬
tor to the Duke of Savoy, in order, if possible, to detach
that prince from his connection with France. Nor did
the result disappoint the expectations of the emperor.
Overcome by the pressing solicitations of his young cou¬
sin, the duke allowed himself to be drawn so precipitate-
y into the coalition against France, that, without wait¬
ing for the succours which the court of Vienna had pro¬
mised him, he imprudently gave battle to Catinat at Staf-
tarde, and was defeated, notwithstanding the great cou¬
rage which Prince Eugene there displayed at the head of
a corps of cavalry. But the auxiliary force sent by Aus-
tna having at length arrived, Eugene assumed the com-
mand, and, after obtaining some advantages, which placed
the Duke of Savoy in a condition to defend himself, he
returned to Vienna, where he decided the emperor to
send fresh reinforcements. The imperial forces were thus
put in a condition to resume the offensive; and Prince
-Eugene having arrived to command them in the spring of
6J1, he caused the siege of Coni to be raised, took pos¬
session of Carmagnole, and gloriously terminated the
struggle in which he had found himself engaged with
Catinat. It was, in fact, as much by his successes, as by
t le ascendency which his superior mind exercised over
t le Duke of Savoy, that he managed to retain that prince
in the coalition, from which he was oftener than once on
the eve of breaking off, in order to throw himself again
into the arms of France. Desirous to attach him still
more to its interests, however, the court of Vienna con¬
ferred upon him the title of generalissimo of its forces;
and it was in this capacity that he penetrated into Dau-
pliine at the head of ten thousand men, having Prince
Eugene as his lieutenant. TLhe combined army took pos¬
session of Embrun and Gap; laid the whole country in
ashes, by way of reprisals for the burning of the Palati¬
nate ; and was preparing to carry its ravages even into
I rovence and Languedoc, when the generalissimo having
been seized with the small-pox, this accident saved the
French provinces from further devastation. Prince Eugene
led the army back into Piedmont, and it was there that
he received the brevet of field-marshal. After a third
campaign of little importance, the Duke of Savoy having
again joined the French, and thus turned the balance
against the Austrians, Prince Eugene returned to Vienna,
where he was appointed to the command of the army of
Hungary.
It was about this time that Louis XIV. secretly offered
him the baton of a marshal of France, with the govern¬
ment of Champagne, which his father had held, and also
a pension of two thousand pistoles. But Eugene rejected
these offers with indignation, and proceeded to combat
the 1 urks commanded by the grand signior Kara-Musta-
pha in person. After some able marches and skilful ma¬
noeuvres, he surprised the enemy at Zenta, on the Teisse,
I ™viens preinue ih° ti ^ i 1"aiIvais’ se donneront peut-etre la peine d’entrer dans les details de ma jeunesse, dont je ne me
'up<;onnie ie cn£ 1 P,f 1!ront su,rement de .ma mere, un peu intriguante a la vente', chasse'e de la cour, exilee de Paris, et
amment j’en suk Lt? horcellene, par des gens qui n etaient pas de grands sorders. Us diront comment je suis ne en France, et
' avals une complexion trm, fdhle f de cavalerie, Parce 1ue’ disait^
I
394
Eugene.
E U G :
in a camp retrenched en tete-de-pont; and, after an at¬
tack as vigorous as it was daring, he killed twenty thou¬
sand of them, drove ten thousand into the river, made
prisoners of the remainder, and took the whole of their
artillery and equipages. Never had a more complete and
decisive victory been obtained by the imperial arms, but
this splendid achievement, at the same time that it fixed
upon Prince Eugene the eyes of all Europe, inflamed to
the last degree the jealousy of his rivals, or rathei ene¬
mies, of whom he had many at court, some of them not
less powerful than vindictive. By means of their in¬
trigues, these persons had caused an order to be sent the
prince, commanding him to suspend all attack; and this
order had reached him an instant before the battle com¬
menced, but without changing his determination to as¬
sault the enemy’s position ; the opportunity for striking a
blow was propitious, and he boldly resolved to profit by
it This act of disobedience to the orders of the sove¬
reign was doubtless a fault, and he who dared to commit
it would have been ruined without resource had he not
triumphed in a manner the most complete and decisive.
But was not such a fault gloriously effaced by a victory as
useful as it was brilliant ? So at least thought all the world,
excepting the enemies of Prince Eugene, who succeeded
in persuading the emperor that nothing could excuse his
disobedience ; and, accordingly, when the victorious ge¬
neral appeared before his master, under the impression no
doubt that he was to be greeted with acknowledgments
and felicitations, he met with a cold and severe reception.
Nor did the folly and ingratitude of his enemies stop here.
Next day he was placed under arrest, and ordered to de¬
liver up his sword ; and he was about to be brought be¬
fore a council of war, when the inhabitants of \ ienna in¬
terposed, loudly remonstrating against the injustice of
such treatment. The emperor also, whether from fear or
repentance, relented, and restored his command to Prince
Eugene, who, however, accepted it only on the condition
that he should have carte blanche. It is alleged that when
the envoy of the emperor came to demand his sword, he
replied, “ There it is, still reeking with the blood of the
enemy; I consent not to resume it except for the advan¬
tage of his majesty’s service.” But it is now proved that
this pretended reply is spurious; for, as the Prince de
Eigne well observes, “ one half of the phrase would have
been a gasconade, and the other a meanness,” neither of
which comported with the simple and manly character of
this great warrior. Prince Eugene then returned to Hun¬
gary ; and, after a campaign distinguished by no remark¬
able event, a treaty of peace was at length concluded with
the Turks at Carlowitz, on the 26th January 1699.
Having returned to Vienna, the prince applied himself
to the study of the arts, and particularly of history, which
had always great attractions for him. But he was not
permitted long to enjoy the leisure which he seemed so
desirous to improve. The war of the succession, which
soon broke out, opened to him a new field of glory; and
at the commencement of the year 1701, he was sent into
Italy once more to oppose his old antagonist Catinat.
But all the prudence of the old general failed to secure
him against the bold and incessantly-renewed enterprises
of his young and indefatigable rival. The latter effected,
in presence of the French army, the passage of the Adige,
and forced it, after sustaining several checks, to retire
behind the Oglio, where a series of reverses equally un¬
expected and severe led to the disgrace and retirement of
Catinat. The Duke of Villeroi succeeded to the command
of which Catinat had been deprived, and the prince had
soon reason to felicitate himself on a change which, from
its first announcement, transported him with joy. The
presumptuous Villeroi having ventured to attack him at
E N E.
Chiari, in an inexpugnable position, Eugene repulsed all £; le
his efforts without difficulty, and inflicted a severe loss on v
the assailants. And this first check was only the fore¬
runner of more signal reverses ; for, in a short time, Yille.
roi was forced to abandon the whole of the Mantuan ter¬
ritory, and to take refuge in Cremona, where he seems to
have considered himself as secure in the midst of his staff.
But, by one of the most audacious enterprises which has
ever been attempted in war, this place was surprised, and,
had it not been for untoward accidents, would unques¬
tionably have been carried. By means of a stratagem,
Prince Eugene penetrated into the city during the night,
at the head of a numerous body ; and it was only owing to
circumstances which could not possibly be foreseen or pro¬
vided against, and particularly to the courage and vigilance
of some French officers, that he found himself at length
compelled to retire, carrying along with him Villeroi as
a prisoner. But this last circumstance, so far from being
an advantage to the Imperialists, proved the reverse; the
Duke of Vendome replaced the captive general, and his
ability soon changed the aspect of affairs. From the first
moment Prince Eugene appreciated the talents of his new
adversary ; and, besides,.being aware of the superiority of
the French army, with which the king of Spain in person
had just effected a junction at the head of numerous re¬
inforcements, he confined himself to a war of observation,
without important results, though fertile in most useful
lessons to students of military science. This campaign
was terminated by the battle of Luzara, fought on the
1st of August 1702, in which each party claimed the vic¬
tory. It was one of the most sanguinary ever delivered
by Prince Eugene, whose fortune it was to command in
so many battles ; he there lost the flower of his army, and
also his best officers, including the brave Commerci, his
intimate friend and most faithful companion in arms.
Both armies having entered into winter quarters, Eu¬
gene returned to Vienna, where he was appointed presi¬
dent of the council of war. He then set out for Hungary
in order to combat the insurgents in that country but his
means proving insufficient, he effected nothing of impor¬
tance. The revolt was, however, put down by the suc¬
cess which General Heister obtained in another quarter.
Prince Eugene accordingly proceeded to Bavaria, where,
in 1704, he made his first campaign along with Marlbo¬
rough. Similarity of tastes, views, and talents soon esta¬
blished between these two great men a friendship which
is rarely to be found amongst military chiefs, and which
contributed more than all other causes put together to the
success which the allies obtained. The first and perhaps
the most important of these successes was that of Been-
sett or Blenheim, gained on the 13th of August H ,
where the English and imperial troops triumphed ove
one of the finest armies which France had as yet sent
into Germany. See Marlborough. Tt j* „
But since Prince Eugene had quitted Italy, \endom ,
who commanded the French army in that country,
obtained various successes. The Duke of Savoy, who
once more deserted France and joined Austria, had s -
fered severe losses; and the emperor having deci e
send him assistance, Piedmont thus became the PrJn^ P
theatre of active hostilities. Having recetyed order
proceed thither without delay, Eugene quitted a
rough with the most lively regret, though at the
time experiencing a secret satisfaction at the l)r0SPe, 0p
measuring himself with a rival in all resPt’cts "Tf haD
him. Vendome at first opposed great obstacles to y P
which the prince had formed for carrying succours
Piedmont; but after a variety of marches and co
marches, in which both commanders displayed
ability, the two armies met at Cassano, where a
BUG
; ous engagement ensued, and Prince Eugene received two
■ J severe wounds, which forced him to quit the field. This
accident decided the fate of the battle, and for the time
suspended the prince’s march towards Piedmont. But al¬
though prevented from effecting a junction with the Duke
of Savoy, his operations failed not to prove advantageous
to that prince, since the Duke de la Feuillade, then be¬
sieging Turin, was obliged to raise the siege and march to
the assistance of Vendome, who, notwithstanding his vic¬
tory at Cassano, felt apprehensive of some new and daring
enterprise on the part of his antagonist. Vendome, how¬
ever, was recalled, and La Feuillade was incapable of long
arresting the progress of such a commander as Eugene.
After once more passing several rivers in presence of the
French army, and executing one of the most skilful and
daring marches he had ever performed, the latter appear¬
ed before the entrenched camp at Turin, which place the
French were now besieging with an army eighty thousand
strong. Prince Eugene had only thirty thousand men ;
but his antagonist was the Duke of Orleans, who, though
full of zeal and courage, wanted sufficient experience to
enable him to contend with a man justly regarded as one
of the greatest warriors of his time. Besides, by a secret
order of Louis XIV., who had, in fact, transferred the
command to Marsin, the young prince was restricted to
the execution of an ill-conceived plan, which neutraliz¬
ed the advantage of superior numbers, and put it in the
power of the enemy to select his point of attack. With
equal courage and address, Eugene profited by the misun¬
derstanding which the exhibition of such an order could
not fail to produce between the French generals ; and
having on the 7th September 1706 attacked the French
army in its entrenchments, he gained a complete victory,
which decided the fate of Italy. This brilliant achieve¬
ment, the result of the most masterly combinations, and,
in several respects, the prototype of the campaign of Ma¬
rengo in 1800, affords one of the most remarkable ex¬
amples of the difficulty of defending extensive lines even
against an inferior army7, massed upon one or two points.
As soon as the Duke of Orleans observed the imperial
army approaching, he wished to march out of the lines
j with the whole French army, and to deliver battle in the
open field, where he could have availed himself of his
great numerical superiority (eighty thousand to thirty) ;
but he was restrained by Marsin, who, by this absurd’m-
tei position, sealed the fate of the French army, and lost
ta y. In the heat of the battle, which almost immediate-
yensued, Eugene received a wound, and was thrown from
his horse into a ditch. Flis fall produced a belief that he
was killed, and his soldiers began to lose courage ; but he
soon returned to the attack, and when the soldiers saw him
appear in the midst of them covered with slime and blood,
issuing his orders, and watching over every thing with the
most admirable sang-froid, their enthusiasm was raised to
the highest pitch ; and from that moment the issue of the
a t e was certain. As a recompense for so important
services, the prince received the government of the Mi-
anese, of which he took possession with great pomp on
the 16th April 1707. s B i
which he made against Toulon, in the
urse of the same year, failed completely, because the
vasmn of the kingdom of Naples retarded the march of
tl • J0,0^ ^h’ch were to have been employed in it, and
j; ^ ah°rded Marshal de Tesse time to make good
jr°nS- 9bliSed t0 renounce his project, therefore,
srrpnt lnC? rePa‘red to Vienna, where he was received with
am vp ,,iaSm b*oth by the PeoP]e and the court. “ I
vve sutisned with you, said the emperor, “ ex-
self one,P°'nt only, which is, that you expose your-
o much. I his monarch immediately dispatched
E N E.
Eugene to Holland, and to the different courts of Ger-
many, in order to forward the necessary preparations for
the campaign of the following year, 1708.
Eaily in the spring of 1708 the prince proceeded to
f landers, in order to assume the command of the forces
which his diplomatic ability had been mainly instrumen¬
tal in assembling. This campaign was opened by the
victory of Oudenarde, to which the perfect union of
Marlborough and Eugene on the one hand, and the mis¬
understanding between Vendome and the Duke of Bur¬
gundy on the other, seem to have equally contributed.
This prince immediately abandoned the Low Countries,"
and remaining in observation, made no attempt whatever
to raise the siege of Lille, where Boufflers distinguished
himself by a glorious defence. To the valour of the latter
Eugene paid the most marked and flattering homage, at
the same time loading him with all those expressions of
esteem and regard with which it was then usual, in such
cases, to attemper the horrors of war. Boufflers was in¬
vited by his enemies to prepare the articles of capitula¬
tion himself, and Prince Eugene wrote to him, “ I sub¬
scribe to every thing beforehand, well persuaded that you
will not insert any thing unworthy of yourself or of me.”
After this important conquest, Eugene and Marlborough
proceeded to the Hague, where they were received in the
most flattering manner by the public, by the states-gene-
ral, and, above all, by their esteemed friend the pension¬
ary Heinsius. Negotiations were then opened for peace,
but as the conditions proposed by the allies were consi¬
dered by Louis XIV. as alike degrading to himself and
to France, both parties made preparations for continuing;
the war. b
The campaign of 1709 was opened in Flanders by two
hostile armies, each a hundred and fifty thousand strong.
That of the French was commanded by Villars, a man of
considerable talents, but of little experience, and who fear¬
ed to compromise himself in opposition to such great cap¬
tains as Marlborough and Eugene. He accordingly re¬
mained upon the defensive, and suffered them to take Tour-
nay without opposition; but being desirous of succouring
Mons, he was followed by the allies, who attacked him at
Malplaquet on the 9th of September, in a formidable po¬
sition, where he had had time to entrench himself. The
attack was made with equal vigour and ability; but owing
to the strength of the French position, and the tenacity
with which it was maintained, the victory was purchased
at the cost of twenty-five thousand men killed on the
field of battle, and the Dutch infantry was almost anni¬
hilated. The battle of Malplaquet was to it what the
battle of Rocroi had been to the infantry of Spain; and
it never afterwards recovered from the effects of that san¬
guinary day. Although the allies remained masters of
the field of battle, this barren advantage had been so
dearly bought, that they found themselves soon after¬
wards out of all condition to undertake any thing. Their
army accordingly went into winter-quarters, and Prince Eu¬
gene returned to Vienna, whence the emperor almost imme¬
diately dispatched him to Berlin. From the king of Prus¬
sia the prince obtained everything which he had been in¬
structed tp require; and having thus fulfilled his mission,
he returned into Flanders, where, excepting the capture
ol Douay, Bethune, and Aire, the campaign of 1810 pre¬
sented nothing remarkable. The emperor Joseph I. hav¬
ing died about this time, Prince Eugene, in concert with
the empress, exerted his utmost endeavours to secure the
crown to the archduke, who afterwards ascended the im¬
perial throne under the name of Charles VI.
In the year following, 1711, the changes which had oc¬
curred in the policy, or rather the caprice, of Queen Anne,
brought about an approximation between England and
395
.ugene.
396
EUGENE.
Eugene.
France, and put an end to the influence which Marlbo¬
rough had hitherto possessed with that princess. When
this political revolution became known, Prince Eugene
immediately repaired to London, charged with a mission
from the emperor, and there made strenuous efforts to re¬
establish the credit of his illustrious companion in arms,
as well as to re-attach England to the coalition. But all
arguments and persuasions, whether founded on views of
interest or sentiments of honour and consistency, having
proved unavailing, the emperor found himself under the
necessity of making the campaign of 1712 with the aid
of the Dutch alone. The defection of the English, how¬
ever, did not induce Prince Eugene to abandon his favou¬
rite plan of invading France. He had long been decided
to make any sacrifice to accomplish this design, the con¬
ception of which originated as much, perhaps, in resent¬
ment as in a passion for glory. He therefore resolved, at
whatever cost, to penetrate into Champagne ; and in order
to support his operations by the possession of some im¬
portant places, he began by making himself master of
Quesnoy. But the Dutch having been surprised and
beaten in the lines of Denain, where Prince Eugene had
placed them at too great a distance to receive timely sup¬
port in case of an attack, he was obliged to raise the siege
of Landrecies, and to abandon the project which he had
so long cherished. This was the last campaign in which
Austria acted in conjunction with her allies. Abandoned
first by England and then by Holland, the emperor, not¬
withstanding these desertions, still wished to maintain the
war in Germany; but the superiority of the French army
prevented Eugene from relieving either Landau or Fri-
burg, which were successively obliged to capitulate; and
seeing the empire thus laid open to the armies of France,
and even the hereditary states themselves exposed to in¬
vasion, the prince counselled his master to make peace.
Sensible of the prudence of this advice, the emperor im¬
mediately entrusted Eugene with full powers to negotiate
a treaty; and after some interviews, in which the prince
and Villars interchanged expressions of esteem and admi¬
ration, there was concluded at Rastadt, on the 6th of
March 1714, a peace which had long been anxiously look¬
ed for, and of which the nations of Europe had the great¬
est need.
After this happy event, Prince Eugene went to enjoy
at Vienna some moments of repose. The emperor conti¬
nued to show him marks of the most entire confidence;
and from this time adopted no resolution, either in regard
to the administration of the army, or that of the interior,
without consulting him. But this kind of occupation did
not suit the activity of Eugene ; and although he was now
advanced in years, his warlike humour had lost nothing
of its vivacity. Sensible of the impossibility of Austria,
situated as she was, resisting France, he had done all in
his power to accelerate the conclusion of peace ; but, by a
contrary species of reasoning, he availed himself of a petty
quarrel which the Ottoman Porte had with the Venetians
to determine his master to espouse the cause of the latter.
The emperor, having taken this step, appointed Eugene
to command the army of Hungary ; and at Peterwaradin,
with a force not exceeding sixty thousand men, he gained
a signal victory over the Turks, who had not less than a
hundred and fifty thousand men in the field. This victory
made a great noise in Europe, and all the Christian pow¬
ers conceived themselves bound to rejoice on account of
it. The pope sent to the victorious general the conse¬
crated rapier, which the court of Rome was accustomed
to bestow upon those who had triumphed over the infidels;
and this extraordinary present was put into the hands of
Prince Eugene by an envoy of his holiness. But the en¬
suing campaign, being that of 1717, was still more remark¬
able, on account of the battle of Belgrade. After having eu?
remained under the walls of that city, in a situation the W(
most difficult imaginable; after having resisted, during a
month, the efforts of a numerous garrison, as well as those
of a hundred and fifty thousand Turks, with an army of
only forty thousand men; and after having lost nearly the
half of his troops by dysentery, and the fire of the Otto¬
man artillery, which plunged its shot even into his own
tent; Prince Eugene gained one of the most complete
victories of which there is any record or tradition, and
soon afterwards forced Belgrade itself to capitulate. The
attack which he ordered against forces six times more
numerous than his own was really an act of despair. He
had himself been seized with the cruel malady which was
destroying his army, and all was consternation in the Aus¬
trian camp; yet at the very moment when he was be¬
lieved to be on the eve of capitulating, he succeeded, by
his constancy and daring courage, in obtaining a most
decisive victory. The prince was wounded in the heat
of the action, this being the thirteenth time that he had
been hit upon the field of battle. On his return to Vienna
he received numerous testimonies of gratitude, and, amongst
others, a sword valued at eighty thousand florins, which
was presented to him by the emperor. In the following
year, 1718, after some fruitless negotiations with a view
to the conclusion of peace, he again took the field; but
the treaty of Passarowitz put an end to hostilities, at the
moment when the prince had well-founded hopes of ob¬
taining still more important successes than those which
had illustrated the last campaign, and when he even flat¬
tered himself with reaching Constantinople, and dictating
a peace on the shores of the Bosphorus. On his return
to Vienna he was, as usual, received with every mark of
esteem and admiration.
As the government of the Low Countries, formerly con¬
ferred upon Eugene, had now for some reason been be¬
stowed on a sister of the emperor, the prince was appoint¬
ed vicar-general of Italy, with a pension of three hundred
thousand florins. From this time he occupied himself
much more than he had ever done with the affairs of go¬
vernment; and Charles VI. habitually consulted him in
all affairs of importance. He accompanied this monarch
in several journeys, particularly to Prague, where Frede¬
rick I. of Prussia met the emperor by appointment, and
testified the greatest admiration of the veteran w'arrior,
by whom the latter was attended ; and his influence seem¬
ed to be in all respects commensurate with his fame.
During the ten years of peace which ensued, Eugene oc¬
cupied himself with the arts and with literature, to which
he had hitherto been able to devote little of his time.
But the contest which arose out of the succession of Au¬
gustus II. to the throne of Poland having afforded Aus¬
tria a pretext for attacking France, war was resolved on,
contrary to the advice of Prince Eugene, whose last cam¬
paigns had taught him to dread the efforts of thatpower•
Yet, although he had in the council declared his opinion
in favour of peace, he was appointed to command t e
army destined to act upon the Rhine. This army, from t e
commencement, had very superior forces opposed to i ,
and if it could not prevent the capture of Phihpsburg
after a long siege, it at least prevented the enemy roni
entering Bavaria. Prince Eugene, having now attaine
his seventy-first year, no longer possessed the vigour an
activity necessary for the command of armies; he ®
self perceived the change which time had wrong t in
his powers; and as he now longed for and require re
pose, he applied himself to bring about a peace, whic "
at length concluded on the 3d of March 1733. “avin^
turned to Vienna, his health declined more and more, a
he died in that capital on the 21st April 1736, leaving
E U G
> immense succession to his niece the Princess Victoria of
J Savoy.
Of a character cold and severe, Prince Eugene had al¬
most no other passion than that of glory. He died unmar¬
ried, and without having ever evinced the slightest partia¬
lity for any woman, excepting, perhaps, the Countess de
Bathiani, who, by the attractions of her wit and vivacity,
appears to have consoled the last moments of his life.
Although one of the greatest warriors of his time, military
science is not indebted to him for any remarkable im¬
provement. His operations were not directed according
to any positive method, nor conformable to invariable prin¬
ciples ; it was by sudden inspirations, and an admirable
rapidity of coup dceil, that he conducted himself on the
ground according to the circumstances and the men with
whom he had to deal; and upon all occasions he took the
greatest pains to ascertain the character of the generals
who were opposed to him. This system of tactics chief¬
ly resembles that which we have seen displayed in the
recent wars; it exhibits neither the prudence and circum¬
spection of Turenne, nor the astonishing strategic ability
of Frederick, in the difficult art of putting in motion and
deploying columns and lines ; it consists merely in an in¬
cessant activity and audacity, united with an admirable
promptitude in perceiving and repairing faults. Despis¬
ing the lives of his soldiers as much as he exposed his
own, it was always by persevering efforts and great sacri¬
fices that he obtained victory. To the Austrian armies
he gave an eclat which they had never before possessed,
and which, as it was reflected from his character alone,
died with him; in fact, he could not sustain himself with¬
out efforts which wars so protracted and destructive ren¬
dered impossible upon the part of the people of Austria.
This exhaustion, indeed, was long felt in the Austrian mo¬
narchy; and as that power has not had a single general
since the time of Prince Eugene who can at all be com¬
pared with him, its armies have not subsequently been il¬
lustrated by any remarkable event, and the reputation of
this general has consequently stood far above that of all
other commanders in the imperial service. Prince Eu¬
gene, in truth, had a prevailing passion for war. Always
on the march, in camps, or on the field of battle during
more than fifty years, and under the reign of three em¬
perors, he had scarcely passed two years together without
fighting. It has been said that he loved letters and the
arts; and the protection which he afforded to J. B. Rous¬
seau has often been cited as a proof of this commendable
taste. It is certain, indeed, that in his numerous expedi¬
tions, he had made an immense collection of objects inte¬
resting to science and art, as well as of valuable books and
manuscripts; but it is evident that he never took time to
examine them ; and there is nothing to prove that he knew
how to appreciate their value. He profited by war, which,
n every point of view', prodigiously enriched him; and if
ie must be ranked with Turenne, Vendome, and Catinat
n regard to personal valour, he cannot be compared with
-hem in point of disinterestedness and generosity. Prince
I kugene was a man of the middle size, but, upon the
vhole, well made; the cast of his visage was somewhat
ong, his mouth moderate, and almost always open ; his
were black and animated, and his complexion such
is became a warrior. His funeral oration, composed in
tu1 ^ Cardinal Passionei, was translated into French
T Madame du Boccage, 1759, in 12mo. But the most
omplete work on his life is the Histoire du Prince Eugene,
msterdam, 1740, and Vienna, 1755, which was published
anonymously, though it is now known to be the compila-
j°n of a M. de Mauvillon. It was from this production
'a . e Prince de Ligne derived the greater part of the
‘nting which he published in Germany in 1809, and
E U G
which was twice printed the year following at Paris, un¬
der the title of Vie du Prince Eugene de Savoie, ecrite
par lui-meme, in one vol. 8vo. There exists in German
a history of Prince Eugene, which is little esteemed ;
and there was also published at Nuremberg, in 1738, a
work entitled Eugenius nummis illustratus, which is of
little value. But the Italian work on the Life and Cam¬
paigns of Prince Eugene, published at Naples in 1754,
8vo, is much more exact. We have also Campagnes du
Prince Eugene en Hangrie, in 2 vols. 8vo; and 'Histoire
Militaire du Prince Eugene, du Due de Marlborough, et du
Prince de Nassau, 2 vols. fol. by Dumont, and continued
by Rousseau, Hague, 1729. The work of Father Ferrari,
entitled De Rebus Gestis Eugenii Principis Sabaudice,
Bello Pannonico, is much more remarkable for the purity
of the style than for the accuracy of the facts. (a.)
EUGUBIAN, or Eugubine Tables, Tabulae Eugu-
bince, inscribed tablets in bronze, found in 1444 at La
Schieggia, near Gubbio (Eugubium), in the duchy of Ur-
bino. These tablets are seven in number, five of them
containing inscriptions in Umbric, mixed with Etruscan,
and the remaining two inscriptions in Latin characters.
I hey were at first believed to be of very high antiquity;
but it is now pretty generally agreed that they are not
more ancient than the fourth century before the Chris¬
tian era. The learned reader will find copies of these re¬
markable monuments in Dempster’s Etruria Regalis (vol.
i. p. 91, et seqq.), and also some curious details respect¬
ing them in the supplement to that wrork by the senator
Buonarotti (vol. ii. p. 101). According to Lanzi, they
refer entirely to the mode of sacrifice, the particular forms
of prayer, and other religious rites of certain Umbrian
communities, who were united in a sort of federal bond ;
but the explanations of the learned Italian are much too
arbitrary and hypothetical to be of any authority; and,
in point of fact, we are still as ignorant of the language of
these inscriptions as when the tablets were first discover¬
ed, nearly four centuries ago. (See article Etruscans.)
But as the character has proved less untractable than the
text, an Etruscan alphabet has been constructed, by means
of which we are enabled to read the words which as yet
we cannot interpret. Previously to the time (1732) when
Bourguet undertook this difficult task, several persons had
attempted it, and failed. But, by carefully comparing the
tablets in the Roman character with those in the Etrus¬
can, the ingenious Frenchman discovered that the former
were a compendium of the latter, and that many words
were common to both sets; and, having obtained this
key, he succeeded, by pursuing the comparison he had
instituted, in constructing an alphabet which, though far
from being complete, was yet much more perfect than
any which had preceded it. Since the time of Bourguet,
however, no further progress has been made in this con¬
fined but interesting field of inquiry; and as the language
has hitherto baffled every artifice of interpretation, the
contents of these curious monuments of antiquity still re¬
main undeciphered. The discovery of a bilingual inscrip¬
tion, which is not an impossible event, would, however,
furnish the needful key, and lead directly to the solution
of an enigma alike vexatious and interesting to the scho¬
lar. Should this ever happen, or should some rare effort
of sagacity or miracle of fortune unexpectedly put any in¬
quirer on the right road without such aid, we venture to
prognosticate that the language of these inscriptions will
be found to be radically Celtic, perhaps a dead dialect of
that language, intermixed with terms of Pelasgic origin.
That the Umbri were Celts, or at least of Celtic origin,
there can be little doubt; and it seems equally certain
that the Etruscans, who ultimately predominated over all
the other tribes which from time to time had settled in
397
Eugubian
Tables.
398
E U L
Euler.
Etruria, were also, in part at least, of northern descent.
It would therefore be strange indeed if in these inscrip¬
tions, five of which are in the Umbric mixed with the
Etruscan character, no traces were found of that primi¬
tive language which successive immigrations from the
north must have diffused over a considerable portion o
the great plain of Italy. The Eugubine fables were first
published by Smetius, 1588; then by Gruter, Inscript, vol.
i. p. 142. (Bourguet, Dissert. Mem. Cort. tom. i. p. ,
Dempster, De Etruria Regali, ubi supra ; and Lanzi, Sag-
gio di Lingua Etrusca. See also Beitrage zw V^timg
der Eugubinischen lufeln von Lassen. Bonn, 18^■‘■j (A.f
EULER, Leonard, professor of mathematics, mem¬
ber of the Imperial Academy of Petersburg, ancient direc¬
tor of the Royal Academy of Berlin, and fellow of the Roy¬
al Society of London, as also a corresponding member of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, was born at Basil on
the 15th of April 1707, of reputable parents. I he years
of his infancy were passed in a rural retreat at the village
of Richen, of which place his father was minister, being
sent to the university of Basil, he attended regularly the
different professors ; and as his memory was prodigious, he
performed his academical tasks with uncommon rapidity ;
but all the time he thus gained was consecrated to geo-
metry, which soon became his favourite study. The eai ly
progress which he made in this science only gave new ar¬
dour to his application ; and thus he obtained a distinguish¬
ed place in the esteem of John Bernoulli, who was at that
time one of the first mathematicians in Europe, as well as
in the friendship of Daniel and Nicolas Bernoulli, who
were already the rivals of their illustrious father. In l/~3
Euler took his degree as master of arts, and delivered on
that occasion a Latin discourse, in which he drew a com-
parison between the philosophy of Newton and the Cai-
tesian system, which was received with the greatest ap¬
plause. At his father’s desire he afterwards applied him¬
self to the study of theology and the oriental languages,
and though these studies were foreign to his predominant
propensity, his success was considerable ; but, with his
father’s consent, he returned to geometry as his principal
pursuit. He continued to avail himself of the counsels
and instructions of John Bernoulli; he contracted, as al¬
ready stated, an intimate friendship with his tw'o sons,
Daniel and Nicolas ; and it was in consequence of these
connexions that he became afterwards the principal orna¬
ment of the Academy of Petersburg. The project of erect¬
ing this academy, which had been formed by Peter the
Great, was executed by Catherine I.; and the two young
Bernoullis being invited to Petersburg in 1/25, promised
Euler, who was desirous of following them, that they
would use their utmost endeavours to procure for him an
advantageous settlement in that city. In the mean time,
by their advice, he applied himself W'ith ardour to the
study of physiology, to which he made a happy application
of his mathematical knowledge ; and he also attended the
medical lectures of the most eminent professors of Basil.
This study, however, did not wholly engross his time, nor
even relax the activity of his powerful and comprehen¬
sive mind in the cultivation of other branches of natural
science. For whilst he was keenly engaged in physiolo¬
gical researches, he composed a dissertation on the na¬
ture and propagation of sound, and an answer to a prize-
question concerning the masting of ships, to which the
Academy of Sciences adjudged the accessit, or second
rank, in the year 1727. From this latter discourse, and
other circumstances, it appears that Euler had early
embarked in the curious and important study of naviga¬
tion, which he afterwards enriched with so many valuable
discoveries.
Euler’s merit would have given him an easy admission
E U L
to honourable preferment, either in the magistracy or uni- |ju
versity of his native city, if both civil and academical ho- U v
nours had not been there distributed by lot. But chance
having decided against him in regard to a certain situa¬
tion to which he aspired, he left his country, set out for
Petersburg, and was made joint professor with his coun¬
trymen Hermann and Daniel Bernoulli in the university
of that city. At the commencement of his new career he
enriched the academical collection with many memoirs,
which excited a noble emulation between him and the
Bernoullis ; and this emulation always continued, without
either degenerating into a selfish jealousy, or producing
the least alteration in their friendship. It was at this
time that he carried to a new degree of perfection the
integral calculus, invented the calculation of sines, redu¬
ced analytical operations to a greater simplicity, and threw
new light on all the parts of mathematical science. In
1730 he was promoted to the professorship of natural
philosophy; and in 1733 he succeeded his friend Daniel
Bernoulli in the mathematical chair. In 1735 a problem
was proposed by the academy which required expedition,
and for the solution of which several eminent mathemati¬
cians had demanded the space of some months. The pro¬
blem was solved by Euler in three days, to the great as¬
tonishment of the academy ; but the violent and laborious
efforts it cost him threw him into a fever, which endan¬
gered his life, and deprived him of the use of his right
eye. The Academy of Sciences at Paris, which in 1738
had adjudged the prize to his memoir concerning the na¬
ture and properties of fire, proposed for the year 1/40
the important subject of the tides; a problem the solu¬
tion of which required the most arduous calculations,
and comprehended the theory of the solar system. Euler’s
discourse on this question was considered as a master¬
piece of analysis and geometry ; and it was more honour,
able for him to share the academical prize with such il¬
lustrious competitors as Colin Maclaurin and Daniel Ber-
noulli, than to have carried it away from rivals of inferior
reputation. Rarely if ever did such a brilliant competi-
tion adorn the annals of the academy; and no subject,
perhaps, proposed by that learned body, was ever treated
with such accuracy of investigation and force of genius,
as that which here displayed the philosophical powers o
these three extraordinary men.
In the year 1741 Euler was invited to Berlin in order to
augment the lustre of the academy which was there rising
into fame. He enriched the last volume of the Melanges
or Miscellanies of Berlin with five memoirs, which make
an eminent, perhaps the principal, figure in that collec¬
tion ; and these were followed, with an astonishing lapi
dity, by a great number of important researches, wine
are scattered throughout the memoirs of the Prussian aca¬
demy, of which a volume was regularly published every
year. The labours of Euler will appear more astonishing
when it is considered, that whilst he was enriching
Academy of Berlin with a prodigious number of memo
on the deepest parts of mathematical science, con
ing always some new views, often sublime ^rut sl ,
sometimes discoveries of great importance, e i
discontinue his philosophical contributions to t e
demy of Petersburg, which granted him a Pensl0“
1742, and the memoirs of which display the jaar
fecundity of Euler’s genius. It was with much dime )
that this great man obtained, in 1766, permission rom
the king of Prussia to return to Petersburg, where ne
sired to pass the remainder of his days. Soon at er
Sirea CO pass me leuiamuci u* ““y -   :fl„onpeof
turn, which was graciously rewarded by the muni
Catherine II., he was seized with a violent dlsorder’"
terminated in the total loss of his sight. A catard ■ iu
ing formed in his left eye, which had been es
E U L
damaged by a too ardent application to study, deprived
^ him entirely of the use of that organ. It was in this dis¬
tressing situation that he dictated to his servant, a tailor’s
apprentice, who was absolutely devoid of mathematical
knowledge, his Elements of Algebra ; which, by their in-
trinsical merit in point of perspicuity and method, and
the unhappy circumstances in which they were composed,
have excited equal applause and astonishment. This work,
though purely elementary, discovers the characteristics of
an inventive genius ; and it is here alone that we meet
with a complete theory of the analysis of Diophantus.
About this time Euler was honoured by the Academy
of Sciences at Paris with the place of foreign member of
that learned body; and after this, the academical prize
was adjudged to three of his memoirs, Concerning the In¬
equalities in the Motions of the Planets. The two prize-
questions proposed by the same academy for 1770 and
1772 were designed to obtain from the labours of astro¬
nomers a more perfect theory of the moon. Euler, as¬
sisted by his eldest son, was a competitor for these prizes,
and obtained both. In this last memoir he reserved for
further consideration several inequalities of the moon’s
motion, which he could not determine in his first theory,
on account of the complicated calculations in which the
method he then employed had engaged him. But he had
the courage afterwards to review his whole theory, with
the assistance of his son and Messrs KrafFt and Lexell,
and to pursue his researches until he had constructed
the new tables, which appeared, together with the great
work, in 1772. Instead of confining himself, as before, to
the fruitless integration of three differential equations of
the second degree, which are furnished by mathematical
principles, he reduced them to the three ordinates, which
determine the place of the moon; and he divided into
classes all the inequalities of that planet, as far as they
depend either on the elongation of the sun and moon, or
upon the eccentricity, or the parallax, or the inclination
of the lunar orbit. All these means of investigation, em¬
ployed with such art and dexterity as could only be ex¬
pected from analytical genius of the first order, were at¬
tended with the greatest success ; and it is impossible to
I observe without admiration such immense calculations on
the one hand, and on the other the ingenious methods
employed by this great man to abridge them, and to fa¬
cilitate their application to the real motion of the moon.
But this admiration will become astonishment when we
, consider at what period and in what circumstances all this
was effected. It was when he was totally blind, and con¬
sequently obliged to arrange all his computations by the
sole powers of his memory and his genius ; when he was
embarrassed in his domestic circumstances by a dreadful
fire, which had consumed the greater part of his substance,
and forced him to quit a ruined house, every corner of
which was known to him by a habit that in some measure
supplied the place of sight;—it was in these circumstan¬
ces, and under these privations, that Euler composed a
work, which alone is sufficient to render his name immor-
if^ero'c patience and tranquillity of mind which
e displayed need no eulogy here; and he derived them
not only from the love of science, but from the power of
religion. His philosophy was too genuine and sublime to
stop its analysis at mechanical causes ; it led him to that
ivine philosophy of religion which ennobles human nature,
an is alone capable of forming a habit of true magnanimity
and patience under suffering.
• ome after this the celebrated Wenzell, by couch-
ing the cataract, restored Euler’s sight; but the satisfac-
jon and joy which this successful operation produced were
f10n ^aration. Some instances of negligence on the
P r of his surgeons, and his own impatience to use an or-
E U L
399
gan tiie cure of which was not complete, deprived him of Euler,
vision a second time ; and this relapse was accompanied v—
witn tormenting pain. With the assistance of his sons,
and of Messrs Krafit and Lexell, however, he continued
his labours ; neither the loss of his sight nor the infirmi¬
ties of an advanced age being sufficient to damp the ardour
of his genius. Having engaged to furnish the Academy
of Petersburg with as many memoirs as would be suffi¬
cient to complete its acts for twenty years after his
death, he in the space of seven years transmitted to the
academy above seventy memoirs, and left above two hun¬
dred more, which were revised and completed by the
author of this notice. Such of the memoirs as were of
ancient date were separated from the rest, and form a col¬
lection which was published in the year 1783, under the
title of Analytical Works.
Euler’s knowledge was more universal than could well
be expected in one who had pursued with such unre¬
mitting ardour mathematics and astronomy as his favou¬
rite studies. He had made very considerable progress in
medical, botanical, and chemical science ; he was an ex¬
cellent scholar, and possessed what is generally called
erudition in a very high degree. He had read, with at¬
tention and taste, the most eminent writers of ancient
Rome; the civil and literary history of all ages and all
nations was familiar to him ; and foreigners who were
only acquainted with his works were astonished to find
in the conversation of a man whose long life seemed to
have been wholly occupied in mathematical and physical
researches and discoveries, such an extensive acquaint¬
ance with the most interesting branches of literature. In
this respect, no doubt, he was much indebted to an un¬
common memory, which seemed to retain every idea that
was conveyed to it, either from reading or meditation.
He could repeat the iEneid of Virgil from the beginning *
to the end without hesitation, and indicate the first and
last line of every page of the edition which he used.
But several attacks of vertigo, in the beginning of Sep¬
tember 1783, which did not prevent his calculating the
motions of the aerostatical globes, proved the forerun¬
ners of his mild and happy passage from this scene to a
better. His death was sudden ; he ceased to calculate
and to live at nearly the same instant of time. Whilst he
was amusing himself at tea with one of his grandchildren,
he was struck with apoplexy, which terminated his illus¬
trious career at the age of seventy-six. Euler, says Con-
dorcet, was one of those men whose genius was equally
capable of the greatest efforts and of the most continued
labour ; who multiplied his productions beyond what might
have been expected from human strength, and who not¬
withstanding was original in each ; whose head was always
occupied, and his mind always calm. The nature of his
pursuits, by withdrawing him from the world, preserved
that simplicity of manners for which he was originally in¬
debted to his character and his education; and he em¬
ployed none of those means to which men of real merit
have sometimes recourse in order to enhance the import¬
ance of their discoveries. It is true that fecundity such
as his renders useless all the little calculations of self-
love; but still great lucidity of mind and uprightness of
character are necessary to trace, as he has done, the his¬
tory of his thoughts, even when his investigations have
proved fruitless, or the results disappointed the expecta¬
tions which he had formed. Euler’s constitution was un¬
commonly vigorous ; his health was good ; and the even¬
ing of his long life was serene, being sweetened by the
fame which follows genius, the public esteem and respect
which are never withheld from exemplary virtue, and se¬
veral domestic comforts, which he was capable of feel¬
ing, and therefore deserved to enjoy.
400
Eulogy
II
Eumenes.
E U M
The works which Euler published separately are, 1.
Dissertatio physica de Sono, Bale, 1727, in 4to; 2. Media-
nica, sive Motus scientia, analytice exposita, Petersburg,
1736, in 2 vols. 4to ; 3. Einleitung in die Arithmetik, or
Introduction to Arithmetic, ibid. 1738, 2 vols. 8vo, in Ger¬
man and Russian ; 4. Tentamen Nova Thear ice Musica,
ibid. 1739, in 4to ; 5. Methodus inveniendi Lineas curvas,
maximi minimive proprietate gaudentes, sive solutio proble-
matica isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti, Lausanne, 1744,
in 4to; 6. Theoria motuum Planetarum el Cometarum,
continens methodum facilem ex aliquot observationibus ori-
bitas, etc. determinandi, Berlin, 1744, in 4to; 7. Beant-
wortung, etc. or Answers to different Questions respecting
Comets, ibid. 1744, in 8vo; 8. New Grundsatze, etc. or
New Principles of Artillery, translated from the English
of Benjamin Robins, with notes and illustiations, ibid.
1745, in 8vo ; 9. Opuscula varii argument, ibid. 1746-
1751, in 3 vols. 4to ; 10. Novceet correclce Tabula ad loca
Luna computanda, ibid. 1746, in 4to ; 11. Tabula Asiro-
nomica Solis et Luna, ibid. 4to; 12. Gedanken, etc. or
Thoughts on the Elements of Bodies, ibid. 4to; 13. Bet-
tunq der Gottlichen Offenbarung, etc. Defence of Divine
Revelation against Freethinkers, ibid. 1747, in 4to; 14.
Introductio in Analysin Injinitorum, Lausanne, 1748, in
2 vols. 4to ; 15. Scientia Navalis, seu Tractatus de constru-
endis ac dirigendis Navibus, Petersburg, 1749, in 2 vols.
4to ; 16. Theoria motus Luna, Berlin, 1753, in 4to ; 17.
Dissertatio de principio minima actionis, una cum examine
Objectionum cl. prof. Kcenigii, ibid. 1753, in 8vo; 18. In-
stitutiones Calculi ' Differentialis, cum ejus usu in analysi
Injinitorum ac doctrina Serierum, ibid. 1755, in 4to ; 19.
Constructio Lentium Objectivarum, etc. Petersburg, 1762,
in 4to ; 20. Theoria motus Corporum solidorum seu rigido-
rum, Rostoch, 1765, in 4to ; 21. Institutiones Calculi In-
tegralis, Petersburg, 1768-1770, in 3 vols. 4to; 22. Let-
tres d une Princesse d'Allemagne sur quelques sujets de Phy¬
sique et Philosophic, Petersburg, 1768-1772, in 3 vols.
8vo ; 23. Anleitung zur Algebra, or Introduction to Alge¬
bra, Petersburg, 1770, in 8vo; 24. Dioptrica, Petersburg,
1767-1771, in 3 vols. 4to; 25. Theoria motuum Luna
nova methodo pertractata, ibid. 1772, in 4to; 26. Nova
Tabida Lunares, ibid, in 8vo ; 27. Theorie complete de la
construction et de la manoeuvre des \ aisseaux, ibid. 1/ / 3, in
8vo; 28. Eclaircissements sur les etablissements enfaveur
tant des Veuves que des Marts, without a date ; 29. Opus-
culd Analytica, Petersburg, 1783-1785, in 2 vols. 4to.
EULOGY, Eulogia, in Ecclesiastical History. When
the Greeks cut a loaf or piece of bread to consecrate it,
they broke the rest into little bits, and distributed it among
the persons who had not yet communicated, or sent it to
persons who were absent; and these pieces of bread were
what they called eulogies. The word is Greek, ivkoyiu,
formed from eu, ,bene, well, and Xe/w, dico, I say or speak;
meaning benedictum, or blessed. The Latin church, for a
great many ages, had something like eulogies; and thence
arose the use of the holy bread. The name eulogy was
likewise given to loaves or cakes brought to church by
the faithful to have them blessed. Lastly, the use of the
term passed hence to mere presents made to a person
without any benediction.
Eulogy likewise means an encomium pronounced on
any person by reason of some virtue or good quality.
EUMARIDES, from tuy,oi^g, easy or convenient, among
the ancients, a kind of shoes common to men and women.
The eumarides were used for pomp and delicacy, being
neat, and painted with various colours.
EUMENES, a native of Cardia, a city in the Thracian
Chersonesus, was born 360 and died 315 b. c. At a very
early age he was employed as private secretary by Philip
king of Macedonia, on account of his friendship for his
BUM
father. On the death of that prince he was confirmed in Et ^
the same office by Alexander; and it was in this capacity v
that he accompanied that monarch into Asia. So highly
did Alexander esteem him that he gave him in marriage
a Persian lady of noble birtb, sister to her who had mar¬
ried Ptolemy. Upon the death of Alexander, the pro¬
vinces and armies were divided amongst his generals, and
the countries assigned to Eumenes were Cappadocia and
Paphlagonia, with the sea-coast of Pontus as far as Tra-
pezus ; but as they were not yet subdued, Leonatus and
Antigonus were commissioned to put him in possession.
Antigonus disregarded the orders ot Perdiccas, and Leona¬
tus having in vain attempted to induce Eumenes to accom¬
pany him to the assistance of Antipater in Europe, made
an unsuccessful attack on his life. Eumenes escaped and
joined Perdiccas, who assisted him in taking possession of
Cappadocia. . .
About this time Craterus and Antipater, having reduced
Greece, determined to pass into Asia and overthrow the
power of Perdiccas. It may be easily imagined that Cap¬
padocia was the first object of their attack; and accord- ^
ingly Eumenes was appointed commander of all the forces
in the neighbouring countries. But to this iNeoptole-
mus, one of the generals, refused to submit; and being
defeated by Eumenes, he fled to Antipater and Craterus.
The presence of Antipater was required in Cilicia, and the
army destined to act against Eumenes was therefore com¬
manded by Craterus and Neoptolemus. They were, how¬
ever, completely defeated; Neoptolemus was killed, and
Craterus died of his wounds, 321 b.c. The pride of the Ma¬
cedonians was hurt by this defeat of two of their generals
by a person whom they considered as a stranger; and
the news having reached them a few days after the death
of Perdiccas, the Macedonian chiefs condemned Eumenes
to death, and charged Antipater and Antigonus with the
execution of their order. Eumenes was at first success¬
ful, but being defeated through the treachery of one ot
his officers, he fled to Nora, a strong fortress on the con¬
fines of Cappadocia and Lycaonia. Here he made a suc¬
cessful resistance, and was afterwards appointed by Olym¬
pias to command the army against Antigonus, whose in¬
tentions could no longer be misunderstood. He gained a
battle against his adversary, but was unlucky enough to
lose the baggage and wives belonging to his Macedonian
phalanx. Antigonus offered to restore them on condition
that the soldiers would surrender Eumenes into his hands,
which they were base enough to agree to; and Antigo¬
nus immediately murdered his opponent, in the fortieth
year of his age. (Plutarch, Life of Eumenes; Mepos,
Diodor. Sic. xviii. 30. ,
Eumenes I. a king of Pergamus, succeeded his uncle
Philotaerus 263 b. c., and having engaged in hostilities
with Antiochus, king of Syria, defeated him near Sardes.
But he fell a victim to his habits of drunkenness 241 b. c.
and was succeeded by his cousin Attalus. (Stra o, xm.
624 ; Athenaeus, x. p. 445.)
Eumenes II. eldest son of Attalus I. succeeded to tne
government of Pergamus on his fathers death, 1 B'c.‘’
and continued to maintain the intimate alliance w ic
had been his father’s policy to form with the Roman •
Antiochus the Great, king of Syria, who at that time s -
cretly meditated contesting the supremacy of the Roman-
tried to seduce him by offering one of his daughters
marriage; but Eumenes suspecting the inteieste ^ .
tions of Antiochus, prudently refused the honour o
alliance. In the war which soon afterwards broke ou
proved himself the firm friend of the Romans, and assist
ed Livius Salinator in his victory over the fleet ot A
chus (191 b. c.), on which occasion he was greatly dis
guished for his bravery. Again, in the decisive
Eum
Eum
idi
EUM
^ which was fought at the foot of Mount Sipylus, in which
Antiochus was completely defeated (188 b. c.), the troops
of Eumenes greatly distinguished themselves; and on the
j conclusion of peace this prince received a great addition
to his territories at the expense of Antiochus. He was
afterwards attacked by Prusias, king of Bithynia, whose
forces were under the command of the celebrated Han¬
nibal, and by Pharnaces, king of Pontus; but the power¬
ful mediation of the Romans compelled all parties to lay
down their arms. Having become acquainted with the de¬
signs of Perseus against the Romans, Eumenes set out for
Rome (172 b. c.), to warn the senate of the preparations
for war which were making against them. On his return
he wished to offer sacrifices to Apollo at Delphi, when he
was attacked by a party of assassins stationed by Perseus,
and narrowly escaped with his life. He was Rien carried
by his friends to the island of iEgina, where he remained
in concealment for some time. A report of his death
having reached his brother, the latter assumed the reins
of government, and married Stratonice the wife of Eu¬
menes. When he reappeared, this proceeding does not
seem to have changed his conduct towards his brother;
and they lived in the same amity as before. His close in¬
timacy with the Romans seems to have been broken off
towards the end of his reign, and that people endeavoured
to embroil him with the neighbouring princes. In this
embarrassing state of affairs he died 157 b. c. leaving his
throne to his brother Attalus II. (See Sevin, Recherches
sur les Rois de Pergame, in the Memoires de VAcad, des
hmr. xii. p. 260.)
Eumenes, a celebrated orator of Athens about the be¬
ginning of the fourth century, some of whose harangues
and orations are still extant. Also an historical writer in
Alexander’s army.
EUMENIDES, a name given to the Furies by the an¬
cients. I hey are fabled to have sprung from the blood
of the wound which Ccelus received from his son Saturn ;
but according to others they were daughters of Earth, and
conceived from the blood of Saturn; whilst others again
make them daughters of Acheron and Night, or of Pluto
and Proserpine. I hey were three in number, Tisiphone,
Megara, and Alecto, to whom some add Nemesis. Plu¬
tarch mentions only one called Adrasta, the daughter of
Jupiter and Necessity. Supposed to be the ministers of
the vengeance of the gods, they were stern and inexora¬
ble, and were always employed in punishing the guilty
upon earth, as well as in the infernal regions. Upon earth
tney inflicted the divine vengeance by means of wars, pes-
ti ence, and dissensions, and by the secret stings of con¬
science; in hell they punished the guilty by continual fla-
ation and torments. They were also called Furies and
Rnnnys. Their worship was almost universal, and people
(aied not to mention their names or to look upon their
temples. They were honoured with sacrifices and liba¬
tions; and in Achaia they had a temple, which, when en-
ered by any one guilty of a crime, suddenly deprived him
0 1;.le use °f his reason, and rendered him furious. In
suen ces their votaries used branches of cedar and of al-
>er, hawthorn, saffron, and juniper; and the victims were
generally turtle doves and sheep, together with libations
0 wine and honey. They were usually represented as of
grim and frightful aspect, with black and bloody garments,
Th ?utS vvreathed round their heads instead of hair.
. a burning torch in one hand, and a whip of
ror R°nS ln11^le °ther; and were always attended by Ter-
ed ar ^ri {}Ia^en,ess> an^ Death. In hell they were seat-
bis vengean Ut° 8 throne’ as ^le aPProPriate ministers of
-ailed hh^^’ ^est'va^s ’n honour of the Eumenides,
vol f tle Athenians <sig*vcu Oski, or venerable goddesses,
E U P
which were celebrated once every year, with sacrifices of
pregnant ewes, offerings of cakes made by the most emi¬
nent youths, and libations of honey and wine. At Athens
none were admitted but freeborn citizens who had led a
lite the most virtuous and unsullied.
EUMOLFIDES, the priests of Ceres at the celebration
of her festivals at Eleusis. They were descended from
Eumolpus, a king of Thrace, who was appointed priest of
eres by Erechtheus, king of Athens. After his appoint¬
ment to the priesthood, however, Eumolpus became so
poweiful that he maintained a war against Erechtheus.
The contest proved fatal to both ; Erechtheus and Eu¬
molpus were killed; and peace was re-established amongst
theii descendants, on condition that the priesthood should
for ever remain in the house of Eumolpus, and the regal
power in that of Erechtheus. The priesthood remained
in the family of Eumolpus for twelve hundred years; and
this is the more remarkable, because he who was once
appointed to the holy office was obliged to observe per¬
petual celibacy.
EUNAPIUS, a native of Sardis, in Lydia, a celebrated
sophist, physician, and historian, who flourished in the
fourth century, under the emperors Valentinian, Valens,
and Gratian. He wrote the lives of the philosophers and
sophists, in which he frequently shows himself a bitter
enemy to the Christians ; and also a history of the Caesars,
which he brought down from the reign of Claudius, where
Herodian ended, to that of Arcadius and Honorius. The
history is lost; but its substance has been preserved in Zosi-
mus, who is supposed to have done little more than copy it.
_ EUNOMIANS, in Ecclesiastical Historg, Christian here¬
tics in the fourth century. They were a branch of the
Arians, and took their name from Eunomius, bishop of Cy-
zicus, who died at a very advanced age, about the year
374, after experiencing a variety of sufferings. The great¬
er part of his works are lost. Besides two or three small
pieces, however, there remains a confession of his faith,
which Cave has inserted in his Historia Literaria, from a
manuscript in Archbishop Tennison’s library.
EUNUCH, a castrated or emasculated person. Though
the practice of castration is detestable in every point of
view, yet there appears no real foundation for the inju¬
rious opinion generally entertained of eunuchs, that they
are all cowards, and devoid of genius for literature or any
solid study. It is certain, indeed, that the ancients never
supposed eunuchs to be men of inferior intellects, or that
they possessed less vigour of mind than other men. It
appears from Herodotus that in Persia eunuchs were far
from being objects of contempt, and were even frequent¬
ly promoted to the highest honours. We learn from Aga-
thias, one of the Byzantine historians, that a general in
the Roman army named Narses was an eunuch. Aris¬
totle paid such high respect to Hermias, who was an
eunuch, and governor of Atarnea, in Mysia, that he even
offered sacrifices in honour of him, as Lucian informs us
in the dialogue entitled Eunuchus.
Eunuchs, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of heretics in
the third century, who were mad enough to castrate not
only those of their own persuasion, but all others whom
they could lay hold of.
EUPATRID/E, in Antiquity, a name given by The¬
seus to the nobility of Athens, as distinguished from the
Geomori and Demiurgi. By the establishment of The¬
seus, the Eupatridae had the right of choosing magistrates,
teaching and dispensing the laws, and interpreting reli¬
gious mysteries. In all other matters the whole city was
reduced to an equality. The Geomori were husbandmen,
and inferior to the Eupatridm in point of fortune; the De¬
miurgi were artificers, and fell short of the Eupatridae in
number.
3 E
401
Eumol-
pides
!!
Eupatrids.
1
402
E U P
Eupen EUPEN, a city of the Prussian province of the Lower
tl Rhine, the capital of a circle of the same name. It is a
Euphrates, j e scattered place, containing 1500 houses, and between
10,000 and 11,000 inhabitants, who carry on the manu¬
facture of fine woollen cloths and cassimeres to an extent
which is unknown in any other part of the same kingdom.
EUPHONY, in Grammar, an easiness, smoothness,
and elegance of pronunciation. The word is formed from
iv, bene, well; and <pw«j, vox, voice. Quintilian calls eupno-
nia, vocalitas ; Scaliger, facilis pronunciatio.
Euphonia is properly a kind of figure by which we sup¬
press a letter that is too harsh, or convert it into a smoother,
contrary to the ordinary rules. Of these there are nume¬
rous examples in all languages.
EUPHORBUS, a famous Trojan, son of Panthous. He
was the first who wounded Patroclus, whom Hector kill¬
ed • but he perished by the hand of Menelaus, who hung
his shield in the temple of Juno at Argos. Pythagoras, the
founder of the doctrine of the metempsychosis, or trans-
mioration of souls, affirmed that he had once been Euphor-
bus, and that his soul recollected many exploits which
had been done whilst it animated the body of that re¬
doubted Trojan. As a further proof of his assertion, he
showed at first sight the shield of Euphorbus in the tem¬
ple of Juno.
EUPHORION, a son of Polymnestus of Chalcis, a town
of Euboea, born 274 b. c. at the time when the Romans
conquered Pyrrhus. He studied under the philosophers
Lacydes and Prytanis, and composed many works both in
prose and verse. He was appointed by Antiochus the
Great, king of Syria, to superintend the library he was
collecting at Antioch, which he was anxious should rival
that at Alexandria; and here Euphorion resided till his
death. Only a few fragments of his works have been pre¬
served ; but from the opinions expressed by ancient writ¬
ers we find that the erudite character of his allusions ren¬
dered him so obscure that he was difficult to be under¬
stood, and that he was constantly in search of rare and
obsolete expressions. Yet he was much admired in the
time of Cicero; and in the reign of Augustus his works
still continued to be favourites. Cornelius Gallus translated
some of his poems ; but it was the Emperor Tiberius who
carried his admiration beyond all bounds. He imitated
his style, as well as that of Rhiarius and Parthenius, and
placed their books and busts in all the public libraries.
See an account of his life and character by Meinecke, pre¬
fixed to an edition of his fragments ; De Euphorionis
Chalcidensis Vita, et Scriptis, &c. Gedani, 1823; also Clin¬
ton’s Fasti Hellenici, vol. ii. p. 511; Heyne, De Eupho-
rione, et Excurs. iii. ad Virg. Eclog. vi. 64, and Excurs. v.
ad Jfln. ii. See also Ephemer. Liter. Halens. 1824.
EUPHRATES, a large river of Asia, taking its origin
from several sources in the great range of Mount Taurus.
There are two branches in particular which dispute the
honour of being the principal. One to the east, called Mu¬
red, rising not far from the town of Bayazid, traverses the
southern part of Armenia Proper; the other, to the west,
called by the inhabitants Prat, is formed under the walls
of Erzeroum by the junction of two small rivers. rlhe
Frat and Mured unite their waters a little below the town
of Arabkir, when the river descends rapidly towards the
defile called the Pass of Nashar. It then winds along an
elevated plain, and about twenty-two miles above Samo-
sat, the ancient Samosata, forms a double cataract. Having
now cleared all the obstacles that opposed its progress, it
rolls majestically along through a wide and verdant val¬
ley. At Korna, about a hundred and thirty miles from its
mouth, it is joined by the Tigris, and forms with it the
Shet-al-Arab, or river of Arabia, one of the noblest rivers
in the east. At this point the land sinks, and is occu-
E U R
pied with meadows and morasses; but even in the driest
season it is navigable for boats of considerable burden as
far as Skukashu, a village about a day’s sail farther up.
Above this .point the tides of the Persian Gulf reach
twenty or twenty-five miles, and the river is navigated dur¬
ing six months of the year by flat-bottomed boats as far as
Hibah. The Euphrates has three principal mouths; but
bars of sand formed by the river, and which change in
their form and situation, render the approach very dan-
gerous. It is said that the tide, meeting with violence the
downward course of the stream, divides its waters in the
form of frothy billows. The course of the Euphrates be¬
fore joining the Tigris is about 1400 miles; and adding
a hundred and thirty miles for the distance from its
junction with the Tigris to the sea, its whole course will
be upwards of 1500 miles. Its greatest increase is in Ja¬
nuary, when it rises twelve perpendicular feet, in con¬
sequence principally of the melting of the snows on the
Taurian range. Taking advantage of this circumstance,
the ancient inhabitants of Asia Minor formed numerous
artificial canals and lakes, for the double purpose of pro¬
tecting the contiguous plains from inundation, and of pre¬
serving the superfluous waters for irrigation. The canal
of Pallacopus, which wms dug by the Babylonian kings,
is one of these ; and the Sea of Nejiff was also a gigantic
work. In general, however, the country languishes under
the wretched policy of the Turks ; and these great works
of art for protecting it against the overflowing streams,
and at the same time for preserving the water for fertilis¬
ing the soil, have fallen into neglect and disrepair. In the
time of Alexander, the Tigris and Euphrates entered the
sea by separate mouths. (Mannert, Geographic von In-
dien, vol. ii. p. 143; D’Anville, Euphrates; Niebuhr,
Voyage, vol. ii. p. 228, 253, 261. See also Malte Brun,
and an able memoir on the Euphrates in theJourmloj
the Royal Geographical Society, vol. iii. Lond. 1834.)
EUFOLIS, a poet of Athens, born about 446 b.c.,
was one of the writers of the old comedy. He began to
exhibit his plays at the early age of seventeen, and con¬
tended with Aristophanes for the prize 425 b. c. It is
said that seven of his pieces were crowned with victory.
In those days when the law of libel had not yet been in¬
vented, the great and powerful took very summary ven¬
geance on those who had spoken disrespectfully of their
characters. Thus Alcibiades is reported to have inflicted
a punishment on Eupolis, which was utterly unworthy of
his high name. It appears that Eupolis was a private sol¬
dier in the army commanded by Alcibiades ; and in the
voyage to Sicily that general ordered him to be lashed to
a rope and plunged several times into the sea, in order
to teach him, as he said, to speak with less freedom o
his superiors (Cic.Att. vi. 1.). Eupolis perished in a battle
against the Lacedaemonians, and it was in consequence
of this disastrous defeat that the decree was passed by the
Athenians to exclude poets from military service. 16
fragments of his works have been collected. (hvpM
Fragmenta, Gr. Lat. et cum Notis edid. Rob. vValpo^
1805; collegit Mart Runkel, 1829. See Meinecke, ^
Eupolidi, veteris Comcedice Poeta, Berlin, 1826; also
cas, Cratinus et Eupolis, Bonn, 1826.)
EURE, a department of the north-east ot lranc,
formed out of the ancient Norman Bexin, the d‘s"ic
Saint Andre, Neuburg, a part of Perche, and of uuc t,
Auge, Lienvin, and Roumois, all parts of the former
try of Normandy. It is bounded on the north by t
partment of the Lower Seine, on the east by t™ ,
Oise and Seine-Oise, on the south by Eure- om
Orne, and on the west by Calvados. Ihe ^ten iLogS
square miles, or, according to the Ahnanach Roya •> Ann
hectares, of which 371,136 are arable land, ’
^ ills
•e.
i
Eure
Loi
EUR
I woods, 11,931 vineyards, 18,537 meadows, 2726 gardens,
47,581 uncultivated land, and the remainder roads, rivers,
' and the sites of towns. It is divided into five arrondisse-
ments, thirty-six cantons, and 843 communes, inhabited
by 421,480 persons. It is generally a level country, but
a few hills are to be seen on the borders of the Seine, the
Rille, and the Eure, though none of them are more than
three hundred feet above the level of the sea. The soil
generally consists of vegetable matter, mingled with clay
and sometimes marl, resting on a bed of chalk or stone.
The cultivation is tolerably conducted ; so that, with the
natural fertility of the soil, the department, though rather
densely peopled, produces more corn than the population
requires. The chief kind of corn is wheat, the growth of
which occupies a larger space than rye, oats, and bar¬
ley together. Flax is largely cultivated, and, from its
length, fineness, and colour, is highly esteemed. The
seed of this plant is drawn either from Flanders or from
Riga. Some hemp is also produced. The horses of the
department, of the pure Norman breed, have always been
celebrated, and, though they had nearly lost their high
character, have-of late been more carefully^ bred and
much improved. The breed of cows is remarkably good;
and the calves are much in request in the neighbouring
departments. Sheep have been neglected, but have re¬
cently increased ; and those on the coast, known as Mou-
tons du Pre Sale, are highly valued for their excellent
meat. Of late years attempts have been made to im¬
prove the wool by a mixture of merinos. Fruit is very
abundant, especially apples, from which much cider is
made. The wine is but of moderate quality, and will
rarely bear to be kept longer than three years. There
are no mines but of iron, which yield annually 400 tons.
This department is a manufacturing part of France ; and
cotton, linen, and woollen cloths of every kind, are fabricat¬
ed. There are large establishments for making copper ware
of all kinds, the various descriptions of paper, nails, pins,
and needles, glass for windows, and glass bottles, and
jewellery and trinkets. These employments occupy the
larger portion of the inhabitants. Such goods form the
trade; in addition to which, fire-wood, timber, cattle, ho¬
ney, wax, and corn, are furnished to the districts sur¬
rounding the department.
EURE AND LOIRE, a department of the north-west
o France, formed out of parts of the ancient Orleannois,
and a portion of the duchy of Maine. It is bounded on the
north by the department of the Eure, on the east by
that of Seine-Oise, on the south by those of Loiret and
oire-Cher, and on the west by those of Sarthe and Orne.
ts extent is 2420 square miles, or, according to the Al¬
manack Royal, 602,752 hectares. The civil divisions are
our arrondissements, twenty-four cantons, and 460 com¬
munes, containing 265,943 inhabitants. The face of the
country is level in general, with a few hills, none rising to
a greater height than 500 feet. The soil in the middle
and west of the department is the best. It consists, for the
most part, of thick layers of grey, yellow, or black clay,
n eimixgjj sajlc]) or 0g calcareous earth, and is on the
o e fertile, but in the south-west, especially in the ar-
tri" ,lsst;n}ent Nogent, it is sandy and dry, and many
and are. so poor as to be uncultivated. None
ie rivers of this department, even those from which it
named, are navigable till they have left it. The agri-
mp r J.® better conducted than in most of the depart-
of p1 S ° pranCe ’ an<^ tbe production of the various kinds
0 ain 80 ar exceeds the consumption, that nearly 200,000
,ers are annually exported to the other parts of the
on ap°m' wheat is remarkably fine, and is prized
aad beTmklla b/lng easUy Presery,ed for a lonS time»
adapted for sea voyages. I he cows are small,
EUR
403
nvLy f g i 1 bp ei; for tlle SUPP]y of Paris’ and fat Euripides,
oxen and calves for the markets of Poissy and Sceaux. '—  '
lire sheep are numerous, but not remarkable, except
some flocks whose wool has been improved by crosses with
the merino races. Wine is not extensively produced,
not of the best quality; but in some parts there is an
abundant supply of apples, from which cedar is made as
the common drink of the inhabitants. There are no mines
but of iron, and these yield about 1200 tons annually,
which is not more than one third of the demand. The
manufactures are not extensive; but leather, paper, cot¬
ton goods of various kinds, serges, flannels, and other
coarse woollens, hosiery, hats, caps, household linen, such
as sheetings and table linen, and some earthenware, are
furnished. The department draws its supply of fuel from
its own w oods, which cover about one twelfth part of the
whole surface.
EURIPIDES, the son of Mnesarchus, a celebrated
tiagic poet, was born 480 c. c. in the island of Sala-
mis, to which place his parents had been obliged to fly
fiom Athens at the time it was threatened by the inva¬
sion of Xeixes. Plis birth took place on the very day
that the battle w^as fought near the strait Euripus, the
prelude to the^ more decisive engagement in the vicinity
of Salamis. To commemorate this event, the embryo
poet was called Euripides. As of every illustrious man,
there aie some stories told which predicted his future
destiny, and, amongst these, an oracle declared that he
should be crowned at the Olympic games. His father,
misunderstanding its true meaning, trained him for ath¬
letic exercises, and it appears that he was victorious at
the games celebrated in honour of Theseus and Ceres.
Rut fate had destined him for a higher and a more en¬
nobling occupation; he began to devote himself to the
study of eloquence under Prodicus of Chios, and to take
lessons from the philosopher Anaxagoras. It is said by
some that he was a disciple of Socrates, but we can
scarcely credit this statement, as the philosopher was
thirteen years younger than the poet. The persecutions
which Anaxagoras underwent from the bigotry of the
Athenians clearly demonstrated to Euripides the dan¬
gerous path which he was pursuing, and induced him to
renounce the study of philosophy, and direct his attention
to the stage. This took place, it is said, in his eighteenth
year, and in .455 b. c. he succeeded in gaining the third
prize. Of all the plays which he wu-ote, only five, accord¬
ing to Varro, were reckoned worthy of being crowned ;
but this fact may be explained by the violent spirit of
rivalry and jealousy which seems to have prevailed at
Athens at this time. In his domestic affairs he was by
no means fortunate; both his wives disgraced him by the
irregularity of their lives; and from this circumstance pro¬
bably arose his violent hatred of the sex, the weakness of
which he took every opportunity of ridiculing and expos-
ing. His private grief became the butt of the comic writers
of the day, and Aristophanes more particularly held him
up to the ridicule of the public. It was no doubt in conse¬
quence of these incessant attacks that Euripides deter¬
mined to retire to the court of Archelaus, king of Mace¬
donia, who reigned from 413 to 339 b. c., and was then
the beneficent patron of literature and science. By him
he was received with all that respect to which his distin¬
guished talents entitled him, and some say that he was
appointed one of his principal ministers. Here he resided
till his death (406 b. c.), which was as full of tragic circum¬
stances as any story ever exhibited upon the stage. As
he was strolling through a wood, a pack of the royal
hounds attacked the poet, and tore him in pieces. His
remains were removed to Pella by the king, and every
honour was shown to his memory. The Athenians
404
EUR
Eurocly- were now anxious to procure his ashes, but Archelaus
Jon refused to gratify those who had neglected the poet in his
H lifetime. _
Europe. jg to convey an exact idea of the character
of Euripides as a dramatist to those who have not read
the original. His language is raised but little above that
of common conversation, yet he possesses the rare art of
choosing his words so well, that the most common are en¬
nobled by their happy combination. He has none of the
dithryambic boldness of ^Eschylus, none ol the pompous
magnificence of Sophocles, yet he touches the hidden
springs of human passion with a masterly hand. Still he
is full of faults, which the good taste of all ages must con¬
demn. He is too fond of learned digressions, “ of wise
saws” and philosophical maxims; and the plots of his
plays are not always so clear and unembarrassed as they
ought to be. Of eighty-four tragedies, of which Barnes
has given a list, only nineteen have been preserved, ihey
are, Hecuba, Orestes, Phcenissce, Medea, Hippolytus, Al-
cestes, Andromache, Supplices, Iphigenia in Auhs, IpM-
genia in Tauris, Rhesus, Troades, Bucchce, Cyclopce, Ide-
raclidce, Helena, Ion, Hercules Furens, Electra.
There are numerous editions of his works. But we be¬
lieve that of Barnes, Cambridge, 1694, fol. and that of
Matthiae, Leipsic, 1813-1829, vol. ix. to be the best.
EUROCLYDON, (from Eugoc, the east wind, and xXuScov,
a ivave), is a species of wind, of which we have an account
only in the Acts of the Apostles (xxvii. 14), and concerning
the nature of which critics have been much divided. Bo-
chart, Grotius, Bentley, and others, substitute another
reading, supported by the Alexandrian Manuscript, and
the Yulgate, namely, EugaxiAwv or Euro-aquilo ; but Mr
Bryant defends the common reading, and considers the
Euroclydon as an east wind which causes a deep sea or
vast inundation. He maintains, in opposition to the rea¬
soning of Bentley, who supposes that the mariners in the
EUR
ship, the voyage of which is recited in this passage, were \
Romans, that they were Greeks of Alexandria, and that
the ship was an Alexandrian ship employed in carrying {
corn to Italy; and, therefore, that the mariners had a ^
name in their own language for the particular typhonicor
stormy wind here mentioned. He also shows from the
passage itself, that the tempestuous wind called Eurocly.
don beat upon the island of Crete ; and hence, as this is
a relative expression, referring to the situation of the per¬
son using it, who was at that time to the windward or
south of it, the wind blew upon shore, and must have
come from the south or south-east, which, he adds, is fully
warranted by the point where the ship was, and the di¬
rection it ran in afterwards, which was towards the north
and north-west.
EUROPA, in fabulous history, a daughter of Agenor,
king of Phoenicia and Telephassa. She was so beautiful
that Jupiter became enamoured of her; and, in order to
seduce her, he assumed the shape of a bull, and mingled
with the herds of Agenor, whilst Europa, with her female
attendants, were gathering flowers in the meadows. Eu¬
ropa caressed the beautiful animal, and at last had the
courage to sit upon his back. The god took advantage
of her situation, and with precipitate steps retired towards
the shore, crossed the sea with Europa on his back, and
arrived safe in the island of Crete. Here he assumed
his original shape, and declared his love. The nymph
consented, though she had once made vows of perpetual
celibacy, and became mother of Minos, Sarpedon, and
Rhadamanthus. After this amour with the king of the
gods, Europa married Asterius, king of Crete. Ihis mo¬
narch, seeing himself without children by Europa, adopted
the fruit of her loves with Jupiter, and always esteemed
Minos, Sarpedon, and Rhadamanthus, as his own children.
Some suppose that Europa lived about 1552 years before
the Christian era.
E U It O P E,
Compara- One of the great divisions of the globe. On a first view
live advan-Europe appears to be less favoured by nature than the
tages and other quarters of the globe over which it has obtained
disadvan- g0 great an ascendancy. It is much smaller in extent;
thffdivi- rocky ancl mountainous surface does not admit of those
sion of the noble rivers, like inland seas, which lay open the remotest
globe. regions of Asia and of America to the commerce of the
world. Its vegetable productions are neither so various
nor so exuberant; and it is poorly supplied with the pre¬
cious metals, and with many of those commodities on
which mankind set the greatest value. On the other hand,
the climate of Europe, if it nourishes a less luxuriant ve¬
getation, is of an equal and temperate kind, well adapted
to preserve the human frame in that state of health and
vigour which fits it for labour, and promotes the develope-
ment of the intellectual and moral powers. The moun¬
tains that intersect its surface are barriers which ena¬
bled infant communities to protect themselves from vio¬
lence, and to lay the foundation of arts, knowledge, and
civilization. If it has few large navigable rivers, its in¬
land seas and bays are, from their position and extent, the
finest in the world, and have been the means of creating
and nourishing that commercial spirit which has been one
great source of its improvement. Though comparatively
deficient in gold and silver, it is abundantly supplied with
those useful metals and minerals which minister still more
essentially to the wants of civilized life. Its apparent de¬
fects have become the source of real benefits, and the
foundation of its grandeur. The disadvantages of its soil
and climate have excited the industry of its inhabitants,
given them clearer ideas of property, kindled a resolute
spirit to defend their rights, and called into existence that
skill and enterprise, and those innumerable arts and inven¬
tions, which have enabled the inhabitants of this appa¬
rently barren and rocky promontory to command the
riches and luxuries of all the most favoured regions ot the
globe. It is only in Europe that knowledge and the arts
seem to be indigenous. Though they have appeale at
times among some of the nations of Asia, they haveeitiei
stopt short after advancing a few steps, or they have speed¬
ily retrograded and perished, like something foreign o
the genius of the people. In Europe, on the contrary,
they have sprung up at distant periods, and in a vane y
of situations ; they have risen spontaneously and rapid y,
and declined slowly; and when they disappeared, ^'VI\
evident they were but crushed for the time by
violence, to rise again when the pressure had subsi e •
It is only in Europe, and among colonies of Europe ’
that the powers of the human mind, breaking through
slavish attachment to ancient usages and institutions, i ^
developed that principle of progressive improvemen^
which it is impossible to calculate the final results,
rudest tribe in Europe, in which this principle has ^
root, has a certain source of superiority over the .
proved nations of Asia and Africa, where society j:e . j
perfectly stationary. If these nations are ever es
Euro
EUROPE.
to advance in civilization, they must borrow from Europe
^hose arts which she has invented, and which belong to
civilized life in every climate. But the tenacious adhe¬
rence of rude nations to the customs and superstitions of
their ancestors, will not allow us to hope that the benefits
of civilization will be rapidly diffused in this way. It is
more probable that colonies from the older states of Eu¬
rope will multiply, as the population becomes more and
more redundant; and that these colonies will carry the
arts and knowledge, the language and manners of Europe
with them, to the other quarters of the world. From pre¬
judices on both sides, it is found that two races, in very
different stages of civilization, do not readily amalga¬
mate; and it is therefore probable, that the feebler inha¬
bitants of these countries, like the American Indians, will
be gradually displaced by the continual encroachments of
the more energetic race of Europe. Such a change, how¬
ever, must take place slowly, and there is nothing in it to
alarm humanity. The vast number of tribes that people
Asia and Africa seem born only to be the victims of sa¬
vage superstition and ferocious tyranny. No treatment
they are likely to experience from European colonies can
render their condition worse ; and were the whole swarm
of these nations to die out in the course of nature with¬
out being renewed, no great deduction would be made
from the sum of human enjoyment. Should the state of
things we have been contemplating, and which seems to
arise naturally out of the circumstances of Europe and
the other quarters of the globe, be realized, it will be cu¬
rious to reflect on the circle of changes which will then
be completed. The ancient inhabitants of Europe, as
well as the modern, were originally colonies sent off from
the surplus population of Asia. Here they have thrown
off their barbarism, invented and improved arts and
sciences, and carried their social institutions to a high
degree of perfection; and now, in the maturity of their
strength, they are throwing back their surplus numbers
upon Asia, to conquer and supplant the remains of those
tribes from which they originally sprung.
Europe is bounded on the north and west by the Arc¬
tic and Atlantic Oceans; on the south by the Mediterra¬
nean, the Black Sea, and Mount Caucasus; on the east
by the Caspian Sea, the river Ural, and the Uralian Moun¬
tains. These are the limits proposed by Malte Brun, and
adopted by Balbi and other recent geographers, as cor¬
responding better with the natural divisions of the earth’s
surface than the old boundary, which on the east side
passed from the Sea of Asoph to the Uralian Mountains, by
the courses of the Don, the Wolga, and the Kama. The
greatest length of the continent of Europe is from Cape
St Vincent to the Sea of Kara, in the direction of north¬
east and south-west, and is 3490 English miles. Its great¬
est extent from north to south is from Cape Matapan to
Cape North, 2420 miles. The superficies of Europe, in¬
cluding the Azores, Iceland, Nova Zembla, and all the
other islands belonging to it, is 3,700,000 English, or
<j800,000 geographical square miles.
The climate of Europe is distinguished by two peculia¬
rities. It enjoys a higher mean temperature than any of
ie other great divisions of the world in the correspond-
og atitudes; and it is not subject to such violent ex-
aernes of heat and cold. These advantages it owes chief-
y to Us numerous seas, inland bays, and lakes, which ren-
er its temperature similar to that of islands ; and partly
iso, according to Humboldt, to its situation at the west-
p„rn ex^r^mity °f the greatest range of dry land on the sur-
3ce o the globe; the western sides of all continents be-
g warmer than the eastern. Europe lies almost entirely
Sounda.
ies and
xtent.
lunate.
within the temperate zone, not more than one fourteenth
pait of its surface being within the arctic circle. Only a
very small part of it is uninhabitable from cold, and it no¬
where suffers much from excessive heat. The mean tem¬
perature at its southern extremity, in the latitude of 36°,
is about 66° of Fahrenheit; and at Cape North, in the la¬
titude of 71°, where the mean temperature is 32°, the cold
is not greater than in the latitudes of 55° or 56° on the
east coasts of Asia and America. Hence Europe is habi¬
table at a higher latitude by 12° or 14° than either of
these continents. The following table, taken from Hum¬
boldt’s Memoir on the Distribution of Heat (abridged in
Dr Thomson’s Annals of Philosophy, xi. 188), shows the
difference in temperature between Europe and the eastern
shores of Asia and America at the parallel of 40° ; the
difference is much greater at the parallel of 60°.
Rome 
Pekin 
New York.
Lat.
41-35
39- 54
40- 40
Mean Temperature
of the
Year.
60-4
55-2
53-8
of Three
Winter
Months.
45-8
26-8
29-8
of Three
Summer
Months.
75-2
82-6
79-2
There is a difference of the same kind between the
temperature of the sea-coasts of Europe and the interior.
In islands, and on the sea-coast, the mean temperature of
the year is higher, and the heat is more equally distribu¬
ted through the different seasons. As we advance from
the coast eastward the mean annual temperature dimi¬
nishes, but the heat of summer and the cold of winter in¬
crease. Thus London has the same mean annual tempe¬
rature as Vienna, but it has the summer of Petersburg,
and the winter is warmer than at Milan. The Mediter¬
ranean, the Baltic, and inland lakes, produce the same
effect as the ocean, in an inferior degree. The two follow¬
ing tables are taken from Humboldt (Annals of Phil. xi.
188): the first shows the temperature of the year, and
the various seasons in places having the same latitude ;
the second shows the different distribution of heat through
the various seasons in places having the same mean an¬
nual temperature.
PLACES.
I. Lat. 56.
Edinburgh1 
Copenhagen...
Moscow 
Lat. 48 
St Male 
Vienna 
Mean Temperature
of the
Year.
47-8
45-6
40-2
54-4
50-6
II. Lat.
Dublin, 53-21 149-2
Prague, 50-5 ;49-4
Win¬
ter.
Spring
38- 6
30- 8
10-8
44-2
32-8
39- 2
31- 4
46- 4
41-2
44-0
52-2
51-2
47- 3
47-6
Sum¬
mer.
58- 2
62-6
67- 1
66-0
69-2
59- 6
68- 9
Au_ Warm- Cold-
tumn est est
cumn. Month lMonth,
48-4 159-4
48-4 65-0
38-3 70-6
55-8 67-0
50-6 70-6
50-0
50-2
38-3
27-2
6-0
41-8
26-6
405
Europe.
The mountains of Europe are more numerous in pro-]\fOUn-
portion to its extent than those of the other great conti-tains,
nents, but they are of less elevation than the mountains
of America and Asia. The highest and the most exten¬
sive chains in Europe run generally in the direction of
east and west, and are placed near its southern shores.
I he central mass of the Alps, with which all the other
1 Copenhagen is about 620 miles east from Edinburgh: Moscow about 1000 miles farther.
406
E U ROPE.
Europe, mountains in the south of Europe are connected, forms
the summit of the continent, and determines the position
of the surface and the course of most of the rivers, hrom
this central point the surface of the land descends to the
sea by a series of valleys, skirted by subordinate chains.
The three countries to the southward of the Alps and
their branches, Greece, Italy, and Spain, consist of moun¬
tainous peninsulas projecting into the Mediterranean.
The countries to the west, north, and east of the Alps,
which present more extensive plains and gentle declivi¬
ties, are the seats of the three principal monarchies in t e
south of Europe. Austria, seated on the eastern decli¬
vity, rules over the countries watered by the Danube ;
France occupies the western declivity, and the countnes
watered by the principal streams that flow to the west; and
Prussia the countries watered by the streams that flow to
the north. If we descend from the Alps to the sea in a
western direction, the first valley we meet with is the level
part of Switzerland, between the Alps and Mount Jui a, ele¬
vated from 1600 to 1800 feet above the sea: the second,
between Jura and the Cevennes, some hundred feet
lower; and the third, and lowest, extends from the Ce¬
vennes to the Atlantic. In a north and north-east diiec-
tion, the first valley is Bavaria, the second Bohemia, both
of which are completely inclosed by mountains; the third,
consisting of Silesia, Brandenburg, and Poland, terminates
in the Baltic. In an eastern direction the first valley is
Austria, the second Hungary, both encircled with moun¬
tains ; the third, Bulgaria, extends to the Black Sea.
South from the Alps we have first the valley of Lom¬
bardy, and then the narrow coast of Genoa. The vast
plain occupied by Russia and the eastern part of the
Swedish peninsula may be considered as a prolongation
of the valley of Prussia and Poland, extending to the
Dofrines on the west, the Uralians on the east, and Mount
Caucasus on the south. Thus, in a general point of view,
the elevation and declivity of the large plains of southern
Europe bear a certain relation to the position and distance
of the central mass of the Alps.
Alps. The principal mass of the Alps extends in a semicircle
from Nice, on the shores of the Mediterranean, to Trieste,
on the Adriatic, a distance of 550 miles. Southward of
Mont Blanc, the Alps consist of a single chain, with many
lateral branches, which lie chiefly on the west side; but
immediately to the eastward of Mont Blanc, the principal
chain divides into two, which inclose the sources of the
Rhone. These meet, again, at St Gothard, and, on the
east side of it, part into three chains, one of which loses
itself in Bavaria, another in Austria near Vienna, and the
third terminates near Trieste. A lateral chain, of no great
elevation, passes eastward, and connects the Alps with
the mountains of European Turkey. Smaller branches
connect the Alps with the Bohemian and Carpathian Moun¬
tains on the north, with the Vosges and Cevennes on the
west, and, through the latter, with the Pyrenees. The
Appennines are but a prolongation of the Alps on the
south. Mont Blanc, the loftiest of the Alps, and the high¬
est mountain in Europe, has an elevation of 15,680 Eng¬
lish feet; and Mount Rosa, the Jungfrau, the Schreik-
horn, and several other summits, approach to this height.
The elevation of the chain diminishes towards both ex¬
tremities. In general, the escarpments, or steepest sides,
are turned towards Italy, and the lateral and subordinate
branches are most numerous, and extend farthest, on the
opposite side. The central chain of the Alps consists
chiefly of granite, gneiss, sienite, and other primitive
rocks. Among the lateral ridges, to the westward of St
Gothard, calcareous rocks, with clay-slate and mica-slate,
abound on the side of France; on the side of Italy the
ridges are narrower, magnesian rocks abound, and the
clay-slate is wanting. On both sides are found great de- II 3pe,
posits of gravel, and large detached blocks or boulders, ^ ^
lees.
often at a vast distance from their original situations.
Eastward from St Gothard, the central chain is accom¬
panied on each side by a calcareous chain of great ele¬
vation. Though the summits of the Alps are steep and
rocky, and the higher valleys are filled with glaciers, there
is much good soil below. The vine grows to the height
of 1600 feet above the sea, the oak to the height of 3390,
corn to 4200 feet, and the larch to 6720 feet. At 6400
feet above the sea, we have the climate of Lapland in la¬
titude 68°, so that a degree of latitude in the northern
half of the temperate zone in Europe corresponds to an
elevation of about 290 feet. The inferior limit of per¬
petual snow, according to Humboldt, is at the height of
8760 feet, in the latitude of 46°. (Humboldt De Distri-
butione Geographica Plantarum, Paris, 1817, p. 122-165).
The chain of the Pyrenees, which is next to the Alpsp
in elevation, runs in the direction of east and west. Its
length is about 240 miles ; but, if we include the Canta¬
brian Mountains, which continue in the same line without
interruption, the whole length will be about 500 miles.
The central chain of the proper Pyrenees is of granite,
but the most elevated summits are of secondary limestone,
and lie on the south side of the granite. Mont Perdu,
esteemed the loftiest of the whole range, consists of fetid
limestone, and rises to the height of 11,270 feet. The
south side of the Pyrenees is rugged and precipitous;
but on the north there is a gradual descent to the plains
of France by a series of parallel ridges diminishing in
height. The Cantabrian Mountains are lower than the
Pyrenees, and present their steepest sides to the north.
There are four other chains of mountains in Spain, all
running in a direction approaching to east and west, and
all connected with one another and with the Pyrenees.
The most elevated of these is the Sierra Nevada, the
southmost, one of whose summits rises to the height ol
11,660 feet. {Labor de, 111 ^). The inferior limit of per¬
petual snow on the Pyrenees is at the height ot 8960 feet.
The red pine rises to the height of 7480 feet, which is about
700 feet higher than any species of trees on the Alps.
The Appennines form an uninterrupted chain 750 miles App-
in length, extending from the south-west termination x)fn>i
the Alps near Nice to the Straits of Messina. 1 he north¬
west division, which skirts the basin of Lombardy, con¬
sists chiefly of grey wacke; from Tuscany to near the
southern extremity, the prevailing rock is secondary lime¬
stone. Granite and other primitive rocks are found at
the two extremities in Liguria and Calabria, but are
wholly wanting in the intermediate space. Ihe most con¬
siderable elevations are about the middle of the chain,
where II Gransasso rises to the height of 9570 feet.
The Carpathian and Sudetic Mountains, with the Erz-Cr. ■
gebirge and Boehmerwald, may be considered as form-t“
ing one continued chain, the length of which, from the
point where it strikes the Danube in Hungary, to t e
point where it strikes the same river in Bavaria, is about
1200 miles, exclusive of the transverse branches which
separate Moravia from Bohemia and Hungary. The e
clivities of this long range of mountains are steepest on
the south side. The elevations are lowest on the west,
and generally increase as we advance eastward, til we
come to the sources of the Thiess in the north of un
gary, after which they again decline. The Fichtelberg,
at the westmost point of the chain, is 4030 feet ig •
Schnekoppe, the highest of the Sudetic Mountains, is
5280 feet, and Lomnitz in Hungary, the loftiest of
whole range, is 8460 feet. None ot these mountains ns
to the region of perpetual snow, the inferior limit
which, according to Wahlenberg, is about sixty feet a ov
EUROPE.
.■nes.
Ce mes.
ope the summit of Lomnitz. The most elevated parts of these
W mountains consist of primitive rocks ; corn and fruit trees
are said to grow at a greater height upon the Carpathian’s
than upon the Alps, though the latter are two degrees
farther south.
The chain of the Dofrines, or great Scandinavian Alps,
is about 1000 miles in length, and has a general elevation
of from 6000 to 6500 feet. The altitude of Skagstlos
Find, the highest mountain of the chain, is 8400 feet.
These mountains consist almost entirely of primitive rocks,
and present their steepest sides to the west. On Sulitel-
ma, the highest mountain of this chain in Lapland, in la¬
titude 67T0, the inferior limit of perpetual snow is at
the height of 3500 feet.
The Uralian Mountains, which form the boundary of
Europe on the north-east, are but imperfectly known.
Some of their summits are covered with perpetual snow,
but their height is believed not to exceed that of the
Scandinavian Alps. They consist chiefly of primitive
rocks. The whole length of the chain, which runs nearly
north and south, is about 1400 miles.
51 itains Of the mountains of European Turkey we know as
of :rkey. little as of the Uralian chain. From a central point, nearly
equidistant from the Danube, the Adriatic, and the Aegean
Sea, three chains proceed in different directions; one,
the ancient Hemus, runs eastward to the Black Sea; a
second, north-westward, till it joins the Carnic Alps ; and
a third, southward, through the peninsula of Greece.
These principal chains send out many branches, but nei¬
ther their height nor their geological structure is known
with any degree of accuracy.
The Cevennes in the south of France extend about 300
miles in length from north to south, and their two most
elevated summits, Mont d’Or and Cantal, rise to the
height of 6400 and 6170 feet. Mount Jura, between
France and Switzerland, has nearly the same elevation.
The Vosges, a small chain in the north-east of France,
rise nowhere more than 4600 feet above the sea.
tains The mountains of Britain extend, with some interrup-
taill tions, over a space of 630 miles, along the west side of the
island. They are not placed in chains, but rather in irre¬
gular groups, and consist chiefly of primitive and transi¬
tion rocks. Snowden in Caernarvonshire, the highest
mountain in Wales, has an elevation of 3570 feet. Ben-
nevis in Inverness-shire, which rises 4336 feet above the
sea, is the highest land in the island.
There are thirteen volcanoes in Europe, all situated in
the vicinity of the sea, and of which the following are the
most remarkable : Mount JEtna, in Sicily, is 10,940 feet in
height. Its eruptions happen very irregularly ; sometimes
htty or a hundred years have intervened between one erup¬
tion and another; at other times less than one year. Mount
esuvius, near Naples, which lies about two hundred miles
north from Altna, is 3820 feet high. Its eruptions are less
sequent than those of AStna. Stromboli, which occupies
an island in the Mediterranean, about eighty miles north
iom Altna, is the only volcano in Europe that throws out
smoke or flames constantly. Heckla, near the south coast
0 Iceland, is 4980 feet high. Its eruptions are not fre¬
quent. The last was in 1783.
urope is well watered with rivers, but they are but
mo s compared with the mighty streams of Asia and
menca, and, from the unevenness of the surface, afford
n general no great extent of inland navigation. The Da-
Eon a a.rSest river that is entirely in Europe, is about
miles in length, and waters a superficies of 370,000
lemnl6 f68’ ^ut ^ie Amazons, though only twice the
1 & 1 0 j t^le Danube, waters a surface seven times as
anf6’ i e(lua't;0 ^our fifths of the continent of Europe ;
> as the quantity of rain that falls in tropical countries
Vo
Riv
loes.
is much greater than in northern latitudes, it is probable,
notwithstanding the increased evaporation there, that the
Amazons conveys more water than all the rivers of Europe
put together. If we divide the length of the Danube into
a hundred parts, the length of the principal rivers of Eu¬
rope, expressed in these parts, will be as follows;
Danube   jqq
Wo,ga .".".*.."..*130
Dnieper  
D°n 69
Rhine  
Elbe  
Vistula  
Loire 37
Tagus 32
Oder  
Rhone 30
Seine 23
lJo 21
Tiber 10
Thames   9
A much smaller proportion of the waters of the Euro¬
pean continent flows into the Mediterranean than the ex¬
tent of its coasts would lead us to expect. The high
mountains that range along the south of Europe, parallel
to its shores, from Gibraltar to Constantinople, turn the
course of the large streams in an opposite direction.
Though the length of the line of coast between the points
last mentioned, without computing minute sinuosities, is
4000 miles, or one fourth of the circumference of Europe,
not more than one tenth of the waters of this quarter of
the globe fall into the Mediterranean. The Black Sea,
on the other hand, which presents only 850 miles of coast
on the side of Europe, receives one fourth of its waters.
It will be seen from the subjoined table that one tenth
part of the waters of Europe flows into the Caspian by the
Wolga; that the Black Sea and the Baltic alone receive
one half, whilst only about one sixth falls into the Atlan¬
tic. If the whole of the river waters of Europe be divid¬
ed into a hundred parts, their distribution will be nearly
as follows:
Whole length of the bounding line!
of Europe, and whole quantity >
of water )
Mediterranean, from Gibraltar to)
Constantinople J
Black Sea and Sea of Asoph 
The Baltic to the Naze of Norway....
The Atlantic, from Gibraltar to^
Cape North j
The Arctic Ocean, from Cape North j
to the Sea of Kara /
The Caspian Sea (in Asia) 
Length I ^ater
of Coast “uveyed
• tti by Hi vers
in Miles, y .
m parts.
16,000
4000
950
3340
3640
2200
100
10
26
25
17
12
10
We are not acquainted with the height of the sources
of many of the European rivers above the sea. Those of
the Danube, according to Make Brun, are from 2100 to
2200 English feet, which gives a fall of one foot and a
half per mile, but near the sea the inclination is less; for
at Buda, 900 miles from the mouth of the river, its height,
according to Wahlenberg, is 229 feet, which gives a fall
of three inches per mile for the lower part ot its course.
It begins to be navigable at Ulm. In general the rivers
408
EUROPE.
Europe.
Islands.
Inland
seas
of Russia, Poland, and the north of Germany, flow over
a more level surface, and are more navigable, than those
of the south of Europe. Professor Robison states, on
the authority of the Abbe Chappe, that the sources of
the Wolga are but 480 feet above the ocean {Encyc. Brit.
article River); but as the Caspian Sea, in which this li¬
ver terminates, is found to be 324 feet below the Black
Sea, this increases the space through which the waters o
the Wolga descend to 804 feet, in a course of 2000 miles.
The average fall may therefore be about two inches and
a half per mile. rr a
The islands of Europe, including bJova Zembla and
Iceland, occupy a space equal to 280,000 square miles, oi
one eleventh part of the surface of the continent; and of
this space the area of the British isles amounts to rather
less than one half. The Black Sea is the only large sea
connected with Europe in which there are no islands
worthy of notice. .
The Mediterranean, the noblest inland sea in the world,
forms the southern boundary of Europe, separating it
"Mediterra-from Africa, and partly also from Asia. It may be con-
nean. gidered as the bottom of a vast basin formed by the Py¬
renees, Alps, Mount Hemus, Taurus, Libanus, and Atlas.
These mountains are everywhere near its shores, which
are consequently narrow and much inclined. Hence
there are no such extensive plains as Hungary or Poland
near the coast of this sea, and hence also no very large
rivers fall into it except the Nile; and altogether it re¬
ceives a smaller quantity of water from rivers than the
Black Sea or the Baltic, though six times larger than
either. Its length is about 2350 miles, its breadth is ex¬
tremely various, and its surface (exclusive of the Black
Sea) is nearly equal to 1,000,000 of square English miles,
or something less than a third part of the continent of Eu¬
rope. It is generally of great depth, and its numerous
islands, which have uniformly a rocky surface, appear to
be the summits of marine mountains.
The Baltic, the greatest inland sea that is entirely in
Europe, is about 1200 miles long, of very unequal breadth,
and presents a surface of 175,000 square miles, exclusive
of islands. It occupies the bottom of another large basin,
850 miles in breadth, and 1400 in length, extending from
the Norwegian mountains on the north and west, to the
Carpathians on the south, and to the high lands in which
the Dnieper, Don, and Wolga rise, on the east. This ba¬
sin, equal to one third of the surface of Europe, has a
very different character from that of the Mediterranean.
The mountains are not very elevated, and are so placed
as to leave a large tract of land very little inclined between
them and the Baltic, over which, especially on the south
side, many considerable rivers flow with a gentle current.
Hence the country round the Baltic is much more level
than round the Mediterranean ; lakes are numerous in the
low grounds, from the want of declivity ; the sea itself is
comparatively shallow, and, receiving a much greater
quantity of river water, it is much inferior in saltness.
The commerce of the Baltic is annually interrupted by
the ice, which endures four months in the Gulfs of Both¬
nia and Finland. The whole of this inland sea has
sometimes been frozen over for a short time, but this is
of rare occurrence.
The Black Sea, which belongs only partly to Europe,
is 690 miles long and 360 miles broad, and, including the
Sea of Asoph, presents a surface of 170,000 square miles,
being almost of the same magnitude as the Baltic. It de¬
rives four fifths of its water from Europe, and is curiously
distinguished from the other seas of this quarter of the
globe, by its being almost totally destitute of islands.
The White Sea is 450 miles in length, of a very irre- E
i  :   Qtc nnn  i
Baltic.
Black Sea.
o-ular figure, and occupies a space equal to 35,000 square ^ v
miles. It receives some considerable rivers, but is frozen wf Sea.
during six months of the year.
The lakes of Europe are numerous, and are of two Lai
kinds ; those which lie in cavities at the foot of high moun¬
tains, and which are generally deep, such as the lakes in the
Alps, on the east side of the Norwegian mountains, and
among the mountains of England and Scotland; and those
whiclf are formed in level countries from the want of a
sufficient declivity to carry off the water, such as the
lakes in Finland, Poland, and Brandenburg. Four fifths of
the lakes of Europe are in the country round the Baltic.
The soil of Europe has neither the extremes of luxu-So!
riance nor sterility which belong to the soil of the otherprw
great continents. If it does not yield the rich fruits offe
tropical climates, it is not deformed by the burning sands
of Africa, or the pestilent swamps of America. It does
not pour forth its riches spontaneously, but, soliciting the
care and the labour of man, it requites his industry with
what is necessary to supply his wants; and, by exercising
and sharpening his powers of mind, has given birth to
those arts which place the productions of the most fa¬
voured climates at his disposal. Many of the plants which
have been domesticated in Europe are natives of distant
countries. The vine, the olive, and the mulberry, are said
to have been brought from Syria by the Greeks ; the Ara¬
bians introduced cotton ; maize was received from the In¬
dian tribes of America ; the walnut and peach come from
Persia; the apricot from Armenia; and the sugar-cane
from China. There are not very many plants belonging
to the tropical regions that absolutely refuse to grow in
Europe, but an enlightened economy finds other produc¬
tions more profitable. Besides sugar and cotton, the ba¬
nana, the orange, citron, fig, pomegranate, and date, grow
in the south of Europe. But the more delicate fruits are
confined to southern latitudes, and disappear one by one
as we advance northward. And it is worthy ol remark,
that the zones in which they grow generally follow the
lines of equal summer heat, and run obliquely across the
continent in the direction of south-west and north-east.
If a line be drawn on the map from Brest to Komgsberg,
skirting the southern shores of the English Channel and
the Baltic, the zones that limit the growth of different
plants will run nearly parallel with this line, (loungs
Travels in France, i. 306.) This holds generally in the south
and middle of Europe ; but in the extreme northern parts,
and especially with regard to plants that require a mode¬
rate heat continued for a considerable time, the mes
that limit the growth of certain vegetables seem to follow
a different course, and decline towards the south as we
advance eastward, in consequence of the increasing seve
rity and length of the winter. It is scarcely necessary to
sav, that the zones, traced as proper for different p an s,
only mark the limits within which their cultivation is
found advantageous. Most of them will grow ey0I\
these limits; but they either require some peculiar ad¬
vantages of soil or situation, or they are less pro a
than other kinds of produce. . , . . u,
The sugar cane, one of the most desirable tropica pa . _ _
grows in Sicily and the south of Spain, in the latitu ® .0I
37° and 38°. The culture of it, which was once extens
in the latter country, has not yet been entirely
ed, even since sugar was procured from the ''’'es*1]n
Cotton is cultivated in the south of Spain on a ’
to a greater extent in Sicily, the south-east angle o J’
and in Greece and its isles, as high as the latitude o
we find it again at Astracan, in the latitude of 4
1 Laborde’s View of Spain, ii. 122-125; Storch, Tableatt de la Russie, iL 250 ; Humboldt, De Distrib. Geog. Plant.
EUROPE.
B pe-
orange and lemon come to perfection in the west of Europe,
only in the countries to the south of the Pyrenees and Ap-
pennines, within the latitude of 43° in Spain, and 44° in
Italy. The olive does not succeed on the west coast of
France in the latitude of 43°, but grows as far north as 44°
or 45° on the east of France, and in Italy. Attempts to raise
it at Astracan, in latitude 46°, have not succeeded, on ac¬
count of the rigour of the winter. The fig and the pomegra¬
nate, which accompany the olive in the west of Europe, are
found in the Taurida in the east, at the latitude of 46°,
where the olive will not grow, a proof that these trees
bear the winter cold better. (Young’s Trav. i. 311; Storch,
ii. 309.) The climate proper for maize is found to termi¬
nate on the west coast of France at 45? °; on the Rhine
at 49°; on the Elbe at 50° or 51°. Rice-has nearly the
same geographical range, but requires a peculiar soil and
situation.1 The culture of the vine extends as far north
as the latitude of 47^° on the Atlantic coast; on the
Rhine to 50|°; and on the Oder to 52°. In Russia it
grows as far north nearly as 52°, but is not cultivated be¬
yond 50°. (Young, i. 306; Storch, ii. 310, 323.) The
mulberry generally accompanies the vine. The limits of
the culture of the common cerealia are not so well defin¬
ed, as the necessities of man oblige him to raise corn un¬
der the most unfavourable circumstances. In a general
point of view, however, the parallel of 57° or 58° may be
regarded as the northern limit of the cultivation of wheat
in Europe. It is raised as far north as 60° or 61° in Fin¬
land, but only in some favoured spots. In Russia, gene¬
rally, it is chiefly confined to the provinces under the la¬
titude of 57°. (Thomson’s Trav. in Sweden, 409; Storch,
ii. 229, 240.) The hardier cerealia, rye, oats, and barley,
are cultivated in some sheltered situations on the coast of
Norway, as high as the latitude of 69° 55'. But on the
east side of the Norwegian mountains these grains scarce¬
ly ripen in the latitude of 67° or 68°; and farther east, in
Russia, it has been found impossible to carryr cultivation
of any kind beyond the latitude of 60° or 62°. Barley,
which accommodates itself better than any other grain
to these high latitudes, by shortening the period of its
growth, is sown and reaped within the space of seven or
eight weeks. But the introduction of potatoes promises to
be of vast advantage in these cold regions, as this plant
thrives and yields a produce of thirty or fifty fold in places
where grain often will not ripen.2 Peaches and apricots
succeed with much care as far north only as the latitude
of 50° in Russia; melons as far as 52°. The plum and
the cherry grow wild as far north as 55°, but are carried
farther by cultivation. (Storcb, ii. 302, 304, 308.) Fruit
trees and the oak terminate in Sweden, at Geffle, in the
atitude of 61° ; but the pine and the birch advance with-
in the arctic circle; and the former grows to the height
c sixty feet in the latitude of 70°. The black-berry and
tie whortle-berry grow in Lapland, and the gooseberry
even in Greenland. Tobacco is extensively cultivated
oyer the greater part of the continent of Europe, from
1C1 y Sweden. Flax and hemp have as extensive a
range as corn, but they are raised in the greatest perfec¬
tion between the latitudes of 45° and 60°.
vVe have stated that the superficial extent of Europe is
about 3,700,000 square miles. * If we draw an incurvated
me from a point in the Uralian Mountains, about the lati-
u e of 60° or 61°, to the west coast of Norway, in the
a Uude of 69°, passing through the Lake Onega, and a
* „e to the northward of the Gulf of Bothnia, this line
1 mark the extreme limits of cultivation, and will cut
409
s^enfh nf F9 ii0’000 scluare m,lcs> or nearly one Europe,
seventh of Europe. The space cut off, however, is not en-
Tl y Tu eS^’ 38 ax-part °f 11 Produces pasturage and wood.
Ihe cultivation of rye, oats, and barley, is confined to the
• c°T7th °f thuS * * * !ne’ and includes more than five
sixths of Europe ; but in the northern parts of this zone
only a very small proportion of the land will bear corn.
Ihe region adapted to the cultivation of wheat compre¬
hends about four sevenths of Europe, and includes all the
densely peopled parts. The region of the vine extends
over three sevenths of Europe.
. EuroPe’ ^ proportion to its extent, is probably richer Metals
in mineral wealth than the other quarters of the globe.
It contams all the metals except platina; and though it
affords gold and silver only in limited quantities, iron, cop¬
per, lead, with coal and salt, commodities of greater value
to society, are abundant and widely distributed. The
mountains, consisting of primitive and transition rocks,
are the great depositaries of these mineral treasures.
Iron is found in all the chains of mountains in Europe; Lon.
The richest mines are in the Dofrines, or Scandinavian
Alps.^ But rich mines are also found in the Alps of Sti-
ria, Carinthia, and Bavaria; in the Pyrenees, the Vosges,
the Cevennes, the coal district of Britain, the Urals, the
Carpathians, the Hartz, and many other places.
Copper is also widely distributed, though less abundant Copper,
than iron. The richest mines are in Hungary, in the
Carpathian Mountains. It abounds also in the Saxon and
Bohemian mountains, in the Dofrines, the Urals, the
north of England, and the Alps; and it is found in the
Vosges, the Pyrenees, and other mountains of Spain, in
the north of Germany, and in Tuscany.
Lead exists in the Alps, Carpathians, Pyrenees, Ce-Lead.
vennes, Vosges, the British mountains, and the Uralian
chain.
I in is found only in a few places in Europe. The richestTin.
mines are in Cornwall; next to these are the mines in the
Erzgebirge. It is also found in Hungary and Spanish
Gallicia.
Mercury, like tin, is confined to a few places. The Mercury,
mines of Idria, in Austria, which yield 8000 to 10,000
quintals per annum, are the most productive in Europe.
There are also considerable mines at Deux Fonts, in the
Palatinate; in the Spanish province of La Mancha; and
in Transylvania.
Gold is widely diffused through Europe, but generallyGold.
in such quantities as not to repay the expense of working.
It is wrought, however, in the Carpathians, the Urals, the
Dofrines, and the Alps. Anciently there were rich mines
of gold in Spain and Greece.
Silver is more abundant than gold, though less widely Silver,
distributed. There are productive mines of this metal in
the Erzgebirge, the Carpathians, the Urals, the Norwe¬
gian Dofrines, and in Sardinia. It is found also in the
Alps, the Vosges, and the Sierra Morena.
Of coal, the richest mines are found in the north andCoal.
west of England. It abounds also on both sides of the
south of Scotland; in Ireland; in the Netherlands; in
one fourth part of the French territory; and occurs more
sparingly in Saxony, Hanover, Denmark, Sweden, Russia,
Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, Bavaria, Austria,
Franconia, Westphalia, Swabia, Catalonia, and some other
parts of Spain, in Portugal, and in Sardinia. After Bri¬
tain, France is the country in Europe best supplied with
this mineral. The produce of the French coal mines has
increased fourfold within the last forty years.
5 -jfM- 306 ; Malte Brur., Precis, ii. 508; Manuscript Travels in Germany.
Eurova^l ’ 304, 370 ; Von Buch. Ed. Rev. xxii. 163,171 ; Crome, AUgemeine Ulersicht, der Staatscraft von den Samtlkhen
Vox ^ien ^ClC^en un^ Londern, 1818, p. 108; Malte Brun, Precis de la Geographic Universelle, 1812, ii. 508.
* * 3 ¥
1
EUROPE.
Salt is procured from the waters of the ocean, and, m
the interior of Europe, from numerous salt mines and salt
Salt. snrines. The most productive salt mines in Europe are
those8 in Poland, on the north side of the Carpathians,
and those in Salzburg, on the north side ot the Alps, both
of which belong to Austria. There are also extensive de¬
positaries of mineral salt in Transylvania and Hungary;
in Valentia, Navarre, and Catalonia, in Spain; in Che¬
shire in England; and in Bavaria and Switzerland. Salt
springs are numerous along the sides of primitive moun¬
tains in most countries of Europe. The most extensive
salt mines of Russia are in Asia.
Antimony, cobalt, zinc, manganese, sulphur, alum, am
a great variety of other mineral productions, are rouna in
Europe; but it is unnecessary to specify their localities.
It is observed that the Alps, Pyrenees, Carpathians,
and other mountain chains which run east and west, are
richest in metals on the south side; while the Dofnnes,
Urals, and others which run north and south, are richest
on the east side. Of the mountain chains of Europe, the
Appennines are the poorest in metals, the Carpathians
probably the richest. #
Different The present population of Europe is sprung from a va-
racesofin-riety of tribes; but authors differ much as to the number
habitants. an(l peculiar characters of the original races. It would
serve little purpose to enumerate the contradictory hypo¬
theses which have been advanced on this subject. W e
shall therefore confine ourselves to an account of those
more obvious general characters, founded on language,
manners, or physical constitution, which distinguish the
different portions of the population of Europe at present.
The nations in the south-west of Europe, the French,
Italians, and Spaniards, speak languages in which the
Latin idiom predominates. They have generally black
hair and black eyes, and are rather inferior in stature to
the Gothic nations, but gifted with more imagination and a
higher degree of organic sensibility; they are moie tem¬
perate, more inventive, but less persevering.
The Gothic race includes the English, Swedes, Norwe¬
gians, Danes, Netherlanders, and the various German na¬
tions inhabiting the country between the Rhine and the
Oder, with the Swiss, Bavarians, and a part of the inhabi¬
tants of Bohemia, Moravia, and Austria. These nations are
distinguished by fair hair, blue or grey eyes, large stature,
and a clear complexion. They have less imagination than
the southern nations, are more addicted to pursuits that
exercise the understanding, are more thoughtful and se¬
rious, and less temperate in drinking.
The Sclavonic nations occupy the east of Europe gene¬
rally, including Russia, Moldavia, Poland, ancient Prus¬
sia, with the greater part of Silesia, Hungary, Moravia,
Bohemia, Croatia, and Sclavonia. They are rather lower
in stature than the Gothic race, the countenance is short¬
er but more animated, and the hair black. The prevail¬
ing religion is the Greek Christian, and in the western
parts the Roman Catholic. They all speak dialects of
the Sclavonic language, of which the Russian is one.
The remains of the Celtic tribes are found in the High¬
lands of Scotland, in Wales, Ireland, Bretagne, and Biscay
in Spain. They are rather low in stature, have lively
eyes, prominent cheek-bones, red or yellow hair in the
north, but sometimes black hair in the south.
The Finns, with the Esthonians, Karelians, and other Eus ,
tribes in the north of Europe, have a language of their v.
own, and the characters of a peculiar race. They have
light brown eyes, a pale complexion, cheeks hollow, are of
middling stature, but heavy and muscular.
The Samoieds, Laplanders, and other tribes who live
within the polar circle, are distinguished by their very
low stature, the smallness of the legs and feet, and large¬
ness of the head, prominent cheek-bones, small round
black eyes, black and bristly hair, and a swarthy skin.
The Laplanders, from intermixture with the Finns, Rus¬
sians, and Norwegians, have lost in some degree the cha¬
racteristic traits of the original race.
The modern Greeks and Albanians are supposed to be
descended chiefly from the ancient inhabitants of the
country, whose language they have preserved. They
have a greater resemblance to the Latin nations than to
those of the Gothic race. The Turks are an Asiatic
tribe.1
UC. .
Europe has been gradually advancing from poverty and Pro-!?
barbarism to wealth and refinement since the tenth cen-of'cnr^-
tury; but the progress of the different nations has beenhon
very unequal. No single cause has contributed so much
to their improvement as commerce; and hence the first
advances have always been made by maiitime states; and
the progress of the different communities has been nearly
in proportion to their vicinity to the sea, or the facility
of their communication with it. The small republics ot
Italy and the Hanse Towns were the seats of industry,
wealth, knowledge, and freedom ; while slavery, ignorance,
and rapine, reigned in the countries around them. The
tendency of commerce to enrich a country seems to de¬
pend on its power to create disposable capital. Though
a certain species of opulence exists among the great land¬
holders of agricultural countries, those masses ot dispo¬
sable capital which give vigour to industry, and supply
the means of great improvements, are only found in com¬
mercial states. Commerce also favours the growth of
manufactures, and these two species of industry raise up
a middle class, closely allied with the great body of the
people. It is among this class that ideas of civil and re¬
ligious liberty take their rise, and find their firmest sup¬
porters ; whereas in countries entirely agricultural, liberty
means only the domination of the aiistociacy. e spi
rit of liberty once introduced, laws are improved, preju¬
dices hostile to industry extinguished, and new vigour in¬
fused into every branch of society. It is thus that free¬
dom and wealth have generally followed in the train 0
commerce; and that the commercial states have fell tne
way in those improvements which have so much ame 10-
rated the condition of Europe. When the Italian repub¬
lics flourished, however, Europe was not in a state o e
much benefited by the lights their experience aftorue •
The Dutch republic, which flourished at a later pen >
gave a more striking demonstration of the advantages
industry, freedom, toleration, and good government, a
time when neither liberty nor toleration were un ers
even in England, and when industry was in a ve^/,-
state all over Europe. The example of the Dutcn *
nished statesmen with new ideas, and had a ®en
influence on the policy of England, France, an 0
countries. The genius of Peter the Great derive
eluding the Finns, Tehoudes, Laplanders, and Magva
1833.
Tne vrermans, iNeuiui uuiucxa, u ****** pomilv in-
, Poles, Wends, Bohemians, Illyrians, Lithuanians; 6. The Uralian j >
Magyars of Hungary ; 7- The Samoieds. (Abrege de la Geographic, p.
EUR
)e. this small republic the seeds of those improvements by
^ which civilization was spread over the vast empire of
Russia. The superiority which the Dutch possessed
has since been transferred to Britain, and she has ac¬
quired with it the privilege of instructing other nations
in the sources of public wealth and the science of govern¬
ment.
The Reformation had a material effect in accelerating
the progress of society. It put an end to a multitude
of abuses and prejudices adverse to improvement, and
inspired the human mind with a new activity. Those
countries in which it took no root seemed to have had
their progress arrested; while others, less favoured by
nature, derived new life and vigour from its influence.
Italy and Spain, now so far behind Britain, France, and
Germany, were the first countries in Europe for know¬
ledge, wealth, and industry, at the period of the Reforma¬
tion. The establishment of the Protestant religion has pro¬
duced a more liberal spirit among the Catholics in those
countries where the two churches exist together; but in
those countries where Protestantism has never obtained a
footing, the dread of its introduction has thrown the go¬
vernment more and more into the hands of the clergy;
the clergy, armed with power, have become more jealous
and intolerant, and have nearly put an end to all freedom
of thought. The literary glory of Spain expired some
time after the Reformation; and Italy has been checked in
her career. The older writers of these countries breathe
a spirit which would not be tolerated at the present day,
nor does society there afford the elements out of which
such characters could be formed. And thus it happened
that the very same event which called forth the powers
of the human mind in the north of Europe, extinguished
the intellectual activity of the south.
The improved means of internal communication in coun¬
tries in modern times have had a considerable effect upon
the state of society. In ancient times free states were
necessarily small, because when neither the press nor the
post existed, that union of sentiment necessary to con¬
trol the conduct of men in power could not be effected
among a large population scattered over a wide space.
A number of free states sprung up in Greece, because
that country, perforated by mountains and arms of the
sea, afforded natural means of defence to such small so¬
cieties as could then exercise the functions necessary to
the preservation of freedom. It is a mistake to suppose
that, in these states, a greater extent of territory could
have been united under one government by adopting the
representative system. The resolutions of a body of re¬
presentatives wmuld command no more respect from a
government than those of as many private individuals, if
they were not constantly supported by the opinions of the
mass of society; and this requires such a rapid and gene¬
ral circulation of intelligence as could not then exist.
The small size of the Grecian states was a necessary con¬
dition of their freedom; but it was a serious disadvan¬
tage, not only because it lessened the commercial inter¬
course between the different parts of the country, but be¬
cause such small communities had not strength enough to
resist a great force from without; and hence these states
fell a prey to the superior power of the Macedonian mo¬
narchy. The w'hole of the south-west of Europe exhibits
the physical features of Greece upon a larger scale. Its
surface is broken into numerous sections by gulfs and
mountains, and abounds in natural barriers. Favoured by
these circumstances, the different communities in this
quarter of the world in modern times enjoyed a certain
degree of independence and security, which hastened
their progress in civilization. Russia, which occupies the
only large plain in Europe, has been the last reclaimed
O P E. 4J1
from barbarism. So long, however, as the means of com- Europe,
munication remained very imperfect in modern Europe, '***~^~^
free governments were confined to small states, and the
larger states were abandoned to feudal tyranny or mili¬
tary despotism; but the science of government has gra¬
dually improved, as knowledge, commerce, and the arts
have advanced ; and at present the admirable inven¬
tions of the post and the press give such an electric ra¬
pidity to the circulation of public sentiment, that twenty
millions of men could be as easily united in defence of
their rights as the small population of Attica in the time
of Xerxes.
The progress of improvement tends to level all distinc¬
tions between states, but those founded on the extent of
their natural resources. Capital, skill, intelligence, and
all acquired advantages, tend to an equilibrium. When
Europe was overrun with barbarism, the city of Venice,
by its commercial wealth, was a counterpoise to two or
three of the great monarchies of the continent. The dis¬
covery of America, and of a passage by sea to the East
Indies, gave a new direction to commerce, and under¬
mined the greatness of that city. The Dutch republic
rose by its freedom and industry, and was able, in the
time of Charles II. to dispute the empire of the sea with
the combined powers of England and France. But Eng¬
land increased her commerce, and improved her constitu¬
tion ; and having a larger and more fertile territory, as
well as a greater population, she at length obtained an as¬
cendancy over Holland, deprived her of the empire of the
sea, and stript her of most of her colonies. At the begin¬
ning of the seventeenth century, Spain and Turkey were
the first powers in the wrest and east of Europe, and in¬
spired their neighbours with the dread of conquest. Swe¬
den ruled with undisputed sway in the north; and Rus¬
sia, now so formidable, was scarcely known. Spain, under
a better government, might recover a part of her influence;
but the Turkish empire seems near its dissolution; and
the importance of Sweden and Holland is gone irretriev¬
ably, in consequence of the growing strength of the neigh¬
bouring powers. The extent of territory and immense
natural resources of Russia must, in the end, raise her to
a decided superiority over all the other powers of Europe,
if the empire does not fall to pieces from its own weight,
or get into disorder from the vices of its government. Its
progress hitherto has been greatly aided by the personal
characters of its sovereigns. If we were to judge merely
from the advantages which dilferent states possess for
raising and supporting population, we might predict that,
in the course of a century and a half, Russia would rule
with uncontrolled sway over the old continent, and the
United States over the new; and that the other states,
which now figure in the first rank in either hemisphere,
would then owe their existence, like the small principali¬
ties of Europe at the present day, to the forbearance or
the mutual jealousy of their powerful neighbours. But in
the course of events, many changes may occur to give a
different destiny to both continents.
The number of the inhabitants of Europe has been pro-Number of
gressively increasing, slowly in the earlier part of the cen- inhabitants,
tury, but more rapidly as we approach the present times.
Apparently it has been least considerable in Spain, Italy,
Sweden, France, and Germany; greater in Russia, Aus¬
tria, and the British isles; and greatest in Prussia. In
1787, Zimmermann estimated the population of Europe
at 144,000,000; and in 1833, according to Balbi, it was
227,000,000. The increase of 83,000,000 in forty-six
years implies an annual augmentation of 994 upon 100,000,
or very nearly one per cent.; and if this ratio were con¬
stant, the population of Europe would double itself in
seventy years and a half. In 1827 Baron Dupin esti-
412
Europe.
EUROPE.
mated the increase in the principal states of Europe to be
as follows.1
Annual In¬
crease on one
Million.
Prussia 
Britain 
Netherlands.
Two Sicilies.
Russia 
Austria 
France 
27,027
16,667
12,372
11,111
10,527
10,114
6,536
Period of
doubling.
26
42
561
63
66
69
105
A comparison of the census for 1821 and 1831, the only
two which include Ireland, shows that Dupin s estimate
for Britain is too high. The annual increment for the
three kingdoms scarcely exceeds one seventy-fifth part, or
13,400 upon a million. The increase in Prussia has been
so very rapid, we presume, only since the peace in 1815.
The most obvious cause of this increase of population is
the increase of production, from the improvement of agri¬
culture and the arts; but part of the effect may be as¬
cribed to the general introduction of potatoes in many
countries, by which the same portion of ground is made to
support three or four times as many persons as it would un¬
der corn. In France, where Mr Young, in 1789, found the
cultivation of potatoes extremely limited, it was so much
extended in 1819, that, according to Chaptal, the annual
produce was nearly 20,000,000 hectolitres, or 55,000,000
bushels-; a quantity fully as great in proportion to the
population as Mr Colquhoun assigns to Britain and Ire¬
land. This augmentation of numbers does not appear to
have been accompanied with any deterioration in the ha¬
bits of the people. On the contrary, the diminution in
the rate of mortality which has taken place in Britain,
France, and Sweden, is a decisive proof of an improve¬
ment in the condition of these countries ; and, by analogy,
we may extend the same conclusion to the other parts of
Europe. It may be remarked, that the general extension
of commerce, and the accumulation of capital, render a
season of scarcity, in a particular country, much less de¬
structive now than formerly. In Britain, whose commerce
and capital enable her to draw supplies from all parts of
the world, the additional mortality, in the most severe
scarcity, does not exceed one tenth ; but in Sweden, a
poor country, it sometimes amounts to one third. (Milne’s
Annuities, p. 400.) In ancient times, when each country
depended entirely on its own produce, the effects of a
scarcity were dreadful.
Number of The states of Europe at present are 62 in number, and,
states, and considered with respect to political importance, may be
^ rat'v°m" <^lvl<^e^ lnf° f°ur classes. Britain, France, Russia, Aus-
importance. tr^a> an(^ Prussia> belong to the first; Spain, Sweden, Tur¬
key, to the second ; Holland, Belgium, Portugal, Naples,
Bavaria, Sardinia, Denmark, Saxony, Wirtemberg, Hano¬
ver, and Switzerland, to the third ; Baden, Tuscany, and
the States of the Church, with the other small states of
Germany and Italy, belong to the fourth class. Objec¬
tions may be made to this classification, but we have not
been able to find a better ; and a few remarks will explain
the principle on which it is founded. The first five powers
are the only powers that exercise a decided influence over
their neighbours ; and it is by their joint counsels that
differences among the smaller powers are adjusted, and
all questions that concern the general state of Europe de- K
cided. The three states of the second class visibly oc- ^ v
cupy a lower place in the scale of power than those of
the first. They have very little exterior influence, but
they are not directly controlled by any of the stronger
powers ; and it is only among them and the states of the
first class that wars are now likely to originate. The
third class includes those states which are too feeble, and
too much under the influence of the great powers, to be¬
come principals in war, but are of importance enough to
be valued as auxiliaries by states of the first and second
classes. The fourth class consists of states which have
too little force to maintain any degree of independence,
and owe their existence to the justice, the forbearance,
or the mutual jealousies of the stronger powers. It is only
in Europe that small states exist among large ones; and
their existence is the consequence of that equality of
power among the great states, which compels each to
respect the rights of the others, and to pay a certain de¬
gree of deference to public opinion.
A detailed account of the principal European states isStat
given under the proper heads, in their alphabetical order.skeli
Our object here is only to bring together such general factsthe
as will afford a comparative view of the internal condition,
power, and resources of those larger societies which com-
prise the greatest part of the population of Europe. With
respect to the smaller states, we cannot make room for
any further details than what are contained in the table
which forms the conclusion of this article.
Britain.
Though much smaller in extent than any of the other
states of the first rank, Britain is the most wealthy and
powerful of the whole. She has a moderately good cli¬
mate, a soil less fertile in grain than that of France, but
affording better pasturage; an extensive line of sea-coast,
with numerous harbours ; a natural and well-defined fron¬
tier, a good commercial position, and the largest fields of
coal in Europe. But all these advantages have contribu¬
ted less to her aggrandisement than the excellence of her
laws and constitution. The progress of Britain in com¬
merce, manufactures, and agriculture, within the last cen¬
tury, and especially within the last forty years, has been
wonderfully great.
The British isles contain about 76,000,000 of acres, of
which about 49,000,000 are in cultivation, and 27,000,000,
or more than one third, waste or uncultivated. About
one half of the waste land is in Scotland, where the cul¬
tivated soil forms only twenty-six parts in the 100 of the
whole surface of the country; in England it forms eighty-
two parts in the 100, and in Ireland sixty-nine.2 The ag¬
riculture of Britain, compared with that of the continent,
is distinguished by the farms being generally larger, the
plan of cultivation more systematic and skilful, the pro¬
duce on equal soils greater, the pasture land bearing a
higher proportion to the land in tillage, and the breed of
animals being superior. In Scotland the pasture land
forms about one half of the land in cultivation; in Eng¬
land, four sevenths. The whole annual produce of grain
in Britain and Ireland was estimated by Dr Colquhoun in
1812 at 35,000,000 of quarters, excluding seed ; of which
wheat is supposed to form twenty-six parts in the 100 in
quantity, barley seventeen parts, oats forty-nine, rye two,
peas and beans five. The value of the annual produce of
grain was computed by the same author at L.73,700,00u,
1 Dupin, Forces ProAuctxve.s et Commerdales de la France, 1027, tom. i. p. 35. .
2 Colquhoun’s Treatise on the Wealth, Power, and Resources of the British Empire, 1815, p. 56, 57 ; Sir J. Sinclair, General Report oj
the Agricultural State of Scotland, vol. iii. addenda.
EUROPE.
-,K
-■w'
that of the pasture land at L.89,200,000 ; and the whole
gross produce of all the branches of agriculture, including
gardens and cattle, at L.216,000,000. But as this estimate
was made in 1812, when prices were uncommonly high,
a third or a fourth should be deducted for the present
value. The valued rack-rent of England and Wales, as
returned to parliament by the commissioners of taxes in
1810, was L.29,503,073, which gives 15s. 6d. as the aver¬
age of rent of all kinds of land per acre. The rental of
Scotland in 1813, according to Sir John Sinclair, was
L.5,041,779, including mines and fisheries ; and deducting
L.341,000 for these, the rent of land would be L.4,700,000,
or 4s. lid. per acre on an average.
The progress of Britain in manufactures has been still
more rapid, within a recent period, than m agriculture;
and her natural advantages for this species of industry are
perhaps more exclusive. She has a good supply within
herself of the raw material for all her staple manufactures
except cotton ; and her means of procuring this article are
at least equal to those of her neighbours. The growth of
this manufacture in Britain has been unprecedentedly ra¬
pid. In 1767, the value of all the cotton goods manufac¬
tured did not exceed L.200,000, and in 1832 it was esti¬
mated at L.36,000,000. The produce of the woollen
manufactures, in the same year, including the raw mate¬
rial, was estimated at L.22,000,000; that of leather at
L.10,000,000 ; of linen at L. 12,500,000. (M‘Culloch’s
Commercial Dictionary, 1832.)
The commerce of Britain seems to have increased pretty
regularly during the first sixty years of the last century;
but from 1760 to 1786 it remained almost stationary.
From this period to the present time the increase has
been rapid beyond example. The exports of England,
about 1700, were L.6,045,000 ; in 1760, L.14,694,000 ; in
1786, L.15,385,000. (Chalmers’ Hist. View. p. 315.) In
1832, the official value of the exports was L.76,071,000,
of the imports L.44,586,000. I he mercantile tonnage in
1832 was 2,618,000 tons, and the number of seamen
161,600. (Parliamentary Papers.) The annual produce
of foreign commerce, or the sums derived from it by
all classes concerned in it, were estimated, in 1812, at
L.46,373,478; the gains from inland trade at L.31,500,000;
and the whole annual produce of industry, from all sour¬
ces, at L. 430,000,000 (Colquhoun, p. 96-100) ; an esti¬
mate which is certainly exaggerated.
The growing wealth of Britain has had to sustain an
increasing weight of public burdens. The public revenue
of England, at the Union in 1709, was L.5,691,803; of
Scotland, L.160,000. In 1763 (a year of peace) the
net revenue was L.9,100,000; in 1790 L.15,986,068 ; and
m 1812 it was L.64,979,960, of which England furnish-
H5,"5’123, Scotland L.4,155,599, and Ireland
L4,882,264. (Colquhoun, p. 262.) In the year 1832,
the net produce of the revenue was L.51,474,000, which
was collected at an expense of L.6. 13s. lid. per cent.
iooeon°minal amount of the public debt at 5th January
1»33 was L.754,000,000, the interest L.27,703,000. The
unfunded debt was L.35,373,000. The army in 1832
consisted of 95,800 men, exclusive of 17,200 in India,
tne number of men voted for the navy was 27,000.
t arlumierdary Papers.)
P°Fu^at‘on °f England appears to have doubled in
tA Un-reC^ years ending 1811; that of Scotland appears
i ,aye lncreased one half in the same period ; that of Ire-
twv* ’ion. lncreased very rapidly. In the period be¬
am) S i janc^ the rate of increase in England
latinn^01*' WaS such as would have doubled the popu-
n m orty-six years. This rapid increase of numbers
413
appears not to have been accompanied with any deteriora- Europe,
tion of condition. In the five years ending 1784, the annual ''w—
mortality in England and Wales was one in thirty-seven;
in the five years ending 1810, it was one in 47-86. Of the’
population of Britain and Ireland, about thirty-five families
in the hundred are employed in agriculture, forty-five in
trades, manufactures, and handicrafts, and twenty in other
occupations. The total population of Britain and Ireland
in 1831 was 24,304,000. To these must be added about
98,000,000 in the colonies, making a total of 122,000,000.
France.
This country enjoys, upon the whole, greater natural
advantages than any other in Europe. Her territory is
above one half larger than Great Britain and Ireland, and
is superior in soil and climate. She lias a greater propor¬
tion of arable land than any of her neighbours ; the natu¬
ral means ot communication between her provinces are
abundant and easy ; she is well provided with all the use¬
ful metals except tin ; and is better supplied with coal than
any other country in Europe except Britain. When we add
to these advantages the intelligence and activity of her
population, and consider that corvees, tithes, feudal ser¬
vices, and most of those abuses which shackled her in¬
dustry, are now removed; that she is likely to enjoy the
benefits of good laws and a free constitution, and is not
encumbered with a great national debt; we cannot doubt
that, if peace continue for any considerable length of
time, she will yet rise to a much higher degree of wealth
and prosperity than she ever before possessed. Even
during the distractions of the Revolution, though her
commerce was annihilated, her agriculture and manufac¬
tures extended and improved, her population increased,
and its condition was ameliorated. The greatest bar to
her progress will probably be the extreme division of pro¬
perty ; and, for some time also, the want of capital.
The surface of France contains within its present li¬
mits 52,000,000 hectares, or 128,000,000 acres. From
partial surveys, for fiscal purposes, made in each depart¬
ment, it is estimated that the waste land, including roads
and rivers, amounts to one eighth of this, or twelve parts
in the hundred; the arable land to forty-four parts in the
hundred ; the woodland to fourteen parts; the pasturage
land and meadows to fourteen ; the vineyards to four;
wild land seven; quarries, buildings, orchards, gardens,
olive and other plantations, make up the remaining five
parts. (Chaptal, De XIndustrie Franpaise, i. 205. Paris,
1819.) In addition to the vegetable productions that
growjn England, the climate of France enables her to raise
maize, vines, olives, mulberries, and chestnuts; and by
some of these a produce is extracted from soil which in
England would yield nothing. The whole produce of
grain in France is estimated by Chaptal at 143,000,000
hectolitres, equal to 50,000,000 quarters, or 40,000,000
deducting one fifth for seed, which is only 5,000,000 above
the produce of Britain and Ireland, as estimated by Col¬
quhoun. Of this produce of grain, wheat forms thirty-six
parts in the hundred, rye twenty-one parts, maize four
and a half, buckwheat six, barley nine, oats twenty-two,
legumes one. The quantity of potatoes (19,800,741 hec¬
tolitres) is equal to two thirds of the rye. The produce
of 4,000,000 of acres planted with vines, in 1808, was
37,600,000 hectolitres of wine. (i. 173,177.) The an¬
nual gross produce of the land, which was estimated by
Arthur Young at L.230,000,000 sterling, is estimated by
Chaptal at 4,678,000,000 francs, or L. 187,000,000 ster¬
ling,1 of which the principal items are,
1 Reckoning the pound sterling equal to 25 francs. See the article Exchange.
414
Europe.
EUROPE.
Corn and legumes (secs), ^SoOO
— T Vines    27,322,000
J^raP   3,253,000
JvTaw 81 k    1,237,000
HemP i . 760,000
 4.™
Cattle, sheep, and     l7^m0
 2.584,000
Pulse and other esculent vegetables (legumes
fra;s\   7,o/2,UUU
J  (Chaptal, i. 226-238 ; Young, i. 468).
Revenue The mean revenue derived fiom a hectare of land we^U Arthur Y0Ung estimated at sous, or iuu. i^ng-
. -i i  J ~ /-vot H ovori o C
The exports of France in the year 1827 amounted in Eu
value to 602,000,000 francs (L.24,000,000) ; the imports 'w"
to 565,000,000 (L.22,600,000). The leading articles of
exportation were silk goods, raw silk, cottons, linens,
wines, and woollens ; the leading imports were raw silk,
cotton, linen, and coffee.
The population of France, notwithstanding the inter-
ruption to industry, and the drains occasioned by the long
wars, has increased since the commencement of the Re¬
volution. According to calculations made by the Na¬
tional Assembly in 1791, France contained 26,363,074
inhabitants, and in 1831 it contained 32,560,000 within
the same limits. (Annuaire pour l’An 1834). The an¬
nual increase is about 200,000 individuals. The condition
of the labouring classes appears to be improved. Wages,
which Arthur Young estimated at 19 sous, or lOd. Eng-
The last sum includes houses, and may be considered as
corresponding nearly to the rack-rent of lands and build¬
ings in France. This is certainly too low\ The average
rent of all kinds of land in France was estimated by Young
at 15s. lOd. per acre. (Trav. i. 476.) The most pecu¬
liar feature in French agriculture is the vast number of
small proprietors, who cultivate their patches of land by cees,
their own labour. Arthur Young supposed that, before the
Revolution, one third of the property of the kingdom was
held by such persons; and Chaptal says the number of
proprietors is doubled within the last thirty years. The
latter computes the whole number of farms in France at
3,000,000; so that, on an average, each cannot exceed
forty-three acres, including wastes. In the cultivation of
good soils, the agriculture of France is nearly equal to
that of England; but it is greatly inferior in the manage¬
ment of poor soils, in the system of cropping, and in the
breed of animals. It has been much improved, however,
during the Revolution, by the extensive cultivation of ar¬
tificial grasses, by augmenting the live stock, by the ge¬
neral exclusion of fallows, and by increasing the cultiva¬
tion of potatoes.1
The manufactures of France, amidst all the troubles of
the Revolution, have been generally advancing, though
some branches have retrograded. The number of work¬
men employed in Lyons, the principal seat of the silk
manufacture, was one fourth greater in 1812 than in 1789.
France produces within herself about eleven millions of
pounds of raw silk, and imports nearly as much; and the
total value of the manufactured articles produced is esti¬
mated at L.4,300,000. Of wool, France produces about
ninety-three millions of pounds, valued at L.3,253,000, and
imports seventeen millions of pounds, which, converted into
various fabrics, is estimated to be worth L.9,500,000 ster¬
ling. The value of the manufactures of flax and hemp is
estimated at L.9,612,000. The spinning of cotton by ma-
1827. The an-
nual mortality, which was estimated at one in thirty by
Neckar before the Revolution, we find stated recently to
be one in forty. {Annuaire pour 1834.)
. According to returns made in 1815, there were then
in France 22,300 primary schools, with 737,379 pupils.
There were, besides, 368 secondary schools, thirty-six ly-
cees, and twenty-six universities. In 1833 there were
44,500 primary schools, which were attended by 1,907,000
pupils of both sexes.
The ordinary revenue of France, in the year 1831, was
973,000,000 francs, or L.39,000,000. The debt was
5,400,000,000, or L.216,000,000, and the annual interest
283,000,000, or L.l 1,300,000. There are about 40,000
parish priests in France, whose pay, with that of the
bishops, amounts to L.l,200,000.
From the commencement of the Revolution to 1810,
France received great accessions of territory. The peace
of Luneville left her in possession, in whole or in part, of
the Austrian and Dutch Netherlands, the bishoprics o
Liege, Cologne, Treves, Mentz, duchy of Juliers, the Pa¬
latinate, Mceurs, Guelders, the department of Mont Blanc,
Leman, Maritime Alps, with the Venaissam, Montbe-
liard, and other enclaves. These various districts com¬
prehended a surface of 27,400 square miles, and a popu¬
lation of 5,025,000. , r
Between 1801 and 1810 she acquired Piedmont, be-
noa, Tuscany, Parma, the Roman States, the Valais, the
Illyrian provinces, with Venetian Dalmatia ; Ho an ,
Bremen, Hamburg, Lubec, Munster, Osnaburg, and part
of Hanover. These districts comprehended a surface ot
110,000 square miles, and a population of lb>^'’uT*
With these additions the French empire, m in‘
eluded an area of 310,000 square miles, and a population
year there were 23,000,000 pounds of cotton spun ; in
there were 62,000,000. The value of the cotton goods ma¬
nufactured is estimated at L.7,600,000. The manufactures
of iron in France are estimated at L.8,300,000; those of
leather at L.5,700,000. The whole gross produce of ma¬
nufacturing industry, including manufacturers’ profits, is
estimated at 1,802,000,000 of francs, or L.72,800,000, of
which the value of the raw material forms thirty-two parts
in the hundred, wages forty-seven, manufacturers’ profits
ten, and expenses eleven. (Chaptal, ii. 116, 203; Dupin,
tom. i.)
of 44,500,000. v „p.
If to these we add the states dependent upon Pranc ,
namely, the Cisalpine Republic, 31,000 square miles,
chinery, which was scarcely introduced before the Revolu- with 6,350,000 inhabitants; p®"keA^ra.,'1?\-)tantS;
tion, employed one million of spindles in 1812; in that Rhine, 113,000 square miles, with 14,0 , 1 ,
-   ’ ~ ’ 1825 and Naples, 30,500 square miles, with 4,960,000 inn«*
. . . r ,   /icn nnn snuare mues,
bitants; we have an aggregate of 486£001s5uarer,r:n(.PS
and a population of nearly 70,000,000. The kings, p ’
or chiefs of these dependent states, were in rea! J .jj
thing more than Napoleon’s viceroys ; and it may
with truth, that in 1812 the resources of the vast pop^
tion of seventy millions now enumerated were a
By the peace of Paris in 1815, France was 0 ag
her conquests, and reduced within her ancient 1 ’
they stood in 1789, with some inconsiderable vana
1 Chaptal, i. 139, 144, 153, 224, &c. Birkbeck’s Tour in France, 1814, p. 109.
EUROPE.
Eu ’
1
?. not sensibly affecting her whole extent of territory, or
amount of population.
Austria.
The Austrian empire is one fourth larger than France,
and twice as large as Britain and Ireland. Its population
consists of a mixed mass of nations, differing in origin,
language, religion, and manners, having few common ties,
and little intercourse with one another. Austria has but
a small extent of sea-coast, and is almost entirely an in¬
land power. The climate is similar to that of France,
but subject to greater extremes of heat and cold, the soil
not much inferior, the grain and fruits nearly the same.
She is richer in mineral wealth than any other state in
Europe, and possesses coal, though not in great abun¬
dance. Her natural resources are capable of vast im¬
provement ; and in the hands of a wise and liberal govern¬
ment, would soon raise her far above the rank she now
enjoys. Of the six sections into which her territories are
divided, Lombardy is the most populous in proportion to
its extent; Bohemia and Moravia are next in population,
and are the seats of the chief manufacturers; Austria
Proper and Hungary are remarkably rich in mines; and
Galicia, though in a low state of cultivation, is fertile in
grain, and contains the most productive mines of salt in
Europe. Austria has but a slender title to be regarded
as a German power ; less than one fifth of her population
are Germans. The Sclavonic race, who form nearly one
half of the population, give a character of ignorance and
backwardness to the government. In Bohemia, Hun¬
gary, and other provinces where this race predominates,
vassalage exists in some of its forms, and cramps the pro¬
gress of society. The Austrian empire, in truth, consists
properly of six separate governments, feebly united under
one head. Each of these governments, except that of
Lombardy, has a diet or states, composed of the deputies
from the nobility, clergy, and towns ; but these bodies
exercise no real influence over the government, except
in Hungary, where the old feudal institutions remain in
vigour, and the aristocracy have always maintained a
great degree of independence.
The surface of the Austrian monarchy is estimated at
258,000 square English miles. Of this surface, the waste
lands, including morasses, mountains, rivers, and ground
covered with buildings, are estimated at five parts in twen¬
ty-four, the useful soil at nineteen parts in twenty-four;
and of the useful soil about forty-three parts in the hun¬
dred are in tillage, nine parts meadow land, nine parts
commons, which support cattle, two parts vineyards, two
parts gardens and orchards, and thirty-five parts forest
land. The total produce of grain is estimated at 165,500,000
metzen, or about 35,670,000 quarters, consisting of wheat
fourteen parts, barley eleven, rye thirty-one, and oats
forty-four. In 1804 the net produce of a joch (equal to
one acre and a half) of corn land, for the whole Austrian
states, was valued by Lichtenstern at five florins (10s.),
and of pasture land at two florins (4s.) (Hassel’s Stat.
abris des Oest. p. 90.) The annual produce of wine in
the Austrian dominions is estimated at from 36,000,000 to
40,000,000 of eimers (each equal to fourteen English gal-
ons), of which Hungary furnishes nearly two thirds,
■ns is rather more than one half of the produce of the
iench vineyards. Galicia is the only province in which
t :ere are no vines. Hungary and Sclavonia supply 180,000
centners of excellent tobacco. The Ex-Venetian states
urnish yearly 1,200,000 pounds of silk ; Milan and the Ty¬
rol nearly as much ; and altogether this species of culture
employs 400,000 persons. Flax, hemp, hops, and fruits,
are also extensively cultivated; and the forests, which
cover more than one fourth of the empire, furnish an am¬
ple supply of wood. The total produce of the vegetable
kingdom is valued at 68,500,000 sterling, a small amount,
considering the extent of the country; but agriculture,
though there are numerous societies for its improvement,
remains in a low state, from the prejudices of the higher
classes, and the oppressions to which the peasantry*are
exposed. The horses in the empire are estimated at
1,800,000, the sheep at 12,000,000, and the horned cat¬
tle at 10,000,000. The live stock has greatly diminished
within the last twenty-five years. The annual produce
of the mines is 3846 marks of gold (the mark is about
three fourths of a pound Troy) ; 486 centners (hundred¬
weights) of silver, 56,000 centners of copper, 30,000
centners of lead, 4890 centners of tin, 1,200,000 centners
of iron, and 5300 centners of mercury. About 5,500,000
centners of salt are prepared, the greatest part from salt
mines and springs. The annual produce of these mine¬
rals in 1802, when it was probably one third less than the
above, was valued at L.4,700,000.1
The leading manufactures are linen, cotton, woollen,
silk, leather, and works in metal and wood. The linen
manufacture existing in all the provinces, but to the great¬
est extent in Bohemia and Moravia, is supposed to employ
1,200,000 persons ; the woollen manufacture 300,000 per¬
sons ; the cotton 100,000; about 18,000 or 20,000 cent¬
ners of cotton were spun by machinery in 1817, which is
three times the quantity spun in 1803. The silk manu¬
facture, which is carried on chiefly in Lombardy, employs
110,000 persons. The most considerable manufactures in
metal are in Styria, Carinthia, and Lower Austria. The
estimate of the annual products of the Austrian manufac¬
tures, given by Crome, is too extravagant to deserve any
credit. But those of Bohemia, in 1811, were valued at
158,000,000 of florins ; and if we add twice as much for all
the other states, the whole produce of the Austrian manu¬
factures may, on this ground, be computed at L.47,000,000
sterling. Even this is probably above the truth. (Lich¬
tenstern, p. 44; Crome, 173-176.)
The commerce of Austria is extremely trifling. She
possesses but a small extent of sea-coast, which is remote
from the centre of her territories, is destitute of navigable
rivers, and rendered difficult of access by mountains. The
numerous rivers that water her dominions afford few ad¬
vantages to her trade, as, excepting in Italy, she does not
command the outlet of any one of them. The whole ex¬
ports of this large empire are only L.3,000,000, and the
imports L.3,200,000. (Lichtenstern, p. 48.)
The population of the Austrian empire, in 1817, was
28,207,886, of which the Sclavonic race amounted to
13,182,000, the Germans to 5,342,000, the Italians to
4,226,000, the Magyars or Hungarians to 4,225,000, the
Wallachians to 1,246,000, and the Jews to 487,000.
(Lichtenstern, p. 1858.) In 1832 Balbi estimated the
population at 32,000,000. There are, besides, considerable
numbers of Greeks, Turks, Albanians, and Armenians ; so
that, except Russia, no state in Europe has such a hetero¬
geneous population. Throughout the Austrian dominions,
the nobility and clergy are numerous, and many of them
very rich. In Hungary, Galicia, and indeed in the greater
part of the empire, these classes are exempt from taxes,
and enjoy other pernicious privileges. The Austrian
clergy, exclusive of their families, are estimated at 64,000,
of whom 56,000 belong to the Catholic church ; the nobles
1 Lichtenstern, Handbuch dsr Neust Gcog. des Oest. 1818, p. 33-42. Crome, Allg. Ubcrsicht, 1818, p. 141-lol.
EUROPE.
of both sexes at 475,000 ; the civil servants of the govern¬
ment, with their families, at 280,000 ; the military, men,
women, children, and servants, at 800,000 ; the burghers
and tradesmen, with their families, at 2,333,000; the per¬
sons engaged in agriculture at 4,005,000 families, or about
20,025,000 individuals. (Lichtenstern, p. 133.) In all
the provinces, especially in Bohemia, Moravia, and Hun¬
gary, there has been a rapid increase in the numbers of
the inhabitants. Though the people are poor and ignorant,
the government has been at much pains to provide them
with the means of instruction ; and the numerous schools
and academies established must essentially contribute to
the improvement of the country. The Catholic religion,
though it predominates, nowhere enjoys that exclusive as¬
cendancy which produces such pernicious consequences in
Spain and Italy. The other sects, Greeks, Calvinists, Lu¬
therans, form nearly one third of the inhabitants in the
provinces beyond the Alps ; and this circumstance, by ge¬
nerating a certain freedom of thought and discussion, must
prove favourable to the progress ot society.
Prussia.
Prussia is the smallest in extent, and enjoys the fewest
natural advantages, of all the European states of the first
class. Her territory is not much more than two fifths ol
that of Austria ; it is but indifferently fertile ; has few va¬
luable mines, few resources for manufactures; she has,
however, pretty large extent of sea-coast, and a consider¬
able commerce. Her possessions are straggling and dis¬
jointed ; they present an extensive frontier, with little
depth, and no natural barriers ; and are inhabited by people
who speak different languages, and have few common ties
or interests. Prussia has sustained her rank chiefly in con¬
sequence of the superiority of her internal organization.
Her government, unlike those of the other monarchies of
Europe, being of very recent origin, is not encumbered by
those ancient establishments which the change of circum¬
stances has converted into abuses. The frame of her pub¬
lic institutions was much improved by the Great Frede¬
rick, who availed himself of all the lights and philosophy
which the age furnished. He established a complete tole¬
ration in matters of religion ; curtailed the oppressive pri¬
vileges of the nobles ; simplified the administration of jus¬
tice ; and introduced order and economy into every de¬
partment of the government. He left the kingdom to his
successor with a large and well-disciplined army, and a
high reputation for policy and prowess. After the misfor¬
tunes in which Prussia was involved by the battle of Jena,
the present king, aided by his enlightened minister Har-
denberg, began a series of most extensive reforms, which
have raised the oppressed peasantry to the rank of free
farmers, or independent proprietors, reduced still farther
the privileges of the nobles, released trade from the weight
of incorporations, and created the most ample means of
species of grain, tobacco, mulberries, vines, flax, and hemp, ]
are cultivated. Great quantities of potatoes are also raised. ^
Horned cattle and sheep are pretty numerous in most of the
provinces. M. Krug estimated the mean rent of an arpent
of corn land, for the whole Prussian states, at 2^ rix-dol-
lars (about 7s.), and the net produce of an arpent of corn
land at two fifths of the gross produce ; but of pasture land
at one fourth or one fifth only, including poultry and bees.
According to returns made from the diflerent provinces to
the government, the whole annual produce of grain in
Prussia about 1802, when the population was 8,754,000,
was 4,500,000 wispel (equal to 9,600,000 quarters); of which
wheat formed nine parts in the hundred, rye forty, barley
tw'enty-four, and oats twenty-seven ; of this quantity one
tenth was exported. The Prussian silver mines yield an¬
nually about 20,000 mark of silver ; the county of Mani-
field alone furnishes 14,588 centners of copper ; and Sile¬
sia affords 7600 centners of lead, and 405,900 centners of
iron. The principal manufactures of Prussia are linen,
woollen, cotton, silk, leather, iron, and porcelain, all of
which are making progress.
In proportion as the other great states of Europe improve
their natural resources, the importance of Prussia must
decline. The time is past when the good order of her
finances, and the discipline of her armies, could raise her
to an equality with France, and Austria, and Russia; and
she can only now' support her rank by cultivating still far¬
ther those moral advantages which are the real source of
her strength.
In 1791 Prussia acquired the principalities of Anspach
and Bayreuth; in 1793 a part of Poland containing
1,136,000 inhabitants; and in 1795 an additional part,
containing 860,000. At the peace of Luneville in 1801,
she gave up some possessions on the left of the Rhine,
and received indemnities in Germany, leaving a balance
in her favour. These various acquisitions added 46,000
square miles to her territory, and 2,836,000 to her popu¬
lation, raising the former to 116,000 square miles, and the
latter to 9,100,000 souls. Such was Prussia in 1803. The
ruinous campaign of 1806 suddenly deprived her of all
her possessions between the Elbe and the Rhine, with
four fifths of her share of Poland, reducing her territory
and population about one half, the latter being estimated
at 4,560,000 in 1808. On the overthrow of Napoleon in
1814, she was restored to more than her ancient splen¬
dour. She recovered the greater part of her Polish do¬
minions, gained some districts in Saxony and Lusatia,
Swedish Pomerania, and an extensive, rich, and populous
country in Westphalia and on the Rhine, including the
greater part of the secularised ecclesiastical states, abbey
lands, &c. The Prussian monarchy at present embraces
an area of 94,000 square English miles, and a population
of 12,464,000.
Russia.
instruction for the whole population. The population of
Prussia, of whom two thirds are Protestants, is more intel- ....... v   -- ,
ligent than that of Austria ; includes a greater proportion Europe; and yet her territories in this division o
of Germans; and altogether she is more of a German globe are scarcely more than one fifth of her whole o
power. The large rivers that water her territories have minions. Three fourths of her Asiatic territories, io
generally a very level course ; and being joined by canals,
they afford a great extent of inland navigation. Of all the
old provinces, Silesia is the most industrious and flourish¬
ing. It doubled its population in the seventy-three years
between 1742 and 1815. The Westphalian and Rhenish
provinces are the most populous ; ancient Prussia and the
Polish provinces the least. (Russell’s Travels in Germany,
1824, vol. ii. p. 110.)
Agriculture has been greatly extended in Prussia, and
somewhat improved in recent times. Besides the common
Russia occupies very nearly one half of the surface of
ever, consist of sandy deserts or frozen plains, w 1C1
yield very little for human subsistence; and her posses^
sions in Europe are at present, and perhaps will a way
be, the most valuable part of the empire. European u
sia consists chiefly of an elevated plain, over whic i
merous rivers flow with a small declivity, so as to a 0
a greater extent of inland navigation, probably, than e
ists in all the rest of Europe. Its superficial exten ,
eluding Poland, is about 1,990,000 square English ’
which is about ten times the area of France, or sixteen i
OPE.
417
numerous changes of the last thirty years, has never lost Europe,
any part of her territories, but has been continually add- 1
mg to them. Her acquisitions since 1770 are as follows :
1772, First partition of Poland.
1793, Second do. do 
1795, Third do. do 
1774 to 1791, from the Porte..
1807, District of Bialystock from
Prussia 
1809, District of Tarnopol, ceded
by Austria, containing 400,000
inhabitants, but restored in 1815.
1809, Finland and Lapmark from
Sweden 
1811, Part of Moldavia and Bess¬
arabia from the Porte 
1814, Duchy of Warsaw, now the
kingdom of Poland 
Total acquisitions of Russia since
1770 in Europe 
Square
Miles.
33,000
90,000
42,000
60,000
4,200
120,000
13,000
47,400
409,600
Population.
1,226,000
3,745,000
1,407,000
204,000
183,000
895,000
230,000
2,793,000
10,683,000
EUR
ipe. that of the British isles. But of this surface, more than
•-0 one fourth part, lying beyond the parallel of 60°, is inca¬
pable of cultivation, from the rigour of the climate, or the
marshy nature of the soil. In the south, also, there are
vast sandy plains, the soil of which, destitute of wood and
water, and impregnated with salt, is altogether useless for
agriculture. The fertile part of Russia consists chiefly
of the country lying between the parallels of 50° and 57°,
which contains a great proportion of excellent soil, well
watered with navigable streams, and comparatively popu¬
lous and cultivated. The cultivation of wheat is chiefly
confined to this region ; and here abundant crops are pro¬
cured with little labour, and by a very rude species of cul¬
ture. But farther north slender crops are obtained with
so much exertion, that a single peasant cannot cultivate
more than from seven to ten acres; and these crops are
so precarious, that the rye sometimes will not ripen in the
neighbourhood of Petersburg. The lands, however, where
corn will not grow yield pasture and wood. Trees are
found as far as the sixty-seventh degree, beyond which
there are only shrubs.1
It has been computed that the soil incapable of culti¬
vation in European Russia amounts to forty parts in the
hundred of the whole surface. The crown forests are es¬
timated at 44,500,000 of desiatines, equal to 240,000
square miles. Rye is the grain most extensively culti¬
vated all over Russia; but barley, wheat, and oats, are
also raised. In the southern provinces, maize, rice, vines,
and even cotton, succeed; and both in the southern and
central parts, vast ranges of pasture ground support nu¬
merous herds of cattle, the skins and tallow of which, with
the peltries of wild animals, are leading articles of expor¬
tation. These pastures are generally commons: the
quantity of uncultivated lands, says Storch, is so great,
that it would be useless to divide them. The number of
sheep in Russia has been estimated at 60,000,000. Flax
and hemp, however, are the productions in which the soil
of Russia has the greatest superiority, and of these she
exports great quantities. Some of the less civilized na¬
tions are almost supported by bees, and wax and honey
are also among the principal articles of exportation. Rus¬
sia has rich mines of gold, silver, copper, iron, lead, and
salt, the best of which are in the Uralian Mountains, and
chiefly on the Asiatic side. They employ about half a
million of persons.
The manufactures of Russia are inconsiderable, though
the government has made great exertions to encourage
this species of industry. The principal are those of coarse
woollens, flax, iron, leather, silk, glass, and brandies. The
manufacturing establishments in 1815 amounted to 3262,
of which 181 were for cloth, 150 silk, 1348 leather, 247
soap, tallow, and wax, 184 linen, 295 cotton, 138 glass,
200 metal. (Crome, p. 70.)
If confidence might be put in the lists transmitted to
government, the annual mortality in Russia is only one in
fifty-eight, the births one in twenty-six, and the annual
addition to the population one in forty-nine, so that the
period of doubling should be thirty-five years. (Storch,
L 282.) But these extraordinary results are irreconcil¬
able with facts. There are in Russia above eighty na¬
tions, who speak more than forty different languages ; but
the Sclavonic race forms seven eighths of the whole Eu¬
ropean population. According to the official returns in
1783, the peasants belonging to the crown and to the
nobles amounted to eighty-three persons in the hundred
of the whole population. (Storch, i. 249.) Of all the
powers of Europe, Russia is the only one that, during the
The success of the Parisian insurrection in July 1830
roused the Poles to make a new effort for independence,
which began in November 1830, and was finally crushed
in the following year, after a heroic resistance. The con¬
sequence was, that Poland was deprived of its separate
constitution, and incorporated with Russia as an integral
part of the empire in February 1832.
Sweden.
Sweden has sunk in her relative importance in conse¬
quence of the rise of Russia ; but she still holds a higher
place in the scale of power than any other European state
with an equal population. Now that Norway is united to
her dominions, she has the best military and commercial
position of all the northern continental powers. But the
soil is poor and rocky; so that, though her territories form
one tenth of the surface of Europe, her population amounts
to less than one fiftieth. Her principal wealth consists
in her rich mines of iron and copper, and in the produce
of her forests and her fisheries.
The agricultural produce of Sweden, which does not suf¬
fice for her own consumption, consists chiefly of rye, oats,
barley, and potatoes; the soil and climate not admitting of
wheat, except in the southern parts. Gothland, the most
fertile province, contains one half of the population upon
less than one fifth of the surface of the kingdom; The soil
actually under corn cultivation in 1810 amounted only to
1,091,000 tunnas, or 1,363,838 acres; but the soil capa¬
ble of cultivation was estimated at 1,818,450 acres, or one
sixty-second part of the surface of the country. This is
the average of the whole; but in the province of Nordland
only one acre in 915 is arable. The lakes cover one
eighteenth part. The pasture ground and gardens occu¬
py about twice the quantity of land under corn. The
average size of a farm is only about twenty-seven acres.
The whole annual produce of grain is estimated at
5,702,835 spans, equal to about 1,482,500 quarters, be¬
sides 350,000 quarters of potatoes. The general produce
of the crops is about five for one. In Norway, the land
in cultivation amounts to less than one acre in a hundred,
3 G
VOL. IX.
1 Storch, Tableau, i. 4; ii. 209, 229, 231 ; Crome, Ubersicht, 55.
Spain.
418
EUROPE.
Europe, and one fourth of the grain used is imported. Potatoes
are extensively cultivated. In times of scarcity bread is
made of the bark of trees, and of the Iceland moss, on
which the rein-deer feed. .
The manufactures of Sweden are of little importance.
Sixty or seventy ships are built annually, and sol« Jo fo¬
reigners. The distillation of brandy consumes 700,UUU
spans of corn a year. The manufactures of paper and
glass, and works in metal, supply the internal consump¬
tion ; those of cotton, wool, and silk, are of small extent.
The whole produce of manufactures in Sweden (exclusive
of Norway), in 1814, was valued, in an official statement,
at 5,622,129 dollars banco, or about L.800,000. (Crome,
123 )
The exports of Sweden, in 1816, were estimated at
seven millions of dollars (exclusive of Norway), and the
imports at no less than twenty millions. I he supposed
national loss arising from this disproportion led to a pro¬
hibition of the importation of wine, rum, cotton stufts, and
other articles considered as luxuries. In 1816, Sweden
had 1107 merchant ships, whose aggregate burden was
64,000 lasts, or 120,000 tons. (Crome, 122, 125.)
The population of Sweden was estimated at 2,615,806
in 1818 ; that of Norway, in 1803, was 910,000; and from
the probable rate of increase there, must now amount to
fully one million. In Sweden about one ninth, and in
Norway about one twelfth of the people live in towns.
This increase in numbers has been attended with an im¬
provement in the condition of the inhabitants, fhe an¬
nual mortality in Sweden, which Malthus, in 1796, esti¬
mated at one in thirty-seven, was, in 1811, according to
Akrell, one in forty for the southern parts, one in forty-
seven for the northern, and one in forty-three for the
whole kingdom. In Norway the mortaHty has always
been smaller than in any other European country. In
1815 the nobles amounted to 1641 families, or 9523 per¬
sons ; the clergy, including their families, to 15,202; the
burghers to 64,755; and the peasants to 1,763,397. Be¬
sides these classes, who are represented in the diet, there
are about 500,000 persons not represented, consisting of
civil and military officers, miners, mechanics, servants,
&c. About one fourth of the peasants who are house¬
holders, farm their own lands. The established religion
is Lutheran, and the number of parochial clergymen in
Sweden is 1094, besides 170 prebends, eleven bishops,
and one archbishop; and the tithes amount to 283,232
spans, or about 72,500 quarters of corn. Norway has 467
clergymen, including five bishops. (Crome, 96, 116;
Thomson’s Travels, 418.)
Subsequent to the revolution in 1809, some improve¬
ments have been made in the constitution, by enlarging
the powers of the diet. The four estates of nobles, cler¬
gy, burghers, and peasants, who sit in separate houses,
meet necessarily at the end of five years, or oftener if con¬
voked by the king. The consent of three of these houses,
with that of the king, gives a proposition the force of law.
No taxes can be raised without the authority of the diet,
and the persons of the members are inviolable during the
session. The conscription, which was introduced in 1809,
subjects all males between twenty and twenty-five to mi¬
litary service; and the nobles have been deprived of the
exemption they formerly enjoyed from this service and
from taxes. The press is declared by the constitution to
be free, but is in fact under the control of the police.
In 1809, Sweden lost Finland, Lapmark, and Pomerania,
containing 1,015,000 inhabitants, upon a surface of 121,000
square miles. In 1813, she gained Norway from Den¬
mark, with 950,000 inhabitants. This acquisition gave her
a better frontier and a more compact territory, and was
more than a compensation for her previous losses.
The vast natural resources of this country present a
striking contrast with its political imbecility. It is near¬
ly as large as France, but contains little more than a third
of the population, though its fertile soil and delicious cli¬
mate yield in abundance the productions both of the tem¬
perate and warm regions of the globe. With its great
extent of sea-coast, numerous rivers, and excellent posi¬
tion for trade, and its rich and extensive colonies, nothing
but extreme misgovernment could have prevented it from
becoming the first commercial state in the world.
In addition to silk, tobacco, vines, olives, and all the
agricultural productions of France and Germany, Spain
produces the orange, citron, sugar-cane, cork-tree, dates,
figs, and cotton. Wheat is the grain most extensively
cultivated. Barley and rye are next in quantity. Very
few oats or potatoes are raised, but considerable quanti¬
ties of maize and rice. Hemp to the value of a million of
piastres is raised yearly, and flax is cultivated on a smaller
scale. The vineyards, besides supplying the internal con¬
sumption, furnish 10,000,000 or 11,000,000 gallons of
wine for exportation, and half as much brandy. Olive
oil is exported to the value of L.600,000 a year. The an¬
nual produce of raw silk is valued at L.300,000. But
wool is the produce for which Spain is most celebrated.
The number of merinos or migratory sheep, which furnish
the finest wool, is estimated at 5,000,000 ; those that are
stationary, at 8,000,000; and these 13,000,000 of sheep are
supposed to afford yearly 45,000,000 pounds of wool.
The right of pasture which the migratory flocks have oyer
whole provinces is one great obstacle to agricultural im¬
provement. From this and other causes, one third or one
half of the kingdom is left entirely waste, and the part in
cultivation is wretchedly managed. Nearly the whole
land in the kingdom is locked up by entails in the hands
of the nobles and the clergy, and the small portions
brought into the market sell so high as not to afford more
than one and a. half per cent, upon their price. Agriculture
is entirely in the hands of the peasantry, who are poor
and ignorant; men of capital never engage in it; and the
grandees, who should support and encourage improve¬
ments, all reside in the large towns. In the whole of
Spain there is scarcely to be seen a villa or gentlemans
seat, except a few that are in ruins. The mines of Spain,
like her agriculture, are neglected; but she.still derives
from her own soil a considerable supply of iron,, copper,
lead, and mercury. About 5,000,000 centners of salt are
annually obtained from mines, springs, or the sea.
The greatest number of the Spanish manufactures are
in Catalonia, but a few are scattered through the other
provinces. The most considerable are the woollen, silk,
linen, cotton, hemp, leather, paper, and metal; .but none
of them are sufficient for the internal consumption of t e
country, and all of them are fettered by vexatious taxes,
absurd regulations, and the difficulty of intercourse be¬
tween the provinces. The manufacture of tobacco is a
royal monopoly. ,
It is now pretty well ascertained, that the apparent e-
cline of Spain has been the consequence of the rapid pro¬
gress of her neighbours; and that, down to the en o
the eighteenth century, she was advancing both in in us
try and population. From a combination of circumstances,
the causes which check the progress of society have ope
rated more powerfully there than in any other country 0
Europe except Turkey. Among the greatest evils in
state of the country may be reckoned the excessive nuni
ber of the nobility and clergy, with their oppressive pn
vileges, and their pernicious influence upon the ot e
classes. In 1788, when the population amounted
EUR
Ei
e. 10,500,000, the number of the secular and regular clergy
was 147,722, of the nobles 478,716, of peasants and la¬
bourers 1,847,010, of manufacturers and handicrafts
302,000, servants 276,090, merchants 34,030.
Germany.
In the early part of the eighteenth century, Germany
consisted of about three hundred sovereign states, great
and small, which were united into one empire by a very
complicated constitution. From time to time some of the
smaller principalities have been suppressed, and incorpo¬
rated with the larger states : but the first radical change
in the composition of the Germanic body was made by
the treaty of Luneville, 9th February 1801, when a vast
number of bishoprics, abbeys, and free towns, were de¬
prived of their rights of sovereignty, and given as indem¬
nities to princes who had lost their possessions in Belgium
and Italy by the French conquests. In 1806 the empe¬
ror Francis formally renounced the dignity of head of
the empire; the ancient constitution of the empire was
dissolved, and a new league formed, with France at its
head (see Confederation of the Rhine), compre¬
hending the most considerable states in the south, to
which those in the north were afterwards added. This
confederation fell to pieces on the overthrow of the French
power in 1813, but it has served as the foundation of the
new constitution of the Germanic body. The number of
states is now reduced to thirty-nine, including Austria,
Prussia, Denmark, and the Netherlands ; but these four
powers rank as members only for a part of their domi¬
nions. The ecclesiastical principalities are entirely abo¬
lished; and the free towns, of which there were forty-
seven or more in 1800, are now reduced to four. The
princes who have lost their sovereignty have been redu¬
ced to the rank of nobles, and, no longer holding imme¬
diately of the empire, are said to be tnediatised. The
titles of royalty conferred by Bonaparte upon Bavaria,
^irtemberg, and Saxony, have .been confirmed, and Ha¬
nover has since been raised to the same rank. The com¬
mon concerns of this confederacy are managed by a diet,
consisting of deputies from thirty-eight states (Hesse
Homberg having no vote), who meet at Frankfort. The
pecuniary contributions, fixed in proportion to the popu¬
lation of each state, are voted for a period of five years.
The military contingents, which are regulated on the
same principle, amount to 120,000 men in time of peace,
and 301,000 in time of war, the latter being at the rate
of one in the hundred of the population. The German
states, including two sevenths of Austria, four sevenths of
Prussia, besides Holstein and Luxemburg, embrace an
area of about 237,000 English square miles, with 32,000,000
inhabitants; of w hom about one half are Catholics ; two
fths Lutherans; the rest Reformed, Moravians, Greeks,
and Jews. The new Germanic constitution, though less
complicated than the old, can scarcely be expected to
produce any of the effects of a solid union in such a hete¬
rogeneous mass. The states are too unequal in strength
to have a proper reciprocal influence; and there is not
yeight enough in the minor members to control the rival
interests and jealousies of Austria and Prussia. The
confederation may be considered as recognising, and in
some degree regulating, the influence which the great-
O P E.
smaller!68 necessariIy exe™ise indirectly over the
The following table exhibits the result of the various
changes since the commencement of the French Revolu¬
tion, upon the principal members of the confederation •
but to enter into particulars would carry us beyond the
proper limits of this article. Most of them, except Sax!
ony, have been enriched by the breaking up of theP eccle¬
siastical principalities.
419
Europe.
Bavaria 
Saxony 
Hanover 
Wirtemberg 
Baden..... 
Hesse Cassel 
Hesse Darmstadt..
Oldenburg 
Before the
Revolution.
Square
Miles.
22,000
14,800
10,900
3,200
1,370
3,340
2,180
960
In 1816.
Population, j]""*
2,183,000
2,104,000
787,000
608,000
177,000
443,500
249,700
95,000
30,000
7.200
14,400
8.200
5,800
4,300
4,100
2,500
Population.
3,560,000
1,200,000
1,305,000
1,395,463
1,001,700
540,000
619,500
217,000
(Hoeck, Aperpu ; Hassel, Europ. Staats, 1816).
The political arrangement of the states of Europe esta¬
blished by the peace of 1815, has since undergone three
material alterations. The Greeks rose in arms against
the Porte in 1821, and after a struggle of nine years, the
independence of their country was acknowledged by the
sultan in February 1830. The new state comprises the
Morea, Livadia, Negropont, the Cyclades, with one or
two other islands, and contains a population, according to
Balbi, of only 600,000 souls. Otho, second son of the
king of Bavaria, was appointed king of Greece in 1832.
The mutual antipathy which had long existed between
the Dutch and Belgians broke out on the part of the
latter into a revolutionary movement, which commenced
in Brussels in August 1830, and in a few months spread
over all Belgium. The independence of the latter coun¬
try has since been acknowledged by nearly all the great
powers; and Prince Leopold of Saxe Cobourg was cho¬
sen king in 1831 by an assembly of the representatives of
the people.
The third change has been already noticed, the incor¬
poration of Poland with Russia in February 1832.
The following statistical table of Europe is part of a
larger one published at Paris by Adrien Balbi in 1828,
under the title of Balance Politique du Globe. He has
reprinted it in his Abrege de la Geographic, published in
1833, with very few alterations except the insertion of
the new states since recognised, namely, Greece and
Belgium. It refers to the years 1826-27, his object being
not to give the most recent accounts for each state, which
must have varied according to the varying dates of our
information, but to exhibit the contemporaneous condi¬
tion of all the states at one common era, for the purpose
of comparison. It presents the most correct view of the
statistics of Europe within our reach ; and what we have
mentioned as to the author’s mode of compiling it, and
his object, will explain the discrepancies between it and
some of our previous statements.
li
EUROPE.
French Monarchy
Empire of Austina 
Prussian Monarchy 
Swiss Confederation 
K. of Bavaria  
K. of Wirtemberg 
K. of Hanover 
K. of Saxony 
Gr. D. of Baden 
Gr. Duke of Hessen 
Electoral Hessen 
Gr. D. of Saxe-Weimar. 
Gr. D. of Mecklenb. Schwerin
Gr. D. of Mecklenb. Strelitz
Gr. D. of Holstein-Oldenburg
D. of Nassau 
D. of Brunswick 
D. of Saxe-Coburg-Gotha....
D. of Saxe-Meiningen 
D. of Saxe-Altenburg 
D. of Anhalt-Dessau 
D. of Anhalt-Bernburg 
D. of Anhalt-Koethen 
P. Schwarz-Rudolstadt 
P. Schwarz-Sondershausen...
P. Iteuss-Greiz 
P. Reuss-Schleiz 
P. Reuss Lobenst-Ebersdorf
P. Lippe-Detmold 
P. Lippe-Schauenburg 
P. Waldeck 
P. Hohenzoll.-Sigmaringen..
P. Hohenzollern-Hechingen
P. Liechtenstein 
Landgrav. Hessen-Homburg
Republic of Frankfort 
Republic of Bremen 
Republic of Hamburg 
Republic of Lubec 
Lordship of Kniphausen 
Republic of Andora (in Spain)...
Republic of San-Marino 
Duchy of Massa 
Duchy of Modena 
Principality of Monaco 
Duchy of Lucca 
Duchy of Parma 
Grand Duchy of Tuscany 
Kingdom of Sardinia 
State of the Church   
Kingdom of the Two Sicilies.....
Spanish Monarchy 
Portuguese Monarchy 
Norwegio-Swedish Monarchy 
Danish Monarchy 
Holland 
Belgium   
English Monarchy 
Russian Empire 
Kingdom of Poland 
Total of the Russian Em-
pire.... 
Republic of Cracow (in Poland)
European Turkey 
Total of Ottoman Empire
Greece (kingdom of) 
Republic of the Ionian Islands...
205,000
258,000
107,000
14,900
29,500
7,600
14,800
5,780
5,970
3,700
4,450
1,420
4,770
770
2.500
1,925
1.500
974
921
528
347
337
320
408
300
145
208
242
440
209
462
390
109
53
166
92
68
152
117
17
192
22
94
2,000
50
416
2,200
8,430
28,000
17,000
42,300
183,000
38,800
297,000
22,000
11,100
12,930
121,200
1,997,000
48,800
7,880,000
496
206,000
1,200,000
15,700
1,000
32,000,000
32,000,000
12,464,000
1,980,000
4,070,000
1,520,000
1,550,000
1,400,000
1,130,000
700,000
592,000
222,000
431,000
77,ooo
241,000
337,000
242,000
143,000
130,000
104,000
56,000
38,000
34,000
57,000
48,000
23,000
28,000
26,000
72,000
26,000
54,0(0
38,000
15,000
6,000
20,000
52,000
49,000
148,000
41,000
2,859
15,000
7,000
29,000
380,000
6,500
143,000
440,000
1,275,000
4,300,000
2,590,000
7,420,000
13,900,000
3,530,000
3,866,000
1,950,000
2,302,000
3,816,000
23,400,000
52,575,000
3,900,000
60,000,000
114,000
9,500,000
21,000,000
600,000
176,000
Catholics, Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews  
f Catholics, Greeks, Calvinists, Lutherans, \
i Jews, Unitarians, Arunmans, &c......... \
(Evangelists (Lutherans, Calvinists), Ca-1
| tholics, Jews, Mennonites, &c )
Calvinists, Catholics, Jews 
Catholics, Evangelists, Jews.^.....  
Lutherans, Catholics, Jews, Calvinists 
Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Jews 
Lutherans, Catholics, Hernhutters, Jews....
Catholics, Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews 
Luther. Cath. Calv. Jews, Mennonites 
Evangelists, Catholics, Jews..   •"
Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Jews.......
Lutherans, Jews, Catholics, Calvinists 
Lutherans, Jews     
Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Jews 
Evangelists, Catholics, Jews, &c..... 
Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Jews 
Lutherans, Catholics, Calvinists, Jews 
Lutherans, Jews, Catholics 
Lutherans   
Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews, Catholics 
Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews 
Calvinists, Lutherans, Jews 
Lutherans, Catholics 
Lutherans, Catholics 
Lutherans, Jews 
Lutherans, Hernhutters, Jews 
Lutherans   
Calvinists, Lutherans, Catholics 
Lutherans, Calvinists, Catholics 
Lutherans, Calvinists, Jews   
Catholics, Jews 
Catholics 
Catholics   
Calvinists, Lutherans, Catholics, Jew 
Lutherans, Catholics, Jews, Calvinists 
Lutherans, Calvinists 
Lutherans, Jews, Calv. Cath. Mennonites...
Lutherans, Catholics, Jews, Calvinists..
Lutherans 
Catholics 
Catholics 
Catholics 
Catholics, Jews 
Catholics 
Catholics 
Catholics 
Catholics, Jews   
Catholics, Calvinists (Waldenses), Jews
Catholics, Jews 
Catholics, Jews 
Catholics  
Catholics 
Lutherans, Catholics, Jews..  —
Lutherans, Jews, Catholics, Calvinists, &c
Calvinists, Catholics, Lutherans 
Catholics, Calvinists 
( Anglicans or Episcop. Cath. Presb. Metho-
\ dists, Mennonites, Quakers, Jews 
{Greeks, Catholics, Lutherans, Mahom.
medans, Jews, Calvinists, Armenians,
Lamists,H ernhutters, ,Fetichists, Men¬
nonites 
Catholics, Jews, Lutherans 
( Greeks, Mahommedans, Jews, Catholics,)
( Armenians, &c )
Greeks, Catholics 
Greeks, Catholics, Jews........ 
40,784,000
18,600,000
8,866,000
412,000
3,262,000
980,000
1,072,000
1,155,000
839,000
648,000
639,000
203,000
247,000
54,000
160,000
247,000
260,000
101,000
80,000
63,000
76,000
48,000
34,000
35,000
21,000
15,000
14,000
26,000
53,000
23,000
43,000
32,000
13,000
144,000
19,000
81,000
43,000
231,000
43,000
16,000
190,680,000
68,206,000
29,966,000 162,600;
9,823,000
2,330,000
2,640,000
2,887,000
1,609,000
1,114,000
272,000
672,000
1,010,000
124,000
2,900
21,000
144,000
17,000
78,500
190,000
701,000
2,800,000
1,800,000
3,464,000
7,100,000
2,231,000
1,732,000
1,650,000
3,400,000
3,600,000
63,000,000
16,495,000
36,000
10,310,000
240,000
151,000
446,000
330,000
289,000
83,000
103,000
86,000
86,000
128,000
39,000
13,000
22,000
75,003
75,000
43,000
128,000
160,000
53,000
322,000
48,000
853,000
322,000
1,938,000
371,000
62,000
186,000
4,124,000
24.742,000
20^619,000
164,948,000
6,598,000
8,248,000
i 1,134,000
113,420,000
34,000,000
838,967,000
55,608,000
4,124,000
2,800,000
102,283
1,039,000
278,000
E U S
pale EUin ALE, in Mythology, one of the Gorgons, daugh-
| ters of Phorcys, and a sister of Medusa, who was subject
bias, neither to old age nor to death.
EURYDICE, in fabulous hi^ory, the wife of Orpheus,
who flying from the attempted ravishment of Aristaeus,
was slain by a serpent. Her husband went down to the
shades, and by the force of his music persuaded Pluto and
Proserpine to allow him to carry back his wife to earth, a
favour which they granted, provided he did not look on
her till he reached the light; but in a moment of affection
and forgetfulness he broke the condition, and Eurydice
vanished from his sight.
EURYMEDON, in Ancient Geography, a noble river
running through the middle of Pamphylia, and celebrated
for a sea and land fight which took place on the same day,
and in which the Athenians, under Cimon the son of Mil-
tiades, defeated the Persians.
EURYSTHEUS, a king of Argos and Mycense, son of
Sthenelus, and Nicippe the daughter of Pelops. Juno
hastened his birth by two months, that he might come
into the world before Hercules the son of Alcmena, as the
younger of the two was doomed by order of Jupiter to be
subservient to the will of the other. This natural right
was cruelly exercised by Eurystheus, who was jealous of
the fame of Hercules; and who, in order to destroy so
powerful a relation, imposed upon him the most danger¬
ous and uncommon enterprises, well known by the name
of the labours of Hercules. The success of Hercules in
achieving these perilous labours having greatly alarmed
Eurystheus, he furnished himself with a brazen vessel, in
which he might secure himself a safe retreat in case of
danger. After the death of Hercules, Eurystheus renewed
his cruelties against the children of the hero, and made
war against Ceyx, king of Trachinia, because he had given
them support, and treated them with hospitality. But he
was killed in the prosecution of this war by Hyllus, the son
of Hercules, and his head was sent to Alcmena, the mother
of Hercules, who, mindful of the cruelties which her son
had suffered, insulted it, and tore out the eyes with inve¬
terate fury. Eurystheus was succeeded on the throne of
Argos by Atreus his nephew. The death of Eurystheus
happened about thirty years before the Trojan war.
EUSEBIANS, a denomination given to the sect of
Arians, on account of the favour and countenance which
Eusebius, bishop of Caesarea, showed for them at their
first rise.
EUSEBIUS, surnamed Pamphilus, a celebrated bishop
of Caesarea, in Palestine, and one of the most illustrious
men of the Christian church, was born in Palestine, to¬
wards the close of the reign of Gallienus, about the year
267 of our era. He was the intimate friend of Pamphilus,
who suffered martyrdom under Diocletian in 309, and,
after his death, took his name in honour of his memory.
He was ordained bishop of Caesarea in 313. He had a
considerable share in the contest relating to Arius, whose
cause he, as well as several other bishops of Palestine, de-
ended, being persuaded that Arius had been unjustly per¬
secuted by Alexander, bishop of Alexandria. He assisted
at the council of Nice in 325, when he made a speech to the
emperor Constantine on his coming to the council, and
was placed next to him on his right hand. In 330 he was
present at the council of Antioch, in which Eustathius,
ishop of that city, was unjustly deposed; but though he
WaS^C u en ^ bishop and people of Antioch to suc¬
ceed that prelate, he absolutely refused. In 334 he as¬
sisted at the councils of Caesarea and of Tyre, by which
anasius was condemned; and he was present at the as-
sem y of bishops at Jerusalem during the dedication of
e c urch in that city. By these bishops he was sent to
e emperor Constantine to defend what they had done
E U S
421
™ ? ^thana*lus ; wIlen he pronounced the panegyric Eusebius.
posed on that emperor during the public rejoicings
m the beginning of the thirtieth year of his reign.J Euse-
bms survived the emperor but a short time, and died in
338 Ecclesiastical writers, ancient and modern, are much
divided in opinion respecting Eusebius. Several have de¬
fended him with warmth, in which number are Sozomenes,
Socrates, Victonus, and some others. St Jerome, on the
other hand, calls him the prince of Arians, Photius ac¬
cuses him, the seventh council condemns him, and this
opinion is generally followed by the moderns. The suc¬
cessor of Eusebius was Acacius, surnamed the One-eyed,
a man not less learned or less eloquent, and more enter¬
prising, than his master. Eusebius composed in Greek a
multitude of works filled with eloquence and erudition;
and those which have reached us, whilst they justify the
high reputation of the author, cannot fail to occasion re-
gret that so many have perished. He wrote, 1. the Apology
(w Defence of Origen, in six books; 2. a Treatise against
Hierocles ; 3. Fifteen books of Preparationes Evangelicce,
and twenty De Demonstratione Evangelica; 4. A Chro-
nicle from the beginning of the world till the twentieth year
of Constantine; 5. An Ecclesiastical History, of which
Valetius published a good edition in Greek and Latin;
h* A Pascnal Cycle ; 7. A work against Marcellus of An-
cyra, who was condemned at the council of Constantinople
in 335 and 336 ; 8. Four books of the Life of Constantine ;
9. Five books on the Incarnation; 10. Ten books of
Commentaries on Isaiah; 11. Thirty books against Por-
Phyry; 12. a book of Topics; 13. A Nomenclature of
Peoples and Nations, according to the books of the He'
brews; 14. A Topography of Judaea and the Temple ;
15. Three books of the Life of Pamphilus ; 16. Opuscula
on the Martyrs; 17. Commentaries on the Psalms', 18. A
Letter to Caspianus, and a Concordance of the Four Evan¬
gelists. It appears also that he wrote a Commentary on
the first Epistle to the Corinthians, and a Treatise on the
Accomplishment of the Predictions of Jesus Christ. The
greater number of his works, however, is only known by
the testimony of St Jerome, who makes frequent mention
of them, cites fragments of them, and appears to have used
them very freely in the composition of his own works.
Of those which have come down to us, the most consider¬
able is the Ecclesiastical History, which has been trans¬
lated into Latin by Rufinus, by Musculus, and by Christo-
pherson. The version of the last-mentioned translator,
printed opposite the Greek text, appeared in 1612. This
work of Eusebius is of the greatest utility in reference to
the history of the Christian church during the first three
centuries, and it has earned for its author the honourable
title of Father of Ecclesiastical History. In his Chronicle,
which contains the principal actions of great men, and the
history of discovery in the arts, Eusebius is supposed to
have availed himself of the Chronology composed a cen¬
tury before by Julius Africanus. St Jerome translated the
Chronicle into Latin, and continued it till the sixth consu¬
late of Yalens and Valentinian. The four books of the Life
of Constantine have been printed with the Ecclesiastical
History, and translated into French by Cousin. The ten
books which remain of the Preparatio Evangelica and the
Demonstratio were published at Paris in 1627, with the
versions of Donatus and Vigerus, to which was subjoined
the Treatise against Hierocles. It is in the Demonstratio
that the invaluable fragment on Sanctification is contain¬
ed. The Topography of the Holy Land, which St Jerome
translated into Latin, was published in Greek by Bonfrere
in 1631: it is also found in several editions of the works
of St Jerome. The Commentary on the Psalms was pub¬
lished by Montfaucon ; the Opuscula in Latin by Sirmond;
the Letter to Caspianus and the Canons for a Concordance
422
Eusta-
thians
It
Eusta¬
thius.
E U S
of the Gospels in the edition of the Greek New Testament,
bv Robert Estienne, 1550; the Notes on the Canticles by
Meursius ; and the fragments on the Lives of the 1 rophets
bv Curlerius, in his Commentaries of Procopius on Isaiah.
EUSTATHIANS, a name given to the Catholics ot
Antioch in the fourth century, on occasion of their refu¬
sal to acknowledge any other bishop except Eustathius,
who had been deposed by the Arians. Tins denomination
was given them during the episcopate of Pauhnus, whom
the Arians substituted instead of Eustathius, about the
year 330, when they began to hold their assemblies apart.
About the year 350, Leontius of Phrygia, surnamed the
Eunuch, who was an Arian, and was put in the see ox An¬
tioch, desired the Eustathians to perform their service m
his church ; which offer they accepted, and the church ot
Antioch served indifferently both Arians and Catholics.
This we are told, gave occasion to two institutions, which
have ever since subsisted in the church; the first, psalmody
in two choirs ; and the second, the doxology..
This conduct, which seemed to imply a kind of com¬
munion with the Arians, gave great offence to many of
the Catholics, who began to hold separate meetings; and
hence arose the schism of Antioch. Upon this, the rest,
who continued to meet in the church, ceased to be called
Eustathians, and that appellation was restricted to the dis¬
senting party. Flavianus, bishop ot Antioch, in 381, and
one of his successors, Alexander, in 481, brought about a
coalition or reunion between the Eustathians and the body
of the church of Antioch, which is described with much
solemnity by Theodoret (Eccl. lib. hi. c. 2.) .
Eustathians were also a sect of heretics in the fourth
century, who derived their name from their founder Eus¬
tathius, a monk, who was so foolishly fond of his own pro¬
fession, that he condemned all other conditions of life. But
whether this Eustathius was the same with the bishop of
Sebastia and the chief of the Semi-Arians, is not easy to
determine.
Eustathius excluded married people from salvation, pro¬
hibited his followers from praying in their houses, and
obliged them to quit all they had, as incompatible xvith the
hopes of heaven. He drew them out of the other assem¬
blies of Christians, to hold secret meetings with him, and
made them wear a particular habit; he ordained them to
fast on Sundays; and he taught them, that the ordinary
fasts of the church were needless, after they had attained
to a certain degree of purity which he pretended to. He
evinced great horror of chapels built in honour of martyrs,
and of the assemblies held therein. Several women, se¬
duced by his reasoning, forsook their husbands, and abun¬
dance of slaves deserted their masters’ houses. He was
condemned at the council of Gangra in Paphlagonia, which
was held between the years 326 and 341.
EUSTATHIUS, archbishop of Thessalonica, and com¬
mentator on Homer, flourished at Constantinople in the
twelfth century. Before his promotion to the see of Thes¬
salonica, he was master of requests and master of orators,
two ecclesiastical offices, the latter of which (namely, that
of the orators or rhetores) had for its object to expound the
sacred writings to the people. It was during this first part
of his public career that he wrote his commentaries on
Homer and on Dionysius Periegetes. His remarks on
Dionysius have been frequently printed along with the
text of that author, and Politi has given a Latin translation
of them, Geneva, 1741, in 8vo. But these, however useful
and deserving of commendation, are in no degree compar¬
able to the Commentaries on the Iliad and Odyssey, which
embody an immense treasure of literary and grammatical
erudition, chiefly extracted and compiled from preceding
scholiasts and commentators, as Apion, Herodorus, De¬
mosthenes of Thrace, Porphyry, and some others, the ad-
E U S
ditions made to their observations by Eustathius himself Bust
being neither very considerable nor very important. To ^ J
these Commentaries^ as well as to his Annotations on Dio¬
nysius, the learned commentator has given the modest title
of Parecbolce or Extracts ; desirous, no doubt, that those
who might neglect to read his preface should learn from
the title alone the nature of his work, and thus be pre¬
vented from attributing a disproportionate share of merit
to the compiler. The commentaries of Eustathius on the
Iliad were printed for the first time at Rome, 1542-1560,
in four vols. folio, including the beautiful table of Devaris.
But as this edition is exceedingly scarce and high-priced,
that of Bale, printed by Froben, 1559-1560, in three vols.
folio, which is the next in point of authority, may be advan¬
tageously consulted by scholars, in default of the former.
Itmust not be confounded, however, with an Abridgment
of Eustathius, of which Hadrian de Jonghes was editor,
and which appeared at Bale, from the press of the same
Froben, 1558, in one volume. Claude Capperonier, who
had promised a new Greek and Latin edition of the Com¬
mentaries of Eustathius, died without having published any
part of it; but Politi, whom we have already named, un¬
dertook this great work, of which he published at Florence,
1730-1735, three vols. folio, containing the first five books
of the Iliad. It is to be regretted, however, that Politi
took the trouble to translate into Latin a work which is
only suitable to those who are deeply versed in the Greek
language, and for whom the aid of a translation is super¬
fluous ; and it was probably this useless addition which
caused the interruption of the enterprize. With reference
to the extracts from the Commentaries of Eustathius which
Muller and Clarke have given in their respective editions
of the Iliad, it is only necessary to mention here, that these
have, in each case, been made upon a principle of selection
adapted to the peculiar nature and object of the undertak¬
ing. It is of more importance to observe, that at the pe¬
riod when Eustathius lived original literature had almost
disappeared, and that consequently this vast and important
compilation secured to him an immense reputation. In¬
tended at first for the bishopric of Myra in Lycia, he was
soon afterwards appointed archbishop of Thessalonica, and
in the exercise of his high functions displayed a dignified
and respectable character. The year ot his death is un¬
known ; but he was alive in 1194, and it may be conjec¬
tured that he died after 1198, at a very advanced age. Eu¬
stathius appears, from his Notes on the Canons of Joannes
Damascenus, to have composed several works besides those
which we have already mentioned; particularly a Commen¬
tary on Pindar, which is almost entirely lost; Homilies,
Discourses, Remarks on the Canons of St John of Damas¬
cus, and Letters which are preserved in different libraries.
Manutius has also inserted in the Gardens of Adonis & little
treatise of Eustathius on the dialects of Homer, but t is
tract is merely an insignificant extract from the gramma¬
tical observations contained in that Life of Homer v\ ic
some attribute to Plutarch, and others to Dionysius of Ban-
carnassus. ,
EUSTATIA, St, one of the Leeward Islands, in me
West Indies. It is a high rock, rising from the waves m
the form of a pyramid, gradually tapering to the top. *
twenty-nine miles in circumference at the base, and, n
withstanding the singular conformation of the island,
climate is healthy, and the soil, which is cultivated o
very summit, most prolific. It is, however, like other18,a
in this region of the globe, subject to the desolating V1S1
tion of thunder-storms and hurricanes. The latter are m
to be dreaded during the months of August and Septem >
and they have been frequently so severe as to lay ^as ,.
island and scatter the shipping. There is only °”e;al!.fi J.
place, and that, though difficult of access, is strongly for i >
E| fie
f o.
indeed the whole island has been rendered nearly impregna¬
ble when properly garrisoned. Sugar, cotton, and maize are
here produced; but the vegetable production most cultivated
is tobacco. Small as this island is, it is said to support nearly
twenty thousand inhabitants, who, besides their agricultural
avocations, rear hogs, kids, rabbits, and all kinds of poul¬
try, with which they are enabled to serve their neighbours
after having supplied themselves. This island was settled
by the Dutch as early as the beginning of the seventeenth
century; but in 1665 it was taken by the British, who in
their turn w'ere ejected by the French. In 1781 it yield¬
ed to Admiral Rodney; from the English it was again
wrested by the French, and after repeatedly changing
masters according to the varying fortunes of wnr, it was
finally transferred to the Dutch government at the peace
of 1814. St Eustatia lies fifteen miles south of Saba, and
eight miles north-west of St Christophers. Long. 63. 5.
W. Lat. 17. 31. N.
EUSTYLE, in Architecture, a sort of building in which
the pillars are placed at the most convenient distance from
one another, the intercolumniations being two diameters
and a quarter of the column, excepting those in the middle
of the face, before and behind, which are three diameters
E u T
apart.
EUTERPE, one of the Muses, daughter of Jupiter and
Mnemosyne, who presided over music, and was also regard¬
ed as the inventress of the flute. She is represented as
crowned with flowers, and holding a flute in her hands.
Some mythologists attribute to her the invention of tragedy,
which is more commonly supposed to be the production of
Melpomene.
EUTHYMIA, among the Greeks, signified such a dis¬
position or state of the mind as could not be ruffled either
by good or bad fortune, by health or sickness, pleasure or
pain, good or evil.
EUTIN, a city in that part of the duchy of Oldenburg
which lies on the Baltic Sea, called the duchy of Lubec. It
is situated on a beautiful lake, and is surrounded by the
Danish province of Holstein. It contains, besides the
ducal palace, 260 houses and 2540 inhabitants. Long.
10. 51. E. Lat. 54. 8. N.
EUTROPIUS, Flavius, a Latin historian, of whose life
we know but little. Even the praenomen Flavius is uncer¬
tain, as well as the race from which he sprung. Some con¬
sider him as a native of Italy, others of Gaul, and others
again of Constantinople, without our possessing any cer¬
tain grounds to enable us to decide on the one more than
the other. W e know that he lived under Constantine
Epistolaris, afterwards accompanied Julian against the Per¬
sians, and also lived under Valens. But it is uncertain
whether the Eutropius named as proconsul of Asia, and
another who was praefectus praetoris 381 a. d. be the same
person as the historian. His death took place probably in
the wars of Valens, and before the death of Sapor, 370 a. d.
Eutropius left an epitome of Roman history {JBreviarium
aistoria Romance) in ten books, from the building of
ome to the reign of Valens. At the conclusion he pro¬
mises a work on the same subject in a more extended form,
m consequence of a wish expressed by the emperor, to
w iom it is dedicated; but we are unable to state whether
e put his intentions into execution. The epitome has been
generally extracted from sources worthy of credit, from
some indeed to which we have no longer access. It care-
u y omits, however, all that may appear prejudicial to
ome; it follows generally a chronological order. The
6 i1S/!nadorned and simple; and we need not be sur-
wk\ i! • exhibits traces of the corruption of the age in
rpfi1C dved’ and that some of his expressions are less
ne than what are found in classical writers. There
re *wo translations of it into Greek, of which the one
LycimS’ in the time of Justinian, has perished; Euty
t the other, by a certain Pceencus, is still preserved. See chians
Vo s. Be Hist. Lat. n. 8; Fabric. Biblioth. Lat. iii. 9;^^
Moller, Dissert, de Eutrop. Altorf, 1685; Tzschucke,
Biss, de Vita, &c. in his edition of the work, Lips. 1796;
Bomtschen Literatur, Carlsruhe, 1832.
ki U . • VTi . ’ ancient heretics, who denied the dou¬
ble nature in Christ, and were so denominated from Eu-
tyches, the archimandrite, or abbot of a monastery at Con-
stantmople, who began to propagate his opinion in the year
448.. 1 his. man, however, did not seem quite steady and
consistent in his sentiments, for he appeared to allow of
two natures, even before the union ; a consequence he ap¬
parently drew from the principles of the Platonic philoso¬
phy, which supposes a pre-existence of souls. Accordingly,
he believed that the soul ol Jesus Christ had been united
to the divinity before the incarnation ; but then he allowed
no distinction of natures in Jesus Christ after his incarna¬
tion. I his heresy was first condemned in a synod held at
Constantinople by Flavian, in 448, the proceedings of which
were approved by the council of Ephesus, called conventus
latronum, in 449, and re-examined and condemned in the
general council of Chalcedon in 451. The legates of Pope
Leo, who assisted at the latter, maintained that it was not
enough to define that there were two natures in Jesus
Christ; but insisted strenuously, that, in order to remove
all equivocations, they must add these terms, “ without
being changed, or confounded, or divided.”
I he heresy of the Eutychians, which made great progress
throughout the East, at length became divided into several
branches. Nicephorus makes mention of no fewer than
twelve; some called Schematici, or Apparentes, as only
attributing to Jesus Christ a phantom or appearance of
flesh; others, Theodosians, from Theodosius, bishop of
Alexandria; others, again, Jacobites, from one Jacobus of
Syria, which last branch established itself principally in
Armenia, wdiere it still subsists. Others were named Ace-
phali, headless, and Severians, from a monk called Severus,
who seized on the see of Antioch in 513. These last were
split into five subdivisions, namely, Agnoetce, who attributed
some ignorance to Jesus Christ; the followers of Paul;
MiXaim, or the black Angelites, so called from the place
where they were assembled ; and lastly, Adrites and Co-
nonites.
Eutychians was also the name of another sect, half
Arian half Eunomian, which arose at Constantinople in the
fourth century.
It being then a matter of great controversy amongst the
Eunomians at Constantinople, whether or not the Son of
God knew the last day and hour of the world, particularly
with regard to a passage in the gospel of St Matthew
(chap. xxiv. ver. 36), or rather to one in St Mark (xiii. 32),
where it is expressed that the Son did not know it, but the
Father only; Eutychius made no scruple to maintain, even
in waiting, that the Son did not know it: and this opinion
having displeased the leaders of the Eunomian party, he
separated from them, and made a journey to Eunomius,
then in exile, who fully acquiesced in Eutychius’s doctrine,
and admitted the latter to his communion. But Eunomius
having died soon afterwards, the chief of the Eunomians at
Constantinople refused to admit Eutychius; who, upon this,
formed a sect of such as adhered to him, who were called
Eutychians.
This Eutychius, with one Theophronius, were the occa¬
sion of all the changes made by the Eunomians in the ad¬
ministration of baptism; which, according to Nicephorus,
consisted in only using one immersion, performed not in
name of the Trinity, but in memory of the death of Jesus
Christ. Nicephorus calls the chief of that sect, not Euty¬
chius, but Eupsychius, and his followers Eunomiavpsychians.
424
Eutychius
EVA
EVA
FTTTYCHIUS, patriarch of Alexandria, lived about the
,, ninth century; and wrote annals in the Arabic language,
Evander. inted at Oxford in 1658, with a hatm versum by Po-
cocke. Selden had printed something of his before.
EUXINUS PONTUS, Black Sea, lying between Europe
and Asia, into which several of the largest rivers in e
world flow; on the west the Danube, Dniester am Dniep^
on the east the Phasis, and on the south the Helys and
Thermodon. A large peninsula stretches into the ce ^
and divides it into two great gulfs ; the cape in the Cn
was called Criu-metopon (Karadje-Bouroun,), and that i
Asia Carambis (Kerempi-Bouroun), being distant from each
other 170 miles. According to Strabo its circumference
was 25,000 stadia, equal to 715 leagues, which is very nearfy
correct. The ancients believed that at one time it had no
communication with the Mediterranean,
which flow into this sea having opened for themselves a
passage, the waters rushed into the Mediterranean by the
Hellespont, and caused that sea to burst a passage throug
the Straits of Gibraltar. (Strab. i. 49.) In the time of
Diodorus the inhabitants of the island Samothrace preserved
the recollection of an inundation which had elevated the
waters of the Mediterranean to such a height that their
ancestors were obliged to take refuge on the summits of
their highest mountains; and so late as the first century of
the Christian era they had the custom of sacrificing on al¬
tars placed on the spot to which they believed the waters
to have risen. There seems every reason to believe that
the Black Sea, Caspian, and Aral, were once united, and per¬
haps found a vent to the North Sea by the valley through
which the river Oby flows from Tobolsk. This immense
lake was bounded to the north by the lofty mountains of Asia
Minor and Armenia; and when by their weight the waters
burst the barrier opposed to them on the side of the Bos¬
phorus, it may easily be conceived with what a fearful
shock they must have poured into the Mediterranean. See
Storia Filosofica della Navigazione, del Commercio e delle
Colonie degli antichi del Mare Nero, by Formaleom, Ve-
net. 1788; also Notes on French Strabo, Pans, 1805. _
EVAGRIUS Scholasticus, an historian, born at Epi-
phania about the year 536. He practised the profession
of advocate, from which he was called Scholasticus, a
name which was then given to the pleaders at the bar;
and he was also tribune and keeper of the prefect’s dis¬
patches. He wrote an ecclesiastical history, which be¬
gins where those of Socrates and Iheodoret ended ; be¬
sides other works, for which he was rewarded by the em¬
perors Tiberius and Mauricius. M. de Valois published
at Paris a good edition of Evagrius’s ecclesiastical history
in folio; and it was republished at Cambridge in 1620, in
folio, by William Reading, with additional notes of various
authors.
EVANDER, a king of Arcadia, said to be son, some¬
times of Mercury and sometimes of Echemus, king of Ar¬
cadia, had as his mother the nymph Nicostrate or Car-
menta, according to the Latins. Various reasons are given
to account for his emigration to Italy. According to Ser-
vius (Virg. viii. 51, 130), he had killed his father
by accident; but Ovid says that he was compelled by
civil broils to abandon his kingdom to his brother Ladocos.
This event is supposed to have taken place about fifty
years before the taking of Troy. Faunus, who then reign¬
ed in Italy, received Evander and his companions with
great kindness, granting to him as much land as was ne¬
cessary to build a city. Its foundations were laid on the
Palatine hill; and it was called Pallatium or Pallanteum,
either in honour of his son Pallas, or in remembrance of
a village of the same name in Arcadia. Evander was
greatly annoyed by the thefts of a giant named Cacus,
who dwelt on the Aventine hill; but Hercules, whom he
received with much hospitality, freed him from this for- Er ^
midable enemy. At a later period Virgil introduces him ij,
to us, as forming an alliance with Aeneas, and furnishing
him with a body of troops commanded by his son Pallas. ^ ra-
(2En. viii. 154). He gave laws to his people, taught the \^[
aborigines of Italy agriculture, invented music, and intro¬
duced into his new country the knowledge of letters.
After his death he was by the gratitude of his subjects
ranked among the gods.
EVANGELISTS, the inspired authors of the Gospels.
The word is derived from the Greek iwyyt'kiov, formed of
£y, bene, well, and ayy{hog, angel or messenger. _
The denomination of evangelists was likewise given in
the ancient church to those who preached the gospel in
different parts, without being attached to any particular
church, being either commissioned by the apostles to in¬
struct the nations, or having of their own accord aban¬
doned every worldly attachment, and consecrated them¬
selves to the sacred office of preaching the gospel. In
this sense it is, according to some interpreters, that St
Philip, who was one of the seven deacons, is called the
evangelist in the twenty-first chapter of the Acts of the
Apostles. Again, St Paul, writing to Timothy (Ep. ii.
chap. iv. ver. 5), bids him do the work of an evangelist;
whilst the same apostle (Eph. iv. 11) ranks the evange¬
lists after the apostles and prophets.
EVANTES, in Antiquity, the priestesses of Bacchus,
who were so called because in celebrating the orgia they
ran about as if distracted, crying, Evan, evan, ohe evan.
EVAPORATION is that process by which liquids and
solids gradually assume the gaseous form, or by which, in
certain circumstances, an invisible vapour or gas is con¬
tinually detached from the surface of water, and perhaps
of every other liquid, as also from the surfaces of many, if
not every solid. From this process being generally found
to lower the temperature of the evaporating body, an ef¬
fect which might have been expected from the doctrine
of latent heat, it is probable that heat enters largely into
the constitution of every vapour, and is therefore suppos¬
ed to be the principal agent. At a given temperature, a
cubic foot or other determinate space, incumbent over a
liquid, cannot contain above a certain quantity of the same
kind of vapour ; and when it contains that maximum, it is
said to be saturated. If, therefore, after this is the case,
an, additional vapour continue to be thrown off, it mus
either fall back immediately into the liquid, or, if slig y
cooled, may apparently remain suspended in the visible
form of a cloud, which, however, is not properly vapour,
but minute drops, formed by the cooling of it, and whicn
successively fall back into the liquid. For ®vaPora/
continues to go on under the pressure of air or o
gas, however dense, but ceases in the presence o an) ga >
however rare, if already saturated with the same vaPau. ’
unless such gas be colder than the evaporating y* ,
which case, however, the vapour being partly, con en
into drops, becomes cloudy, as was just mentione ,
sometimes liquids, while in the act of ebullition, w ,.
rather an extreme case of evaPorat^on’.1 irow,
drops, which may be seen alternately rising and
the vapour. Such is a summary of a few of the »
facts, several of which we shall have occasion to 0 .
more fully, along with other particulars, whilst or y
noticing, as we shall now do, some steps m t ie i
this inquiry, before proceeding farther. arvingHiscal
The spontaneous disappearance of water, and tne u j
of humid bodies, or the tendency which moisture ri
escape from them and diffuse itself in the atmosp i L vethe'
afterwards to descend as rain, snow, dew, &c. nau ^ eva
been familiar to mankind in every age, eondi i° >
mate; but any thing like an approach to a ration V
evaporation.
I on-
1: n.
De: 11-
lier .he-
cry
Dou
gart
Cler
theo
the
heat
poui
nation of the facts seems to be of very modern date.
Some of the ancients, particularly Aristotle, conjectured
/ that fire was concerned in the process ; but such of their
notions as have come down to us are so little to the pur¬
pose, that they need not now be dwelt upon. Halley sup¬
posed that aqueous vapour consisted of small hollow sphe¬
rules, filled with something so very light, that they readi¬
ly ascended and floated in the air,—a theory not altogether
such as might have been expected from the known saga¬
city of its author; for, though Descartes seems to have
hinted at the same thing long before, it scarcely appears
to have had the least shade of truth in it. But so com¬
pletely was Kratzenstein’s imagination filled with this
doctrine, that he fancied he could see these vesicles with
a ipicroscope, and even discern them to be hollow, not¬
withstanding their being supposed to form a transparent
vapour. If he really saw any thing, it was more probably
minute drops of water descending in the air. Nay, al¬
most up to the close of the last century, we find many
eminent men, and among these the late able mathemati¬
cian Mr George Atwood, maintaining and speculating on
this vesicular theory, as it was called. Halley, it is true,
hinted at another theory, which not a few embraced, and
for which some have still a predilection, namely, that air
holds moisture united to it by chemical solution or affinity ;
but the first idea of this seems to be due to Hooke. A
different explanation was attempted by Desaguliers, who,
after pointing out the defects of former theories, showed
that water is capable of being converted into a transpa¬
rent elastic fluid, which he supposed to be many times
lighter than air, and that it could therefore ascend and
float in the atmosphere; but he some time afterwards in¬
clined to ascribe the ascent of vapour to an electrical at¬
traction of the air. Desaguliers was no doubt greatly
mistaken regarding the specific gravity of steam, which,
under the same pressure and temperature, is now known
only to fall short of that of air in the ratio of five to eight;
but he was perhaps the first who thought of identifying
pure steam with the attenuated aqueous vapour diffused
in the atmosphere. It would seem that prior to Desa¬
guliers advancing this notion, it was not known that steam
is always generated in a transparent state, although mi¬
nute drops of water may be passing or falling through it;
and indeed some are scarcely aware of this at the present
day. The fact is, that steam or aqueous vapour preserves
its transparency so long as it has neither lost heat nor had
its volume enlarged; but so soon as its temperature is
lowered, whether from losing heat or from enlargement
of volume, it is more or less condensed into minute drops
■of water, which of course render it opaque. For we can
on no account admit the very generally received doctrine
ofM. Clement, that equal weights of steam, if in contact
with water, contain equal quantities of heat, whatever be
.their volumes or temperatures. On the contrary, we can¬
not help believing that a given weight of steam requires
more heat to maintain it in the transparent elastic form,
when under a greater volume, than under a less; and in
proof of this, we presume it is only necessary to adduce
the following fact. If we open a stop-cock in the cover
of a boiler when the pressure is only one atmosphere, the
steam which issues preserves its transparency till it get
to some distance from the orifice ; but when the pressure
within amounts to two or three atmospheres, the steam,
it allowed to issue freely, is opaque from the very orifice.
Ibis clearly shows that the same quantity of heat (we do
not mean temperature) which had been amply sufficient
to maintain the steam in the transparent form under a
smaller volume within the boiler, is quite inadequate to
0 so when the steam is allowed to enlarge its volume
under a reduced pressure. A more palpable or satisfac-
425
tory proof than this, which has been long before the pub- Evapora-
ic, is scarcely to be wished; yet we find Dr Gardner not tion-
long ago reading a paper to the Royal Society on the heat
of steam, and which has for its foundation the untenable
theory of Clement. Indeed M. Clement’s mode of expe¬
rimenting was so fallacious, that it would have given him
the same results whether his theory had been true or
not. For when the stream of steam is very small, and of
course passes through the stop-cock with difficulty, as it
must have done in his experiments, it has, while in the
act of dilating from under a force of two or three to that
of one atmosphere, the opportunity of absorbing heat from
the metal of the scarcely open stop-cock, then much hot¬
ter than 212°, the temperature to which the dilating is
supposed to reduce the steam. No wonder then that equal
weights of steam, at first so different in density, should,
when received in equal quantities of cold water, produce
equal rises of temperature; as is pointed out more parti¬
cularly in the Philosophical Magazine for July 1826, p. 38.
It is likewise to be remembered, that though in the other
experiment the steam must have been absorbing some
little heat from the stop-cock, this did not enable it to pre¬
serve the transparent form. We have been the more par¬
ticular in clearing up this point, because we shall shortly'
have occasion to refer to it.
From the time of Halley and Desaguliers to about
1770, a variety of essays on evaporation made their ap¬
pearance, which, however, tended but little towards eluci¬
dating the subject, because they were either not founded
on experiments at all, or on such as were not sufficiently
elementary. Some of these sought to establish the vesi¬
cular system, while others advocated that of chemical solu¬
tion and electrical attraction. At length, in 1783, came Researches
forth the well known Essais sur VHygrometrie of M. de Saus-
Saussure, who, though he did not labour so much to esta- sure'
blish new theories as to blend together or combine some
of those already mentioned, certainly added considerably to
the stock of facts. But he at the same time greatly indulged
his fancy in supposing aqueous vapour to be capable of
existing in four different forms. When it alone occupied
a space, he called it pure elastic vapour; when diffused in
a transparent state in the air, he named it dissolved elastic
vapour, imagining it to be chemically dissolved by the air;
but after the air was quite saturated with this sort, he
thought some of it assumed the form of vesicular vapour,
only differing from that of Halley in being visible. To
these he added concrete vapour, which consisted of liquid
drops, such as form clouds and fogs; a real form of mois¬
ture to be sure, but one which is not properly vapour at
all. In these Essais we have an account of a variety of
experiments, most of them having the advantage of being
executed on a great scale; but, on the other hand, they
were often deficient in that elementary simplicity which
is so important in a research of this nature, if we would
avoid sources of fallacy. By inclosing a known weight of
caustic alkali in a very large glass balloon, previously filled
with thoroughly damp air, Saussure endeavoured to find
what quantity of moisture this air contained, from the in¬
crease of weight which it communicated to the alkali; and
conversely, by weighing a bit of wet linen, and suspending
it in the balloon filled with dry air, he estimated how much
moisture had evaporated from the linen to render the air
thoroughly damp. These two methods not only gave him
nearly the same result, but did so whether he used air hy¬
drogen or carbonic acid in the balloon, and even when he
employed a mixture of these gases. During these experi¬
ments he also observed, by means of a gauge, what change
of pressure took place within the balloon from the change
of humidity.
By operating at different temperatures, he obtained re-
3 H
426
EVAPORATION.
Evapora¬
tion.
Theory of
Deluc and
Dalton.
Dr Dal¬
ton’s re¬
searches.
suits from which different conclusions might be drawn to
suit different theories; for instance, that the quantity of
vapour which could exist in the balloon varied in geome¬
trical progression for equal intervals of temperature, and
nearly as the square root of the air’s density ; and that air
of the ordinary density could contain five times as much
vapour as a vacuum did ; all of which conclusions are now
known to be incorrect. Prior to this, Lambert had, from
his experiments, drawn a very different but still more erro¬
neous conclusion, that the quantity of moisture varied as
the square of the air’s density.
It was natural to think that the great discordance be¬
tween the results of these celebrated philosophers should
have raised doubts whether they might not both have de¬
ceived themselves by too complex a mode of opeiating,
and, therefore, that neither of them was likely to be correct.
Accordingly we find M. Deluc, in his Idees sur la Meteoro-
loqie, hinting at an incomparably more simple theory, which
he afterwards developed more fully in the Philosophical
Transactions for 1792, viz. that the quantity of vapour which
can exist in a given space depends upon the temperature
alone, and is independent of the presence or density of air, or
of any other elastic fluid with which the vapour forms no
chemical combination, being the same as if nothing but the
vapour occupied that space. In this speculation he also
maintained, as Desaguliers had done, that pure steam and
the attenuated aqueous vapour diffused in the air are the
same. Something similar to this theory was advanced by
M. Pictet in his Essai sur le Feu, and still more so by Dr
Dalton in his Meteorological Essays ; and it is not impro¬
bable that each might have hit upon the same theory be¬
fore knowing what the others had done. By inclosing his
hygrometer along with a little water under a receiver, De¬
luc found that the indications of that instrument were the
same whatever was the density of the included air, or how¬
ever much he exhausted it; and the same thing held true
with other gases. Volta, likewise, from a great variety of
experiments, was led to acquiesce in the theory of Deluc.
The theory was farther investigated, in a much more
elementary way, by Dr Dalton, as detailed in the Man¬
chester Memoirs, vol. v.; but preparatory to noticing it, we
shall subjoin his manner of expressing himself on the sub¬
ject in \ns, Essays, p. 201, where, from certain experiments
and observations, he infers “ that the vapour of water, and
probably of most other liquids, exists at all temperatures
in the atmosphere, and is capable of bearing any known
degree of cold without a total condensation, and that the
vapour so existing is one and the same thing as steam or
vapour of 212° or upwards. The idea, therefore, that va¬
pour cannot exist in the open atmosphere at a lower tempe¬
rature than 212°, unless chemically combined therewith, I
consider as erroneous ; it has taken its rise from a suppo¬
sition that air pressing upon vapour condenses the vapour
equally with vapour pressing upon vapour; a supposition
we have no right to assume, and which, I apprehend, will
plainly appear to be contradictory to reason and unwarrant¬
ed by facts ; for when a particle of vapour exists between
two particles of air, let their equal and opposite pressures
upon it be what they may, they cannot bring it nearer to
another particle of vapour, without which no condensation
can take place, all other circumstances being the same ;
and it has never been proved that the vapour in a receiver
from which the air has been exhausted is precipitated upon
the admission of perfectly dry air. Hence, then, w e con¬
clude, till the contrary can be proved, that the condensa¬
tion of vapour exposed to the common air does not in any
manner depend upon the pressure of the air.” The method
which Dr Dalton took to clear up this question is distin¬
guished by an elegant simplicity. In the first place, he
determined by experiment the expansive force of dry air
for each degree of temperature between 32° and 212° ; and Eva-,
was the first who did so with any thing like accuracy. He tic
at same time found that 1000 cubic inches of air at 32° ^ j
expanded to 1376 on being heated to 212°, which comes
surprisingly near 1375, the result published by M. Gay
Lussac shortly after. But through some inadvertency
Dr Gardner (on Heat, p. 57) makes Dr Dalton’s result
1325, and then gravely adds, that “ the latter (Gay Lus-
sac’s) determination has been proved by subsequent expe¬
riments to be the more correct.” Secondly, Dr Dalton
ascertained the force of pure steam in contact with water
for each degree throughout the same range; and, thirdly,
he found at what rate dry air expanded, when put in con¬
tact with water, and then heated through the various de¬
grees of that range. The result was, that at any particu¬
lar temperature, the expansive force of dry air in the first
case, added to the force of vapour in the second, was ex¬
actly equal to their joint expansive force in the third. From
this it is obvious that there is either no chemical combina¬
tion between the air and vapour, or that such combination,
if it exist, is quite inert, or goes for nothing so far as this
research is concerned. Dr Dalton found, that when other
gases were substituted for air, the vapour gave the same
results ; and similar results were obtained when other va¬
pours were treated as steam. M. Desormes, likewise, byBeses«
operating in a manner very different from that of Dr Dal-ofM.*
ton, found the quantity of vapour to be independent of the0™^ :•
presence of air or other gases. The question was also ex¬
amined experimentally by M. Gay Lussac, with his well-
known accuracy and ability, and his results precisely agreed
with those of Dr Dalton. Still more recently Professor
Daniell has made a great variety of interesting experi¬
ments on mixtures of gases and vapours, in a manner simi¬
lar to that employed by Deluc, but with the help of an in-.
comparably better hygrometer ; and his researches, too, cor¬
roborate the theory completely.
Several objections have been made to this theory; but
all of them with which we are acquainted are so nugatory
and irrelevant that we do not think they require any refu¬
tation. There is, however, a point which the foes as well
as the friends of the theory have taken for granted, and
which, though extremely probable, it would, for anything
we can see, be very difficult to prove in a direct and unex¬
ceptionable manner ; viz. that the expenditure of heat in
forming a given weight of vapour is the same, w hether the
process take place in air or other gas, or in a vacuum.
Since in most combinations heat is given out, it is a win¬
der that those who contend for the solution of vapours in
gases have not founded some objection on this; for we
presume it is the only point on which a doubt could be
palmed respecting the theory. It is generally taken for
granted too, that the expenditure of heat in forming a given
weight of vapour is the same at every temperature; but
this assumption we cannot help regarding as very erroneous,
because to us it appears quite clear that the expense o
heat is greater when the vapour is rarer ; and this we main¬
tain for the following reason. The density of steam atDou .
212°, for instance, is about 109 times greater than at 32 jT^
Fahrenheit; and we have already seen that steam loses in^tun
a considerable degree the elastic form by being dilated to
two or three times its bulk ; how much more then it dila-aiWa_v
ted 109 times? Hence steam rarefied to such a degree same,
would need a large addition of heat to enable it to mj-1111'
tain the gaseous form; in other words, much more ea
must be expended or become latent in forming a gnelj
weight of vapour at 32° than at 212°. It steam, when ep
separate from water, have its temperature raised by com
pression at the same rate as air has, it might be shown t ^
the expense of heat in forming vapour at 32° would e
that at 212° as thirteen to eight nearly, that is, w
EVAPORATION.
427
me
El '1-
on
for :fva-
po it dif¬
fer tem-
pei i1,68.
Dr il-
tor ;xpe-
rin ts.
Gu;
sac'
nnn, 3.
ipc.
ratio of the logarithms of the number of times the steam is
rarer than water. See Philosophical Magazine for April
1832, page 246.
Vapours and gases agree in so many of their properties,
that there seems no doubt of their being but one and the
same form of matter. Thus, so far as has been examined,
every vapour, when kept separate from any sensibly eva¬
porating liquid, expands by heat at the same rate as air and
other gases do; and, like gases too, it observes the law of
Boyle, by having the force at a given temperature pro¬
portional to the density. But since the density of a vapour
in contact with its generating liquid increases with the
temperature, its force, when so situated, increases much
more rapidly than that of air or a mere gas does. How¬
ever, the precise law which connects the temperature with
the density or force seems to be as yet unknown. Dr Dal¬
ton having, as already mentioned, ascertained by experi¬
ment the force of aqueous vapour between the tempera¬
tures of 32° and 212°, deduced from the results what he con¬
sidered to be the relation between the force and tempera¬
ture, and for some time it was supposed that by means of
it the force could be had for temperatures beyond both
limits of that range. Accordingly on this principle he con¬
structed a table which extended from — 40°F. up to 325° ;
and indeed he was pretty fortunate in the extension below
32°, because the half of it has since been so nearly con¬
firmed by the very accurate experiments of M. Gay Lussac,
which were carried down almost to— 20° cent, or — 4>°F.;
but above 212° the supposed law was soon found to give
the force too small, and the more so as the temperature is
higher. Yet Dr Gardner, in his recent treatise on heat, gives
this part of the table expressly as the result of Dalton’s
“ accurate experiments,” and not as it really was, a mere
extension by means of a formula; nor does he warn us of
its erring almost two atmospheres at the upper extremity.
It is likewise curious that Dr Gardner, while he notices
performances of far less merit, is totally silent respecting
the labours of the Committee of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris in 1829 ; though they executed by far
the most extensive and accurate experiments that ever
were made on steam at high temperatures, as will be found
detailed in the Annales de Chimie for January 1830. All
the English abstracts from this which we have seen are
very incorrect. Dr Dalton has more recently published
another table of the force of vapour adapted to some of
his theoretical views ; but from its differing considerably
from the results of others, especially those of Gay Gussac,
we do not consider it so correct for low temperatures as
his first one, part of which is given farther on in this article.
The method employed by M. Gay Gussac to determine
experimentally the force of vapour at low temperatures
is particularly commendable, and yet its merits seem to
have been very much overlooked, even by those who were
engaged in similar researches. It may therefore be useful
to give a brief account of it here. Other philosophers had
either not carried their experiments below 32° at all, or
had mismanaged the matter by allowing water to freeze
in the tube in such a manner as to obstruct the free mo¬
tion of the mercury, and likewise to render its altitude ill
uefined and difficult to be seen. These inconveniences
were dexterously avoided by Gay Gussac, who still em¬
ployed a barometer tube, but one so much longer than or¬
dinary that a considerable part of it next the sealed end
was above the mercury, and a portion of this, being bent
to about an angle of 60°, was immersed in a cold mixture
along with a thermometer. The consequence of this ar¬
rangement was, that neither the mercury nor the small
portion of water on its top necessarily required to be cooled
down at all; because, however moderate their temperature
dnght be, the force of every portion of the included vapour
I
being in equilibrio with the force of that which touched Evapora-
the coldest part of the tube, was just the same as if the tion.
whole vapour had been at the temperature of the freezing
mixture. A farther advantage was, that after the apparatus
had been allowed to remain for a short time in the state now
described, the water entirely disappeared from the top of
the mercury, having been transferred by evaporation or dis¬
tillation to the sealed end of the tube, where it was quickly
frozen. By this means the mercury became almost as free
from moisture as if none had been in the tube. It is, be¬
sides, evident that this method could be carried down, not
only to and below the freezing point of mercury, but to
any temperature, however low, to which the extremity of
the tube could be cooled ; and that it is applicable to every
sort of vapour which does not act upon mercury. In fine,
Gay Gussac having placed a barometer tube filled with dry
mercury beside and in the same cistern with the one which
contained both mercury and moisture, read off the differ¬
ence in the heights of their mercurial columns w ith great
precision, by means of a microscope which could be shifted
up and dow n a graduated pillar, and the difference was ob¬
viously the force of the vapour. Although mercury eva¬
porates at all temperatures, as appears from a bit. of gold-
leaf becoming white if long suspended over it in a phial,
and from the noxious effects of breathing air which has
been for some time in contact with a large surface of mer¬
cury, yet the force of its vapour is so very small compared
with that of steam, that it could not sensibly affect these
experiments. Indeed it seems to be a general law, that
the forces of vapours from liquids which have high boiling
points, are quite inappreciable at low temperatures.
The most important problem connected with the evapo- Researches
ration of water is to determine the rate at which, under cer- on t*16 rate
tain circumstances, it escapes from a given surface at a par- °^1va^ora’
ticular temperature. Many cases of this problem are still
very imperfectly solved. The experiments of Dr Halley, de- DrHal-
tailed in No. 189 of the Philosophical Transactions, seem tody’s expe-
be among the earliest which were employed for this purpose.riments-
He found that water salted to the state of sea water, and
exposed to a heat equal to that of a summer’s day, did, from
a circular surface of eight inches diameter, evaporate at
the rate of six ounces in twenty-four hours. Hence he
concludes, that a square degree of sixty-nine miles will eva¬
porate 33,000,000 tuns in a day ; and supposing the Me¬
diterranean to contain 160 square degrees, it would evapo¬
rate 5,280,000,000 tuns daily. This quantity he considers
sufficient to supply all the rains, springs, dews, rivers, &c.
It would however be of little use to rehearse the whole of
this speculation, because the data, as we shall afterwards
see, wrere too loose, and the experiment was on too small
a scale, for such a comparison. Dr Gardner, in touch- Water car¬
ing on this subject in his treatise on heat, says, that inriedin by
the Straits of Gibraltar, instead of an outward current,the cur-
there is a rapid and never-ceasing inward flow of water,
and that he is therefore compelled to conclude that thecannot be
evaporation from the surface of this sea carries off the enor- an Spent
mous quantity of water supplied from this and other sources, by evapo-
Such doctrine from so respectable a quarter rather sur- ration,
prises us; since it is quite well known that, besides the
inward current, which is principally in the middle of the
surface, there are generally outward currents, likewise at
the surface, next the coasts, particularly the south one, and
most probably also in the immense deep beneath. Ac¬
cording to Professor Robison, the water sometimes flow's
outward, even in the middle of the surface. Had there
been no outward current, the Mediterranean must long
ago have become as salt as the brine of the Dead Sea; or
rather perhaps have become a rock of salt, as Dr Thomas
Young remarked; for,as we shall afterwards see,no common
salt or other muriate rises from the sea by evaporation. In
428
Evapora¬
tion.
Dr Dob¬
son’s expe¬
riments.
EVAPORATION.
order that the same degree of saltness may continue, the
outward currents must just bear away as much salt as the
inward current and other sources supply, with the very
slight exception of what the wind carries off in the form ot
spray, water spouts, &c. The waters ol the Mediterranean
being, as is well known, specifically heavier, especially at a
great depth, than those of the Atlantic, will naturally in¬
cline to buoy them up, and flow out beneath them in the
infathomable depth of the Straits.
A series of Experiments on the evaporation of water at
natural temperatures was continued for four years, begin¬
ning with 1772, by Dr Dobson, at Liverpool, as detailed
in the Philosophical Transactions, vol. Ixvii. He took
a cylindrical vessel twelve inches in diameter, and hav¬
ing nearly filled it with water, exposed it beside his rain-
gauge of the same aperture ; and by adding or withdraw¬
ing water, as occasion required, he kept the surface at
nearly the same height. By comparing the total quan¬
tities thus added or taken away with the proceeds of the
rain-gauge, the amount of evaporation was ascertained.
The mean monthly evaporation for the four years was, in
January, LS inches ; February, 1-77 ; March, 2*64 ; April,
3-3; May, 4-34; June, 4-41; July, 5-11; August, 5-01;
September, 3T8; October, 2-51; November, 1-51; De¬
cember, 1-49. In all, 36*78 inches. The mean rain for
the same time was 37*48. For a great deal more in this
way, and on the evaporation of ice and snow, see How¬
ard’s excellent treatise on The Climate of London. T hat
ice and snow* evaporate, appears from their losing weight, Ev r,
or even disappearing altogether, if long enough exposed t:
to a brisk and dry wind during frost. But sometimes snow 'w' *
is rendered so much colder by radiation than the-incumbent
still air, that it condenses the vapour of that air into hoar¬
frost, and by that means augments its own weight or bulk.
But the experiments of Dr Dalton and Mr Hoyle, though Exj,
rather of local application, were no doubt far more accu-»edj
rate for evaporation from the soil. Having got a cylindri-1)r 4
cal vessel three feet deep and ten inches in diameter, two^d'
pipes were joined to it, and turned downwards for the sur- °
plus rain-water to run off’ into bottles ; the one pipe being
near the bottom, the other an inch from the top. The
vessel was filled up for a few inches with gravel and sand,
and the remainder with good fresh soil. It was then put
into a hole in the ground, and the space around filled up
with earth, except on one side, for the convenience of af¬
terwards joining bottles to the pipes, and registering their
contents. The earth in the vessel was now saturated with
moisture, by pouring in water till some of it escaped from
the pipes ; and, lastly, the bottles were put to. During the
first year the soil was bare at top ; but for the next two
years it was covered with grass, like any green field. A
regular register was kept of the rain-water which ran off
through the upper pipe, and also of what sunk down through
the earth to the lower pipe. A rain-gauge of the same
diameter was kept close by, to register the quantity of rain
for any corresponding time.
January 
February...,
March 
April 
May 
June 
July 
August 
September,
October....
November.
December.
Rain,
Evap.
Water through the two Pipes.
1796.
Inch.
1*897
1*778
0*431
0*220
2*027
0171
0*153
0*200
6*877
30*629
23*725
1797.
Inch.
0*680
0*918
0*070
0*295
2*443
0*726
0*025
0 976
0*680
1*044
3*077
10*934
38791
27*857
1798.
Inch.
1*774
1*122
0*335
0*180
0*010
0*504
1*594
1*878
7*379
31*259
23*862
Mean.
Inch.
1*450
1*273
0*279
0*232
1*493
0*299
0*059
0*168
0*325
0*227
0*879
1*718
8*402
Mean Rains.
Mean Evapo¬
ration from
Ground.
Inch.
2*458
1*801
0*902
1*717
4*177
2*483
4*154
3*554
3*279
2*899
2*934
3*202
33*560
Inch.
1*008
0*528
0*623
1*485
2*684
2*184
4*095
3*386
2*954
2*672
2*055
1*484
25*158
Mean Evapo¬
ration from
Water.
Inch.
1*5
2*
3*5
4*5
4*959
6*487
5*628
6*058
3*898
2*351
2*042
1*5
44*4
From these experiments it appears, ls£, That the mean
annual quantity of water evaporated in the above circum¬
stances is twenty-five inches of rain, to which if we add five
for dew, will give thirty inches of water raised annually :
<Mly, That the evaporation increases nearly, though not
exactly, in the same ratio as the rain; thus 1797 gave
most rain, and the greatest evaporation, &c.: ‘idly, That
there is little difference between the evaporation from bare
earth of sufficient depth, and that from ground covered
with grass. It is however to be observed, that the numbers
in the last or right hand column belong to the years 1799,
1800, and 1801 ; and that on account of accidents with the
frost, these numbers are partly conjectural for January,
February, March, April, and December. The mean an¬
nual evaporation during the same three years from ground
covered with grass, exclusive of dew, was 23*5 inches,
which falls a little short of that for the other three, which
was twenty-five.
But there is reason to suspect that a less depth of soil in
the vessel would have allowed more water to escape into
the bottles, and vice versa. It is therefore in some degree
a matter of conjecture that this apparatus indicated the
true evaporation from the adjacent fields. Lahire having
filled a vessel eight feet deep with soil, and sunk it into
the earth, left it there for fifteen years. It had an open¬
ing at the bottom for the escape of the water, but never a
drop came through. The quantity of rain, to be sure, being
less at Paris than at Manchester, will so far account for this.
In such an article as this it might be expected that, m
conformity with custom, we should state the mean evapo¬
ration for all England, and a number of other principal
countries. This however we are unable to do, because we
are persuaded that to obtain even an approximate estimate
would require experiments, such as those of Dr Dalton
from the soil, to be made at least within every square mi e
of surface. The usual estimates being only derived from
Ei
Kel
bet’
the
rati
rate
port
429
EVAPORATION.
ni* sl vessel with W3,ter? <is will be noticed more particularly diameter and Vmlf* ^ xi i • i
. afterwards, afford no measure of evaporation from the soil, diameter and three fourths nfP’ ^ ^ T ei£ht jn£hes ETaPor
^ The following relation between the temperature and the made to b“tpmrdeffrom a baknce" we,eP’ b ^ b0t'’
: n rate of evaporation from water, was discovered by Dr Dal- in one of these and weighed it wiTnL ^ ^ bemg ?Ut '
!4e ton. Having, as above mentioned, determined experimen- dow or other exposed situation fhr ? d °pe-n Win‘
id tally the force through a considerable range, he was natu- and again weighed to ascertain the los^f™ ^ rmni/.tes’
Wally led to examine whether the quantity of water evapo- The t^ratL of ^
n. rated in a given time bore any proportion to the force of va- the force of the aqueous atmosphere ascertain^ ^
pour of the same temperature, and was agreeably surprised and the velocity^ the current of air nodeed for S
to find that they corresponded in every part of the range exa- the same evaporating force a strong winrl hl ,
mined. Thus the forces of vapour at 212°, 180°, 164°, 152°, changing the air in contact with TJ L ’n l
UV, and 138°, are equal 30, 15, 10, T-b, 0, and 5 ’inches ereJpfJuLT^T 7^1 ^ ttof ea-
of mercury respectively ; and the grains of water evapo- riments made during both winter and summer, Ind when
rated per minute are in the same ratio. This Dr Dalton the evaporating force was strong and weak even in the ,
considers as quite in conformity with the laws of mecha- case of ice, the results were found perfectly conformable
nics; for the atmosphere seems by its inertia to obstruct with the theory. The same quantity is evaporated with
the diffusion of vapour, which would otherwise be almost the same evaporating force thus determined as near as can
instantaneous, as in vacuo ; but this obstruction, which is be judged, whatever be the temperature of the air Thus
greater as the air is more dense, is overcome in proportion if the dew point be 40° while the air is at 60° the evano-
to the force of the vapour. Did the obstruction arise from ration is the same as if the dew point were at^O0 and the
the weight of the atmosphere, it would prevent any vapour air at 72° ; for -524 — -263, which is the difference of the
from rising at temperatures lower than 212°; but accord- forces of vapour at 60° and 40°, is nearly equal to -770 —
ing to Dr Dalton it is caused by the inertias of the particles *524, the difference of the forces at 72° and 60° • but two
of air, and is similar to that which water meets with in de- such differences could be had exactly equal by using frac
scending among pebbles. tions of degrees of temperature, and interpolating between
The theory of evaporation was thus far settled so much the other numbers,
the more easily, because the force of vapour already in the The following table exhibits the ratios and quantity of
open air being very small compared with what is produced water evaporated at different temperatures, derived from
from water at high temperatures, did not sensibly affect the preceding theory, and confirmed by experiments. The
first column is the temperature ; the second the force of
vapour ; the rest give the number of grains evaporated
from a surface six inches in diameter, supposing the air to
be previously dry. The third column is calculated on the
the results ; but Dr Dalton found, that if the theory was
to be verified by experiments for low temperatures, regard
must be had to the force of vapour already in the atmo¬
sphere. For instance, if water of 59° were the subject,
T empera-
ture.
Force,
Inch.
Evaporating Force in Grains.
the force of vapour at that temperature being a sixtieth of supposition that at the temperature of 212° the evaporation
the force at 212°, one might expect the quantity of evapo- per minute from the said surface is 120 grains ; the,fourth,
ration to be a sixtieth also ; but if it should happen, as it that it is 154 grains; the fifth, 189, according to the strength
sometimes does in summer, that an aqueous atmosphere to of the wind ; for if the air in contact with the water be con-
that amount does already exist, the evaporation, in place tinually changed, So that the recently moistened portion may
of a sixtieth, would be nothing at all. On the other hand, be speedily removed and drier air substituted for it, the pro-
if the previously existing vapour were the 120th, corre- cess will be proportionably expedited. These columns pre-
sponding to 39° F., then the effective evaporating force sent the extremes and mean of evaporation likely to be noti-
would be the 120th of that from boiling water. In short, ced when the process goes on in air of the. ordinary density.
Dr Dalton found that the evaporating force must in every The effects of different densities will be considered after¬
case be equal to that at the temperature of the water dimi- wards.
nished by that already existing in the air. To find the TaMe of the Force of Evaporation.
xorce of the aqueous atmosphere, Dr Dalton revived the
method which had been employed by Leroy long before.
He used in summer to take a tall glass jar, and fill it with
cold spring water, fresh from the well. If dew was imme¬
diately formed on the previously dry outside, he poured
the water out, let it stand a little to rise in temperature,
wiped dry the outside of the jar, and then poured the wa¬
ter in again. The like process is to be repeated till dew
cease to be formed, and at that instant the temperature of
the water is to be carefully noted, for the purpose of ob¬
taining, from a table like that -which shortly follows, the
corresponding force of vapour. Such temperature is call¬
ed the dew point, or the point of deposition ; because the
air, if cooled to it, would be in a state of saturation with
moisture, and of course ready to deposit dew, especially on
any thing in the least colder than itself. This operation
-d ° k be PerPormed in the open air, or at an open win-
cw, because the air within is generally more humid than
’Without. Spring water in this country being generally w ithin
? e|Fee or two of 50°, will mostly answer the purpose dur-
Mg the three hottest months ; in other seasons an artificial
mixture may be used. But Leslie’s or Daniell’s hygro-
e^er ^ould be still more convenient at all seasons.
o observe the evaporation at atmospheric temperatures,
r alton had two light tin vessels; the one six inches
20°
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
•129
•134
•139
•144
•150
•156
•162
•168
•174
•180
•186
•193
•200
•207
•214
•221
•229
•237
•245
•254
•52
•54
•56
•58
•60
•62
.65
•67
•70
•72
•74
•77
•80
•83
•86
•90
•92
•95
•98
1-02
•67
•69
•71
•73
•77
•79
•82
•86
•90
•93
•95
•99
1-03
1-07
1-11
1-14
1-18
1-22
1-26
1-31
•82
•85
•88
•91
•94
•97
1-02
1*05
1-10
M3
1T7
1-21
1-26
1-30
1-35
1-39
1-45
1-49
1-54
1*60
430
Evapora¬
tion.
EVAPORATION.
Table of the Force of Evaporation continued.
1
Tempera.
ture.
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
49
50
51
52
53
54
55
56
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
81
82
83
84
85
212°
Force,
Inch.
•263
•273
•283
•294
•305
•316
•327
•339
•351
•363
•375
•388
•401
•415
•429
•443
•458
•474
•490
•507
•524
•542
•560
•578
•597
•616
•635
•655
•676
•698
•721
•745
•770
•796
•823
•851
•880
•910
•940
•971
1-00
1*04
1-07
MO
1-14
1*17
Evaporating Force in Grains.
1-05
1-09
M3
1*18
1-22
1-26
1-31
1-36
1-40
1-45
1-50
1-55
1-60
1-66
1-71
1-77
1-83
1*90
1- 96
2- 03
2-10
2-17
2-24
2-31
2-39
2-46
2-54
2-62
2-70
2-79
2-88
2- 98
3- 08
3-18
3-29
3-40
3-52
3-65
3-76
3- 88
4- 00
4-16
4-28
4-40
4-56
4-68
30
120
1-35
1-40
1-45
1-51
1-57
1-62
1-68
1-75
1-80
1-86
1- 92
1*99
2- 06
2-13
2-20
2-28
2-35
2-43
2-52
2-61
2-70
2-79
2-88
2- 97
3- 07
3-16
3-27
3-37
3-47
3-59
3-70
3-83
3- 96
4- 09
4-23
4*37
4-52
4-68
4-83
4- 99
5- 14
5-35
5-50
5-66
5- 86
6- 07
1-65
1-71
1-78
1-85
1-92
1- 99
2- 06
2-13
2-20
2-28
2-36
2-44
2-51
2-61
2-69
2-78
2-88
2- 98
3- 08
3-19
3-30
3-41
3-52
3-63
3-76
3-87
3- 99
4- 12
4-24
4-38
4-53
4-68
4- 84
5- 00
5-17
5-34
5-53
5*72
5- 91
6- 10
6*29
6-54
6*73
6- 91
7- 17
7-46
154
189
in the table. Greater exactness may be had by inter- Ev? a
pointing between them. In this case, for instance, the ti
weight should more correctly be -290, and the dew-point
42°'6. Such estimates, however, are liable to uncertainty,
where any doubt remains respecting the velocity of the
W1 j)r Dalton found that the same theory held with regard
to the evaporation of other liquids, and was even more
easily verified by experiment in their case than in that of
water, on account of the air previously containing little or
none of their vapours. In short, the evaporation in their
case is similar to that of water in perfectly dry air.
Since vapours, so long as they maintain the gaseous form,
expand and contract by change of temperature precisely
at the same rate as air does in like circumstances, and
since mixtures of air and vapour do the same, it follows,
that if at any temperature above the dew-point the pres¬
sure of the unconfined air have to that of the vapour in it
a certain ratio, it will have the same ratio to it at any other
temperature not lower than the dew-point. Hence, be¬
cause the entire pressure is constant, the force of vapour
at the actual temperature of the air is exactly equal its
force at the dew-point or temperature at which the air under
the original pressure becomes saturated with moisture, and
at which all. the moisture in it just barely maintains the
gaseous form.
Dr Anderson, in giving a table of the weight and force
of aqueous vapour in vacuo {Edin. Encyc. xi. 578), says,
it is adapted to a pressure of thirty inches, and that when
the barometer differs from thirty, the numbers in the table
(none of which denote atmospheres, but grains and inches)
must be altered in the same ratio as the pressure. It is
difficult to conceive how he could fall into such a palpable
mistake. Vapour in vacuo being protected from atmo¬
spheric pressure, has obviously nothing to do with its changes
or amount; and we have already seen that the maximum
force and density of vapour in air, as well as in vacuo, de¬
pend solely on the temperature. Yet Dr Anderson (ibid.]).
581) makes the maximum weight of vapour which can exist
in a cubic inch of air at a given temperature to be proportion¬
al to the barometric pressure, which is remarkable, consider¬
ing his professed adherence to Dalton’s theory. It is farther
curious that the doctor, not perceiving that the actual force
of vapour in the open air must be exactly equal to its force
at the dew-point, gives (on same page) a formula for re¬
ducing the one force to the other; and he even takes i
for granted that Dr Dalton is in the same error, though
the very reverse appears from all his writings, and espe¬
cially those already quoted. . .
The rate of evaporation is very different in air of differ-Int I
ent densities, being greater when the density is less, an o
vice versa. Some experiments on this subject are given
by Professor Daniell, in the second and much improveu^
edition of his valuable Meteorological Essays, pubhshe in
1827, page 493, from which we make the following brier ,
abstract:—Upon the plate of an air pump was place ,j.
flat dish 7-5 inches diameter, containing sulphuric aw f ^
and covered by a receiver which but just passed over i >
so that the base of the included air rested everywhere on
the acid. In the middle of the dish was a stand ^PP0^
As an example of the use of the table, let the dew-point
be 52°, the temperature of the air 65°, with a moderate
breeze, to find the evaporation per minute from a vessel
six inches in diameter. The number in the fourth column
opposite 52° in the first, is 2,06, and that opposite 65° is uxo uviu. j.h me nuume v,.. - — e-Vwas
3T6 ; the difference, IT grain, is the evaporation required, ing a vessel 2’7 inches diameter, and 1*3 dec\), w ic
Again, if the evaporation per minute, with a brisk wind, be filled with water to the depth of an inch, and ia
1-7 grain, while the air is at 62° ; required the weight of the cate thermometer resting on its bottom. . 'Y16]W ujf 1 very
aqueous atmosphere, and the dew-point. In the fifth co- ing been previously freed from air, was weighed wi ^
lumn the number opposite 62° is 3*52, being the whole eva- sensible balance, and then exposed to^the action o
porating force at that temperature in perfectly dry air, from ~1—Ttc' *Qrv‘T'0’'al'”r<1 wns anl*t ie a
which T7 being deducted, leaves T82, which, in the fifth
column, is opposite to *294 inch of mercury in the second,
the weight of the column of vapour, and to 43° the tempera-  r ,  
ture or dew-point. That is by using the nearest numbers stood at 15*2 inches, it was found to have lost in
ce, ana men exposeu tu me ov-n— --
phuric acid. Its temperature was 45°, and the '3aroia •
at 30-4 inches. At the end of half an hour it was g
weighed, and found to have lost T24 gram by evapo
VV clgllcLlj dllU. ILILIIIVA LW 11 Cl V iwoi/ ft r* J ^ ‘ll fVip
Having been replaced, and the air rarefied till tne g* ^
i i
-a ° .
Eva
ti
Coolin
influen
of evar
ration.
Pressure.
30*4...
15-2...
7-6....
3-8...,
1-9...,
•95..
•47..
Beginning.
 45°
 45.
 45.
 45.
 45.
 45.
 45.
Temperature.
EVAPORATION. 432
- *£ degT But E7ora-
^ the pressure one half, the successive losses from evapora- in the coolinn- effect Psim, l ‘j by PartlclPating ^Von- .
0" »oov each, were aS MowL water, that^.i^rS’ Sto Ztl ^
Although this cooling influence has been long known in a
general way, it is remarkable how few experiments have
been made, or, so far as we know, published, to show the
extent of cold produced in different circumstances; and
still more remarkable, that those few results of different
experimenters should differ so widely, as we shall presently
see they do. Dr Anderson, in the article Hygrometry,
m the Edinburgh Encyclopcedia, gives the following as the
results of his experiments on the cold produced by the eva-
Poration of water air of different densities. For this
was ’07 inch, the evaporation in the half hour was 87-22 PurPose> he placed Leslie’s hygrometer, along with a cup of
' - During this last experiment the water was frozen su P lur^c ^i^* uncler a receiver of the air pump.
End.
.45°..
.43...
.43...
.43...
Loss,
Grains.
..1-24
..2-87
,.5-49
..8-80
.41 14-80
.37 24-16
.31 39-40
When the exhaustion was pushed to the utmost, which
grains.
in about 8 minutes, while the thermometer under the ice
was at 37°. There must, however, be some inadvertency
respecting the loss from evaporation in the second experi¬
ment ; because in the table it is 2-87, and in the account
before it only 2-72, which last, we presume, is the more
correct of the two.
29-6
23-6
17-6
11-6
5-6
48°
48
48
48
48
43°-64
42 -38
40 -58
37 -34
32 -12
4C
6
7
11
16
•86
12
■92
•16
38
27°
34
44
62
91
Dr Ander¬
son’s expe¬
riments.
The first column is the pressure in inches, the second
Before inferring from these experiments the rate of eva- the Fahrenheit temperature of the dry bulb, the third that
poration under different pressures, Mr Daniell applied to of the moist, the fourth their difference or the depression,
the results a correction for the variation of temperature, and the fifth the same depression in degrees of Leslie’s hy-
Taking the evaporation as proportional to the elasticity of grometer. The third and fourth columns, though not in the
the vapour, he estimated the latter from the mean of the original, are obviously obtained from the others, and inserted
in degrees of Fahrenheit, for the sake of comparison with
those which follow.
In an article on hygrometers and evaporation, in the
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal for October 1826, Mr
Meikle gives the two following series of similar experi¬
ments, which were not made with Leslie’s hygrometer, but
with what was reckoned preferable for the purpose, two
common thermometer tub6s fitted upon one broad and
temperatures at the beginning and end of each experiment,
and calculated the amount for a fixed temperature. This
might have been supposed to give a near approximation,
were it not evident from the last experiment, that, owing
to the bulb of the thermometer not being close at the eva¬
porating surface, it indicated often too high a temperature ;
but the following table presents the results computed on
that principle for the temperature of 45° ; and here again
we suspect the second number 2-97, being computed from
2-87, is too great.
Pressure. Grains.
30-4 1-24
15-2 2-97
7-6 5-68
3-8 9-12
1-9 15-92
•95 29-33
•47  50-74
*07 112-32
Notwithstanding the slight irregularity of the series, Mr
Daniell thinks we can run no risk in concluding that the
amount of evaporation is, cccteris paribus, in exact inverse
proportion to the elasticity of the incumbent air. But per¬
haps it would be more correct to say, that, cceteris paribus,
the rate of evaporation is inversely as the density of the air ;
°r that is Dr Dalton’s view of the matter, and is equally
conformable to these experiments. It may however be ob¬
served, that the rate of evaporation in the first case, which
ls.111 a‘r the ordinary density, is much smaller than that
given by Dr Dalton; but the process going on in so small
‘I'olume of still and confined air, seems a sufficient reason
for this.
It was hinted above, that evaporation tends to lower the
emperature of an evaporating surface, by abstracting heat
1,; for the formation of vapour. For, from the well
mown fact, that in the formation of aqueous vapour as
1 nnn ■1Cat Is ahsorbed as would raise the temperature of
w times hs weight of w ater one degree, it follows, that
ere it not for the heat derived from surrounding bodies,
wn ,v1aj)or‘zat‘on of the 1000th part of a mass of water
tint k °Ter ^le temperature of the whole one degree; so
> y the time the 100th part had evaporated, the tem-
doubly graduated scale; the one bulb being dry and the
other covered with wet linen. The columns respectively
denote the same things as the first four in Dr Anderson’s.
29-7
19- 4
17-2
13-3
8-8
29-9
20- 0
10-0
5-6
48c
47
47
47
46
60°-6
59 -5
58 -9
58 -5
36c
33
32
31
27
45°
41
34
28
IF
14
14
15
19
Mr Mei-
kle’s expe¬
riments.
15°-1
18 -5
24 -8
30 -5
All sealed thermometers stand too low when the pres¬
sure of the atmosphere is removed from their bulbs. The
two just mentioned were found to be each l°-5 too low in
an exhausted receiver. Hence most of the numbers in the
second and third columns still require to be more or^ less
corrected for this, according to the degree of exhaustion ;
but since both thermometers were equally affected, the de¬
pressions have nothing to do with it. However, the in¬
cluded air seems to have been really a little cooled from the
influence of the cold wet bulb.
We have alwTays been puzzled to account for the ex¬
treme smallness of Dr Anderson’s depressions in the fourth
column. Perhaps he had used very weak sulphuric acid,
or too small a surface of it; or he might not be aware that
the full effect in a single case is seldom attained in less
than half an hour. The pressure and temperature in his
first case are nearly the same as in Mr Meikle’s; and yet
the depression 4°-86 is not half of 11°-6. From many trials
we know that the weather is by no means very droughty,
if a wet thermometer do not fall more than 4°-&6, when
only exposed in the open air at 48°-5, without any sulphu-
.i
432
evaporation.
Evapora¬
tion.
Mr Da¬
rnell's ex¬
periments.
ric acid at all. To increase the cold in a wet thermome¬
ter, Dr Lardner recommends exposing it to the sun. mt
whoever takes the trouble of properly trying this, will find
that the sun has quite the contrary effect; and therefore
the doctor is just in the same delusion, only on a greater
scale, when he directs his readers to wrap wine Dottles m
wet cloth, and expose them to the sun as a source ot great¬
er cold! The sun, like the fire, aids evaporation, by sup-
nlviner heat, which will more or less counteract the cooling
effect, and may even raise the temperature ; but common
sense revolts at the very idea of the heating rays ot the
sun being a source of cold. , . , ,
In 1827, Professor Daniell published, in the second edi¬
tion of his Essays, p. 499, a series of expenrnents on the
cooling effects of evaporation, and which, like Mi Meikle s,
were made by means of two common thermometers, the
one dry and the other moist; but he seems only to have
read off to the nearest half degree ; and his depressions,
though not so deficient as those of Dr Anderson, still lean
considerably to the same side. The following are his re¬
sults, arranged as the preceding:
30-2 50° 41°
15-1 49 37
7.5 49 34
3-7 49-5 31-5
1-8 49-5 28-5
q 49 24’5
•4 49 23
From repeated experiments we have found that at the
temperature of 50°, and under a pressure of about thirty
inches, a wet thermometer, when inclosed in a receiver
along with a sufficiently large surface of strong sulphuric
acid, should fall 12°-1 or 12°-2, in place of 9°, as Mr Da¬
niell has it. The rest of his depressions are still more de¬
ficient ; but when we attend to the disposition of his ap¬
paratus, our surprise rather is that the depressions should
be so great as they are. What we particularly object to
is his not only inclosing a vessel with water under the le-
ceiver, but interposing it directly between the wet bulb
and the sulphuric acid. This he did for the purpose of
occasionally dipping that bulb in the water ; a precaution
which was not only unnecessary, but which, by rendeiing
the air moist and obstructing the drying of the bulb, must
obviously have rendered the whole of his depressions much
smaller than they should have been in perfectly dry air.
which it had often been concluded that alcohol could be Ev
vaporized with so much less fuel than water, that its vapour
would be an economical substitute for steam as a first ^
mover ; nay, this had become a standard doctrine in almost Sul
every scientific compilation. It however involved a fatal ^
oversight, as was first pointed out by Mr Meikle in the Phi-^
losophical Magazine for July 1826, p. 41, and afterwards
by Mr Ainger in Brande’s Journal of Science for March
1830 ; for it is not with equal weights, but with equal vo¬
lumes of these vapours, that the comparison falls to be
made ; and when this is done, the greater rarity of steam
puts it on at least an equal footing with alcoholic vapour,
so far as regards the economy of heat. In other respects,
steam is decidedly preferable ; for, independently of the
enormous expense of alcohol, the density of its vapour, be¬
ing about 2-5 times that of steam, would prevent it from
moving with the same facility through the pipes, valves,
&c.
Perhaps it may not be altogether foreign to our subject M
JL XU J  O  O J  ,
to mention, that Mr Hutton froze alcohol by condensing™*
• • . • «      •..-I-.! i v-* /-p m11 /">n uiUFli
9°
12
15
18
21
24-5
26
air on it in a strong vessel, which being very much cooled
by freezing mixtures, was next suddenly opened, when the
dilatation of the air, and the consequently rapid evapora¬
tion and re-expansion of the alcohol, absorbed so much
heat as induced a cold sufficient to freeze it.
The bad effects of damp clothes, beds, &c. are usually Da
ascribed to the cold attending the evaporation of the damp; da >
but since considerable injury often follows where scarcely JT
any cold is felt, we suspect the chief cause lies ratfier injc; ra.
the moisture suppressing the natural evaporation from thetk
skin. The heavy smell which accompanies most dogs, and
the fetid grease upon their hair, show that they perspire in
some other shape besides what some suppose the only one
from their tongues.
Various instruments have been employed to measure^
the rate at which moisture escapes into the atmosphere. We 1
have already alluded to the method of exposing water in
vessel, and noting the loss. The vessel is generally circu-rat
lar, with a roof a little above it to keep off the rain, &c.;
and, for greater accuracy, the contents may either be weigh¬
ed from time to time, or measured in a graduated tube.
When the vessel is brim full, the wind is apt to blow some
of the water over ; and when not full, the water is in some
measure sheltered from the drying effects of the wind.
The only use of such an instrument or gauge is to give us
a very vague idea of the drying power of the air. It at¬
tic
mejes
V jpo-
When Mr Meikle made his experiments, and they were ^ *“& —-   •7‘VC5+f  ~ n frnm the
published before those of Mr Daniell, he satisfied himself fords no measure whatever of the evaporation f om
that if the thermometer was properly covered and mois- ground ; for when the soil is exceedingly parch , <
tened at first, no renewal of moisture was necessary. This sequently has next to no moisture to give off the ga f?
he ascertained by repeating, in a retrograde order, the dif- generally shows the greatest evaporation of all.
ferent cases when he had just completed a series of these stating the particulars of the climate 0* a Pla,ce’V
experiments ; for on finishing with the case in which the to mention the amount of evaporation derived mos p
air was most rarefied, he readmitted as much air as just bly from no better source. But it canno even
air was most rareneu, ne reaumiueu as mucn an as ju&v hum hw ~ , • .Unt case
brought back the gauge to the next case, which being re- sure of the evaporation fiom a a e, ecause
Vi- navi tirul sn on. till the indications of the ffauge depend very mucn on
peated, he readmitted more air for the next, and so on, till the indications of the gauge depend \ ery muc 1 ^
he had got back over the whole series. In every case, the rection of the wind ; for it is obvious t ia 1 a P ^
wet thermometer was found to be as much depressed in dry wind traverse an extensive lake before reat &
, 1 • n 1 1.    K.r hpcnme so lllinna as IU
the backward process as in the forward, a clear proof that
there was no lack of moisture. Neither Dr Anderson nor
Professor Daniell say whether they made any allowance
for the effects of pressure on the bulbs of their thermome¬
ters.
Oil of turpentine is well known to evaporate very quick¬
ly, but we have as yet failed to detect any cold that it pro¬
duces, though we do not therefore suppose it forms any
vaporizing exception to the general law. Some liquids, as alcohol,
turpen- ether, sulphuret of carbon, &c. both evaporate more rapid¬
ly than wTater does, and produce a greater cold; but the
expenditure of heat is greater in vaporizing a given weight
of water than of any other liquid yet examined ; a fact from
Cold not
yet ob¬
served in
tine
UI y W1I1U navcioc cm • C'    • I nc to
gauge, if may by that time have become so huimd a
show little or no drying power at call upon the gauge. W j
on the other hand, the wind passes first over the gau& ’
its indications are to be suspected of erring in e^cess’f
cause the farther a wind continues to traverse sl! 1
of a lake, the more will its drying power be impale >
therefore the average rate of evaporation will be es
at the side next the gauge. For this reason the ev P
tion from a smaller surface of water is, cceteris ^ar^ arnj’et}ier
er in proportion to the area than from a larger.
r 1 , 1 11 T1  1— 4.^ -Wf
: unable
any general rule could readily apply to this, _we are ^ ^
to say. Perhaps something like an approxinialionh)
relation between the area and evaporation in sue
k:
EVA
No -iria-
Coi la-
stances would be had by dividing the area by some root of
its mean linear dimension taken in the direction of the
wind, and multiplying by a constant. But this would not
in the least rectify the indications of the gauge. Since
similar objections must obviously attach to all gauges em¬
ployed for this purpose, it wmuld be of little use to give
any farther account of them, or of the registers of evapora¬
tion with which many works otherwise valuable are so often
encumbered.
It had been long supposed that muriatic acid vapour ex-
tic 1 in isted in the atmosphere incumbent over the ocean or on
the sea coasts ; and various effects were ascribed to its
presence. But from experiments detailed in the Journal
de Pharmacie for November 1833, it appears that such
effects are solely owing to minute drops of salt water or
spray which have been swept into the atmosphere by the
wind; and that, with the exception of the salt drops thus
raised, though only when the sea is ruffled by the wind,
sea-air contains neither muriates nor uncombined muriatic
acid. At first sight we had some doubt whether this
would account for the injurious effects of sea-air on vege¬
tation ; because the presence of common salt, if not in ex¬
cess, is known to be beneficial. But perhaps the salt when
united with the soil may operate as a cordial to the roots,
while it may be noxious when in immediate contact with
the stem or leaves, as is often the case with manure inju¬
diciously applied close to the roots of plants.
In the method of forming ice in India by exposing wa-
tiorj hot ter during the night to the aspect of a clear sky, the effect
clitr es vvas for some time ascribed to evaporation ; but Dr Wells
^ ra" ascertained that the water thus exposed gained in place of
losing weight. Now it could only gain by being cooled below
the dew point of the incumbent air ; for it is only in that
state that the air could yield a portion of its moisture to
the water; and therefore the cold must be the effect of
radiation, and not of evaporation. This was farther evident
from the circumstance that wind which ought to have in¬
creased the evaporation prevented the freezing altogether.
But independently of these considerations, water exposed
in the open air could never be cooled to the freezing point
by evaporation alone in a hot climate. Where such a
thing occurs, the air must be unusually dry, even after its
temperature scarcely amounts to 40°, or the atmospheric
pressure must be very small; because the utmost evapora¬
tion that can be produced artificially under the ordinary
pressure will little more than cool a wet thermometer from
40° to 32° ; and the cooling effect on a vessel with water is
not nearly so great, especially in the open air, if care be
taken to avoid the influence of radiation under the aspect
of a clear sky. It is true that, at Benares for instance, the
surface of the ground, after becoming very cold by radia¬
tion, sometimes renders the incumbent still air also pretty
cold; but this, by bringing the air to a state of saturation
with moisture, totally unfits it for aiding the freezing by
evaporation.
So great is the difference of opinion respecting the in-
uence of electricity on evaporation, that we suspect it has
wot yet been sufficiently investigated. The use of evapo¬
ration in the arts and manufactures will be found under
e respective articles. In addition to the various works
woticed in this article, see Dr Thomas Young’s Natural
ilosophy ; Wells on Dew; Pouillet’s Elemens de Phy-
Slque etde Meteorologie. A variety of articles on this sub-
^e,c. found in the different volumes of the Philoso-
V py Transactions, and other scientific journals, (e.e.e.)
• p f ES, a branch or division of the Druids, or an¬
ient Celtic philosophers. Strabo divides the British and
ae ic philosophers into three sects ; Bards, Evates, and
sL' ^ ac^s the Bards were the poets and mu-
dans, the Evates the priests and naturalists, and the
vol. ix. ^
eve
Druids were moralists as well as naturalists.
   ■»juuw ut Marcel-
lus and Hornius mention only two sects, the Bards and
Druids.
the mother of all mankind, who, being deluded
t occasaone^ the fall, with all its consequences.
-h'VELiN, John, a distinguished naturalist and writer
on various subjects, was born at Wotton in Surrey, on the
31st ot October 1620. In the fifth year of his age he was.
sent to Lewes in Sussex, where he was placed under the
superintendence of his grandfather. The latter, however,
having died in 1627, Evelyn in the following year was sent
to learn his “ Latin rudiments, and to write.” In 1637, he
entered as a student in Baliol College, Oxford; and in
1640 he removed to the Middle Temple, London. But
his studies were interrupted by the civil commotions of
this period ; and about a year after his arrival in the Tem¬
ple, he left England for the Continent. He returned in
1642 ; but the rupture between the king and the parlia¬
ment had now assumed a serious aspect; loyalty could no
longer be professed with safety; and in the year follow-
ing, having asked and obtained the king’s leave of absence,
he became an exile, and spent several years in travelling
through France and Italy. His pow ers of observation ap¬
pear to have been great; and the curious and useful infor¬
mation which he thereby acquired constitutes the charm
of many of his works, particularly of his diary. In 1647 he
married the only daughter of Sir Richard Browne, the king’s
minister at Paris, in whose right he acquired the mansion
of Sayes Court, near Deptford. This matrimonial alliance
was a happy one. In his wife he possessed a woman of an
enlightened mind, and of dispositions congenial with his
own. That Evelyn must have conducted himself with
more than ordinary prudence and discretion, appears evi¬
dent ; for whilst he thus allied himself with Sir Richard
Browne, the ambassador of King Charles II. at Paris, he
possessed several personal friends at the court of Crom¬
well, and in fact returned to England a few months after
his marriage. Here he remained till 1649, when he again
departed for the Continent; but returned to England in
1651. His manners, we may presume, were very agree¬
able, for his company was sought by the most eminent fo¬
reigners ; and during his travels he made acquaintance
not only with individuals distinguished for their learning,
but with ingenious men belonging to every art and pro¬
fession.
After his final settlement in his native country, Evelyn
engaged in literary pursuits. His first undertaking was a
translation from the French; and from the period of its
publication to the close of a long life, he continued to give
to the world original works replete with information alike
useful, entertaining, and philosophical. These will be af¬
terwards enumerated. After the death of Cromwell he in¬
terested himself in the restoration of Charles II., for which
he was much favoured by that monarch, after his resump¬
tion of the royal prerogative. In 1660-61 he was nomi¬
nated by his majesty one of the council, and chosen by the
rest of the members a Fellow of the Philosophical Society,
which met at Gresham College. This institution formed
the basis of the Royal Society, which was established about
two years afterwards, and to which Evelyn read a treatise
on forest trees. This discourse formed the foundation of his
most celebrated production entitled Sylva. In 1664 Eve¬
lyn was appointed one of the commissioners of the sick
and wounded, and likewise a commissioner for rebuilding
St Paul’s Cathedral. When the board of trade was esta¬
blished by Charles II. Evelyn wras nominated one of the
members; and on this occasion he drew up a tract on na¬
vigation and commerce. In the reign of James II. he w as
one of the commissioners for executing the office of privy
seal during the absence of the Earl of Clarendon in Ire-
3 i
433
Eve
Evelyn.
d
434
EVE
Evergetes. land. He continued in favour at court even after the re-
s-.-y-w' volution, and was made treasurer of Greenwich Hospital,
the foundation stone of which he laid in the year 1696.
By the death of his elder brother in 1699, he succeeded
to the paternal estate, and quitted Sayes Court for Wot-
ton, where he passed the remainder of his life, excepting
occasional visits to London, where he died on the 27th of
February 1703-6, in the eighty-sixth year of his age.
In his personal character Evelyn was truly amiable. He
discharged the relative duties of father, husband, and
friend, in an exemplary manner; and during his long and
useful, rather than splendid career, numerous offices of trust
were reposed in him; nor was this confidence misplaced.
His correspondence with foreigners as well as Englishmen
was so extensive, that it is surprising he should have
found time for examining what was deemed worthy of
curiosity or of scientific observation, and for composing
the great variety of works which he published. His
life,” says Horace Walpole, “ was a course of inquiry,
study, curiosity, instruction, and benevolence. The works
of the Creator, and the minute labours of the crea¬
ture, were all objects of his pursuit. He unfolded the
perfection of the one, and assisted the imperfection of the
other. He adored from examination, was a courtier that
flattered only by informing his prince, and by pointing
out what was worthy for him to countenance; and real¬
ly was the neighbour of the gospel, for there was no man
that might not have been the better for him. Who¬
ever peruses a list of his works will subscribe to my as¬
sertion. He was one of the first promoters of the Royal
Society, a patron of the ingenious and the indigent, and
peculiarly serviceable to the lettered world; for, besides
his writings and discoveries, he obtained the Arundelian
library for the Royal Society. Nor is it the least part of
his praise that he who proposed to Mr Boyle the erection
of a philosophical college for retired and speculative per¬
sons, had the honesty to write in defence of active life
against Sir George Mackenzie’s Essay on Solitude. He
knew that retirement, in his own hands, was industry and
benefit to mankind, but in those of others, laziness and
inutility.” The principal works of Mr Evelyn are, 1. An
Essay on the First Book of Lucretius, in English verse,
8vo; 2. The French Gardener, 12mo; 3. Fumifugium,
or the Inconveniences of the Air and Smoke of London
dissipated, 4to; 4. Sculpture, or the History and Art of
Chalcography and Engraving in Copper, 8vo; 5. Sylva,
or a Discourse of Forest Trees ; to which is added Pomo¬
na, concerning Fruit Trees, folio. In 1776 a new edition
of the Sylva was published by Dr Hunter of York, and
again in 1812. 6. A Parallel of the Ancient Architecture
with the Modern, folio ; 7. Calendarium Hortense, or the
Gardener’s Almanac, 8vo; 8. Public Employment and an
Active Life preferred to Solitude, 8vo; 9. An Idea of the
Perfection of Painting, 8vo ; 10. A Discourse on the His¬
tory of Trade and Navigation ; 11. Terra, a Philosophical
Discourse of Earth, 8vo ; 12. Numismata, or a Discourse
of Medals, folio. The Memoirs of Evelyn, comprehending
an interesting diary and correspondence, were published
in 1819, 2 vols. 4to, and more recently in 5 vols. 8vo.
His miscellaneous works have also been collected and given
to the public. They include treatises on gardening, archi¬
tecture, medals, &c. besides a curious tract entitled Mun-
dus Muliebris; or the Ladies Dressing Room unlocked,
and the Toilette spread, in burlesque; together with the
Fops Dictionary, or Catalogue of Hard Names and Terms
of the Art Cosmetick, first printed in 1690.
EVERGETES, or Euergetes, a surname signifying
benefactor, given to Philip of Macedonia, to Antigonus
Doson, and to Ptolemy of Egypt. It was also commonly
applied to the kings of Syria and Pontus ; and w e often find
e v r
among the former an Alexander Evergetes, among the lat- Eve
ter a Mithridates Evergetes. Some of the Roman empe¬
rors also claimed the title of Benevolent. ^
EVESHAM, a market and borough town of Worcester¬
shire, in the hundred of Blakenhurst, 96 miles from Lon¬
don. It is finely situated in the midst of the rich vale of
the same name, on both sides of the river Avon. A great
number of market gardeners in the vicinity raise large quan¬
tities of the rarer vegetables, but especially of asparagus,
for the supply of Oxford, Birmingham, and other large
towns. It returns two members to parliament, chosen by
the freemen. The market is held on Monday. The popula¬
tion amounted in 1801 to 2837, in 1811 to 3068, in 1821 to
3487, and in 1831 to 3991.
EVIDENCE, in Philosophy, that perception of truth
which arises either from the testimony of the senses or
from an induction of reason.
Evidence, in Law, signifies some proof by testimony of
men upon oath, or by writings or records. See England,
Part HI. Government and Laws.
Evil, in Philosophy, is either moral or natural. Moral
evil is the disagreement between the actions of a moral
agent and the rule of those actions, whatever it is. Na¬
tural evil is whatever destroys or any way disturbs the per¬
fection of natural beings, such as blindness, disease, and
death.
Kings Evil, or Scrofula. See Medicine.
EVORA, a city of Portugal, in the province of Alemtejo.
It is the seat of an archbishop, and is well fortified, though
the fortifications are now of no possible use as means of de¬
fence. There is a most superb aqueduct, which conveys
fresh water to the city from the distance of four or five
miles. A college, or rather university, was established here
in 1333; but it has gradually dwindled away, and is now
almost extinct. This city contains 3000 houses and 12,000
inhabitants; and in its neighbourhood are many Roman
ruins, particularly one of a temple to Diana. Lat. 38.
28. N.
EVREMOND, Charles de St Denis, a polite scho¬
lar and soldier, was born at St Denis le Guast in Lower
Normandy in 1613. He was intended for the profession
of the law, and commenced study with this view ; but he
soon quitted it, and became an ensign before he was six¬
teen. A military life, however, did not prevent him from
cultivating literature, and he signalized himself by his po¬
liteness and wit as much as by his bravery. Ihe king
made him a mareschal-de-camp, and gave him a pension
of three thousand livres per annum. He served under the
Duke of Candale in the war of Guienne, and in Flanders,
till the suspension of arms was agreed on between France
and Spain ; and he afterwards accompanied Cardinal Ma-
zarin when he went to conclude the peace with Don
Louis de Haro, the king of Spain’s first minister. He
wrote, as he had promised, to the Marquis de Crequi, a
long letter concerning this negotiation, in which he showe
that the cardinal had sacrificed the honour ot France to
his own private interest, and rallied his eminence in a
very satirical manner. This letter having fallen into t e
hands of the cardinal’s friends some time after the deal
of that minister, it was represented as a state crime,
and the author was obliged to fly to Holland. Bu e
had too many friends in England, whither he ha ^
year before accompanied the Count de Soissons, in or e
to compliment Charles II. upon his restoration, 1113
any long stay in Holland; and therefore he passe ov
into England, where he was received with great resPec ’
admitted into the intimate friendship of .sever3
of distinction, and honoured with a pension o. L.
year. But he had a great desire to revisit his na'
country; and, after the peace of Nimeguen, he wio
E X A
eux letter in verse to the king of France, to ask leave to re¬
turn, but in vain. Upon the death of King Charles he
ation.jost the pension which had been conferred on him ; and he
^ did not rely much on King James, though that prince had
been extremely kind to him. But the Revolution proved
more advantageous to him than might have been expected.
King William, who had known him in Holland, gave him
substantial marks of favour. But he died of a stranguary
in 1703, at the age of ninety, and was interred in West¬
minster Abbey, where a monument is erected to his me¬
mory. His behaviour was engaging, and his humour
cheerful, but he had a strong disposition to satire. He
professed the Roman Catholic religion, in which he was
born; but at bottom he was believed to be a freethinker.
He always spoke of his disgrace with the resolution of a
gentleman; and however strong a desire he may have
had to return to his country, he never solicited the fa¬
vour with meanness; so that, when permission was un¬
expectedly granted to him in the decline of his life, he
replied, that the infirmities of age did not permit him to
leave a country where he had lived agreeably. There have
been many editions of his works; but the best is that of
Amsterdam in 1726, in 5 vols. 12mo, to which is prefixed
his life by Dr des Maizeaux, who has also given an accu¬
rate English translation of them in 3 vols. Bvo.
EVREUX, an arrondissement of the department of the
Eure, in France, extending over 1936 square miles. It
comprehends eleven cantons and one hundred and twenty-
two communes, inhabited by 122,401 inhabitants. The ca¬
pital is a city of the same name, situated in a valley on the
river Ron, some branches of which run through the streets.
The town is well built, and has a fine Gothic cathedral and
bishop’s palace, the old castle of Navarre, and fine walks on
what were once the ramparts. It contains 1094 houses
and 9238 inhabitants, who are occupied in spinning twist,
in making cotton, linen, and woollen goods, hosiery, paper,
and leather. Long. 1. 3. 34. E. Lat. 49, 1. 24. N.
EWANPILLY, a Mahrattatown and small port of Hin¬
dustan, in the province of Berar, 110 miles S.S.E. from
Nagpoor. Long. 80. 55. E. Lat. 18. 50. N.
EWELL, a market-town of Surrey, in the hundred of
Copthorne, thirteen miles from London. Near this town
is the modernised ancient palace of Nonsuch, built by
Henry VIII. and a favourite residence of Q-ueen Elizabeth,
but afterwards given by Charles II. to the Duchess of
Cleveland. There is a market on Thursday, and a large
annual fair, at which many thousand sheep are sold. The
population amounted in 1801 to 1112, in 1811 to 1135, in
1821 to 1550, and in 1831 to 1851.
EX, or Exe, a river of England, which rises in a barren
tract of land called Exmoor, in the county of Somerset,
and after being enlarged by several accessions, passes Ti¬
verton, Exeter, and Topsham. It next receives the wa¬
ters of the Kew, and falls into the sea at Exmouth. This
fiver is navigable by vessels of considerable burden to
Topsham, and was so to Exeter formerly.
EXAGGERATION, in Rhetoric, a kind of hyperbole,
by which things are augmented or amplified by saying
more than the truth, either as to good or bad.
Exaggeration, in Painting, a method by which the
artist, in representing things, changes them too much, or
makes them too strong, either in respect of the design or
the colouring. It differs from caricaturing, inasmuch as
the latter perverts or gives a turn to the features of a
lace, or the figure, which they have not; whereas exagge¬
ration only heightens or improves what they had.
EXALTATION, or Elevation, is chiefly used in a
figurative sense, for the raising or advancing a person to
®ome ecclesiastical dignity, particularly to the papacy.
Exaltation of the Cross is a feast of the Roman Ca-
E x A 435
tholic church, held on the 14th of September, in memory, Examina-
as is generally supposed, of the emperor Heraclius having tion
brought back the true cross of Jesus Christ on his shoul- 11
ders, in order to place it on Mount Calvary, from which it v xarch-
had been carried away fourteen years before by Cosroes,
or Khusru, king of Persia, at his taking of Jerusalem, un¬
der the reign ot the emperor Phocas. The cross was deli¬
vered up by a treaty of peace made with Siroe, the son
and successor of Khusru. The institution of this treaty is
commonly said to have been signalized by a miracle ; inas¬
much as Heraclius could not stir out of Jerusalem with the
cross whilst he had the imperial vestments on, enriched with
gold and precious stones, but bore it with ease in a com¬
mon dress.
The feast of the dedication of the temple built by Con¬
stantine was, according to Nicodemus, held on the 14th of
September, the day on which the temple had been conse¬
crated in the year 335; and this feast was also called the
exaltation of the cross, because it formed part of the cere¬
monial for the bishop of Jerusalem to ascend a high place,
built for the purpose by Constantine, in manner of a pulpit,
and called by the Greeks the sacred mysteries of God, or
the holiness of God, and there to elevate the cross, that all
the people might see it.
Exaltation, in Astrology, is a dignity which a planet
acquires in certain signs or parts of the zodiac, and which is
supposed to give it an extraordinary virtue, efficacy, and
influence. The opposite sign, or part of the zodiac, is
called the dejection of the planet. Thus the 15th degree
of Cancer is the exaltation of Jupiter, according to Albu-
mazor, because it was the ascendant of that planet at the
time of the creation; that of the sun is in the 19th degree
of Aries, and its dejection in Libra; that of the moon is
in Taurus; and so on.
EXAMINATION, an exact and careful search or in¬
quiry, in order to discover the truth or falsehood of a thing.
Self-Examination is a point much insisted on by di¬
vines, and particularly the ancient fathers, by way of pre¬
paration for repentance. St Ignatius reduces it to five
points, a returning thanks to God for his benefits; a beg¬
ging of grace and light, to know and distinguish our sins;
a running over all our actions, occupations, thoughts, and
words, in order to learn what has been offensive to God;
a begging of pardon, and conceiving a sincere sorrow for
having displeased him; and making a firm resolution not
to offend him any more, and taking the necessary precau¬
tions to preserve ourselves from sin.
EXARCH, in Antiquity, an appellation given by the em¬
perors of the East to certain officers sent into Italy, in qua¬
lity of vicars, or rather prefects, to defend that part of Italy
which yet remained under their obedience, particularly the
city of Ravenna, against the Lombards, who had made
themselves masters of nearly all the rest of the country.
The residence of the exarch was at Ravenna, which city,
together with that of Rome, was all that remained to the
emperors. The first exarch was the patrician Boetius, fa¬
mous for his treatise De Consolations Philosophies, who
was appointed in 568 by the younger Justin. The ex¬
archs subsisted about 185 years, and ended with Euty-
chius, under whose exarchate the city of Ravenna was
taken by the Lombard king Astulphus, or Astolphus.
The emperor Frederick created Heraclius, archbishop of
Lyons, a descendant of the illustrious house of Montbois-
sier, exarch of the whole kingdom of Burgundy ; a dignity
till that time unknown except in Italy, particularly in the
city of Ravenna.
Homer, Philo, and other ancient authors, give the name
exarchus to the choragus or master of the singers in the
ancient choruses; the word «f%w or a^ofiat signifying
equally to begin and to commend.
436 E X C
Exaucto- Exarch of a Diocese was, anciently, the same with pn-
ratio mate. This dignity was inferior to the patriarchal, yet
II o-reater than the metropolitan. .
Exchange.& ExARCH ais0 denotes an officer, still subsisting in the
' ' Greek church, being a kind of deputy or legate a latere of
the patriarch, whose office it is to visit the provinces allot¬
ted him, in order to inform himself of the lives and man¬
ners of the clergy, and to take cognizance of ecclesiastical
causes, the manner of celebrating divine service, the admi¬
nistration of the sacraments, particularly confession, the
observance of the* canons, monastic discipline, aftairs oi
marriages and divorces, and, above all, the revenues which
the patriarch receives from several churches, with the col¬
lection of the same. The exarch, after having greatly en¬
riched himself in his post, frequently rises to the patriarch-
cit/6 itself.
Exarch is also used, in the ecclesiastical antiquities of
the Eastern church, for a general or superior over several
monasteries, as an archimandrite, who is exempted by the
patriarch of Constantinople from the jurisdiction of the
bishops, in the same manner as are the generals of the
Roman Catholic monastic orders.
EXAUCTORATIO, in the Roman military discipline,
differed from the missio, which was a full discharge, and
took place after a soldier had served in the army twenty
years; whereas the exauctoratio was only a partial dis¬
charge. The exauctorati lost their pay indeed, but still
E X C
remained under their colours or vexilla, though not under Excss 5.
the aquila or eagle, which was the standard of the legion; ti<
and hence, instead of legionarii, they were called sub-
signani, and were retained till they had either served Exclr'e'
their full time or had lands assigned them. The exaucto- \J
ratio took place after a soldier had served seventeen years.
EXCALCEATION, amongst the Hebrews, was a par¬
ticular law, by which a widow, whom her husband’s bro¬
ther refused to marry, had a right to summon him to a
court of justice, and, upon his refusal, to excalceate him;
that is, to pull off one of his shoes and spit in his face, both
of which actions inferred great ignominy.
EXCELLENCY, a title anciently given to kings and
emperors, but now to ambassadors, generals, and other
persons, who are not entitled to that of highness, but yet
are elevated above the other inferior dignities.
EXCENTRIC, in Geometry, a term applied to circles
and spheres which have not the same centre, and conse¬
quently are not parallel; in opposition to concentric, where
they are parallel, having one common centre.
EXCENTRICITY, in Astronomy, is the distance of the
centre of the orbit of a planet from the centre of the sun;
that is, the distance between the centre and the focus of the
ellipse.
EXCESS, in Arithmetic and Geometry, is the difference
between any two unequal numbers or quantities, or that
which remains after the lesser is taken from the greater.
EXCHANGE.
In political economy the term exchange is commonly
employed to designate that species of mercantile transac¬
tions by which the debts of individuals residing at a dis¬
tance from each other are either partially or wholly liqui¬
dated, without the intervention of money. The object of
this article is to explain the nature of these transactions,
and the principles on which they are founded.
This will be best effected by treating, first, of the ex¬
change between different parts ot the same country; and,
secondly, of that between different and independent coun¬
tries.
Inland Exchange.
Inland ex- Suppose a merchant of London orders his agent in Glas-
change. gow to purchase and send to him a thousand pounds worth
of cottons ; then, although it should not suit the Glasgow
merchant to commission goods of equal value from his Lon¬
don correspondent, the latter may nevertheless be under
no necessity of remitting cash to Glasgow to discharge his
debt. Among cities, or countries, having a considerable
intercourse together, the debts mutually due by each other
are found, in ordinary cases, to be nearly equal. And,
therefore, the Glasgow merchant, who has shipped the cot¬
tons for London, does not transmit the bill drawn by him
on his correspondent for their price directly to London to
be cashed, for that would subject him to the expense of
conveying the money home from London to Glasgow, but
he gets its value from some other merchant in Glasgow,
who has payments to make in London, on account of teas,
wines, &c. imported from that city, and who, unless he
could procure such a bill, would be obliged to remit their
price in money. The bill on account of the cottons is, there¬
fore, either drawn in favour of the person to whom the
money for the tea and wine is owing in London, or it is
drawn in favour of the tea merchant in Glasgow, and in¬
dorsed to him ; and this last person, by presenting the bill
to the purchaser of the cottons, receives its value, and con¬
sequently the price of the cottons, and the price, or part
of the price, of his tea and wine, at the same moment. By
this simple contrivance the expense and risk attending the
double transmission, first, of money from London to Glas¬
gow to pay the cottons, and, second, of money from Glas¬
gow to London to pay the teas and wines, is entirely avoid¬
ed. The debtor in one place is changed for the debtor in
the other ; and both accounts are settled without the in¬
tervention of a single farthing.
The bill drawn and negotiated in such a transaction as
this is termed an inland bill of exchange. If the transac¬
tion had taken place between London or Glasgow and a
foreign city, it would have been termed a foreign bill o
exchange. ,
A bill of exchange may, therefore, be defined to be,
“ an order addressed to some person residing at a dis¬
tance, directing him to pay a certain specified sum to^tne
person in whose favour the bill is drawn, or his order.
The price of bills of exchange fluctuates according to Urea
the abundance or scarcity of them in the market, compar J
ed with the demand. Thus, to revert to our former ex-
ample, if w'e suppose the debts reciprocally due by Lon-thepi
don and Glasgow to be equal, whether they amount ° of ioj
L. 10,000, L.100,000, or any other sum, they may all be ais- buis
charged without the agency of money, and the Pr^CL'
bills of exchange will be at par ; that is, a sum ot L.
1 In mercantile phraseology, the person who draws a bill is termed the drawer ; the person in whose favour it is drawn i ^
ter; the person on whom it is drawn the drawee, and after he has accepted, the acceptor. Those persons into whose han s ^oge
may pass previously to its being paid, are, from their writing their names on the back, termed indorsers ; and the person i
possession the bill is at any given period, is termed the holder or possessor.
I
EXCHANGE.
nd or L.1000 in Glasgow will purchase a bill for L.100 or
jv mge. L.1000 payable in London, and vice versa. But if these
J ^ two cities are not mutually indebted in equal sums, then
the price of bills of exchange will be increased in the city
which has the greatest number of payments to make, and
will be proportionally reduced in that which has the fewest.
If Glasgow owe London L.100,000, whilst the debts due by
London to Glasgow only amount to L.90,000, it is clear,
inasmuch as the merchants of Glasgow have a larger sum
to remit to London than the merchants of London have
to remit to Glasgow, that the price of bills on London
would rise in Glasgow, because of the increased competi¬
tion ; and that the price of bills on Glasgow would fall in
London, because of the proportionally diminished compe¬
tition. And hence a larger sum would be- required to dis¬
charge any given amount of debt due by Glasgow, and a
less sum would be required to discharge a corresponding
amount of debt due by London ; or, which is the same
thing, the exchange would be in favour of London, and
against Glasgow. Bills on London would sell in Glasgow
for & premium, and bills on Glasgow would sell in London
at a discount, the amount of the premium in the one case,
and of the discount in the other, being obviously equal.
On the supposition that the balance of L.l 0,000, due by
Glasgow, depressed the exchange of that city on London
one per cent., it would at first sight appear as if it would cost
Glasgow L.101,000 to discharge its debt of L.100,000 due
to London ; and that, on the other hand, L.89,108 would
be sufficient to discharge the debt of London to Glasgow.
But a very little consideration will serve to show that this
could not really be the case. No exchange transactions
can take place between different cities, until there be both
debtors and creditors of the one residing in the other.
And hence, when the exchange became unfavourable to
Glasgow, the premium paid by the Glasgow merchants
for bills drawn on London would not go into the pockets
of their creditors in that city, but into the pockets of their
neighbours in Glasgow, to whom London was indebted, and
from whom the bills had been purchased. The loss to
Glasgow would, therefore, be limited to the premium paid
on the balance of L.10,000. Thus, supposing that A of
Glasgow owes D of London L.100,000, and that C of Lon¬
don owes B of Glasgow L.90,000 ; A will pay to B L.91,000
lor a bill, or order, on C to pay D L.90,000. In this vray,
the L.90,000 London debt at Glasgow would be quite
cleared off; the premium, which is lost by the debtor to
London in Glasgow, being gained by its creditor in the
same place. If the business had been transacted in Lon¬
don, C, with L.89,108, would have purchased of D a bill
for L.90,000 payable by A, so that, in this case, the gain
would have fallen to the share of the debtor C, and the
loss to that of the creditor D, both of London. The com¬
plexity of real transactions does not affect the principles on
which they are founded ; and to whatever extent Glasgow
rcnght be indebted to London, or London to Glasgow, the
only disadvantage under which either of them would in
consequence be placed, would be the unavoidable one of
Pa^g ^e expense of remitting the balance of debt.
I he expense of transmitting money from one place to
another forms the natural limit to fluctuations in the ex-
Hthefy- If 20s. sufficed to cover the expense and risk at-
exch ,e. tending the transmission of L.100 from Glasgow to Lon-
on, it would be indifferent to a Glasgow merchant, whether
je paid one per cent, premium for a bill of exchange on Lon-
on, or remitted money direct to that city. If the pre-
mm were less than one per cent, it would be clearly his
in erest rather to make his payments by means of bills of
xc iange than by remittances ; and that it could not ex-
rath °nr ^ Cent‘ °hvious> for every individual would
1 er Erectly remit money, than incur an unnecessary
437
Nati i
limii
fluct
expense, by purchasing a bill on London at a greater pre- Inland
mmm than would suffice to cover the expense of a money Exchange.
remittance. If, owing to the badness of the roads, to dis- v  
turbances m the country, or to any other cause, the ex¬
pense of remitting money from Glasgow to London should
be increased, the difference in the rate of exchange be¬
tween them might also be proportionally increased. But
in every case, the extent to which this difference could at¬
tain would necessarily be limited by, and could not, for
any considerable period, exceed, the cost of making remit¬
tances in cash.
Exchange transactions become more complex, when one
place, as is very often the case, discharges its debts to an¬
other by means of bills drawn on a third place. Thus, al¬
though London should owe nothing to Glasgow, if Glasgow
be indebted to London, London to Manchester, and Man¬
chester to Glasgow ; Glasgow would either wholly or par-
tially discharge its debt to London by a bill drawn on
Manchester. It would wholly discharge it, provided the
debt due to Glasgow in Manchester was equivalent to the
debt due by Glasgow to London. But if this be not the
case, Glasgow must either remit money to London to dis¬
charge the balance of debt, or bills drawn on some other
place indebted to her.
I ransactions in inland bills of exchange are almost en¬
tirely conducted by bankers, who charge a certain rate per
cent, for their trouble, and who, by having a credit in those
places to which they are in the habit of remitting bills, are
enabled, on all occasions, to supply the demands of their
customers. In Great Britain, London, because of its inti¬
mate connection with other parts of the country, occasion¬
ed partly by its immense commerce, partly by its being the
seat of government, and the place to which the revenue is
remitted, and partly by its currency consisting of Bank of
England paper, for which the paper currency of the coun¬
try banks is rendered exchangeable, has become the great
focus in which all the money transactions of the empire
centre, and in which they are ultimately adjusted. In con¬
sequence of these various circumstances, but chiefly of the
demand for bills on London to remit revenue, and of the
superior value of Bank of England currency, the exchange
between London and the other parts of the country is in¬
variably in its favour. Bills on London drawn in Edinburgh
and Glasgow were formerly made payable at forty days’
date, which is equivalent to a premium of about one half
per cent.; but, owing to the greater facility of communica¬
tion, this premium is now reduced to twenty days’ interest,
or to about one fourth per cent. Bills for remitting the re¬
venue from Scotland are now drawn at thirty days ; previ¬
ously to 1819 they were drawn at sixty days.
What has been already stated is sufficient to show,
that, however well fitted bills of exchange may be for fa¬
cilitating the operations of commerce, and saving the
trouble and expense attending the transportation of mo¬
ney, it is impossible to adjust mercantile transactions by
their means, except in so far as the accounts mutually ba¬
lance each other. A real bill of exchange is merely an
order entitling the holder to receive payment of a debt
previously contracted by the person on whom it is drawn.
It is essential to the existence of such a bill that an equi¬
valent amount of debt should first be due. And hence, as
the amount of the real bills of exchange drawn on any
number of merchants cannot exceed the amount of their
debts, if a greater sum be owing them than they owe to
others, the balance, it is obvious, must either be paid in
money, or by the delivery of some sort of commodities. If,
as in the example just given, Glasgow owe London
L.100,000, while London only owes Glasgow L.90,000,
reciprocal transfer of debts may be made to the extent of
L.90,000. But the Glasgow merchants cannot discharge
438
Inland
Exchange.
Fictitious
bills of
exchange.
EXCHANGE,
the additional L.10,000 by means of bills drawn on Lon-
■ don ; for, by the supposition, London only owed them
L.90,000, and they have already drawn for its amount.
The balance, therefore, must be discharged by an actual
money payment, or by the delivery of some species ol com¬
modity, or by bills drawn on some third party who may be
indebted to Glasgow. 1 ,
We do not mean by this to insinuate that there are no
fictitious bills of exchange, or bills drawn on persons who
are not really indebted to the drawer, in the market, in
every commercial country, bills of this description are al¬
ways to be met with; but they are only a device for ob-
tainihg loans, and do not and cannot transfer real debts.
A merchant in London may form a connection with a mer¬
chant in Glasgow, and draw bills of exchange uponhim
payable a certain number of days after date, which the
latter may retire by selling in Glasgow an equal amount ol
bills drawn upon his correspondent in London, i he mer¬
chants who purchase, or the bankers who discount these
bills, really advance their value to the drawers, who, as
long as they continue, by means of this system ot drawing
and redrawing, to provide funds for their payment, continue
in fact to command a borrowed capital equal to the amount
of the fictitious paper in circulation. It is clear, however,
that the negotiation of such bills has no effect in the way
of transferring and settling the real bona fide debts reci¬
procally due between any two or more places. Fictitious
bills mutually balance each other. Those drawn by Lon¬
don on Glasgow are exactly equal to those drawn by Glas¬
gow on London, for the one set is drawn to pay the
other the second destroys the first, and the result is no-
thing. , i
The method of raising money by the discount or sale
of fictitious bills, has been severely censured by Dr Smith,
as entailing a ruinous expense on those engaged in it, and
as being resorted to only by projectors, or persons of suspi¬
cious credit. When fictitious bills are drawn at two months’
date, it is common, in addition to the ordinary interest of
five per cent, to charge a commission of One half per cent.,
which must be paid every time the bill is discounted, or,
at least, six times in the year. The total expense of mo¬
ney raised in this way could not, therefore, supposing the
transaction to be always on account of the same individual, be
estimated at less than eight per cent, per annum ; and the
payment of so high a rate of interest on borrowed capital, in a
country where the ordinary rate of mercantile profit is only
supposed to average from six to ten per cent., could not
fail to be generally productive of ruin to the borrower. It
seldom happens, however, that in transactions carried on
by means of fictitious bills, the whole charge for commis¬
sion falls on one individual. Loans obtained in this way
are almost always on account of two or more persons.
Thus, at one time a fictitious bill may be drawn by A of
London on B of Glasgow; and, in this case, the Glasgow
merchant will, before the bill becomes due, draw upon his
London correspondent for the proceeds of the bill, includ¬
ing interest and commission. At another time, however,
the transaction will Be on account of B of Glasgow, who
will then have to pay commission to his friend in Lon¬
don ; so that each party may, on the whole, as Mr Thorn¬
ton has observed, gain about as much as he pays in the
shape of commission.
It is often extremely difficult to distinguish between a
fictitious bill and one which has arisen out of a real mer¬
cantile transaction. Neither does it seem to be of any
very material importance. The credit of the persons whose Noa al
names are attached to the bills offered for discount, is the fxc
only real criterion by which either a private merchant or a
banker can judge whether he ought to negotiate them.
The circumstance of a merchant offering considerable
quantities of accommodation paper for discount, ought, un¬
questionably, if discovered, to excite suspicions as to his
credit. But unless in so far as the drawing of fictitiots
bills may be held to be indicative of over-trading, or of a
deficiency of capital to carry on the business in which the
party is engaged, there does not appear to be any good
reason for refusing to discount them.
These few observations will, perhaps, suffice to explain
the manner in which transactions between different parts
of the same country are settled by means of bills of ex¬
change. They are, in general, extremely simple. The
uniform value of the currency of a particular country ren¬
ders all comparison between the value of money at the
place where the bill is drawn and negotiated with its value
where it is to be paid, unnecessary; while the constant in¬
tercourse maintained amongst the different commercial ci¬
ties of the same kingdom, by preventing those derange¬
ments to which the intercourse between distant and inde¬
pendent countries is always subject, prevents those sudden
fluctuations which so frequently occur in the market price
of foreign bills of exchange. We shall, therefore, leave
this part of our subject, and proceed to investigate the cir¬
cumstances which influence the course of exchange between
different and independent countries.
Foreign Exchange.
The price of foreign bills of exchange depends entirely For t
on two circumstances, first, on the value of the currency exci ?e.
at the place where they are made payable, compared with
the value of the currency at the place where they are drawn;
and, secondly, on the relation which the supply of bills in
the market bears to the demand.
If the real and nominal value of the currencies of the
different nations having an intercourse together remained
invariable, such fluctuations in the price of bills of exchange
as arise from the first of these circumstances would be al¬
together unknown. But as the comparative value of the
pound sterling, dollar, franc, guilder, florin, &c. is subject
to perpetual variation, the price of bills of exchange must
vary accordingly. Such variations, however, as proceed
from this cause, affect merely their nominal, or rather nu¬
merical value. It is those only which arise from varia¬
tions in the supply and demand for bills, or, which is the
same thing, in the payments a country has to make com¬
pared with those it has to receive, that can be considered
as real; and hence the distinctions of nominal, real, and
computed exchange. The first depends on alterations in
the value of the currencies compared together; the seem
depends on the supply of bills in the market compare
with the demand; and the third or computed exchange de¬
pends on the combined effects of the other two. lor tne
sake of perspicuity we shall treat of these separately.
SECT. I.—NOMINAL EXCHANGE.
Bullion being everywhere recognised as the standard Nob ^
currency of the commercial world, the comparative v
of the currencies of particular countries must depen >
on the value of bullion in those countries; and,
1 Supposing every country to be in possession of its proper supply of bullion, the exchange may be said to be nominally
by the amount of the difference between the market arid mint price of bullion, and to be really affected by any deviation r r
exceeding or falling short of that difference.
EXCHANGE.
Ini 7
inti ne
cirijt*
staP
S'
bul
dift it
cou ies.
X nal the quantity of bullion contained in their coins, or on the
EJ nge. quantity of bullion for which their paper money, or other
U circulating media, will exchange.
I. The real price of commodities being always propor¬
tioned not merely to the cost of their production, but also
to the cost of their conveyance from where they have
been produced to where they are to be made use of, it fol-
^’e lows, that if the trade in the precious metals were perfect-
ly free, and if the commodities produced in different coun¬
in tries were nearly all equally well fitted for exportation, the
value of bullion in different countries would be chiefly re¬
gulated by their respective distances from the mines. Thus,
on the supposition that neither England nor Poland had
any other commodities except corn to exchange with the
South Americans for bullion, it is evident that the precious
metals would possess a greater value in Poland than in
England, because of the greater expense of sending so
bulky a commodity as corn the more distant voyage, and
because of the greater expense of conveying the gold to
Poland. If Poland, however, had succeeded in carrying
her manufactures to a higher pitch of improvement than
England, her merchants might be able, notwithstanding
the disadvantage of distance, by exporting commodities
possessed of great value in small bulk, and on which the
expense of freight wTould be comparatively trifling, to sell
bullion on cheaper terms than those of England. But if,
as is actually the case, the advantages of skill and machin¬
ery were possessed by England, another reason would be
added to that derived from her less distance from the
mines, why gold and silver should be less valuable in Eng¬
land than in Poland, and why the money price of commo¬
dities should be higher in the former. (Ricardo, Princi¬
ples of Political Economy, &c. 1st ed. p. 175.)
Hence, after nations have attained to different degrees
of excellence in manufacturing industry, the value of bul¬
lion in different countries no longer depends entirely on
their distance from the mines. But, whatever variations
a different progress in the arts may occasion in the value
of bullion in different countries, it is certain that it must
always be less valuable in those into which it is imported,
than in those where it is produced. Bullion, like every
other commodity, is exported to find, not to destroy its level.
And unless its value in Europe exceeded its value in Ame¬
rica by a sum sufficient to cover the expenses attending its
importation, and to yield the ordinary rate of profit to the
importer, we should not, although the mines of Mexico
and Peru were infinitely more productive, import from
them a single ounce of bullion. It is obviously incorrect,
therefore, to lay down as a general proposition, “ that the
par of exchange between two countries is that sum of the
currency of either of the two, which, in point of intrinsic
worth, is precisely equal to a given sum of the other, that
w, contains precisely an equal weight of gold and silver of
the same fineness.1’ (Bullion Report, p. 22, 8vo ed.) For
a given quantity of gold and silver is not always, as is
here assumed, of the same intrinsic value in different coun¬
tries. It may not, indeed, differ very materially among
nations in the immediate vicinity of each other, and which
are all destitute of mines. But although, to use a familiar
i lustration, the value of sugar approaches nearly to a level
in the great trading cities of Europe, it cannot surely be
maintained that its value in the West Indies is the same
with its value in Bordeaux or Liverpool, or that the ex-
would be really at par, if a bill, w-hich cost a hun-
red hogsheads of sugar in London, only brought a hun-
*n Jamaica. Now, this is precisely the case with bul-
1?|1‘ Though the value of gold and silver, as compared
wi n corn, labour, &c. may, and indeed must, vary very
considerably among the different European nations, these
variations are only the necessary result of their different
439
progress m industry, and of the different quality of their Nominal
cultivated lands, &c. Such differences of price are in the Exchange,
natural order of things ; and bullion has only found its pro-
per level when a quantity has been introduced into those
countries which excel in manufactures, sufficient to raise
the price of their corn and labour. These variations
have, therefore, no effect on the exchange. An ounce
of bullion in one country, notwithstanding this difference
of price, will, because of the facility of intercourse, be very
near equivalent to an ounce of bullion in another; and,
supposing the trade in the precious metals to be perfectly
free, the exchange will be at true par when bills are nego¬
tiated on this footing. But when w^e compare the values
of the precious metals in distant countries, and especially
in those where they are produced, with those into which
they are imported, it is obvious they must differ consider¬
ably. Gold and silver, like iron, coal, tin, &c. are neces¬
sarily cheaper in countries possessed of extraordinarily pro¬
ductive mines, than in those possessed only of mines of a se¬
condary degree of fertility, or when they have to be entirely
imported from abroad. *And the exchange between such
places is not at true par, unless adequate allowance be
made for this difference of value. Thus, if, because of the
expense of carriage, the value of bullion in Great Britain
is five per cent, greater than in Rio Jeneiro, a hundred
ounces of pure gold in Rio Janeiro would not be worth
a hundred ounces of pure gold in London, but five per
cent, less; and the exchange would be at true par when
bills for a hundred and five ounces of standard bullion
payable in Rio Janeiro, sold in London for a hundred
ounces.
The differences in the value of the precious metals in
different countries have not been confined to those depend¬
ing on their respective distances from the mines, or on
their different progress in the arts. The opinion formerly
so very prevalent, that gold and silver were the only arti¬
cles that constituted real wealth, induced almost every
commercial nation to fetter and restrict their exportation,
and to adopt a variety of measures intended to facilitate
their importation. But these regulations, even when most
rigorously enforced, have been singularly ineffectual; the
great value and small bulk of the precious metals render¬
ing it not only extremely advantageous, but also compara¬
tively easy, clandestinely to export them, whenever their
relative value declined.
“ When,” says Dr Smith, “ the quantity of gold and
silver imported into any country exceeds the effectual de¬
mand, no vigilance of government can prevent their ex¬
portation. All the sanguinary laws of Spain and Portu¬
gal are not able to keep their gold and silver at home.
The continual importations from Peru and Brazil exceed
the effectual demand of those countries, and sink the price
of these metals below their price in the neighbouring coun¬
tries. If, on the contrary, in any particular country their
quantity fell short of the effectual demand, so as to raise
their price above that of the neighbouring countries, the
government would have no occasion to take any pains to
import them. If it were even to take the pains to pre¬
vent their importation, it would not be able to effect it.
Those metals, when the Spartans had got wherewithal to
purchase them, broke through all the barriers which the
laws of Lycurgus opposed to their entrance into Lacedae¬
mon. All the sanguinary laws of the customs are not able
to prevent the importation of teas of the Dutch and Got-
tenburg East India Companies, because somewhat cheap¬
er than those of the British Company. A pound ot tea,
however, is about a hundred times the bulk of one ot the
highest prices, 16s., that is commonly paid for it in silver,
and more than two thousand times the bulk of the same
price in gold, and is consequently just so many times
440
EXCHANGE.
Nominal more difficult to smuggle.” ( Wealth of Nations, vol. n.
Exchange, p. 149.) . . . .
But, however ineffectual as a means of entirely prevent-
in<r the egress of the precious metals, the restrictions on
their exportation have nevertheless contributed to occa¬
sion some slight variations in their value in different coun¬
tries. The risk incurred by the clandestine exporters ot
bullion from Spain is supposed to be equivalent to about
two per cent.; or, which is the same thing, it is supposed
that the restrictions maintain such an excess ot gold and
silver in that country as to sink their value two per cent,
below their value in countries having a free trade in bul¬
lion. In calculating the true par of exchange between
Spain and other countries, this circumstance must be taken
into account. For to whatever extent the value ot bullion
in one country may be reduced below its value in those
with which it maintains an intercourse, the nominal ex¬
change must necessarily be unfavourable to that extent.
It consequently results, that whatever occasions a rise
or fall in the value of the precious metals in a particulai
country, must proportionally affect its nominal exchange
with other countries. If more coin, or convertible papei,
circulated in Great Britain, compared with the business it
has to perform, than what circulates in other countries, its
relative value would, in consequence, be diminished. Fo¬
reign bills would sell for a premium, the amount of which
would be precisely equal to the excess of the value of the
precious metals in the foreign market, caused by theii re¬
dundancy in the home market; and, on the othei hand, in
the event of the currency becoming relatively deficient,
its value would be proportionally increased; bills drawn
on foreign countries would sell at a discount, the amount
of which would measure the excess of the value of the cur¬
rency of this over that of other countries.
Manner of II. In estimating the quantity of bullion contained in
estimating the currencies of different countries, a particular coin of
the quan- one country, such as the British pound sterling, is select-
tity of bul- as an integer or standard of comparison, and the propor-
hon con- tion petween it and the coins of other countries, supposing
the'coins of them to be of their mint standard weight and fineness, is
different ascertained by experiment. A par of exchange is thus es-
countries. tablished, or rather it is ascertained that a certain amount
of the standard currency of a particular country contains
precisely as much gold or silver of the same fineness, as is
contained in the coin or integer with which it has been
compared. This relation, or par as it is technically term¬
ed, is considered invariable ; and allowance is made for sub¬
sequent variations in the quantities and purity of the bullion
contained in the currencies of countries trading together,
by rating the exchange at so much above or below par. In
mercantile language, that country, by a comparison with
one or other of whose coins the par of exchange has been
established, is said to give the certain for the uncertain,
and conversely. Thus, in the exchange between London
and Paris, London and Hamburg, &c. London gives the
certain, or the pound sterling, for an uncertain or variable
number of francs, florins, &c. Hence, the higher the ex¬
change between any two countries, the more is it in favour
of that which gives the certain, and the lower, the more is
it in favour of that which gives the uncertain.
On the supposition, which is very near the truth, that
twenty-five francs contain the same quantity of standard
bullion as a pound sterling (twenty-five francs, twenty cen¬
times, is the exact par), and supposing also that the value No lai
of bullion is the same in both countries, the exchange be-Ext ige,
tween London and Paris will be at par, when a bill drawn ’w' ^
bv a merchant in the one on his correspondent in the other ^ of
sells at that rate; that is, when a bill of exchange for ®s
2500 or 25,000 francs payable in Paris, sells in London vah 'f
for L.100 or L.1000, and vice versa. It is but seldom, met c
however, that the coins of any country correspond exactly cunrjy
with their mint standard; unless, when newly issued, they0" 1
are all either more or less worn ; and whenever this is the6xd;p
case, an allowance corresponding to the difference between
the actual value of the coins and their mint value must be
made in estimating “ the sum of the existing currency of
either of two countries which contains precisely the same
quantity of bullion as is contained in a given sum of the
other.”' thus, if the one pound sterling were so worn,
clipped, rubbed, &c. as not to contain so much bullion as
twenty-five francs, but ten per cent, less, the exchange be¬
tween London and Paris would be at real par when it was
nominally ten per cent, against London and if, on the
other hand, the pound sterling was equal to its mint stand¬
ard, while the franc was ten per cent, less, the exchange
between London and Paris would be at real par when it
was nominally ten per cent, against Paris and in favour ol
London. If the currency of both countries were equally
reduced below the standard of their respective mints, then
it is obvious there would be no variation in the real par.
But whenever the currency of countries trading together
is depreciated in an unequal degree, the exchange is nomi¬
nally in favour of that country whose currency is least de¬
preciated, and nominally against that whose currency is
most depreciated.
It is almost unnecessary to refer to the history of ex¬
change to show the practical operation of this principle;
and we shall content ourselves with selecting the fol¬
lowing, from an infinite number of equally conclusive in-
stances.
In a pamphlet printed in 1604, but written in 1564, it is
mentioned, that when Henry VIII. degraded the several
species of coin then current, there began to be “some dis¬
order” in the price of all wares and commodities, which
Edward VI. attempted to remedy by diminishing still far¬
ther the quantity of pure silver contained in each coin;
the consequence was, that the English pound sterling,
which heretofore exchanged abroad for twenty-six Flemis
schillings, became worth no more than thirteen Flemish
schillings, the price of English commodities being at the
same time proportionally increased. (Mr John Smiths
Memoirs of Wool, vol. i. p. 105, 8vo. ed.)
Previously to the great re-coinage in the reign of Wil¬
liam HI., silver being at that time a legal tender, the no¬
minal exchange between England and Holland, calculated
according to the standard of their respective mints, was
twenty-five per cent, against England ; but inasmuch as
English silver coins were then, owing to rubbing an
clipping, depreciated more than twenty-five per cent, e-
low their mint value, the real exchange may notwithstan mg
have been in favour of England. 1 he circumstance o t e
nominal exchange having become favourable to this country
as soon as the new coin was issued, renders this conjecture
extremely probable. ( Wealth of Nations, yol. h. P- J
Before the reformation of our gold coin in Ly >
guinea contained so much less than its standard weig as
1 All restraints on the exportation of the precious metals were abolished in Great Britain in 1819. Their effect for many )
previous could not be estimated at above one fourth per cent. „ , , ce a9
* It is necessary to observe, that it is here supposed that the clipped or degraded money exists in such a degree of abun a^ ^
only to pass current at its bullion value. If the quantity^ of clipped money were sufficiently limited, it might, notwithstanding ^ ^
minution of weight, pass current at its mint value; and then the par would have to be estimated, not by its relative weig
reign money, but by the mint price of bullion. This is a principle which must be constantly kept in viewr.
EXCHANGE.
Xo| al to be degraded from two to three per cent, when compared
j;xc je. with the current French coins, and the exchange between
England and France was computed to be two or three per
cent, against this country. Upon the reformation of the
gold coin the exchange rose to par. The Turkish govern¬
ment, in the course of the last forty years, has made three
great alterations in the value of its coin. Before these
frauds were committed, the Turkish piastre contained
nearly as much silver as the English half crown ; and, in
exchange, the par was estimated at eight piastres to the
pound sterling. The consequence of these repeated adul¬
terations has been, the reduction of the silver in the piastre
to one half, and a fall in the exchange of 100 per cent.;
bills on London having been bought in Turkey, in 1803,
at the rate of sixteen piastres for every pound sterling.1
Now, although it is not absolutely certain that these fluc¬
tuations in the nominal exchange were entirely owing to
the alterations in the value of the coin, because the real
exchange, or that which depends on the abundance or
scarcity of bills in the market, might not be constant; yet
the exact correspondence of the fall of exchange with the
acknowledged degradation of the coin, renders it more
than probable that it proceeded almost entirely from that
degradation.2
When one country uses gold as the standard of its cur¬
rency, and another silver, the par of exchange between
them is affected by every variation in the relative value of
lueofild these metals. When gold rises in value compared with
and sj :r silver, the exchange becomes nominally favourable to that
441
EfFec ;)f
varia is
in thf:-
lativi
on th x.
country which has the gold standard, and vice versa. And
hence, in estimating the state of the exchange among
countries using different standards, it is always necessary
to advert to the comparative values of the metals select¬
ed for standards.
“ For example,” to use the words of Mr Mushet, “ if
34 schillings 11 grotes and ^ of Hamburg currency be
equal in value to a pound sterling, or |4 of a guinea, when
silver is at 5s. 2d. per oz. they can no longer be so when
silver falls to 5s. Id. or 5s. an oz. or when it rises to 5s. 3d.
or 5s. 4d.; because a pound sterling in gold being then
worth more or less silver, is also worth more or less Ham¬
burg currency.
“To find the real par, therefore, we must ascertain
what was the relative value of gold and silver when the
par was fixed at 34s. ll^g. Hamburg currency, and what
is their relative value at the time we wish to calculate it.
“ For example, if the price of standard gold was L.3.
17s. IQJ-d. per oz. and silver 5s. 2d., an ounce of gold
would then be worth 15-07 ounces of silver, and twenty of
our standard shillings would then contain as much pure
silver as 34s. 11 grotes and t Hamburg currency. But
if the ounce of gold were L.3. 17s. lO^d. and silver 5s.
(which it was on 2d January 1798), the ounce of gold
would then be worth 15-57 ounces of silver. If L.l ster¬
ling at par, therefore, be worth 15-07 ounces of silver, then at
15'57 it would be at three per cent, premium; and three per
cent, premium on 34s. 11 ^d. is 1 schilling 1 grote and T9jy,
so that the par, when gold is to silver as 15-57 to 1, will
be 36 schillings 1 grote and y1^. The above calculation
will be more easily made by stating as ‘ 15-07:34-111:: Nominal
15-57 ; 36-lyL.’”a Exchange.
As it is by their intrinsic worth as bullion that the va-
lues of the coins of particular countries is estimated in E?ect of
exchange, two coins of equal weight and purity are reck-onVhe^x-
oned equivalent to each other, although the one should change,
have been coined at the expense of the state, and the
other charged with a seignorage, or duty on its coinage.
Coins on which a seignorage is charged may, if not issued
in excess, pass current in the country where they are
coined, at a value so much higher than their value in bul¬
lion ; but they will not pass at any higher value in other
countries.4
But the principal source of fluctuations in the nominal Effect of
price of bills of exchange is to be found in the varying variations
value of the paper currency of commercial countries. Thein the va-
disorders which universally arose in rude ages from thelue“fPa'
diminution of the quantity of standard bullion contained in renc^on
the coins of different countries are now reproduced in an- the ex-
other form, and often to a still more ruinous extent, in the change,
depreciation of their paper currency.
The impossibility of retaining a Comparatively large
quantity of coin or bullion, or of convertible paper, in a
particular country, effectually limited the issues of the
Bank of England previously to the Restriction Act of
1797, and sustained the value of our currency on a par
with that of other countries. When the bank issued less
paper than was necessary for this purpose, the value of the
currency becoming relatively great, it became profitable to
import bullion, and to send it to the mint to be coined.
And, on the other hand, when the bank issued too much
paper, and thereby depressed its value relatively to gold,
it became profitable to demand payment of its notes, and
thereafter to export the species thus obtained either in
the shape of coin or as bullion. In this way the bank was
compelled to limit its issues when excessive, and, conse¬
quently, to put a stop to the demand for gold, by render¬
ing its paper of equal value.
Had the Bank of England, subsequently to the restric¬
tion, issued only such quantities of paper as were required
to sustain its value on a par with the value of gold, the
act of 1797 would not have occasioned any real difference
in our monetary system. But after the bank had been re¬
leased from the obligation to pay its notes, it was not to
be expected that it should be very careful about limiting
their number. The restriction enabled the directors to
exchange bits of engraved paper, worth perhaps not more
than five shillings a quire, for as many, or the value of as
many hundreds of thousands of pounds. And under such
circumstances, the only thing to be wondered at is, not
that paper money became depreciated, but that its value
was not more degraded,—that a still greater quantity of
bank-notes were not forced into circulation.
A country with an inconvertible paper currency, of
which an undue quantity has been issued, is in the same
situation as a country would be in were it possessed of a
redundant gold and silver currency, and subjected to laws
prohibiting the melting or exportation of the coin that
were carried into full effect. Such a currency is necessa-
1 II est impossible d’indiquer exactement le pair des monnoies Turques. On voit des pieces du meme nom, et frappees a menie
anne'e, qui different de 100 pour cent, dans leur valeur intrinseque. (Storch, Cours d'Economic Politique, tom. vi. p. o .)
Observations on the Principles which regulate the Course of Exchange, by William Blake, Esq. p. 41.
- .7 TT /T» . 1 7 .7 TIT-  I n  Xww *1*0 T) n TipS+V TlllL C. hV
Observations on the Principles which regulate the Course of Exchange, by William Blake, Esq. p. 41. , , lr .
An Inquiry into the Effects produced on the National Currency by the Bank Restriction Bill, &c. by Robert Mushet, Esq. , seconu
edit. p. 94. " - ^
4 Previously to 1817, no seignorage had for a very long period been deducted from either the gold or irf the nronor-
ain; j)ut ln the great recoinage of that year the value of silver was raised from 5s. 2d. to os. . an ounce, . . standard
bon of G| ner cem 'rH.„ ,.,.4.,, i.dm nnined free of exnense, and no variation has been made in their stapaara.
on gold, and 1£ per cent, on silver.
3 K
442
EXCHANGE.
Nominal rily confined to the country where it is issued; it cannot,
Exchange. when too abundant, diffuse itself generally amongst othc s.
The level of circulation is destroyed ; and the value ot the
currency becoming less than the value of the currency ot
other countries, the nominal exchange is rendered pro¬
portionally unfavourable. . i i
Supposing that nothing but silver com of the standard
weight and purity (twenty-five francs of which would ex¬
change for a pound sterling of the British mint stand¬
ard) circulates at Paris, and that the circulating medium
of London is composed entirely of paper only worth halt
its nominal value, or which is depreciated 100 per cent.;
in that case the exchange between London and Ians
would be at real par, when it was nominally cent, per cent,
against London. Double the amount of such depreciated
London currency would be required to purchase a bill o
exchange on Paris where the currency retained its value,
while half the former amount of Parisian currency would
now suffice to purchase a bill payable in London. A de¬
preciation of this sort would have exactly the same eflects
as an equal reduction in the value of metallic money.
While paper money, depreciated 100 per cent, constituted
our legal currency, a pound note, instead of being worth
25 francs, would only be worth 12^; and the nominal or
numerical value of the bills of exchange negotiated be¬
tween this country and France would be regulated ac¬
cordingly ; that is, a bill of exchange for L.100 or L. JOOO
payable in London, would sell in Paris for 1250 or 12,o00
francs, and conversely. If, while the currency of London
remained steady at 100 per cent, below its mint value,
Parisian currency should, either from the coins becoming
deficient in weight, or because of an inordinate issue of
paper money, become also depreciated, the nominal ex¬
change would be rendered proportionally less unfavour¬
able to London. On the hypothesis that the currency of
Paris is depreciated 50 and that of London 100 per cent,
the nominal exchange would be 50 per cent, against the
latter, and so on. Thus it appears that the nominal ex¬
change between any two or more places will always be
adjusted according to the value of their currencies ; being
most favourable to that country whose currency approaches
nearest to its mint standard, and most unfavourable to that
whose currency is most degraded.
The state of exchange between Great Britain and Ire-
Excliange
between pan(p subsequently to the restriction on cash payments in
Great Bri- 17g7 furnishes a striking proof of the effects which inor-
tam and ^ ° 1. i • .r  
Ireland dilate issues of paper have in depressing the exchange,
subsequent The nominal value of the Irish shilling having been
to 1797. raised from 12d. to 13d., or, which is the same thing,
L.108. 6s. 8d. of Irish money having been rendered only
equal to L.100 of British money, it followed, that when
the exchange between Great Britain and Ireland was at
8J- per cent, against the latter, it was said to be at par. In
the eight years previous to 1797, when the paper currency
both of England and Ireland was convertible into gold, the
exchange between London and Dublin fluctuated from 7^
to 9 per cent, that is, from per cent, in favour of Dublin,
to § per cent, against it. In September 1797 it was so
low as 6 per cent., or 2t per cent, in favour of Dublin.
The amount of Bank of Ireland notes in circulation in Ja¬
nuary 1797 was only L.621,917; but in April 1801 they
had increased to L.2,286,471, and the exchange was then
at 14 per cent., or 5| per cent, against Dublin. In 1803,
the Bank oflreland notes in circulation averagedL.2,707,956,
and in October of that year the exchange rose to 17 per
cent, that is, to 8| per cent, against Dublin!
The fact of the exchange between London and Dublin
having fluctuated so very little from real par for eight
years previous to the restriction, shows that the circula¬
ting medium of Great Britain and Ireland had then been
adjusted nearly according to the wants of the two coun- II
tries. But, in these circumstances, it was evidently im-E)
possible, supposing the value of British currency to remain ^
stationary, that the quantity of Irish bank paper could be
nearly quintupled in the short space of six years, without
rendering the currency of Ireland comparatively redun¬
dant, and sinking its value below that of England. Had
the Bank of England increased its notes nearly in the same
ratio as the Bank of Ireland, then, as the currency of both
countries would have been equally depreciated, the ex¬
change between London and Dublin would have continued
at par. But while the notes of the Bank of Ireland were
increased from L.621,917 to L.2,707,956, or in the propor¬
tion of 1 to 4-3, those of the Bank of England were only
increased from L.9,181,843 (their number on 7th January
1797), to L.16,505,272, or in the proportion of 1 to 1-8.
If the Bank of England had not made this addition to its
issues, the exchange would obviously have been still more
unfavourable to Dublin.
In the debates on the Bullion Report, it was contended
that the .increase of Bank of Ireland paper could not be the
cause of the exchange becoming unfavourable to Dublin,
inasmuch as it had again become favourable to the latter,
after the issues of the Bank of Ireland had been still fur¬
ther increased. Nothing, however, can be more inconclu¬
sive than such reasoning. To give it the least weight, it
must be shown that the currency of Great Britain had in
the interim retained its value, or that it had not been de¬
preciated to the same extent as that of Ireland. Unless
this be established, the circumstance that the exchange
between London and Dublin came to par, while as man^
notes of the Bank of Ireland circulated as in the period of
its greatest depression, will not authorise us to conclude
that the increase of Irish bank paper was not the cause ol
the fall in the exchange previously to 1804. For it is ob¬
vious that the depreciation of Irish bank paper might be
going on subsequently to 1804 ; and yet, supposing Eng¬
lish bank paper had been depreciated still more rapidly,
the exchange would become more favourable to Dublin.
This is merely supposing the circumstances which took
place in the first six years of the restriction to be reverseu
in the second six. Let us examine how the fact stands.
We have seen that, in 1803, when the exchange was
nominally ten per cent, against Dublin, the issues of the
Bank of England amounted to L.16,505,272, and those 0
the Bank of Ireland to L.2,707,956. And, by referring to
the account of the issues of the Bank of Ireland from _
to 1819, annexed to the article Money in this work, it
will be seen that, in 1805, 1806, 1807, and 1808, t e\
were rather diminished; and that, in 1810, they on)
amounted to L.3,251,750, being an increase of not more
than L.543,794 in the space of seven years, or at the rate
of two and six-sevenths per cent, per annum; but m the
same period (from 1803 to 1810) the issues of the flan' o
England had increased from L.16,505,272 to L.22,o ,*)-•>
or at the rate of five per cent, per annum. But this is no
all. According to Mr Wakefield (Account of Ireland, voi.
ii. p. 171), who has left no subject untouched which couia
throw light on the state of Ireland, there were fijty reys
tered bankers in that country in 1804, and only thirty- w
in 1810, of which fourteen were hew houses, thirty-one
the old establishments having disappeared ; and I be !e' ’
says Mr Wakefield, “for the most part failed: Diij e '
traordinary diminution of the country paper of Ire an ,
the reduction of the issues was at least proportiona o
reduction in the number of banks, must have great y r
its value, and would have countervailed a very grea
crease in the issues of the national bank. Now the J
reverse of all this took place in Britain. In 1 „
were 386 country banks in this country ; and in 18 >
linal
ange,
EXCHANGE.
N ®>>
is
number, instead of being diminished, as in Ireland, had in¬
creased to 721, having at least three times the number of
notes in circulation in the latter as in the former period !
It appears, therefore, that when, in the period between
1797 and 1804, the quantity of paper in circulation in Ire¬
land was increased, and consequently its value depressed,
faster than in England, the exchange between London and
Dublin became proportionally unfavourable to the latter;
and, on the other hand, it appears, that when, in the six
years subsequent to 1804, the paper currency of England
was increased more rapidly than the paper currency of
Ireland, its relative value was diminished, and the nominal
exchange became more favourable to Dublin.
This is sufficiently conclusive; but there is still more
decisive evidence to show that the unfavourable exchange
of Dublin upon London in 1802, 1803, 1804, &c. was en¬
tirely owing to the comparative redundancy or deprecia¬
tion of Irish bank paper. The linen manufacturers, weav¬
ers, &c. and the majority of the other inhabitants of a
few counties in the north of Ireland, being, at the period
of the restriction, strongly disaffected towards government,
almost unanimously refused to receive bank notes, either in
payment of commodities or as wages. The landlords, having
also stipulated for the payment of their rents in specie, the
consequence was, that a gold currency was maintained in
the north of Ireland long after it had been entirely banished
from the southern part of the island. If, therefore, the
depressed state of the exchange between London and Dub¬
lin had been occasioned, as was contended by the advo¬
cates of the restriction, by an unfavourable balance of trade
between Ireland and Great Britain, or by remittances from
the former on account of absentee landlords, &c. it would
have been equally depressed between London and the com¬
mercial towns in the northern counties. But, so far from
this being the case, in December 1803, when the exchange
of Dublin on London was at sixteen and one-fourth per
cent, that of Belfast on London was at five and one-fourth ;
or, in other words, at the same time that the exchange be¬
tween Dublin and London was about eight per cent, against
Ireland, the exchange between Belfast, which had a gold
currency, and London, was about three per cent, in its fa¬
vour. Nor is this all. There was not only a difference of
eleven per cent, in the rate of exchange between Dublin
and London, and Belfast and London, but the inland ex¬
change between Dublin and Belfast was, at the same time,
about ten per cent, in favour of the latter; that is, bills
drawn in Dublin, and payable in the gold currency of Bel¬
fast, brought a premium of ten per cent.; while bills drawn
in Belfast, and made payable in the paper currency of
Dublin, sold at ten per cent, discount.1
It is unnecessary to refer to the history of the French
assignats, or of the paper currency of the continental
powers generally, and of the United States, to corroborate
what has been advanced. Such of our readers as wish for
detailed information as to these points may have recourse
to the fourth volume of the Cours d'Economic Politique
of M. Storch, where they will find an able and instructive
account of the effects produced by the issues of paper on
ffie price of bullion and the exchange, in almost every
country of Europe. They are, in every case, precisely si¬
milar to those now stated.
It only remains to determine the effects of fluctuations
in the nominal exchange, on the export and import trade
of the country.
443
When the exchange is at par, the operations of the mer- Nominal
chant are regulated entirely by the difference between fo- Exchange,
reign prices and home prices. He impoi'ts those commo-
dities which can be sold at home for so much more than fn'luir-v
then price abroad as will indemnify him for the expense of p«-° .•
freight, insurance, &c. and yield an adequate remuneration fluctua*
foi his trouble, and for the capital employed in their im- tions in the
portation; and he exports those w hose price abroad is nominal
sufficient to cover all expenses, and to afford a similar profit. exchanKe
But when the nominal exchange becomes unfavourable to aon .exPort
particular country, the premium which its merchants receive SeD)port
on the sale of foreign bills has been supposed capable of
enabling them to export with profit in cases where the dif¬
ference between the price of the exported commodities at
home and abroad might not be such as would have per¬
mitted their exportation had the exchange been at par.
Thus, if the nominal exchange were ten per cent, against
this country, a merchant who had consigned goods to his
agent abroad would receive a premium of ten per cent, on
the sale of the bill; and if we suppose freight, insurance,
mercantile profit, &c. to amount to six or seven per cent,
it would at first sight appear as if our merchants might, in
such circumstances, export commodities although their
price at home were three or four per cent, higher than in
other countries. If, on the other hand, the nominal ex¬
change were in our favour, or if bills on this country sold
at a premium, it would appear as if foreigners would then
be able to consign goods to our merchants, or our merchants
to order goods from abroad, when the difference of real prices
was not such as would of itself have led to an importation.
But a very little consideration will convince us that fluc¬
tuations in the nominal exchange can have no such effect.
That fall in the value of the currency which renders the
exchange unfavourable, and causes foreign bills to sell at a
premium, must equally increase the price of all commodi¬
ties. And hence, whatever might be the amount of the pre¬
mium which the exporter gained by the sale of the bill
drawn on his correspondent abroad, it would do no more
than indemnify him for the enhanced price of the goods
exported. Mercantile operations are in such cases con¬
ducted precisely as they would be were the exchange real¬
ly at par ; that is, by a comparison of the real prices of com¬
modities at home and abroad, meaning, by real prices, the
prices at which they would be sold provided there were no
depreciation of the currency. If those prices be such as to
admit of exportation or importation with a profit, the circum¬
stance of the nominal exchange being favourable or unfavour¬
able will make no difference whatever on the transaction.
“ Suppose,” says Mr Blake, who has very successfully
illustrated this part of the doctrine of exchange, “ the cur¬
rencies of Hamburg and London being in their due pro¬
portions, and therefore the nominal exchange at par, that
sugar, which, from its abundance in London, sold at L.50
per hogshead, from its scarcity at Hamburg would sell at
L.100. The merchant in this case would immediately
export. Upon the sale of his sugar he would draw a bill
upon his correspondent abroad for L.100, which he could
at once convert into cash by selling it in the bill market
at home, deriving from this transaction a profit of L.50,
under deduction of the expenses of freight, insurance, com¬
mission, &c. Now, suppose no alteration in the scarcity or
abundance of sugar in London and Hamburg, and that
the same transaction were to take place after the currency
in England had been so much increased that the prices
Farther Information on this interesting subject mav be obtained from the very able Report of the Committee of the Haute of Com-
appointed in 1804 to inquire into the state of the circulating paper in Ireland, its specie, &c. and the state of the exchange
tetween it and Great Britain ; in Sir Henry Parnell’s excellent pamphlet on the same subject; and in the pamphlets ot .Lord King,
Mr Huskisson, &c.
444
EXCHANGE.
Nominal were doubled, and, consequently, the nominal exchange
Exchange. 100 per cent, in favour of Hamburg, the hogshead oi su-
o-ar would then cost L.100, leaving apparently no profit
whatever to the exporter. He would, however, as before,
draw his bill on his correspondent for L.100; and, as
foreign bills would bear a premium of 100 per cent, he
would sell this bill in the English market for L.200, and
thus derive a profit from the transaction of L.100 depre¬
ciated, or L.50 estimated in undepreciated currency, de¬
ducting, as in the former instance, the expense of freight,
insurance, commission, &c.
“ The case would be precisely similar, mutatis mutandis,
with the importing merchant. The unfavourable nominal
exchange would appear to occasion a loss amounting to the
premium on the foreign bill which he must give in order
to pay his correspondent abroad. But if the difference of
real prices in the home and foreign markets were such as
to admit of a profit upon the importation of produce, the
merchant would continue to import, notwithstanding the
premium ; for that would be repaid to him in the advanced
nominal price at which the imported produce would be sold
in the home market.
“ Suppose, for instance, the currencies of Hamburg
and London being in their due proportions, and, therefore,
the nominal exchange at par, that linen, which can be
bought at Hamburg for L.50, will sell here at L.100.
The importer immediately orders his correspondent abroad
to send the linen, for the payment of which he purchases
at L.50 a foreign bill in the English market, and on the
sale of the consignment for L.100, he will derive a profit
amounting to the difference between L.50 and the expense
attending the import.
“ Now, suppose the same transaction to take place with¬
out any alteration in the scarcity or abundance of linen at
Hamburg and London, but that the currency of England
has been so augmented as to be depreciated to halt its va¬
lue, the nominal exchange will then be 100 per cent.
against England, and the importer will not be able to pur
chase a L.50 foreign bill for less than L.100. But as the
prices of commodities here will have risen in the same pro¬
portion as the money has been depreciated, he will sell his
linen to the English consumer for L.200, and will, as be¬
fore, derive a profit amounting to the difference between
L.100 depreciated, or L.50 estimated in undepreciated
money, and the expenses attending the import.
“ The same instances might be put in the case of a fa¬
vourable exchange ; and it would be seen in the same
manner that nominal prices and the nominal exchange
being alike dependent on the depreciation of currency,
whatever apparent advantage might be derived from the
former would be counterbalanced by a loss on the latter,
and vice versa." ( Observations, &c. p. 48.)
It appears, therefore, that fluctuations in the nominal
exchange have no effect on export or import trade. A
fall in the exchange obliges the country to which it is un¬
favourable to expend a larger nominal sum in discharging
a foreign debt than would otherwise be necessary; but
it does not oblige it to expend a greater real value. The
depression of the nominal exchange can neither exceed nor
fall short of the comparative depreciation of the currency.
If the depreciation of British currency amounted to 10 or
100 per cent, the nominal exchange would be 10 or 100
per cent, against us; and we should be compelled, in all
our transactions with foreigners, to give them 22s. or 40s.
for what might otherwise have been procured for L.l. But
as neither 22s. nor 40s. of paper, depreciated to the extent of
10 or 100 per cent, would be more valuable than L.l of
undepreciated paper, payment of a foreign debt might, it
is evident, be as easily made in the one currency as in the
other; and mercantile transactions would, in such circum¬
stances, be conducted exactly as they would have been had No
the currency been undepreciated, and the nominal ex-fxi
change at par. _ '
It is necessary, however, before dismissing this part of
our subject, to examine the effects of fluctuations in the
nominal exchange on the importation and exportation of
bullion. In certain cases they form an exception to the
general principle we have been endeavouring to elucidate.
If the nominal exchange wrere unfavourable to a coun- Eg,
try which had entirely discarded the precious metals from flu*
its circulation, Mr Blake’s opinion that the fall of the ex-M
change has no effect on the export and import of bullion,tlu
more than of any other commodity, would be perfectly well"^
founded. In this case the price of all sorts of commodi-t!j
ties, and of bullion among the rest, would be increased pre-in *'
cisely according to the depreciation of the currency; and
the merchants who should, under such circumstances, at¬
tempt to export bullion, would find that its increased price
in the home market would be exactly equivalent to what¬
ever premium they might gain by the sale of the bills
drawn on their agents abroad for its price. But when the
nominal exchange becomes unfavourable to a country
whose currency consists entirely of the precious metals, or
partly of them and partly of paper, a different effect is pro¬
duced.
In this case the depreciation necessarily adds to the stock
of bullion in the country. For as soon as the currency has
been depreciated to such an extent as to render the excess
of the market above the mint price of bullion sufficient to
cover the very trifling expenses attending the melting of the
coin, and to afford some little remuneration for the trouble of
the melters, they immediately set about converting it into
bullion. If, indeed, it were possible to realize a greater
profit by the exportation than by the fusion of the coins,
they would not be converted into bullion, and, of course,
its real price would continue stationary. But this is very
seldom the case. The operation of melting is so extreme¬
ly simple, and requires so very little apparatus, that it may,
in almost every instance, be canned on at a less expense
than would be necessary to export the coins. The cost
attending the conveyance of gold to Paris varies in a sea¬
son of peace, from one to two per cent.; while a profit of
one fourth or one half per cent, is sufficient to indemnify
the melters of guineas or sovereigns. It is obvious,
therefore, that of the two modes of restoring the value of
the currency when it becomes depreciated, or relatively re¬
dundant, that of fusion will be generally resorted to in pre¬
ference to exportation. Should the redundancy of the
currency be inconsiderable, all the addition which the ope¬
rations of the melters could make to the supply of bullion,
would most probably be insufficient to occasion any Pei ‘
ceptible fall in its real price. But, in every case in whic
the redundancy or depreciation of the currency is considei-
able, the fusion of the coined money never fails to increase
the quantity of bullion beyond the effectual demand, anc,
consequently, to occasion a fall in its real price, and to
render it a profitable article of export. The demand tor
bullion, though it must always vary with the varying wealtn
and riches of the community, fluctuates very little inpeno s
of limited duration ; and no considerable addition can ever
be made to the stock on hand in a particular country, vvi
out sinking its value and causing its egress. . ,
Mr Blake contends that this exportation of bullion is tne
effect of the melting of the coin, and not the cause ot i >
and in so far he is certainly right. But we do notsee 0
this in the least strengthens his opinion, that fluctua i
in the nominal exchange, even in those cases in wine ^
currency consists either wholly or partially of1 the Pre?*0,
metals, have no influence on the export and import o i
lion. Surely it is impossible to deny that the fusion o
EXCHANGE.
al coin, of which Mr Blake admits the exportation of bullion is
mse-a necessary consequence, is occasioned by a redundancy of
the currency, or by the same cause which occasions an un¬
favourable nominal exchange.
Bullion, therefore, forms an exception, and it is the only
one, to the general principle that a fall in the value of the
currency, or an unfavourable nominal exchange, has no
effect on importation or exportation. But this exception
does not take place, except in those cases in which the
currency consists either in whole or in part of the precious
metals. When the currency consists entirely of paper, or
of any commodity other than gold or silver, its depreciation
has no influence whatever on the importation of bullion.
445
SECT. II REAL EXCHANGE.
Rc ex-
cha e.
hiir
flue .
tion
real
that.
the
Having thus endeavoured to trace the effects which va¬
riations in the value of the currencies of countries main¬
taining an intercourse together have on the exchange, we
now proceed to consider how far it is influenced by fluctu¬
ations in the supply and demand for tills. To facilitate this
inquiry, we shall exclude all consideration of changes in
the value of money ; or, which is the same thing, we shall
suppose the currencies of the different countries having an
intercourse together to be all fixed at their mint standards,
and that each has its proper supply of bullion.
When two nations trade together, and each purchases
from the other commodities of precisely the same value,
their debts and credits wall be equal, and, of course, the
real exchange will be at par. The bills drawn by the one
are, in such a case, exactly equivalent to those drawn by the
other, and their respective claims may be adjusted without
the transfer of bullion, or other valuable produce. But it very
rarely happens that the debts reciprocally due by any two
countries are equal. There is almost always a balance owing
on one side or other ; and this balance must affect the ex¬
change. If the debts due by London to Paris exceeded
those due by Paris to London, the competition in the Lon¬
don market for bills on Paris would, because of the com¬
paratively large sum which our merchants had to remit to
France, be greater than the competition in Paris for bills on
London; and, consequently, the real exchange would be
in favour of Paris and against London.
Ihe expense of the transfer of bullion from one country
to another constitutes the limit within which the rise and
fall of the real exchange between them must be confined.
In this respect, as in most others, transactions between fo¬
reign countries are regulated by the very same principles
which regulate those between different parts of the same
country. We have already shown how the fluctuations
m the real exchange between London and Glasgow could
never exceed the expense of transmitting money between
those cities. The same principle holds universally. What¬
ever may be the expense of transmitting bullion,—the mo¬
ney ot the commercial world,—between London and Paris,
Hamburg, New York, &c., it is impossible that the real
exchange of the one on the other should, for any consider¬
able period, be depressed to a greater extent. For a mer¬
chant will not pay a greater premium for a bill to discharge
a debt abroad, than would suffice to cover the expense of
transmitting bullion to his creditor.
Hence it appears that whatever has a tendency to ob¬
struct or fetter the intercourse among different countries,
rnust also tend to widen the limits within which fluctua¬
tions in the real exchange may extend. This enables us
o account for its varying so much more in time of war
lan in time of peace. The amount of the bills drawn on
a vC0!!ntry enSaged in hostilities is, from various causes
W 1C^ ^ shall afterwards notice, liable to be suddenly in¬
creased, though it is certain that whatever may be the
amount of the bills thus thrown upon the market, the de- Real
pression o t le exchange cannot, for any length of time, Exchange,
exceed the expense of conveying bullion from the debtor
to the creditor country. But during war this expense is
increased; the charges on account of freight, insurance,
Tc. enig tien necessarily augmented. It appears, from
the evidence annexed to the Report of the Bullion Com¬
mittee, that tiie expense of conveying gold from London to
am bin g, which, prior to the war, only amounted to two
or two and a half per cent, had, in the latter part of 1809,
increased to about seven per cent.; showing that the li¬
mits within which fluctuations in the real exchange were
confined in 1809 were about three times as great as those
within which they were confined in 1793.
1 his principle also enables us to account for the greater
steadiness of the real exchange between countries in the
immediate vicinity of each other. The expense of trans¬
mitting a given quantity of bullion from London to Dub¬
lin or Paris, is much less than the expense of transmitting
the same quantity from London to New York or Peters¬
burg. And, as fluctuations in the leal exchange can only
be limited by the cost of transmitting bullion, they may
consequently extend much farther between distant places
than between those that are contiguous.
It will now be proper to investigate the circumstances Inquiryin-
which give rise to a favourable or an unfavourable balance to the cir-
of payments, and to appreciate their effects on the real ex- cumstances
change, and on the trade of the country in general. As '^hich give
this is one of the most important inquiries in the 'whole favourable
science of political economy, it will require to be discussed 0r an unfe¬
at some length. vourable
A very great, if not the principal, source of the errors balance of
into which practical merchants, and the majority of writers Payments.
on the subject of exchange, have been betrayed, appears to
have originated in their confounding the sum which im¬
ported commodities are worth in the home market, with
the sum which they cost in the foreign market. It is ob¬
viously, however, by the amount of the latter only, that
the balance of payments, and consequently the real ex¬
change, is influenced. A cargo of iron, for example, which
cost L.1000 free on board at Gottenburg, might be worth
L.1200 or L.1300 when imported into England ; but the
foreign merchant would not be entitled to draw on Lon¬
don for more than its original cost, or L.1000. It is clear, The fact
therefore, on the slightest consideration, that the circum- that the
stance of the value of the imports exceeding the value of value °f
the exports, does not authorise the conclusion that the tlie im¬
balance of payments is unfavourable. A favourable orceeds that
an unfavourable balance depends entirely on the sum due 0f the ex-
to foreigners for commodities imported from abroad being ports, dees
less or more than the sum due by them for the commodi- not war-
ties they have purchased ; but it has nothing to do with the rant the
prices eventually obtained for the imported or exported ^on
commodities. balance of
The great object of the mercantile system of commercial payments
policy, a system which still continues to preserve a consi- is unfe-
derable influence in this and in every other country in Eu- vourable.
rope, is, the creation of a favourable balance of payments,
and consequently of a favourable real exchange, by facili¬
tating exportation and restricting importation. It is foreign
to the object of this article to enter into any examination
of the principles of this system, except in so far as they are
connected with the subject of exchange; but we hope to
be able to show, in opposition to the commonly received
opinions on the subject, that, under ordinary circumstances,
the value of the imports must always exceed the value ot
the exports; and that this excess of importation has not,
speaking generally, any tendency to render the real ex¬
change unfavourable.
It is the business of the merchant to carry the various
...
446
Ileal
Exchange.
In coun¬
tries carry
ing on an
advanta¬
geous com¬
merce, the
value of
the im¬
ports must
always ex¬
ceed the
value of
the ex¬
ports.
lust UII    o -PI
with them would either not exist at all, or, if begun, would
be speedily relinquished.
In England, the rates at which exports and imports are
valued were fixed so far back as 1696. But the very
great alteration that has since taken place, not in the value
great alteration tuat nas since aace — ™di. barrels of flour would, therefor?, be estimated, at die period
its exportation, at 47,500 dollars; but as this flour would,
this \ffirial valuation, though valuable as a means of de- because of freight, insurance, exporter s profits, &c. sell in
Jerm£g thet quantity, ofno use whatever as a criterion Spain for 75,000 dollars, the American merchant would be
of the true value of the imports and exports. To obviate entitled to draw on his agent in Spain for 2/,600 dollars
this defect, an account of the real or declared value of the more than the flour cost in America, or than the sum for
exports is annually prepared from the declarations of the which he could have drawn had the flour been expoitedon
masters, and laid before parliament. There is, however, no account of a Spanish^merchant. But the transaction would
EXCHANGE.
_ -cxi . tVinsp. nrnfit is nothing more than a fair remuneration for the ca- n
products of the different countries o ie P } . loys an(i tiie risk it incurs, in transporting com-Ext ,
places where their value is least, to f086 ll ^ lmod[ties from one country to another. Were the whole Hr
est; or, which is the same thin& ° 1 however that trade between this country and France carried on in British
cording to the effective demand. ^ 18 bottoms, our merchants, in addition to the value of the
there could be no motive to expor any . A in jts .roods exported, would also receive the cost of their carriage
the commodity which it was design F ‘ |iant to France. This, however, would not occasion any loss to
stead was of greater value. ien an & q_ t]lat country. The French merchants must pay the freight
orders a quantity °fr*.h wheat, he cala^tes o„ “my ^ ; ,f /e LgUsh L
-Me “I £ Mbrkind’ "hy they shou,d not
wheat did not sell foi this su^ its importatiOgy^^t In the United States the value of the imports, as ascer-
viously occasionafossto the p ^ importing a tained by the customhouse returns, always exceeds the
did or ever will export, »utM of|x. value 0f the exports. And although our practical politi-
any criterion of an advantageous cians have been in the habit of considering the excess of
rr of U.e SU^ has been neariy in propot-
fhe exnorts forehn trade could not be carried on. Were tion as then- imports have exceeded their exports. ‘ The
W, not the c^Lwere the value of the exports always great excess of American imports has been m part occa-
eater than the value of the imports, merchants would sinned by the Americans generally exporting their own
lose on ev"ry transaction with fofeigners, and the trade surplus produce, and consequently receiving from foreign-
lose on every mu ^,  ers, not only an equivalent for their exports, but also for the
cost of conveying them to the foreign market. “ In 1811,”
says the author just quoted, “ flour sold in America for
nine dollars fifty cents per barrel, and in Spain for fifteen
dollars. The value of the cargo of a vessel carrying 5000
not end here: the 75,000 dollars would be vested in some
species of Spanish or other European goods fit for the
American market; and the freight, insurance, &c. on ac¬
count of the return cargo, would perhaps increase its value
to 100,000 dollars ; so that in all, the American merchant
might have imported commodities worth 52,500 dollars
more than the flour originally sent to Spain.” It is as im¬
possible to deny that such a transaction as this is advanta¬
geous, as it is to deny that its advantage consists entirely
in the excess of the value of the goods imported over t e
value of those exported. And it is equally clear, that
such account of the imports ; and, owing to the difficulties
which high duties throw in the way, it is, perhaps, impos¬
sible to frame one with any thing like accuracy. It has
also been alleged, and apparently with some foundation,
that merchants have not unfrequently exaggerated the va¬
lue of articles entitled to drawbacks on exportation ; but
the recent extension and improvement of the warehousing
system, and the decrease in the number of drawbacks,
must materially lessen whatever fraud or inaccuracy may
have arisen from that source. Indeed, as most articles are
charged with an ad valorem duty of 10s. per cent, on ex- w. uu-"—- “7“ 71 ^ •. im¬
portation, the fair presumption is, that their value will be America might have had the balance o pay
underrated. We believe, however, that the declared value favour, though such transactions as the above had
of the exports comes pretty near the truth, at least suffi- multiplied to any conceivable extent. . ■
ciently so for all practical purposes. Instead, therefore, of endeavouring to e er an ,
But if perfectly accurate accounts could be obtained of the trade with those countries from which we s ou
the value of the exports and imports, there can be no wise import a greater value than we exporte , we
manner of doubt that in ordinary years the latter would to give it every possible facility. Every man ^ . ,
always exceed the former. The value of an exported com- that market as the best in which he is able to o
modity is estimated when it is shipped, before its value is highest price, or the greatest value in exchange 0 ,
increased by the expense incurred in transporting it to the goods ; why then should he be excluded from i • .
place of its destination ; but the value of the commodity compel a merchant to dispose of a cargo of mus i
imported in its stead is estimated after it has arrived at its L.10,000 rather than L.12,000? The wealth o a s ^
destination, and, consequently, after it has been enhanced made up of the wealth of individuals; and we ha\e y
by the cost of freight, insurance, importer’s profit, &c. learn that any more effectual method of increasing ^
It is of very little importance, in so far at least as the in- vidual wealth can be devised than to permit every pe ^
terests of commerce are concerned, whether a nation act as to make his purchases in the cheapest and his sa es i
the carrier of its own imports and exports, or employ others, dearest market. ,. . aj).
A carrying nation appears to derive a comparatively large It would be difficult to estimate the mischief lC . _
profit from its commercial transactions ; but this excess of surd notions relative to the balance of trade have occa
1 Pitkin on the Commerce of the United States, 2d ed. p. 280.
EXCHANGE.
Ex. ige-1
not
ed in almost every commercial country. In Great Britain
they have been particularly injurious. It is principally to
the prevalence of prejudices to which they have given rise,
En ous tjjat (-^g restrictions imposed on the trade between this
country and France are to be ascribed. The great, and,
indeed, the only argument insisted on by those who pre¬
vailed on the legislature to declare the trade with France
a nuisance {Prohibition Act, ls£ William and Mary), was
founded on the fact, that the value of the imports from
that kingdom considerably exceeded the value of the ex¬
ports. The balance was termed a tribute paid by England
to France; and it was sagaciously asked, what had we
done that we should be obliged to pay so much money to
our deadly enemy ? It never occurred to these wise per¬
sons, that no merchant would import any commodity from
France, unless it brought a higher price in this country
than the commodity exported in its stead; and that the
profit of the merchant, or, which is the same thing, the
national gain, would depend on this excess of price. The
reason assigned for prohibiting the trade, affords the best
proof of its having been a lucrative one. There cannot,
indeed, be a doubt, that an unrestricted freedom of inter¬
course between the two countries would be of the greatest
service to both. The peculiarities in the soil and climate,
and in the national character of the people, of Great Bri¬
tain and France, enable the one to produce various species
of raw and manufactured commodities at a cheaper rate
than they can be produced by the other. If we were al¬
lowed freely to purchase and import under moderate du¬
ties, the silks, the wines, and the brandies of France, those
things which we can supply cheaper than our ingenious
neighbours would be taken in payment. An extensive
market would thus be created for a vast variety of articles,
and a natural and powerful stimulus would be applied to
the industry of both countries. Nobody denies that the
trade with America, Portugal, and the Baltic is advantage¬
ous; and if so, why is the trade with France to be consi¬
dered as prejudicial ? Supposing the trade between the
two countries were perfectly free, does any one imagine
that our merchants would export or import any commodi¬
ty to or from France, provided they could either sell or
buy it on better terms anywhere else ? If the restrictions
on the French trade be not really injurious, that is, if the
trade with France be either a losing or a less advantageous
one than that with other countries, we may rest assured
that the throwing it open would not make a single indivi¬
dual engage in it.
As the real price of commodities is always proportioned
not only to the expense of their production, but also to
the expense necessarily incurred in conveying them to the
place where they are to be consumed, it is plain that a na¬
tion which prohibits trading with the countries in her vi¬
cinity must pay a higher price for her imported commodi¬
ties, and be obliged to exact a higher price for those
which she exports, than would be necessary were she able to
procure the one or to dispose of the other in her immediate
neighbourhood. If the same sort of wine could be bought
at Bordeaux equally cheap as at Lisbon, the diflFerence of
height would enable it to be sold cheaper in London. It
is this principle, in fact, which renders the home trade pe¬
culiarly advantageous. The parties engaged in it live near
each other, and consequently each obtains the commodity
0 which he stands in need at its cheapest rate, and with¬
out being obliged to pay any great additional sum on ac¬
count of carriage. When, therefore, we restrict the trade
with countries in our immediate vicinity, we act in the
teeth of that very principle which is, in every other case,
a mi|te(l to be advantageous. We compel such of our
people as purchase foreign commodities, to buy them at a
comparatively high price; while, by raising the price of
447
Real
Exchange.
paid in bul-
the commodities we export, the market for them is inju¬
riously contracted. J
But the partisans of the exclusive or mercantile system
will per naps tell us, that they do not mean to contend that
it it, profitable to export a greater value than is imported,
but that, by exporting an excess of raw and manufactured
commodities, the balance of payments is rendered favour¬
able, and that this balance (which they consider as repre¬
senting the entire net profit made by the country on its
transactions with foreigners) is always paid in bullion.
It will, however, be easy to snow that this statement is Favour-
altogether erroneous; that a balance, whether on the one able or un-
side or the other, is seldom or never cancelled by means favourable
of bullion ; and that this balance is not a measure, and has bflance not
in fact nothing to do with the profit or loss attending fo-ceSoT
reign commercial transactions. paid
I. So long as the premium on foreign bills is less than lion
the expense attending the transit of bullion from a coun¬
try which has an unfavourable real exchange, no merchant
ever thinks of subjecting himself to an unnecessary expense,
by exporting bullion to pay a foreign debt. But though the
premium on foreign bills had increased, so as to equal the
cost of exporting the precious metals, for it cannot exceed
this sum, it does not by any means follow that they would
therefore be exported. That depends entirely on the fact,
whether bullion be, at the time, the cheapest exportable
commodity, or, in other words, whether a remittance of
bullion be the most advantageous way in which a debt may
be discharged. If a London merchant owe L.100 in Paris,
he sets about finding out the cheapest method of paying it.
On the supposition that the real exchange is two per cent,
below par, and that the expense of remitting bullion, in¬
cluding the profit of the bullion merchant, is also two per
cent., it will be indifferent to him whether he pay L.2 of
premium for a bill of L.100 payable in Paris, or incur an
expense of L.2, by remitting L.100 worth of bullion di¬
rectly to that city. If the prices of cloth in Paris and
London be such, that it would require L.103 to purchase
and send as much cloth to Paris as would sell for L.100, he
would undoubtedly prefer buying a bill or exporting bul¬
lion. But if, by incurring an expense of L.101, the debtor
be able to send as much hardware to Paris as would sell
for L.100, he would as certainly prefer paying his debt by
an exportation of hardware. By doing so, he saves one per
cent, more than if he bought a foreign bill or remitted
bullion, and two per cent, more than if he exported cloth.
If there had been any other commodity that might have
been exported with more advantage, he would have used
it in preference.
It is obvious, therefore, that the exportation of bullion is
regulated by precisely the same principles which regulate
the export and import of other commodities. It is export¬
ed when its exportation is most advantageous; that is,
when it is less valuable at home and more valuable abroad
than any other commodity; and it cannot be otherwise
exported. The balance of payments might be a hundred
millions against a country, without depriving it of a single
ounce of bullion. No merchant would remit L.100 worth
of gold or silver from England to discharge a debt in Paris,
if he could invest L.98, L.99, or any smaller sum in any
other species of merchandise which, exclusive of expenses,
would sell in France for L.100. Those who deal in the
precious metals are, we may depend upon it, as much un¬
der the influence of self-interest as those who deal in cof¬
fee or indigo. But who would attempt to discharge a fo¬
reign debt, by exporting coffee which cost L.100, if he
could effect the same object by sending abroad indigo
which cost only L.97 ? No person in his senses would
export a hat to be sold for. 20s. provided he could sell it
at home for a guinea; nor would any person export an
448
EXCHANGE.
Real ounce of bullion, if its value were not less in the export-
Exchange. in<r than in the importing country, or it there were any
other commodity whatever that might be exported with
greater advantage.
2. It is in vain to contend, that by permitting an unre¬
stricted freedom of trade, one country might become in¬
debted to another, which had no demand for any sort of
ordinary merchandise, and which would only accept ot
cash or bullion in exchange for its exports. Such a case
never did, and never will occur. A nation which is in
want of money must also be in want of other things; for
men only desire money because of its being the xeadiest
means of increasing their command over the necessaiies
and enjoyments of life. The extreme variety, too, in the
soil and climate, in the machinery, and in the skill and in¬
dustry of the artisans belonging to different countries, must
always occasion a considerable difference in the prices of
their products. And until the cost of production be equa¬
lized, there must always be a foreign demand for those
commodities which can be produced cheaper at home than
abroad; and until the desire to accumulate be banished
from the human breast, there must always be an inclina¬
tion to send commodities from those countries where their
exchangeable value is least, to where it is greatest.
3. In treating of the nominal exchange, we endeavoured
to show, that it is impossible that any country should be
able, for any length of time, to import or export a greater
quantity of bullion than may be necessary to preserve the
value of bullion in it in its proper relation to the bullion
of other countries; or, which is the same thing, to have
the real exchange either permanently favourable or unfa¬
vourable. But though this principle be strictly true in re¬
ference to its aggregate exchanges, it is incorrect when the
state of its exchange with one country only is considered.
Great Britain, for example, may constantly have the ex¬
change in her favour with Portugal, provided she have it
constantly, and to an equal extent, against her with the
East Indies, or some other country. “ She may,” to use
the words of Mr Ricardo, “ be importing from the north
the bullion which she is exporting to the south. She may
be collecting it from countries where it is relatively abun¬
dant, for others where it is relatively scarce, or where, from
some particular causes, it is in great demand. Spain, who
is the great importer of bullion from America, can never
have an unfavourable exchange with her colonies; and as
she must distribute the bullion she receives among the
different nations of the world, she can seldom have a favour¬
able exchange with the countries with which she trades.”1
It was by this principle that Lord King ingeniously,
and, we think, successfully accounted for the nearly con¬
tinued favourable exchange between this country and
Hamburg, from 1770 to 1799. His Lordship showed
that the importation of bullion from Hamburg and other
countries was only equivalent to the quantity exported
to the East Indies and consumed at home; that the de¬
mand corresponded to the supply; and that its value re¬
mained pretty stationary. The extraordinary influx of
bullion into this country from the Continent at the era
of the bank restriction in 1797, and the very favourable
state of the exchange, were undoubtedly owing, in a
very great degree, to the reduction in the issues of bank
paper, and to the diminution of the gold currency caused
by the hoarding of guineas, &c. In 1797 and 1798, above
Jive millions of guineas were coined at the mint; and this
extraordinary demand for gold is of itself abundantly suf¬
ficient to account for the very favourable exchange of that
period, and for the length of time which it continued.
But, at the same time that the demand for gold bullion
for the mint was thus increased, the demand for silver
bullion, for the purpose of exportation by the East India
Company, had also been proportionally augmented. In
1795, the quantity exported on account of the Company,
and of private persons, amounted to only 151,795 ounces.
In 1796 to 290,777
1797     962,880
1798  3,565,691
1799  ...7,287,327
From this period the exportation of silver to the East
Indies was very much reduced; and, in the years in
which the exchange was most unfavourable, it had almost
entirely ceased.
Instead, therefore, of the extraordinary importation of
bullion from Hamburg in 1797 and 1798 affording, as Mr
Bosanquet and others have supposed, a practical proof
of the fallacy of the opinion of those who contend that it
is impossible, for any length of time, to destroy the natu¬
ral equality in the value of bullion in different countries,
it is a striking example of its truth. Without this in¬
flux, bullion in this country could not have maintained
its proper value, as compared with that of other countries.
We imported it, because, owing to the reduction of the
paper currency, and the increased exports by the East
India Company, its value was rendered higher here than
on the Continent; and, consequently, because the Conti¬
nental merchants found it advantageous to send bullion to
us, in the same manner as they would have sent corn, or
any other commodity for which there happened to be an
unusual demand in Great Britain. For, however favour¬
able the real exchange between Hamburg and London
might have been to the latter, we should not have import¬
ed a single ounce of bullion, had it not been, at the time,
the most advantageous article with which Hamburg could
discharge its debt to London.
4. In the absence of all other arguments, it would be
sufficient to state, that it is physically impossible that the
excess of exports over imports, as indicated by the cus¬
tom-house returns, should be paid in bullion. Every coun¬
try in the world, with the single exception of the United
States, has its apparently favourable balance ; and of course,
if they really existed, they would have to be paid by an
influx of bullion from the mines correspondent to their ag¬
gregate amount. It is certain, however, that the entire
produce of the mines, though it were increased in a tenfold
proportion, would be insufficient for this purpose! Ihis
of itself is decisive of the degree of credit which ought to
be attached to the commonly received opinions on this
subject. _
5. In the last place, the profit on transactions with fo¬
reigners does not consist in the quantity of bullion im¬
ported from abroad, but in “ the excess of the value o
the imports over the value of the exports.” If return
for exported commodities worth ten or twenty millions, we
import such as are worth jifteen or thirty, we shall gain o
per cent, by the transaction, though the exports shou
consist entirely of bullion, and the imports of corn, sugar,
coffee, &c. It is a ridiculous prejudice that would ma e
us import bullion rather than any other commodity. 11
whatever the partisans of the exclusive system may say
about its being a preferable product, a marchandise par eX
cellence, we may be assured that it w ill never appear m
Ii[
Ext
ige.
1 See Reply to Mr Bosanqtiet's Observations on the Report of the Bullion Committee, p. 17 5 one of the best pamphlets that has eve
been published on the subject of exchange.
EXCHANGE.
449
h
u
Fi
flu
tioi
rea
cha
for.
tra.
il the list of exports or imports, while there is any other com-
nge. modity with which to carry on trade that will yield a lar-
ger profit.
of Thus it appears that the excess of exports over imports,
• instead of being any proof of an advantageous commerce,
ltlieis distinctly and completely the reverse ;—that a commer-
!• cial country may, and almost always does, import commo¬
dities of greater value than it exports, without rendering
itself indebted to foreigners;—and that when a balance of
debt has been contracted, that is, when the sum payable
to foreigners for imported commodities is greater than the
sum receivable from them for exported commodities, the
balance will not be paid by sending bullion from the debtor
to the creditor country, unless it be at the time the most
profitable article of export.
We have, in the previous section, shown that fluctuations
in the nominal exchange have no effect on foreign trade.
When the currency is depreciated, the premium which an
exporter derives from the sale of the bill drawn on his cor¬
respondent abroad, is barely equivalent to the increase in
the price of the goods exported, occasioned by the deprecia¬
tion. But when the premium on a foreign bill is not a
consequence of a fall in the value of money, but of a defi¬
ciency in the supply of bills, there is no rise of prices, and
under such circumstances the unfavourable exchange un¬
doubtedly operates as a stimulus to exportation. As soon
as the real exchange diverges from par, the mere inspec¬
tion of a price current is no longer sufficient to regulate
the operations of the merchant. If it be unfavourable, the
premium which an exporter receives on the sale of bills
must be included in the estimate of the profit he is likely
to derive from the transaction. The greater that premium,
the less will be the difference of prices necessary to make
him export. And hence an unfavourable real exchange
has exactly the same effect as a bounty on exportation
equal to the premium on foreign bills.
But for the same reason that an unfavourable real ex¬
change increases exportation, it proportionally diminishes
importation. When the exchange is really unfavourable,
the price of foreign commodities brought to our markets
must be so much under their price at home, as not merely
to afford, exclusive of expenses, the ordinary profit on their
sale, but also to pay the premium which the importer must
give for a foreign bill, if he remit one to his correspond¬
ent, or for the discount, added to the invoice price, if the
latter draw upon him. A much less quantity of foreign
goods will therefore suit our markets when the real ex¬
change is unfavourable ; and fewer payments having to be
made abroad, the competition for foreign bills is diminished,
and the real exchange rendered proportionally favourable.
In the same way, it is easy to see that a favourable real ex¬
change must operate as duty on exportation, and as a bounty
on importation.
It is thus that fluctuations in the real exchange have
a necessary tendency to correct themselves. They can
never, for any considerable period, exceed the expense of
transmitting bullion from the debtor to the creditor coun¬
try. But the exchange cannot continue permanently fa¬
vourable or unfavourable to this extent. When favour¬
able, it corrects itself by restricting exportation and facili¬
tating importation; and when unfavourable, it produces
the same effect by giving an unusual stimulus to exporta¬
tion, and by throwing obstacles in the way of importation.
he true par forms the centre of these oscillations ; and
though the thousand circumstances that daily and hourly
a ect the state of debt and credit, prevent the ordinary
course of exchange from being almost ever precisely at
par, its fluctuations, whether on the one side or the other,
are confined within certain limits, and have a constant
tendency to disappear.
vol. IX.
The natural tendency which the exchange has to cor- Real
rect itself is powerfully assisted by the operations of the Exchange,
bill merchants.
England, for example, may owe an excess of debt to ?'he
Amsterdam, yet, as the aggregate amount of the debts tfaeS mer ^
by a commercial country, is generally balanced by the chants
amount of those which it has to receive, the deficiency of have a ten-
bills on Amsterdam in London will most probably be coun- dency to
tervailed by a proportional redundancy of them in somelessen fluc-
other quarter. Now, it is the business of the merchants Iuation;s in
who deal in bills, as of those who deal in bullion or anyexchar)cre
thing else, to buy them where they are cheap, and to sell
them where they are dear. They therefore buy up the
bills drawn by other countries on Amsterdam, and dispose
of them in London ; and, by so doing, prevent any great
fall in the price of bills on Amsterdam in those countries
in which the supply exceeds the demand, and any great
rise in Great Britain and those countries in which the sup¬
ply happens to be deficient. In the trade between Italy
and this country, the bills drawn on Great Britain amount
almost invariably to a greater sum than those drawn on
Italy. The bill merchants, however, by buying up the
excess of the Italian bills on London, and selling them in
France, Holland, and other countries indebted to Eng¬
land, prevent the 1'eal exchange from ever becoming very
much depressed.
An unusual deficiency in the supply of corn, or of any A large
other article of prime necessity, the demand for which foreign ex-
could not be immediately contracted, by causing a sudden Pen(ilture
augmentation of the imports from abroad, materially affects manent ef-"
the state of debt and credit with foreign countries, and de- fect on the
presses the exchange. In time of war the balance of pay- exchange,
ments is liable to be still further deranged; the amount
of the bills drawn on a country carrying on foreign hosti¬
lities, being increased by the whole expense of its arma¬
ments abroad, and of subsidies to foreign powers. But
neither the conjoined nor separate influence of both or
either of these causes can exert any permanent influence
over the exchange. A sudden increase in the accustomed
supply of bills must, in the first instance, by glutting the
market, occasion their selling at a discount; but this ef¬
fect can only be of temporary duration. The unusual fa¬
cilities which are then afforded for the exportation of ma¬
nufactured produce to the foreign market, and the difficul¬
ties which are thrown in the way of importation, never fail
speedily to bring the real exchange to par.
In a period of profound peace we may, by exporting an
excess of raw or manufactured produce, overload the fo¬
reign market, and occasion such a decline in the price of
British goods abroad, as to render the imported less valu¬
able than the exported commodities with which they have
been purchased. But such a state of things speedily ef¬
fects its own cure. The distress which it necessarily oc¬
casions leads to an immediate diminution of exports ; and
the supply of British commodities in the foreign market
being thus rendered more nearly commensurate with the
demand, they of course sell for an adequate profit; and
the value of the imports again exceeds, as it always ought
to do, the value of the exports. But whenever a country
has a large foreign expenditure to sustain, its exports are
proportionally augmented. Such an expenditure can only
be discharged either by the government directly sending
abroad an equivalent amount of commodities, or by means
of bills of exchange drawn against produce exported by
private individuals. Supposing the foreign expenditure of
Great Britain during the late war to have amounted to ten
or twenty millions a-year, it is evident we must have an¬
nually exported an equal amount of the produce of our
land, capital, and labour, for which payment would be re¬
ceived, not, as in ordinary cases, by a corresponding im-
3 L
if
450 EXCHANGE.
Real nortation of foreien commodities, but from the treasury at three years m question has seldom been estimated at less : ,|
r-A.„.{”™"0This is st?ictiy true, even though it were admitted than from sixteen to twenty million^ though it probably tn,,
that the expenditure had, in the first instance, been entire- amounted to a great deal more. Mr Horner, the accu-
uidL wic c o ^ xi... : vor.ir cinrl pvtpnt nf whose information cannot be cal ed in
ly discharged by remittances of bullion ; for the increased racy and extent of whose information camot be called in
supply of bullion which was thus required could be ob- question, made the following statement o t us subject,
tained only by an equally increased exportation of other in his place in parliament : , „ .
produce to the countries possessed of mines, or from which “ From inquiries he had made, and from the accounts
it could be advantageously imported. Foreign expendi- on the table, he was convinced Aula greater and mare
tore, by increasing Exports precisely in proportion to its sudden redact,on of the circuhUng medium had never taken
own amount, is incapable of exerting any permanent effect place m any country than had taken place since the peace
, , 1 in this countryy with the exception of those reductions
°nThus ^appears that a really great excess of exports, in- that had taken Place in tr^.n^e ^
stead of being any criterion of increasing wealth at home, scheme, and alter the destruction of the assignats. Ihe
is only a certain indication of great expenditure abroad, reduction of the currency had originated in the previous
“ When” savs Mr Wheatley, “ the exports exceed the fall of the prices of agricultural produce, lhat fall had
imports,’as they must do when there is a large foreign ex- produced a destruction of country-bank paper, to an ex¬
penditure, the equivalents for the excess are received tent which would not have been thought possible, vvith-
abroad in as full and ample a manner as if the produce out more ruin than had actually ensued. The Bank of
which they purchased were actually imported and entered England had also restricted its issues. As aoneared hv
in the custom-house books, and afterwards sent to the seat
of war for consumption. But from the circumstance of its
not being inserted in the custom-house entries as value
received against the produce exported for its payment, the
latter is deemed to constitute a favourable balance, when
it is in reality exported to liquidate a balance against us.”
(Wheatley On the Theory of Money, p. 219.)
Cause of ^ut however conclusive this reasoning may appear, it
the rise of has nevertheless been contended, that it is at variance
the ex- with the fact; and that the rise of the exchange in autumn
1814, and its restoration to par in 1816, when the restric¬
tion on cash payments at the bank was in full operation,
change in
1815 and
181G.
As appeared by
the"accounts recently presented, the average amount of
its currency wras not, during the last year, more than be¬
tween L.25,000,000 and L.26,000,000; while two years
ago it had been nearer L.29,000,000, and at one time
even amounted to L.31,000,000. But without looking to
the diminution of Bank of England paper, the reduction
of the country paper was enough to account for the rise
which had taken place in the exchange.”
Here, then, is the cause of the exchange coming to par
in 1815 and 1816. It had nothing to do with the cessa¬
tion of hostilities, but was entirely a consequence of the
increased value of our currency, caused by the sudden
i7a* practical‘and* convincing" proof that its previous de- reduction of its quantity. Instead, therefore, of being at
pression had not been a consequence of the depreciation variance with the principles we have been endeavouring
of the currency, but of the excessive supply of bills on to elucidate, this fact aftords the strongest confirmation
London in the foreign market, occasioned by the expen- of their perfect correctness. And having been sanction-
sive contest in which we were then engaged. According ed by the fullest experience, they may be considered as
to our view of the matter, however, this fact leads to a beyond the reach of cavil and dispute,
precisely opposite conclusion. It is of no use to tell us An objection of a different sort has been made, y a very
that the exchange came to par while the restriction act able economist, to another part of the theory maintained
was unrepealed. It was never contended that the fact of
such law being in existence had any effect on the cur¬
rency. The restriction was justly condemned, because it
enabled the Bank of England to deluge the country with
paper. If the bank had never abused that power,—if the
in this section, of which it may here be proper to take
some notice.
When the exchange becomes unfavourable, the pre-Kef Jtion
mium, procured by the sale of the bill drawn on a foreign oH p-
merchant to whom bullion has been consigned, is 110Jjl” jn’
paper, jli me uaiiK uau ucvci auuscu lhul pww^ij—^ ^      . o ' dun
proprietors had sacrificed their own individual interests greater than would be obtained by consigning to nimunf,
J 1 « , T TIT ..11, ,1 _•   4-✓'vf Trains An
to those of the public, and had constantly kept their pa¬
per on a level with bullion,—the restriction act, though
unwise, would, as to consequences, have been the same as
if it had never existed. The question is not, therefore,
whether the exchange came to joar while the restriction con
coffee, tea, sugar, indigo, &c. of equal value. An unfa-^Ij
vourable real exchange permits a merchant to exportexclbi
commodities which could not be exported were the reahm y-
exchange at par, or favourable ; but the advantage stilly ^
remains of exporting those commodities in preference,^ >yj
tinued,but whether it came to par while as many notes circu- whose price in the country from which they are exported,
laled as in the period of its greatest depression ? If this could compared with their price in the country into whic 11 iey exp
be shown, and if it could also be shown that the effective are imported, is lowest. Suppose, for example, that t ein p
expense of transmitting bullion from this country to r ranee
is three per cent., that the exchange is four per cent,
against us, that the price of bullion is the same in both
countries, and that coffee, exclusive of the expenses o
carriage, is really worth four per cent, more in France
than in England. In such a case, it is obvious, the ex¬
porter of bullion would realize only a profit of one per
cent., while the exporters of coffee would realize, inclu¬
sive of the premium on the sale of the foreign bill, a pro¬
demand for paper had not, at the same time, been pro¬
portionally increased, the argument would be conclusive;
and we should be compelled to admit that a great compa¬
rative increase of paper money has no tendency to dimi¬
nish its value, or to render the nominal exchange unfa¬
vourable !
But it would be worse than idle to set about proving
by argument a fact so notorious as the prodigious diminu¬
tion of bank paper in 1814, 1815, and 1816. In that pe¬
riod above 240 country banks stopped payment; and fit of seven per cent. And hence the opinion maintaine
ninety-two commissions of bankruptcy were issued against by Colonel Torrens (Comparative Estimate, &c.), tna
these establishments; being at the rate of one commis- when the exchange becomes unfavourable, those cotnmo-
sion against every seven and a half of the total number dities which contain the greatest value in the smalles
of banks existing in 1813 ! The Board of Agriculture esti- bulk, or on which the expense of carriage is least, wou
mated, that in the county of Lincoln alone above three be exported in preference, appears to rest on no geo
millions of bank paper had been withdrawn from circula- foundation. The prices of the commodities which na
tion ; and the total diminution of the currency during the tions trading together are in the habit of exporting an
exchange.
eal
ange.
importing, are regulated not merely by the cost of their
production, but also by the expense necessarily incurred
in carrying them from where they are produced to where
they are consumed. If Great Britain were in the con¬
stant habit of supplying France with corn and bullion, the
average price of corn in France, because of the expense
required to convey it from this country, would plainly be
from ten to fifteen percent, higher than in Britain ; while,
because of the comparative facility with which bullion
might be transported from the one to the other, its value
in Paris would not exceed its value in London more than
one or two per cent. Now, supposing that when the
prices of both corn and bullion in Great Britain and
France are adjusted according to their natural propor¬
tions, the real exchange becomes unfavourable to us; it
is clear, that this fall in the exchange gives no more ad¬
vantage to the exporters of bullion than to those of corn.
The rise in. the price of foreign bills does not increase the
expense attending the exportation of corn or bullion. It
leaves the cost of producing and transporting these com¬
modities exactly where it found it. During the depres¬
sion of the exchange, the exporters of both articles derive
a premium from the sale of the bills drawn on their foreign
correspondents. But there can be no inducement to ex¬
port bullion in preference to corn, unless the real price of
bullion should increase more rapidly in France, or decline
more rapidly in Great Britain, than the real price of corn.
Whatever, therefore, may be the depression of the ex¬
change, the merchant invariably selects those commodi¬
ties for exportation, which, exclusive of the premium,
yield the greatest profit on their sale. If bullion be one
of these commodities, it will of course be exported ; if not,
not. Bullion, however, of all commodities, is that of which
the value approaches nearest to an equality in different
countries, and hence it is the least likely to be exported
during an unfavourable exchange. The demand for it is
comparatively steady, and no great surplus quantity could
be imported into one country without reducing its value,
or exported from another without raising its value, so as
to unfit it either for exportation or importation. A very
small part only of an unfavourable balance is ever paid in
bullion. The operations of the bullion merchant are chief¬
ly confined to the distribution of the fresh supplies which
are annually dug from the mines proportionally to the ef¬
fective demand of different countries. Its price is too in¬
variable, or, which is the same thing, its supply and de¬
mand are too constant, to admit of its ever becoming an
important article in the trade between any two countries
neither of which possesses mines.
In corroboration of this argument, we may mention
that, according to the official statement laid on the table
o the House of Commons, it appears that the expenses
incurred by this country on account of the armies acting
und °r^U°a^ during the following years, were as
In J808   2,903,540
1809  2,450,956
J810  6,066,021
J811  8,906,700
1812)
1813 }    31,767,794
0f 18 i4   13,000,000
, ^according tQ tjle same 0ffjcjaj statement, only
e ollowing sums were remitted in coin or bullion :—
In J808   2,861,339
809  461,926
J®1?  697,675
Imr  7«>053
1813 J  3,284,435
451
Q„?{Qt^.e sum ofJ^ mdhons voted to our allies in 1813 Computed
and 1814, not more than L.300,000 was sent in bullion, Exchange.
,e rest beinS made up by the exportation of manufactur-
xxvfn ^7. s1tores‘1 (Edinburgh Review, vol.
fn IftOQ 1 ft! n ,The market Price of So]d and silver
in 1809, 1810, &c. could not, therefore, be owing to the
purchases made by government, for they were not greater
than the sums exported by the East India Company in
1/98 and 1799, and in 1803, 1804, and 1805, when there
was scarcely any perceptible rise in the price of bullion.
Ihe immense additions made to the paper currency of
the country in 1809, 1810, &c. sunk its value compared
with bullion, and was the true cause of the unfavourable
nominal exchange of that period.
SECT. III. COMPUTED EXCHANGE.
Having thus endeavoured to point out the manner in Comnuted
which variations in the comparative value of the curren-exchange
cies of nations trading together, and in the supply and
demand for bills, separately affect the exchange, it now
only remains to ascertain their combined effect. It is on
this that the computed or actual course of exchange de¬
pends.
Fiom what has been already stated, it must be obvious, The com-
that w hen the nominal and real exchange are both fa- puted ex-
vourable or both unfavourable, the computed exchange change re¬
will express their sum; and that when the one is favour-P.resents
able and the other unfavourable, it will express their dif- e*b!er t*’e
ference. sum or tne
When, for example, the currency of Great Britain is oftfmreaT ^
the mint standard and purity, and the currency of France and nomi-
five per cent, degraded, the nominal exchange will be five nal ex-
per cent, in favour of this country. But the raz/ex change cban°e‘
may, at the same time, be either favourable or unfavour¬
able. If it be also favourable to the extent of one, two,
three, &c. per cent, the computed exchange will be six,
seven, eight, &c. percent, in favour of this country. And,
on the other hand, if it be unfavourable to the extent
of one, two, three, &c. per cent, the computed exchange
will be only four, three, two, &c. per cent, in our fa¬
vour. When the real exchange is in favour of a particu¬
lar country, provided the nominal exchange be equally
against it,* the computed exchange will be at par, and vice
versa.
A comparison of the market with the mint price of
bullion affords the best criterion by which to ascertain the
state of the exchange at any particular period. When
no restrictions are imposed on the trade in the precious
metals, the excess of the market over the mint price of
bullion affords a pretty accurate measure of the depre¬
ciation of the currency. If the market and mint price of
bullion at Paris and London exactly corresponded, and if
the value of bullion was the same in both countries, the
nominal exchange would be at par ; and whatever fluctua¬
tions the computed exchange might exhibit, must, in such
a case, be traced to fluctuations in the real exchange, or,
which is the same thing, to the supply and demand for
bills. If, when the market price of bullion in Paris is equal
to its mint price, it exceeds it ten per cent, in London, it
is a proof that our currency is ten per cent, depreciated,
and consequently the nominal exchange between Paris
and London must be ten per cent, against the latter. In¬
stead, however, of the computed or actual course of ex¬
change being ten per cent, against London, it may be
against it to a greater or less extent, or in its favour. It
will be more against it provided the rm/exchange be also
unfavourable,—it will be less against it provided the real
exchange be in favour of London, though to a less extent
than the adverse nominal exchange,—and it will be in fa-
452
Computed
Exchange.
EXCHANGE.
vour of London, should the favourable rmf exceed the un-
favourable nominal exchange. Thus, if while British cur¬
rency is ten per cent, depreciated, and French currency
at par, the computed or actual course of exchange be¬
tween Paris and London were twelve or fifteen per cent,
against the latter, it would show that the real exchange
was also against this country to the extent of two or three
per cent. And if, on the other hand, the computed ex¬
change was only five or six per cent, against London, it
would show that the. real exchange was four or five per
cent, in its favour, and so on. 1 .
It has already been shown, that, in so far at least as the
question of exchange is involved, the differences in the
value of bullion in different countries are limited by the
expense of its transit from one to another. And hence,
by ascertaining whether a particular country exports 01
imports bullion to or from other countries, we are able to
determine its comparative value in these countries. Sup¬
pose, for example, that the expense of conveying bullion
from this country to France, including the profits of the
bullion dealer, is two per cent.; it is clear, inasmuch as
bullion is only exported to find its level, that whenever our
merchants begin to export it to France, its value there must
be two per cent, greater than in England; and, on the
contrary, when they import bullion from Fiance, it must
be two per cent, more valuable here than in France. In
judging of the exchange between any two countries, this
circumstance must always be attended to. It no bullion
be passing from the one to the other, we may conclude
that its value is nearly the same in both ; at all events, it
is certain that the difference of its value is not greater than
the expense of transit. On the supposition that the en¬
tire expense, including profit, &c. of conveying bullion
from Rio Janeiro to London is five per cent., and that the
London merchants are importing bullion, then it is clear,
provided the real exchange be at par, and that the cun ency
of both cities is at the mint standard, that the nominal, or,
which in this case is the same thing, the computed ex¬
change, will be five per cent, in favour of London. But if
the currency of London be five per cent, depreciated, or,
in other words, if the market price of bullion at London be
five per cent, above its mint price, the computed exchange
between it and Rio Janeiro, supposing the real exchange
to continue at par, will obviously also be at paf. It may
therefore be laid down as a general rule, that as soon as
bullion begins to pass from one country to another, the ex¬
pense of transit, provided the mint and market price of
bullion in the exporting country correspond, will indicate
how much the value of bullion in it falls short of its value
in the country into which it is imported ; or, which is the
same thing, will be equal to its unfavourable nominal ex¬
change ; and that, when the market exceeds the mint price
of bullion in the exporting country, the expense of transit
added to this excess will give the total comparative reduc¬
tion of the value of the precious metals in that country. The
converse of this takes place in the country importing bul¬
lion. When its currency is of the mint standard, the ex¬
pense of transit measures the extent of its favourable no¬
minal exchange ; but when its currency is relatively re¬
dundant or degraded, the difference between the expense
of transit and the excess of the market above the mint
price of bullion, will measure the extent of the favourable
or unfavourable nominal exchange. It will be favourable
when the depreciation is less than the expense of transit,
and unfavourable when it is greater.
From 1809 to 1815 inclusive, Great Britain continued
to export gold and silver to the Continent. During this
period, therefore, we must add the expenses attending its
transit to the excess of the market over the mint price of
bullion, in order to ascertain the true relative value of
fen
Bri.
nd
British currency, and the state of the real exchange. Mr Cc iUted
Goldsmid stated to the bullion committee that, during the ange.
last five or six months of the year 1809, the expense of ^ ^
transporting gold to Flolland and Hamburg, inclusive ofSt:
freight, insurance, exporter’s profits, &c. varied from four
to seven per cent. But at the same time that the relative Gd
value of bullion in Britain was at five and a half (medium tari uu
of four and seven) per cent, below its value in Hamburg, ^ :■ lonti.
the market price of gold bullion exceeded its mint price to
the extent or sixteen or twenty per cent, or eighteen perjj ?u
cent, on a medium ; so that the currency of this country,
as compared with the currency of Hamburg, which differ¬
ed very little from its mint standard, was really depreci¬
ated to the extent of twenty-three and a half per cent.
Now, as the computed or actual course of exchange varied,
during the same period, from nineteen to tw enty-one per
cent, against London, it is clear that the real exchange 1
could not be very different from par. Had the computed
exchange been less unfavourable, it would have shown
that the real exchange was in favour of London ; had it
been more unfavourable, it would, on the contrary, have
shown that the real exchange was decidedly against Lon¬
don.
Provided an accurate account could be obtained of theG
expense attending the transit of bullion from this countrythe
to the Continent during the subsequent years of the war,^ ^
we have no doubt it would be found, notwithstanding the]8,f81a
extraordinary depression of the nominal, that the real ex- &c
Is of
change fluctuated very little from par ; and that the ex¬
portation of gold and silver was a consequence, not of the
balance of payments being against this country, but of its
being advantageous to export bullion, because of its being
less valuable here than on the Continent. No person will
contend that, in 1809, 1810, &c. there was such a redun¬
dancy of gold or silver currency in this country as to sink
the relative value of these metals. Any such supposition
is altogether out of the question. During the period re¬
ferred to, the precious metals were sent out of the country,
because the depreciation of the paper currency exceeded
the cost of the transit of bullion ; and hence, because it
was every body’s interest to pay their debts in the depre¬
ciated currency, and to export that which was undepreci¬
ated to other countries where there was no law to prevent
its passing at its full value as coin, or in which there was
a greater demand for bullion. It is indisputably certain
that, if our paper currency had been sufficiently reduced,
the supply of gold in the kingdom in 1809, 1810, &c. com¬
pared with the demand which must, under such circum¬
stances, have been experienced, was so very small, that,
instead of exporting, we should have imported the precious
metals from every country in the world. ,
It has been very generally supposed, that the extraor-Ti “
dinary exportation of British goods to the Continent during'01
exdr
the latter years of the war, was in a great measure owingdur
to the depression of the exchange. But, in so far as thisjat) ears
depression was occasioned by the redundancy or deprecia-ofl "3r’
tion of the currency, it could have no such effect. It 18D0
impossible', indeed, to form any opinion as to the influencetbe
'^of
jra-
0
of fluctuations in the computed exchange on export an e -
import trade, without previously ascertaining whether they tioI Bn-
are a consequence of fluctuations in the real or noniina tisl o-
exchange. It is only by an unfavourable real exchange due ^
that exportation is facilitated; and it may be favourable a 0
the very moment that the computed exchange is decide v
unfavourable. “ Suppose,” to use an example given v
Mr Blake, “ the computed exchange between Hamburg
and London to be one per cent, against this country, an
that this arises from a real exchange which is favoura e
to the amount of four per cent, and a nominal exchange
unfavourable to the extent of five per cent.; let the rea
EXCHANGE.
(a. price of bullion at Hamburg and London be precisely the
)f same, and, consequently, the nominal prices different by
°f the amount of the nominal exchange or five per cent; now
£; if the expenses of freight, insurance, &c. on the transit of
^ bullion from Hamburg are three per cent., it is evident
that a profit would be derived from the import of that ar¬
ticle, notwithstanding the computed exchange was one per
cent, against us. In this case the merchant must give a
premium of one per cent, for the foreign bill, to pay for the
bullion : L.100 worth of bullion at Hamburg would there¬
fore cost him L.101, and the charges of importation would
increase the sum to L.10L Upon the subsequent sale,
then, for L.105 of depreciated currency in the home mar¬
ket, he would derive from the transaction a profit of L.l.
This sum is precisely the difference between the real ex¬
change and the expenses of transit, that part of the com¬
muted exchange which depends on the nominal producing
no effect; since whatever is lost by its unfavourable state
is counterbalanced by a corresponding inequality of nomi¬
nal prices.” {Observations, &c. p. 91.) In the same
manner it may be shown, that, though the computed be
favourable, the real exchange may be unfavourable; and
that, consequently, it might be really advantageous to ex¬
port, when it was apparently advantageous to import. But
it would be tedious to multiply instances, which, as the in¬
telligent reader will readily conceive, may be infinitely
varied, and which have been sufficiently explained in the
foregoing sections.
The real cause of the extraordinary importation of Bri¬
tish produce into the Continent in 1809, 1810, &c. notwith¬
standing the anticommercial system of Napoleon, is to be
found, not in the state of the exchange; for, inasmuch as
that was occasioned by a fall in the value of the currency,
it could have no effect whatever either in increasing or di¬
minishing exportation ; but in the annihilation of the neu¬
tral trade, and our monopoly of the commerce of the world.
The entire produce of the East and of the West was placed
at our disposal. The continental nations could neither pro¬
cure colonial produce nor raw cotton for the purposes of
manufacturing, except directly from England. British mer¬
chandise was thus rendered almost indispensable ; and to
this our immense exportation, in spite of all prohibitions
to the contrary, is to be ascribed. (See Edinburqh Review,
No. Ixiii. p. 50.)
Negotiation of Bills of Exchange.
In conducting the business of exchange, a direct remit-
i"s tance is not always preferred. When a merchant in Lon¬
don, for example, means to discharge a debt due by him
in Paris, it is his business to ascertain not only the state of
the direct exchange between London and Paris, and, con¬
sequently, the sum which he must pay in London for a bill
on Paris equivalent to his debt, but also the state of the
exchange between London and Hamburg, Hamburg and
I aris, &c.; for it frequently happens, that it will be more
advantageous for him to buy a bill on Hamburg, Amster¬
dam, or Lisbon, and to direct his agent to invest the pro¬
ceeds in a bill on Paris, rather than remit directly to the
after. This is termed the arbitration of exchange. An
example or two will suffice to show the principle on which
d is conducted.
x. j ^?us> ^ the exchange between London and Amsterdam
e 35s. Flemish per pound sterling, and between Paris and
msterdam Is. 6d. Flemish per franc, then, in order to
ascer^aan whether a direct or indirect remittance to Paris
would be most advantageous, we must calculate what would
e the value of the franc in English money if the remit-
ance were made through Holland ; for if it be less than
a resulting from the direct exchange, it will obviously
453
be the preferable mode of remitting. This is determined Negotia-
y stating, as 3os. Flem. (the Amsterdam currency in a tion of
pound sterling) : Is. 6d. Flem. (Amsterdam currency in a BiIls of
tranc) : : L.l. : lOd. the proportional or arbitrated value 0f ^xchan«e-
the franc. Hence if the English money or bill of exchange,
to pay a debt in Pans, were remitted by Amsterdam, it
would require lOd. to discharge a debt of a franc, or L 1
to discharge a debt of 24 francs : and, therefore, if the ex¬
change between London and Paris were at twenty-four it
would be indifferent to the English merchant whether he
i emitted directly to 1 aris, or indirectly via Amsterdam ;
but if the exchange between London and Paris were above
twenty-four, then a direct remittance would be preferable ;
while, if, on the other hand, the direct exchange were less
than twenty-four, the indirect remittance ought as plainly
to be preferred.
“ Suppose,” to borrow an example from Dr Kelly ( Uni¬
versal Cambist, vol. ii. p. 137), “ the exchange of London
and Lisbon to be at 68d. per milree, and that of Lisbon
on Madrid 500 rees per dollar, the arbitrated price be¬
tween London and Madrid is 34d. sterling per dollar;
for as 1000 rees : 68d.:: 500 rees : 34d. But if the di¬
rect exchange of London on Madrid be 35d. sterling per
dollar, then London, by remitting directly to Madrid,
must pay 35d. for every dollar; whereas, by remitting
through Lisbon, he will pay only 34d.; it is, therefore, the
interest of London to remit indirectly to Madrid through
Lisbon. On the other hand, if London draws directly on
Madrid, he will receive 35d.' sterling per dollar; where¬
as, by drawing indirectly through Lisbon, he would re¬
ceive only 34d.; it is, therefore, the interest of Lon¬
don to draw directly on Madrid. Hence the following
rules:
“ 1. Where the certain price is given, draw through the
place which produces the lowest arbitrated price, and re¬
mit through that which produces the highest.
“ 2. Where the uncertain price is given, draw through
that place which produces the highest arbitrated price,
and remit through that which produces the lowest.”
In Compound Arbitration, or when more than three
places are concerned, then, in order to find how much a
remittance passing through them all will amount to in
the last place, or, which is the same thing, to find the ar¬
bitrated price between the first and the last, we have
only to repeat the different statements, in the same man¬
ner as in the foregoing examples.
Thus, if the exchange between London and Amster¬
dam be 35s. Flem. for L.l sterling; between Amsterdam
and Lisbon 42d. Flem. for 1 old crusade; and between
Lisbon and Paris 480 rees for 3 francs, What is the ar¬
bitrated price between London and Paris ?
In the first place, as 35s. Flem.: L.l:: 42d. Flem.: 2s.
sterling, = I old crusade.
Second, as 1 old crusade, or 400 rees: 2s. sterling ::
480 rees : 2s. 4£d. sterling, = 3 francs.
Third, as 2s. 4£. sterling: 3 francs:: L.l sterling : 25
francs, the arbitrated price of the pound sterling between
London and Paris.
This operation may be abridged as follows :
L.l sterling.
L.l sterling = 35s. Flemish.
3^ shillings Flem. = 1 old crusade.
1 old crusade = 400 rees.
480 rees = 3 francs.
Hence
35 X 400 X 3
480 X 31
4200
“168
r: 25 francs.
This abridged operation evidently consists in arranging
the terms so that those which would form the divisors in
continued statements in the Rule of Three are multiplied
454
EXCHANGE.
Negotia¬
tion of
Bills of
Exchange
Usance
days of
grace.
together for a common divisor, and the other terms for a
common dividend. Arithmetical books abound with ex¬
amples of such operations. .
The following account of the manner in which a very-
large transaction was actually conducted, by indirect re¬
mittances, will sufficiently illustrate the principles we
have been endeavouring to explain.
In 1804 Spain was bound to pay to France a large sub¬
sidy ; and, in order to do this, three distinct methods pre¬
sented themselves ;
1. To send dollars to Paris by land.
2. To remit bills of exchange directly to Paris.
3. To authorise Paris to draw directly on Spain.
The first of these methods was tried, but it was found
too slow and expensive ; and the second and third plans
were considered likely to turn the exchange against
Spain. The following method by the indirect or circular
exchange was therefore adopted.
A merchant, or banquier, at Paris, was appointed to
manage the operation, which he thus conducted: He
chose London, Amsterdam, Hamburg, Cadiz, Madrid,
and Paris, as the principal hinges on which the operation
was to turn; and he engaged correspondents in each of
these cities to support the circulation. Madrid and Ca¬
diz were the places in Spain from whence remittances
were to be made ; and dollars were, of course, to be sent
to where they bore the highest price, for which bills were
to be procured on Paris, or on any other places that
might be deemed more advantageous.
The principle being thus established, it only remained
to regulate the extent of the operation, so as not to issue
too much paper on Spain, and to give the circulation as
much support as possible from real business. With this
view London was chosen as a place to which the opera¬
tion might be chiefly directed, as the price of dollars was
then high in England, a circumstance which rendered the
proportional exchange advantageous to Spain.
The business w'as commenced at Paris, where the ne¬
gotiation of drafts issued on Hamburg and Amsterdam
served to answer the immediate demands of the state;
and orders were transmitted to these places to draw for
the reimbursements on London, Madrid, or Cadiz, accord¬
ing as the course of exchange was most favourable. The
proceedings were all conducted with judgment, and at¬
tended with complete success. At the commencement
of the operation, the course of exchange of Cadiz on Lon¬
don was 36d.; but, by the plan adopted, Spain got 39^d.
or above eight per cent, by the remittance of dollars to
London, and considerable advantages were also gained
by the circulation of bills through the several places on
the Continent.1
Bills of exchange are made payable at sight;—at a cer¬
tain specified time after sight, or after date;—or at usance,
which is the usual term allowed by the custom or law of
the place where the bill is payable. Generally, however,
a few days are allowed for payment beyond the term
when the bill becomes due, which are denominated days
of grace, and which vary in different countries. In Great
Britain and Ireland three days of grace are allowed for all
bills except those payable at sight, which must be paid as
soon as presented.
The following is a statement of the usance and days of
grace for bills drawn by London on some of the principal
commercial cities:
\m\d. m\s. d\d. d\s. d\a. respectively denote months after date,monthl\
/». • t j j   /7/7-uc rrftPT sTcrlrt. rl.n.iix nfiPT ampninnoo 1
•* ry (if
« u. 'w|j. u'n. “I— -I— —i —^ ^ ’ —”•”.111, rv
after sight, days after date, days after sig/tt, days after acceptance.] : ^
    ....       E>!
London on
Usance.
Days
of
Grace.
Amsterdam
Rotterdam
Antwerp...
Hamburg ..
Altona 
Dantzic 
Paris2 
Bordeaux...
Bremen 
Barcelona...
Geneva 
Madrid 
Cadiz 
Bilboa 
1 m
1 m
1 m
1 m
1 m
14 d
30 d
30 d
1 m|d
60 d|d.
30 djd.
2 m|s.
60 did.
2 m|d,
6
6
6
12
12
10
10
10
8
14
5
14
6
14
London on
Usance.
Gibraltar...
Leghorn....
Leipsic 
Genoa 
Venice 
Vienna3....
Malta 
Naples  
Palermo...,
Lisbon 
Oporto 
Rio Janeiro
Dublin...
Cork 
2 m
3 m
14 d|a
Days
of
Grace.
3 m
3 m
14 d
30 d
3 m|d.
3 m|d.
30 d
30 d
30 d
21 d
21 d
14
0
0
30
6
3
13
3
0
6
6
6
3
3
inge,
In the dating of bills the new style is now used in every
country in Europe with the exception of Russia.
In London, bills of exchange are bought and sold by'
brokers, who go round to the principal merchants, and
discover whether they are buyers or sellers of bills. A
few of the brokers of most influence, after ascertaining
the state of the supply and demand for bills, suggest a
price at which the greater part of the transactions of the
day are settled, with such deviations as particular bills,
from their being in very high or low credit, may be sub¬
ject to. The price fixed by the brokers is that which is
published in Wettenhall’s list ; but it is stated by Mr
Goldsmid, that the first houses generally negotiate their
bills on a half, one, one and a half, and two per cent, bet¬
ter terms than those quoted. In London and other great
commercial cities, a class of middlemen speculate large¬
ly on the rise and fall of the exchange, buying bills when
they expect a rise, and selling them when a fall is antici¬
pated.
History and Advantages of Bills of Exchange.
It is not easy to discover the precise era when bills ofH; 0
exchange were first employed to transfer and adjust the
* _ i i _ ?    .i _i i?  ^AT hpir in-
njIvan-
mutual claims and obligations of merchants. ^ Their in-
vention has been ascribed to the Arabians and the JewSgJ
of the middle ages; but it seems certain that bills were
in use in remote antiquity. Isocrates states that a stran¬
ger who brought some cargoes of corn to Athens, fur¬
nished a merchant of the name of Stratocles with an or¬
der or bill of exchange, on a town on the Pontus ^u^1‘
nus, where money was owing to him ; and, because the
person who had drawn the bill had no fixed domicile, Stra¬
tocles was to have recourse on a merchant in Athens, in
the event of its being protested. The merchant, says
Isocrates, who procured this order found it extremely a •
vantageous, inasmuch as it enabled him to avoid risking
his fortune on seas covered with pirates and the hosti e
squadrons of the Lacedaemonians. (De Pauw, Recherc s
sur les Grecs, i. 258.) ,
There is also unquestionable evidence to show that t e
method of transferring and cancelling the debts of parties
1 Kelly’s Cambist, vol. ii. p. 168 ; Dubost’s Elements of Commerce, 2d edit. p. 218.
4 In France no days of grace are allowed on bills payable a vue.
grace.
a** a aiu uoyo ui aic aiiuweu uil Dills payaDie a VUC. ,
In Austria, bills payable at sight, or on demand, or at less than seven days after sight or date, are not allowed any days
EXCHANGE.
455
•V of residing at a distance, by means of letters of credit, or, prices of most rnmmnrHGo* a i.
course and intimate connection between different and
independent countries, than could otherwise have taken
quires whether his son must carry cash to defray the ex
pense of his studies along with him to Athens, or whether
he might not save this trouble and expense by obtaining place.
an assignment for an equivalent sum from a creditor in In a political point of view their effects have been
Rom on his debtor there. It is evident, from a subsequent equally salutary. They enable every individual imper-
epistle of Cicero s that the latter method had been pre- ceptibly to transfer his fortune to other countries and to
ferred, and that the transference of the money had in preserve it safe alike from the rapacity of his own’govern
consequence been rendered unnecessary. (Epist.adAt- ment and the hostile attacks of others. The security of
Mr Macpherson states (Annals of Commerce, i. p. 405),
that the first mention of bills of exchange in modern his¬
tory occurs in 1255. The pope having quarrelled with
.  rity
pioperty has, in consequence, been prodigiously augment¬
ed. And though we should concede to the satirist that
paper credit has “ lent corruption lighter wings to fly,”I 2
f o- -i - A tt“ * ttt ^ t' it is easy to show that it has powerfully contributed to
Manfred, king of Sicily, engaged, on Henry III. of Eng- render subjects less dependent on the policy and less
land agreeing to indemnify him for the expense, to depose liable to be injuriously affected by injudicious measures
Manfred, and raise his second son Edmund to the Sicilian on the part of their rulers. In countries in a low stage of
throne. The enterprise misgave. But the merchants of civilization, the inhabitants endeavour, by burying all the
Sienna and Florence who originally advanced the money gold and silver they can collect, to preserve a part of their
to carry it into effect, or rather to gratify the popes ra- property from the despots by whom they are alternately
pacity, were paid by bills of exchange drawn on the Pre- plundered and oppressed. This was universally the case
to of England, who, although they protested they knew in the middle ages; and in Turkey, India, Persia, and
nothing at all about the transaction, were nevertheless other eastern countries, the practice is still carried on to
compelled, under pain of excommunication, to pay the a very great extent. Some economists have endeavour-
bills and interest / _ ed to account for the long-continued importation and high
Capmany, in his Memoirs respecting the Commerce, value of the precious metals in India, by the loss which
&c. of Barcelona, gives a copy of an ordonnance of the necessarily attends the practice of hoarding; and un¬
magistracy, dated in 1394, enacting that bills should be doubtedly this locking up of capital is one of the main
accepted within twenty-four hours after their presenta- causes of the extreme poverty of these countries. But
tion;—a sufficient proof that they were in general use in the security afforded by bills of exchange is infinitely
^ ^*   ——- greater than any derived from the barbarous expedient
of trusting property to the bosom of the earth
the beginning of the fourteenth century
But whatever be the era of the introduction of bills of
exchange, very few inventions have redounded more to
the general advantage. Without this simple and inge¬
nious contrivance, commerce could not have made any
considerable progress. Had there been no means of set¬
tling and adjusting the mutual claims of debtors and
creditors otherwise than by the intervention of metallic
money (for bank paper is only another species of bills of
exchange), a very great proportion,—many hundreds of
millions,—of that capital which is now setting productive
labour in motion in every quarter of the globe, and minis¬
tering to the wants and the enjoyments of mankind, must
have been devoted to the expediting those exchanges
which are much better accomplished by the agency of a
lew quires of paper. Instead of a perpetual importation
and exportation of gold and silver, necessarily attended
by an immensity of trouble and expense, a few bills of ex¬
change, possessing little or no intrinsic worth, and which
way be transferred with the utmost facility, suffice to adjust
the most extensive and complicated transactions. But the
were setting free of an immense productive power, en-
t5aged in a comparatively disadvantageous employment, is
°n y one of the many benefits we owe to the use of bills
0 exchange. By cheapening the instruments by which
commerce is carried on, they have materially reduced the
“ Preg¬
nant with thousands flits the scrap unseen,” and in a mo¬
ment places the largest fortune beyond the reach of dan¬
ger ! Mr Harris was, therefore, right in saying, “ that
the introduction of bills of exchange was the greatest se¬
curity to merchants, both as to their persons and effects,
and consequently the greatest encouragement to com¬
merce, and the greatest blow to despotism, of any thing
that ever was invented.” (Harris on Coins, part i. p. 108.)
Previously to the peace of Paris in 1763, Amsterdam,
because of its commerce, the wealth and punctuality of
its merchants, and their intimate connection with all the
other great trading cities of the world, was the chief place
where the accounts of the different commercial countries
were balanced and adjusted. But the entire loss of fo¬
reign trade, and the other vexations to which Holland was
subjected during the ascendancy of the French, nearly di¬
vested Amsterdam of all share in this business. London
has now become the trading metropolis of Europe, and of
the world. The vast extent of its commercial dealings
has necessarily rendered it the great mart for bills of ex¬
change. Its bill merchants, a class of men remarkable
for their shrewdness, and generally possessed of la$ge
capitals, assist in trimming and adjusting the balance of
debt and credit between the most remote countries. They
I V’ ^cerone5 ut scribis, ita faciam : ipsi permittam de tempore: nummorum quantum opus erit ut permutctur tu videbis.”
11 is notes on a parallel passage, Graevius remarks, Permutaiio est quod nunc barbare cambium dicitur. ad Atticum, xi. 24.)
1 Blest paper credit! last and best supply !
That lends corruption lighter wings to fly !
Gold imp’d by thee can compass hardest things,
Can pocket states, can fetch or carry kings ;
A single leaf shall waft an army o’er,
Or ship of senates, to some distant shore ;
A leaf, like Sibyll’s, scatter to and fro
Our fates and fortunes, as the wind shall blow ;
Pregnant with thousands flits the scrap unseen.
And silent sells a king, or buys a queen.—Pori;.
456
EXCHANGE.
Laws of
Bills of
Exchange,
buy up bills where they are cheap, and sell them where
they are dear; and, by the extent of their correspond¬
ence and the magnitude of their transactions, give a steadi¬
ness to the exchange, which it could not otherwise at¬
tain.
Laws and Customs Respecting Bills and Notes.
Law re¬
specting
bills, &c.
A bill of exchange may be defined to be an open let¬
ter of request or order from one person, the drawer, to
another person, the drawee, who is thereby desired to
pay a sum of money, therein specified, to a third person,
the payee. When the drawee obeys the request or order,
by subscribing the document, he becomes acceptor.^ If
the contrary do not appear on the face of the bill, it is
presumed that the drawee has funds of the drawer s in his
hands to the amount of the bill, and that the drawer is
indebted to the payee to that extent. The bill thus ope¬
rates as a transfer or mercantile assignment to the payee,
of the drawee’s debt to the drawer. But a bill may also
be drawn payable to the drawer or his order, in which
case, when accepted, the document is not an assignment,
but merely the acknowledgment or constitution of a debt.
This is also accomplishable by promissory note, which is a
promise by one person, the maker (Scotice granter), to
pay a sum to another person, the joayee (Scotice grantee').
The bill and the promissory note have now equally the
privilege of being assignable or transferable from one per¬
son to another by indorsement, that is, by the payee sub¬
scribing his name on the back of the document. In this
case the payee becomes an indorser, and the person in
whose favour the indorsement is made is called the in¬
dorsee, who may again indorse to another; and in this
manner the bill or note may pass from hand to hand
without limitation. Each indorsation may be made in
full or in blank ; in full, by filling up the name and de¬
scription of the party in whose favour it is made, which is
attended with several advantages if the document should
be lost or stolen; in blank, by merely subscribing the in¬
dorser’s name, which is equivalent to making it payable to
the bearer. All the indorsements, or any one of them,
may also be qualified by the words without recourse ; and
when this is done, neither the indorsee nor any subse¬
quent holder of the bill or note can have recourse on the
indorser who thus qualifies his indorsation. If none of
the indorsations be so qualified, the last holder for value,
and in bona fide, has all the prior indorsers and other par¬
ties to the bill or note bound to him jointly and severally.
He may select any one of them, or proceed against them
all at the same time; and if all were to become bank¬
rupt, he could claim on the estate of each for the whole
debt, and be entitled to receive dividends from ail the es¬
tates until he obtained full payment, but which he must
not exceed. An indorser may also qualify his indorsation
by the condition that his indorsee shall not have the power
of making an indorsement from himself.
From the negotiability thus conferred upon them, bills
have been compared to bags of money; but it should be
remembered that, in the former case, we transfer only a
right, in the latter the property itself. The comparison is
best supported in those transferences which are made
without recourse, since, in those instances, the bill passes
from hand to hand without any alteration in the rights
and duties of those interested in it, and without any one
acquiring an additional security. In the simplest case,
however, the rights arising on a bill may be preserved or
lost by the conduct of the holder; and where there has
been even one unqualified indorsation, the duties of the
holder are of a delicate and important nature. But these
will be more readily understood after we have pointed out
the requisites of a bill.
The general requisites of a bill are, that it must be pay-1
able at all events; that it must be for payment of money»
only; and that the money must not be payable from any11
particular fund. Of the more special requisites, the first
is, that any bill or note drawn or made in Great Britain
(though dated abroad3) or in its colonies, is, that it be
written on paper stamped according to the law of the mo¬
ther country or colony, as it happens to be drawn in the
one or the other. The stamp-duty varies according to
the sum in the bill, and the extension of the term of pay¬
ment : but for these particulars, and the mode of comply,
ing with the provisions of the law, reference should be
made to the statutes in force at the time. The present
regulating statute is that of 55 Geo. III. c. 184>, both as
to inlandbWh and notes, and bills of exchange drawn here
on foreign countries. As to bills truly drawn in foreign
states, not colonies of Great Britain, on traders in this
country, our law takes no cognizance of them as to whe¬
ther they are or are not stamped; but promissory notes
made out of Britain are declared not to be negotiable or
payable unless stamped agreeably to our laws. Bills
drawn at home must also be written on the stamp appro¬
priated for bills. If on a stamp of another denomination,
though of equal or superior value, they are invalid if not
got re-stamped, which they may be for payment of the
duty and a penalty of 40s. when carried to the stamp-of¬
fice before they are due, but when after due, the penalty
is L.10. If written on a stamp below the proper value, a
penalty is incurred of L.50, and the bills, besides, are mil
(Bell’s Com. on Bankrupt Law, vol. ii. p. 249); but it has
been found with us in England, that if a bill be not pro¬
perly stamped, a neglect to present for acceptance or pay¬
ment will not relieve parties who are otherwise liable in
the original debt in respect of which the bill was granted.
The relief in this case is granted by a court of equity,
but this relief is not extended to remote indorsers not re¬
sponsible for the original debt. Relief, however, is given
when a party has bound himself to grant a valid note or
bill, but gives one by mistake or design on a defective
stamp. Negotiable bills under L.5 must, by 37 Geo.
III. c. 32, be payable within twenty-one days, and bear
the name of the place where they are made, without
which also checks on bankers are liable to stamp-duty.
Penalties are likewise imposed on the post-dating of such
checks, or of bills, for the purpose of reducing the duty by
apparently shortening the term of payment; and there
are provisions in those laws respecting bills drawn in sets
or otherwise, with which every trader should make him¬
self acquainted. This, however, it is very difficult to do
in all its bearings, since the penalties and provisions of the
prior statutes are retained in every subsequent one, ex¬
cept as therein specially altered. This is one great evi
in our fiscal regulations. Where the law cannot be known,
transactions are rendered uncertain, property insecure,
and litigation is increased to a mischievous extent. But
the worst evil is, that this state of the law increases in a
prodigious degree the influence of the crown, by tie
power over traders which is thus placed in the hands o
solicitors of stamps, excise, customs, and other crown o -
The other requisites of a bill are, 2dly, That it should
bear the name of the place at which it is made or drawn,
and if the street and number of the house be added, i 18
j vs of
Is of
E; l!®ge.
uisites
>illor
Chitty, 5th edit. p. 70, 7 T. It, 601, 4 Camp. Law, 269.
i
EXCHANGE.
n of easier to give and receive the notices that may be neces-
.la of Sary, in proper time. Sdly, The date should be distinctly
ange- marked, and, if written at length, a higher protection
| would be afforded against accidental or intentional altera¬
tions and vitiations. If a bill have no date, the date of
issuing will be held as the date of the bill, kthly, The
time of payment should be clearly expressed, and a time
certain is necessary to make the document negotiable',
that is to say, the payment must not depend on an event
that may never happen, such as the marriage of a person,
though it may on the death, bthly, The place at which a
bill is made payable should also, for the sake of safe ne¬
gotiation, be distinctly stated ; because at that place pre¬
sentment must be made both for acceptance and payment.
If no place be mentioned, the place of doing business, if
the acceptor have one, or otherwise his dwelling-house, be¬
comes the place of presentment. Qthly, The sum payable
should be clearly written in the body of the bill, and the
superscription of the sum in figures will aid an omission
in the body. This sum must in all cases be above 20s.;
and if payable more than twenty-one days after date, it
must exceed L.5. Ithly, It should contain an order or
request to pay. Sthly, Of bills drawn in parts or sets, each
part or copy should mention the number of copies used,
and be made payable on condition that none of the others
has been paid. The forgery of an indorsement on one of
457
nLV,vb“"8iVe",be, a Jay of rest, by the religion of the Laws of
party, such as the Jews Sabbath, the notices will be good Bids of
if given on the next day. Calendar months are always un-Exchange-
derstood with respect to bills; and if dated on the 29th,
wJUth, or 31st of January, payable one month after date,
they will fall due on the last day of February, from which
the days of grace are to be calculated. Presentments of bills
should be made within business hours. These are generally Business
considered to be in London from nine morning to six even-hours,
ing, but a protest has been held good against an ordinary
trader when made at eight. This would not have been good
m the case of bankers, whose hours (from nine to five in
London) must be attended to. In Edinburgh, bankers’
hours are from ten to three; traders from ten to three and
fiom six to eight; but there are no Scotch decisions hold¬
ing these as the only business hours. A verbal notice of
the dishonour of an inland bill is good; but as such no¬
tice is always matter of parole evidence, it is better in
every case to give notice in writing, and the regular mode
of doing so is by post. Such notice, if put into the gene- Rules of
ral post-office, or an authorized receiving-house, is good giving no-
though it miscarry, provided the letter be regularly book-^ces*
ed, and reasonable proof be made of its having been put
into the post-office. If given only to a bellman in the
street, it would not in such a case be good. When there
is no post, the ordinary mode of conveyance, such as the
A L ' ^ lilt* J All A/AllI V C V dIlL/V7j OllOslJ d
the parts passes no interest even to a bona fide holder, and first ship or carrier, is sufficient. As to foreian bills
Will nnf- f o ■P*»r»nr» ™ /-v w ^ 4. Iw J-Cw-kw-i— ^ V J* 1   •. 1 .• * **
will not prevent the payee from recovering on the other
part. Stilly, Every bill should specify distinctly to whom
the contents are to be paid; but a bona fide holder, or his
executor, may fill up a blank, if one be left, for the name
of the payee, and recover payment. (Chitty, 82; Bell,
yol. ii. p. 251, &c.) \0thly. If it be intended that a bill
is to be negotiable, it should contain the operative words
of transfer “ to order;” although, if the original intention
be clear, these words may be inserted without a fresh
stamp. (Chitty, 86.) Wthly, It is advisable in all cases
to insert value received; since, without these words, the
holder of an inland bill for upwards of L.20 could not, in
England, recover interest and damages against the drawer
and indorser in default of acceptance or payment. Bills
bearing for value received, and payable after date, seem
also to possess advantages when lost, under the statutes
9 and 10 W. III. c. 17; but equity would probably ex¬
tend these to indorsements; and 3 and 4 Anne, c. 9,
it is thought, extends the same to notes. (Chitty, p. 196.)
\2thly, As to foreign bills, the drawee should attend to
whether they are to be paid with or ivithout further ad-
mee ; since the propriety of his accepting or paying will,
°ne case’ ^ePend on his having received advice,
he more carefully all these requisites are attended to,
the greater is the security of all concerned against acci¬
dents and litigation. But traders, we fear, have too ge¬
nerally a prejudice in favour of that brevity which ap¬
proaches to looseness of expression, and against that pre-
CIsjon which alone can keep them out of difficulties.
1 '^en a check, or note, is payable on demand, or
ton fijj w ^ f’O time of payment is expressed, it should be pre-
wd :ges_ s^tec* within a reasonable time after receipt, and is pay-
a e on presentment, without the allowance of any days of
gr- ^ *s yet unsettled (Chitty, 344, et seq.) whether
* s drawn at sight are entitled to days of grace, though
e weight of authority is rather in favour of them. If
rawn at one or more days after sight, the days of grace
U? “e flowed. The day on which a bill is dated is not
du 0ne^ °ne ’ ^Ut having days of grace, become
e, and must be presented and protested, on the third
Tlf* i f .day be a Sunday or holiday, on the second.
erue ^giving notice of non-acceptance or non-pay-
18 different, since, if the day on which it should
vol. ix. J
G4d
«P a-
tices of dishonour, with the respective protests, must be
dispatched by post on the day when the bills become due,
or on which the acceptance was refused, if any post or
ordinary conveyance set out that day, and if not, by the
next earliest conveyance. (Chitty, 291.) As to inland
bills, notice should be made by the first post after the ex¬
piry of a day, when the parties reside at a distance; if
in the same town it is enough if the notice be made so as
to be received within business hours of the following day,
and this may be done by the twopenny or penny post, if
receivable within the time mentioned. When a holder
deposits his bill at his banker’s, the number of persons
entitled to notice is increased by one; and each party in
succession is entitled to twenty four hours for giving no¬
tice (6 East. 3 Bell, 263.) Such notice, as to inland
bills, is necessary in England for preserving recourse as
to the principal sum only. If protest be made and notice
given within fourteen days, the recourse is preserved as
to interest, damages, and expenses. In Scotland a pro¬
test is necessary in every case, and there is no distinction
made as to the mode of recourse between principal and
interest; but intimation to the drawer within fourteen
days preserves recourse for the whole (Bell, vol. ii. p.
265) ; and it has been decided, that notice of an indorser
may be good even after the fourteen days, if there has
been no unnecessary delay. (Fac. Col. 2d June 1812.)
But this applies only to inland bills, and a bill drawn
from Scotland upon England is in Scotland held to be
foreign. (Bell, vol. ii. p. 265.) Every bill should be
presented for payment on the day upon which it falls
due, unless that be rendered impossible by some unfore¬
seen and inevitable accident, such as shipwreck, or sudden Effect of
illness, or death. To preserve recourse, the accident, and inevitable
the presentment of the bill as soon as possible afterwards,
must be intimated without delay, and, if denied, proved
by the party who seeks recourse. The same doctrine
will hold as to presentments for non-acceptance and no¬
tices of dishonour. But the loss or destruction of a bill
is no excuse for not demanding payment and protesting; How to
the protest in that case being made upon a copy or state- act when
ment of the bill, if the party who has right to hold the^^ost•
bill has it in his power to make such a statement. If the
destruction of the bill can be proved, action will be sus-
3 M
n
458
Laws of
Bills of
Exchange.
Effect of
usury.
EXCHANGE.
Effect of
gaming.
Effect of
forgery.
Effect of
vitiation.
Accept¬
ance by
procura¬
tion.
Condi¬
tional ac.
ceptance.
Indorse¬
ments.
tained in a court of law; if not, the redress is got upon
giving an indemnity in a court of equity; but as equity
will not interfere where law can, it is of importance in
such a case, and indeed in all cases of difficulty, to lesort
at once to the best professional advice. Inconsiderate at¬
tempts to remedy neglects, or cure what is defective, ge¬
nerally make the case worse, and often implicate charac¬
ter. Cases of great hardship and difficulty frequent y
arose on bills granted partly for usurious consideration.
A mighty benefit, however, has now been conferred by
the statute 58 Geo. III. c. 93, which enacts, “ That no
bill of exchange or promissory note that shall be drawn or
made after the passing of this act shall, though it may
have been given for a usurious consideration, or upon a
usurious contract, be void in the hands of an indorsee jor
valuable consideration, unless such an indorsee had, at the
time of discounting or paying such consideration for t le
same, actual notice that such bill, &c. had been ongma y
given for a usurious consideration, or upon a usurious con¬
tract.” It is much to be regretted that the same protec¬
tion was not extended by this statute to the innocent
holder of a bill granted for a game debt. Such bills are
still void in the hands of a bona fide indorsee. In Scot¬
land it has been decided otherwise. (25th January 1740,
Nielson; Bell, vol. ii. p. 210.) The rage for legislation
has not yet extended itself to lawyers, who, as a body,
can hardly be expected to display an anxiety to remedy
defects which add to their emoluments and consequence.
How much of the learning of this profession is wasted on
niceties and difficulties that would readily yield to the
spell of an act of parliament! To the law, however, we
owe this sound maxim, that “ unless it has been so ex¬
pressly declared by the legislature, as it formerly was in
the case of usury, and still is as to bills for game debts,
illegality of consideration will be no defence in an action
at the suit of a bona fide holder, without notice of the il¬
legality, unless he obtained the bill after it became due.
(Chitty, 105.) Thus forgery does not vitiate a bill. The
forged document is good to and against all parties but
those whose names are forged. Against one whose name
is forged, it is true, it will neither support an action nor
ground a claim; “ yet if he have given credit to accept¬
ances or indorsations as binding on him, forged by the
same hand, he will be liable.” (3 Esp. N. P. 60 ; 2 Bell,
250.) Subsequent approbation also does away an objec¬
tion on the head of forgery or fraud, and generally all
sorts of objections otherwise competent. This doctrine
holds as to vitiations when the stamp laws are not con¬
cerned ; but without the consent of parties all vitiations
or alterations of bills in material parts are fatal. (2 Bell,
252.) A clerk or servant may accept a bill for his mas¬
ter if authorized so to do ; and authority will be inferred
from a sanctioned practice. The law on this point is dan¬
gerous, and would require legislative revision. If the ser¬
vant or agent do not explain the character in which he
acts, but subscribes his own name simply, he will bind
himself, not his employer. An acceptor may enlarge the
term of payment, or accept for a part, or under any other
condition not expressed in the bill; but in that case it is
optional in the holder to take the acceptance as thus of¬
fered, or to proceed as if no such offer had been made ; if
rejected, the protest should bear the condition, and the
rejection of it; it should also be kept in view, that a holder
who accepts of a limited or conditional acceptance, libe¬
rates the drawer and prior indorser, unless he have their
consent. Blank indorsements are held to be of the date
of the bill, until the contrary is proved. Indorsements
after the term of payment, though for value, do not pro¬
tect the indorsees like indorsements before maturity ;
very slight evidence is admitted as proof of knowledge of
dishonour, and the holder in that case becomes liable to Ls0f
all exceptions which can be stated against the right of his Ihof
immediate indorser, or the person who held the bill whenEy Jnge.
it became due. When acceptance is refused, and the
bill returned with protest, action may be raised imme¬
diately against the drawer, though the regular time of
payment is not arrived. His debt, in such a case, is con¬
sidered as contracted the moment the bill was drawn;
if the date of the bill be prior to that of a commission
of bankrupt, the debt, in such a case, may be claimed
upon. As to current bills and contingent claims, the case
is unfortunately different; in these respects England might
derive great help from the law of Scotland.
The drawee, who, having funds, refuses to accept, isBj'sof
responsible for the consequences to the drawer, and may dr* e.
also be sued for payment by the payee or holder, the pre¬
sentment and protesting of the bill for non-acceptance
operating as an intimated assignment and complete trans¬
fer of the debt to the holder, who in Scotland is preferred
to any subsequent arrester. The drawee who has no
funds is not bound to accept; but, after protest for non-
acceptance, he may accept supra-protest, for the honour of
the drawer and indorsers, or either of them. A third
party may thus accept for honour supra-protest; and who¬
ever does so, if he give immediate notice, and send off
the protest, may have immediate recourse on the party or
parties for whose honour he has interfered.
It is the duty of a payee, when directed by the drawer,Qr
and of every one who is merely an agent for the owner,ho. I
though acting gratuitously, to present a bill for accept¬
ance. The time thought reasonable for this purpose is
twenty-four hours, or at least within business hours of the
day following that on which the bill was received. It is
prudent in all holders of a bill to present for acceptance
within this period; and in all cases where a presentment
is made, and acceptance refused, notice should be given
to all against whom it is meant to preserve recourse. A
draught may be left twenty-four hours with the drawee,
if no post go out in the mean time; but if he intimate
within that time that he wdll not accept, or ask more time
to consider, notice should be given. (Chitty, 288, 289.)
A verbal acceptance, if it can be proved, or one by a se¬
parate writing, binds the drawee; but in Scotland none
but a written acceptance on the bill wdl authorize the
usual summary diligence. (Chitty, 217-270; 2 Bell,
69-240.) If the draw’ee had no funds, notice to the
draw’er is not necessary; but as the not having funds is a
matter of fact to be proved, it is safer in this, and indeed
in all other cases, to give the usual and regular notice.
When a bill is drawn at some certain time after sight, pre¬
sentment is necessary to fix the term of payment. Be-
specting bills of this description, both foreign and inland,
the general rule is, that due diligence must be used, fo¬
reign bills, so drawn, may be put into the circulation
without acceptance as long as the convenience of the suc¬
cessive holders requires; and it has been found not to be
laches (in Sgotland mora, or undue delay) to keep a bil
(at three days’ sight) out in the circulation for twelve
months ; but if, instead of circulating, a holder were to
lock it up, this would be laches. An unacceptable inlant
bill may also be put into circulation ; and any holder, w o
does not circulate it, has a reasonable time, such as tie
fourth day respecting a bill drawn within twenty miles o
London, for presenting it there for acceptance. Dispatc j
and attention, however, are always advisable. It is saIt
that when a bill has been already protested for non-ac
ceptance, and due notice thereof given, it is not neces
sary to protest or to give notice on account of non-pa}
ment, but it is usual to do so, and the safer practice. ,e
same rules and the same time should be observed as a
E X C H
•s of non-payment, that are observed as to protest and notice,
sof in the case of non acceptance. When inland bills are
i a%,e,made payable on a day named and fixed in the bills, it is
' common to delay presenting them for acceptance, until
they can also be presented for payment, and then, if neces¬
sary, to protest for both ; but it is better to make a pre¬
sentment for acceptance as soon as it can be done in the
ordinary course of business. It has already been stated,
that notice either of non-acceptance when a presentment
has been made, or for non-payment, must be given to all
the parties to whom the holder intends to resort for pay-
Ei ‘ of me«t. Bankruptcy is no excuse for neglecting any step
ba pjpt- in the negotiation of a bill. If a party be bankrupt, no-
c/ tice of recourse should be given to him and his assignees ;
'ddead, to his executor or administrator ; if abroad, the
notice should be left at his place of residence, if he have
one, and a demand of acceptance or payment (when that
is necessary) should be made of his wife or servant. No¬
tice should also be made to one who merely guarantees
payment; and a person who subscribes a bill not address¬
ed to him is held to be a collateral security. If notice
be made to one indorser, he may give notice to prior
indorsers, or to the drawer; and if done timeously, it
will be available to the holder; but notice by a party,
not party to the bill, nor agent for a party, will not be
available.
Accommodation bills are subject to the same rules as
A N Q E.
459
other paper, except among those who agree to lend their Laws of
names or credit. Among them the rule is, that he for Bills of
whose use the money is to be raised shall provide for the Exchange.
bill; but as all the others have an action of relief when
forced to pay, they are entitled to notice. In Scotland ^cfcommo-
tlns has been extended to the drawer when he is not the per Pa"
party for whom the credit was intended. With respect1
to cross paper, it is held that mutual accommodations ex-Cross pa-
changed are good considerations for each other; that in Pl¬
ease of bankruptcy, a dividend from any one estate is to
be held as payment of all that can be demanded in respect
of that debt; and that there can be no double ranking of
the. same debt. But questions often arise in such cases,
which require the utmost professional skill to comprehend
and decide. In a short digest of this nature it is impos¬
sible to enter.into the niceties of legal questions; and we
can only observe generally, that parties should never act
in cases of difficulty, without taking the best professional
assistance.
I he law respecting bills of exchange is more consonant
to reason than almost any other branch of our law, since,
where it is silent, recourse is had to the custom of mer¬
chants.
The best authorities respecting the law of bills are the
treatises of Chitty and of Bayley as to English law, and
Mr Bell’s Commentaries on Mercantile Jurisprudence as
to Scotch lav/.
Par of Exchange between England and the following places, viz. Amsterdam, Hamburg, Paris, Madrid, Lisbon,
Leghorn, Genoa, Naples, and Venice; the same being computed from the intrinsic Value of their principal Coins, by
comparing Gold with Gold, and Silver with Silver, according to their Mint Regulations, and to Assays made at’the
London and Paris Mints. (Presented by Dr Kelly to the Committee of the House of Lords on the expediency of
the Bank’s resuming Cash Payments.)
Amsterdam,
Amsterdam,
Hamburg....
Paris 
Madrid 
Lisbon 
Leghorn 
Genoa 
Naples 
Venice  
banco..
current
Mint
Regula¬
tions.
36 8
11 4,5
34 3,5
25 20
37-3
67-4
49-1
45-5
41*22
46*3
Assays.
SILVER.
Old Coinage.
Mint
Regula¬
tions.
36 6,8
11 3,8
34 1,5
25 26
37*2
67*5
49*0
45*5
46*0
37 3
11 8,5
35 1
24 73
39*2
60*41
46*46
46*46
41*22
47*5
Assays.
37 10,5
11 11,8
35 1,3
24 91
39*0
58*33
46*5
48*9
49*0
New Coinage.
Mint
Regula- | Assays,
tions.
 I 
35 0
10 14,6
32 11
23 23
41*7
64*30
49*60
49*4
43*9
44*6
35 6,5
10 17,6
32 11,5
23 40
41*5
62*69
49*5
52*0
EXPLANATIONS.
Monies of Exchange.
46*1
1 Schillings and pence Flemish
< per pound sterling. Agio
( two per cent.
J Florins and stivers per pound
\ sterling.
( Schillings and pence Flemish
( banco per pound sterling.
(Francs and cents per pound
^ sterling,
j Pence sterling for the piastre
( or dollar of exchange.
Pence sterling per milree.
f Pence sterling per pezza of
) exchange,
j Pence sterling per pezza fuori
banco.
i Pence sterling per ducat (new
coinage of 1818).
Lire piccole per pound ster¬
ling.
460
EXCHANGE
Table containing the Value of the Monies of Account of different Places (expressed in Pence and Decimals of Pence), according i
the Mint Price both of Gold and Silver in England; that is, L.3 17s. 10Jd. per Ounce for Gold, and 5s. 2d. per Ounce for SU™
Kelly’s Cambist, ii. p. 149.
Value in
Silver.
Value in
Gold.
Aix-la-Chapelle, Rixdollar current........
Amsterdam Rixdollar banco (agio at 4
per cent.) 
Florin banco 
Florin current 
Pound Flemish current..
Antwerp Pound Flemish (money of
exchange) 
Florin (money of ex
change) 
Pound Flemish current...
Florin current 
Barcelona Libra Catalan 
Basil Rixdollar, or ecu of ex¬
change  
Rixdollar current 
Berlin Pound banco 
Rixdollar current 
Berne Ecu of 3 livres 
Crown of 25 batzen....
Bremen ..Rixdollar current 
Rixdollar in Carls d’or
Cassel Rixdollar current 
Cologne Rixdollar specie of 80 al-
buses 
Rixdollar current of 78 al-
buses 
Constantinople....Piastre, or dollar 
Dantzic Gulden or florin 
Denmark Rixdollar specie 
Rixdollar crown money
Rixdollar Danish currency.
England Pound sterling 
Florence Lira 
Ducat or crown current...
Scudo d’or, or gold crown..
France Livre Tournois  
Franc (new system)  
Francfort Rixdollar convention mo
ney 
Rixdollar Muntze, or ii
small coins 
Germany Rixdollar current 
Rixdollar specie 
Florin of the empire 
Rixdollar Muntze 
Florin Muntze 
Geneva ...Livre current 
Florin 
Genoa Lira fuori banco 
Pezza, or dollar of ex
change 
Scudo di cambio, or crown
of exchange 
Hamburg Mark banco (at a medium)
Pound Flemish banco
d.
31,40
52, 54
21,
20, 72
124, 32
•
123, 25
20, 54
105, 65
17, 60
28, 14
47, 27
42, 45
47, 25
36,
42, 64
35, 53
37, 80
37, 80
31,38
30, 60
9, 45
9,
54, 72
48, 37
44, 27
240,
8, 12
56, 84
d.
31,43
variable.
ditto.
ditto.
ditto.
123, 87
20, 64
106, 18
17, 70
26, 70
47
42’ 20
variable,
ditto.
42, 90
35, 75
variable.
39, 68
variable.
ditto.
ditto.
uncer.
9,
Value in
Silver.
9, 58
9, 70
37, 80
31,50
37, 80
50, 40
25, 20
31,50
21,
16, 13
4, 60
8,
45, 92
36, 75
18, 22
136, 65
44, 88
240,
8, 53
59,71
63, 97
9, 38
9, 52
37, 65
variable,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto,
ditto.
16, 13
4, 84
7, 83
45, 50
36, 02
variable,
ditto.
21,32
10, 41
7,45
60, 90
42, 32
3, 72
21,
41, 20
2, 35
287,60
6,03
d.
Mark current  14,82
Pound Flemish current.... Ill, 15
Hanover Rixdollar (in cash)  42,
Rixdollar (gold value)  39,
Konigsberg Gulden or florin  12,
Leghorn Pezza of 8 reals  46, 25
Lira moneta buona  8,13
Lira moneta lunga  7, 79
Leipsic Rixdollar convention mo¬
ney | 37,80
Rixdollars in Louis d’ors
or Fredericks 
Malta Scudo or crown 
Milan Lira imperiale 
Lira corrente 
Scudo imperiale 
Scudo corrente 
Modena Lira   
Munich Gulden or florin 
Naples Ducat of 1818 
Parma Lira ....
Persia Toman of 100 mamoodis,
Poland Gulden or florin 
Portugal Milree 
Old crusade 
Riga Rixdollar Alberts 
Rixdollar currency (agio
at 40 per cent.) 
Rome Scudo or crown 
Scudo di stampa d’oro.
Russia ....Ruble  
Sardinia Lira 
Sicily Ounce 
Scudo or crown 
Spain Real of old plate ,..
Real of new plate 
Real of Mexican plate,
Real Vellon 
Dollar of old plate, or of
exchange 
Sweden Rixdollar 
Switzerland Franc (new system)
Trieste Florin, Austrian currency,
Lira, Trieste currency
Lira di piazza 
Turin Lira 
Valencia Libra 
Venice Lira piccola (in the old
coins) 
Lira piccola (in the coins
introduced by the Aus
trians)
Vienna Florin....
Zante Real 
Zurich Florin, money of exchange
Florin current
52,54
37,53
52,05
79,37
18,21
123,54
49, 02
4, 88
5,18
6,48
2,59
39,
55,41
22,14
25,20
4,76
4, 65
11,28
39,45
5,07
4,25
25, 20
4,06
25,85
23,50
l
variable
ditto.
42,26
39,21
variable
49,16 j.
8,55
8,19
variable
39,68
23,31
10,53
7,41
61,60
42,78
Value in.
Gold
21,28
41,22
2,40
6,27
67,31
26.91
variable.
ditto.
51,63
78,73
variable.
18,82
124,80
49.92
4,57
4,86
6,07
2.43
36,59
56.43
25,05
4,73
4,63
11,23
36,59
variabk'
ditto.
25,05
ditto.
ditto.
Exc ge
Ex i '•
\^-<J
EXC
Exchange also signifies a place in most considerable
trading cities, where the merchants, agents, bankers, bro¬
kers, interpreters, and other persons concerned in com¬
merce, congregate on certain days, and at certain times of
the day, to confer and treat together of matters relating to
exchanges, remittances, payments, adventures, assurances,
freightments, and other mercantile negotiations, both by
sea and land.
In Flanders, in Holland, and in several cities of France,
these places are called Bourses; at Paris and at Lyons,
Places de Change; and in the Hanse Towns, Borsenhalle.
These assemblies are held with so much exactness, and
merchants and traders are so indispensably required to at¬
tend at them, that a person’s absence alone makes him
suspected of a failure or bankruptcy. The most consi¬
derable exchanges in Europe are, first, that of Amster¬
dam, and, secondly, that of London, called the Royal Ex¬
change.
Even in the time of the ancient Romans, there were
places for merchants to meet, in most of the considerable
cities of the empire. That which is said by some to have
been built at Rome in the year of the city 259, or 493
years before Christ, under the consulate of Appius Clau¬
dius and Publius Servilius, was called Collegium Merca-
torum, of which it is pretended there are still some re¬
mains, called by the modern Romans Loggia or the Lodge,
and now usually the place of St George. This notion of
a Roman exchange is supposed to be countenanced by the
authority of Livy.
EXCHEQUER, in British jurisprudence, an ancient
court of record, in which all causes concerning the re¬
venues and rights of the crown are heard and determined,
and where the crown revenues are received. It derived
this name from the cloth that covered the table of the
court, which was party-coloured, or chequered. See Eng¬
land, Part III.
Exchequer, in Scotland. See Scotland.
EXCISE (from the Belgic acciisse, tribute), an inland
duty or impost paid sometimes upon the consumption of
the commodity, or frequently upon the sale, which is the
last stage before the consumption. This is doubtless, im¬
partially speaking, the most economical way of taxing the
subject; the charges of levying, collecting, and managing
the excise duties, being considerably less in proportion
than in other branches of the revenue. It also renders
the commodity cheaper to the consumer than the charg¬
ing it with customs to the same amount would do, be¬
cause it is generally paid in a much later stage. But this
mode of taxation has ever been unpopular. Lord Claren¬
don tells us, that to his knowledge the Earl of Bedford,
who was made lord treasurer by King Charles I., in order
to oblige his parliament, intended to have set up the ex¬
cise in England; yet it never formed a part of that unfor¬
tunate prince’s revenue, being first introduced, on the
model of the Dutch prototype, by the parliament itself,
after the rupture with the crown. Yet such was the opi¬
nion of its general unpopularity, that when in 1642 “ as¬
persions were cast by malignant persons upon the house
of commons, that they intended to introduce excises, the
house for its vindication therein did declare, that these
rumours were false and scandalous, and that their authors
should be apprehended and brought to condign punish-
ment. Its original establishment was in 1643, and its
progress was gradual, being at first laid upon those per¬
sons and commodities where it was supposed the hardship
would be least perceptible, namely, the makers and vend¬
ers of beer, ale, cyder, and perry. The royalists at Ox-
°rd soon followed the example of their brethren at West-
mmster, by imposing a similar duty; but both sides protest-
e that it should be continued no longer than till the end of
EXC 461
the war, and should then be utterly abolished. The par- Exclusion
liament at W estminster, however, soon afterwards im- II
posed it on flesh, wine, tobacco, sugar, and such a multi-Excommu-
tude of other commodities, that it might be fairly deno- nication-
minated general; and this was done in pursuance of the <
plan proposed by Pym, who seems to have been the fa¬
ther of the excise, in his letter to Sir John Hotham, inti¬
mating, “ that they had proceeded in the excise to many
particulars, and intended to go on farther, but that it
would be necessary to use the people to it by little and
little.” And afterwards, when the nation had been accus¬
tomed to it for a series of years, the succeeding cham¬
pions of liberty boldly and openly declared “ the impost
of excise to be the most easy and indifferent levy that
could be laid upon the people so that it continued during
the whole of the usurpation. Upon the return of Charles
II., as it had then been long established, and its produce
was well known, some part of it was given to the crown by
12 Carol. II. as a compensation for the feudal tenures
and other oppressive parts of the hereditary revenue. But
from its origin to the present time its name has been
odious to the people. See Taxation.
EXCLUSION, or Bill of Exclusion, a bill proposed
towards the close of the reign of King Charles II. for the
purpose of excluding the Duke of York, the king’s brother,
from the throne, on account of his being a Catholic.
EXCOMMUNICATION, an ecclesiastical penalty or
censure, by wdiich persons guilty of any notorious crime or
offence are separated from the communion of the church,
and deprived of all spiritual advantages.
Excommunication is founded on the natural right which
all societies have, of excluding from their body such as
violate the established laws; and it was originally insti¬
tuted for preserving the purity of the church; but ambi¬
tious ecclesiastics converted it by degrees into an engine
for promoting their own power, and frequently inflicted it
on the most frivolous pretences.
The power of excommunication, as well as other acts
of ecclesiastical discipline, was lodged in the hands of the
clergy, who distinguished it into the greater ami lesser.
The lesser excommunication, simply called aphorismos,
separation or suspension, consisted in excluding men from
the participation of the eucharist, and the prayers of the
faithful. But they were not thereby expelled the church ;
for they had the privilege of being present at the reading
of the Scriptures, the sermons, and the prayers of the ca¬
techumens and penitents. This excommunication was in¬
flicted for lesser crimes, such as neglecting to attend the
service of the church, misbehaviour in church, and the
like.
The greater excommunication, called panicles aphoris¬
mos, or total separation and anathema, consisted in an ab¬
solute and entire exclusion from the church and the par¬
ticipation of all its rites. When any person had thus been
excommunicated, notice of it was given by circular letters
to the most eminent churches, that they might all confirm
this act of discipline, by refusing to admit the delinquent
to their communion. The consequences of this latter ex-
communication were terrible. The excommunicated per¬
son was avoided in civil commerce and outward conversa¬
tion ; no one would receive him into his house, or eat at
the same table with him; and when dead, he was denied
the solemn rites of burial.
The Roman pontifical takes notice of three kinds of ex-
communication : first, the minor, incurred by those who
have had any correspondence with an excommunicated
person ; second, the major, which falls upon those who dis¬
obey the commands of the holy see, or refuse to submit
to certain points of discipline, in consequence of which
they are excluded from the church militant and trium-
462
E X C
Excrementphant, and delivered over to the devil and his angels ;
11 and, third, anathema, which is properly that pronounced
Excretory. the p0pe against heretical princes and countries, in
former ages, these papal fulminations were terrible cala¬
mities ; but at present they are formidable only to a tew
petty states of Italy.
Excommunication, in the Greek church, cuts ott tne
offender from all communion with the three hundred and
eighteen fathers of the first council of Nice, and with the
saints; consigns him over to the devil and the traitor Ju¬
das ; and condemns his body to remain after death as hard
as a flint or piece of steel, unless he humble himself, and
make atonement for his sins by a sincere repentance. Ihe
form abounds with dreadful imprecations ; and the Greeks
assert, that if a person die excommunicated, the devil en¬
ters into the lifeless corpse ; to prevent which, the relations
of the deceased cut his body in pieces, and boil them in
wine. It used to be a custom for the patriarch of Jeru¬
salem annually to excommunicate the pope and the church
of Rome ; on which occasion, besides a great deal of idle
ceremony, a nail was driven into the ground witn a ham¬
mer, as a mark of malediction. .
The form of excommunication in the church of Eng¬
land anciently ran thus : “ By the authority of God the
Father Almighty, the Son, and Holy Ghost, and of Mary
the blessed mother of God, we excommunicate, anathe¬
matize, and sequester from the pale of the holy mother
church,” and so forth. The causes of excommunication
in England are, contempt of the bishop’s court, heresy,
neo-lect of public worship and the sacraments, inconti-
nency, adultery, simony, and the like. It is described as
twofold. The lesser is an ecclesiastical censure, exclud¬
ing the party from the participation of the sacraments;
the greater proceeds farther, and excludes the party not
only°from these privileges, but from the company of all
Christians. But if the judge of any spiritual court ex¬
communicate a man for a cause of which he has not the
legal cognizance, the party may have an action against
him at common law, and he is also liable to be indicted
at the suit of the king.
Excommunication, or the act of secluding from a parti¬
cipation in the mysteries of religion, was also in use under
paganism. Persons thus excommunicated were forbidden
to assist at or attend the sacrifices, or enter within the
temples; and they were afterwards delivered over to the
demons and furies of hell, with certain imprecations. This
was called by the Romans diris devovere.
Amongst the ancient Britons and Gauls the Druids like¬
wise made use of excommunication against rebels, and in¬
terdicted from the communion of their mysteries such as
had refused to acquiesce in their decisions.
EXCREMENT, whatever is discharged out of the body
of animals after digestion ; or the fibrous part of the ali¬
ment, mixed with the bile, saliva, and other fluids. Urine
and the faeces are the gross excrements discharged out
of the bladder and stomach. The other excrements are
the various humours secreted through the different pores
of the body, by which secretion several useful purposes
are served.
EXCRESCENCE, in Surgery, denotes every preterna¬
tural tumour which arises upon the skin, either in the
form of a wart or a tubercle. If such tumours are born
with a person, as is frequently the case, they are called
noevi materni, or marks from the mother; but if they are
large, so as to depend from the skin, like a fleshy mass,
they are then called sarcomata.
EXCRETORY, in Anatomy, a term applied to certain
little ducts or vessels, destined for the reception of a fluid,
secreted in certain glandules and other viscera, for the
excretion of it in the appropriated places.
EXE
EXCUBIiE, in Antiquity, the watches and guards kept
in the daytime by the Roman soldiers. They are contradis¬
tinguished from the vigil'ue, which were kept in the night.
The excubice were placed either at the gates and entrench¬
ments, or in the camp; for the latter there was allowed a
whole manipidus to attend before the prcetorium., and four
soldiers to the tent of every tribune. The excubice at the
gates of the camp, and at the entrenchments, were proper¬
ly called stationes. One company of foot and one troop of
horse were assigned to each of the four gates every day.
To desert his post, or to abandon his corps of guards,
was an unpardonable crime in the Roman soldier.
The triarii, as the most honourable class of soldiers,
were excused from the ordinary watches ; yet being placed
opposite to the equites, they were obliged to have an eye
over them.
EXCUSATI, in Ecclesiastical History, a term used to
denote slaves, who, having fled to any church for sanctuary,
were excused and pardoned by their masters; but the
latter were obliged to take an oath to this effect before
they could recover the fugitives; and, if they broke it,
they were punished and fined as persons guilty of per-
jury-
EXEAT, in church discipline, a Latin term used for a
permission which a bishop grants a priest to go out of his
diocese, or an abbot to a religious person to go out of his
monastery.
EXECRATION, in Antiquity, a kind of punishment,
consisting of direful curses and marks of infamy, such as
was used against Philip, king of Macedonia, by the Athe¬
nians. A general assembly of the people being called, they
made a decree that the statues and images of that king,
and of all his ancestors, should be demolished, and their
very name erazed; that all the festivals, sacred rites, and
whatsoever else had been instituted in honour of him,
should be profaned ; that the very places where there had
been any monument or inscription to his honour should
be detestable ; that nothing should be set up or dedicat¬
ed in them, which could be done in clean places; and,
lastly, that the priests, as often as they prayed tor the
Athenian people, allies, armies, and fleets, should detest
and execrate Philip, his children, kingdom, land and sea
forces, and the whole race and name of the Macedonians.
At the taking and demolishing of cities, it was usual
amongst the Jews, Greeks, and Romans, to pronounce
curses upon, and load with direful execrations, those who
should rebuild them.
EXECUTIVE Power. The supreme executive power
of these kingdoms is vested by our laws in a single per¬
son, the king or queen for the time being.
The executive power in Britain has a right to a nega¬
tive or veto in parliament; that is, to refuse assent to
any acts presented for that purpose, otherwise the two
other branches of legislative power might become des¬
potic.
EXECUTOR, a person nominated by a testator, to see
his will and testament executed or performed, and is
effects disposed of according to the tenor of such wdl an
testament. See Law.
Executor, in Scotch Law, signifies either the person
entitled to succeed to the moveable estate of one e
ceased, or who by law or special appointment is entruste
with the administration of it.
EXECUTEY, in Scotch Law, is the moveable estate
falling to the executor. Under executry or moveabes i
comprehended every thing that moves itself, or that ca
be moved. .
EXEDRiE, in Antiquity, denoted halls with many seats,
where the philosophers, rhetoricians, and men of learni o
met for discourse and disputation. 1 he word occurs
E» L
Eli:»
E X E
esis ecclesiastical writers as a general name for such buildings
as were distinct from the main body of the churches, and
•er. yet within the limits of the church taken in its largest
sense. Among the exedrae the chief was the baptistery.
EXEGESIS, a discourse, by way of explanation or com¬
ment, upon any subject.
EXEGETES (formed from ignyeopai, to explain), among
the Athenians, persons learned in the laws, whom the
judges used to consult in capital causes.
EXEGETICA, in Algebra, the art of finding, either in
numbers or lines, the roots of the equation of a problem,
according as the problem is either numerical or geome¬
trical.
EXEMPLAR, a model or original to be imitated or
copied.
Exemplar also denotes the idea or image conceived or
formed in the mind of the artist, and according to which he
conducts his work.
EXERCISE, amongst physicians, such movement and
agitation of the body as produce salutary effects in the
animal economy.
Exercise may be said to be either active or passive. Ac¬
tive exercise consists in walking, hunting, dancing, playing
at bowls, and the like ; as also in speaking and other labours
of the body and mind. Passive exercise consists in rid¬
ing in a coach, on horseback, or in any other manner.
Boerhaave recommends bodily exercise in diseases of a
weak and lax fibre. By riding on horseback, says his
commentator, the pendulous viscera of the abdomen are
shaken every moment, and gently rubbed as it were one
against another, whilst in the mean time the pure air acts
on the lungs with greater force. Sailing in a ship is also
an exercise of great use to w eak people. If the vessel pro¬
ceeds with an even motion, by increasing perspiration it
usually excites a wonderful alacrity, creates an appetite,
and promotes digestion. These exercises are more espe¬
cially serviceable to weak people ; but, in order to strength¬
en the body by muscular motion, running and bodily ex¬
ercises are to be used. In the latter, however, persons
should begin with the most gentle, such as walking, and
increase it by degrees till they come to running. Those
exercises of the body are most especially serviceable
which at the same time give pleasure or occupation to
the mind, as tennis, fencing, and the like ; for which rea¬
son, the wisdom of antiquity appointed rewards to those
who excelled in gymnastic exercises, that the bodies of
their youth might be prepared for enduring warlike toils.
Exercise, in military affairs, is the ranging a body of
soldiers in order of battle, and making them perform the
several motions and military evolutions necessary to ren¬
der them expert in the use of their arms. See War.
EXERGUM, among antiquaries, a little space around
or without the figures of a medal, left for the inscription,
cipher, device, date, and so forth.
EXETER, a large city, the capital of the county of
Bevon, 170 miles from London. It rises gradually from
tie banks of the river Ex; and the whole city being on a
i echvity, it is remarkably clean, notwithstanding the nar-
lowness of all but the principal street. The best parts are
without the line of the ancient walls ; and both the suburbs
o oouthernay and Nornay are beautiful and well built.
e surrounding country is highly fruitful, affording good
corn, pasture, dairy, and fattening land, and abounding in
n|UI \ especially apples, from which the best of cider is
n ent' y‘elded. These circumstances, with the cheap-
css o fish and poultry, and the salubrity of the air, con-
1 ute to attract to Exeter numerous families of easy but
^derate fortune.
of wXefier WaS former]y ^le emPorium of the thinner kind
00 on goods, such as serges, druggets, estamines, and
E X H
"fl! 're|re ,SpUnJDd woven ]" ‘he «°w„s around,
and dyed and finished within the city. From thence they
were shipped to Holland, Italy, and especially to Spai/
and many were supplied to the East India Company fbut
the introduction of machinery, and the lower price of fuel
m the north of England, have now nearly destroyed those
branches of trade, with the exception of that for the sup-
ply of India, which is still considerable. As Exeter ns
a kind of metropolis for Devon and Cornwall, it has con¬
siderable internal trade, and is the channel by which
these counties are supplied with many foreign commodi-
ties 1 he river Ex is so far navigable that, by means of
ocks, vessels of loO tons burden can come up to the city •
but those of greater draught of water remain at Topsham
three miles lower, and the largest of all at Exmouth, at
the mouth of the river. Exeter contains a cathedral
and fifteen other churches, besides several other places
of worship for the separatists from the establishment. The
cathedral is a magnificent pile, a part being very old, but
many additions are of more recent construction, though on
the plan originally formed. The western window is an ob¬
ject of peculiar admiration. The see includes nearly the
whole of Devonshire and Cornwall. It was first founded at
Bodmin, then transferred to launton, afterwards to Cre-
diton, and finally, in 1094, to Exeter. The city is governed
by a corporate body, consisting of the mayor, twenty-four
aldermen, and other officers. Two members are returned
to the House of Commons. The markets are held on
Wednesday and Friday, and there is a good fish-market
daily. The population amounted in 1801 to 16,827, in
1811,t0,18’89,6’ in 1821 t0 23,479, and in 1831 to 28,201.
EXFOLIATION, a term used by surgeons for the se¬
paration of the dead part of a bone from the living part.
EXHALATION, a general term for all effluvia or
steams raised from the surface of the earth in form of
vapour.
EXHAUSTIONS, in Mathematics. The method of ex¬
haustions is a way of comparing or estimating fixed mag¬
nitudes by means of variable magnitudes, which may be
brought to approach or exhaust them more nearly than
any assigned interval or remainder.
Thus, a regular polygon may be inscribed in a circle,
and by repeatedly doubling the multitude of sides, or in¬
creasing it by other given laws, this variable figure may
be made so to exhaust the circle as to leave a remainder
less than any given area. And because similar polygons
inscribed in different circles have always the duplicate
ratio of the diameters, it has been perceived that the cir¬
cles themselves must be as these exhaurient polygons,
which Euclid proves strictly by the method of exhaus¬
tions.
A rectilineal figure may be inscribed in a segment of a
parabola, so as to leave less of the parabola than any area
assigned, and also to be nearer four thirds of the great¬
est inscribed triangle than any given difference. Hence
Archimedes proves, by the method of exhaustions, that
the segment of the parabola exceeds the triangle by one
third of the same triangle.
The first lemma of Newton’s Principia brings the
method of exhaustions to general application. It is in
these words:
“ Quantitates, ut et quantitatum rationes, quae ad aequa-
litatem tempore quovis finite constanter tendunt, et ante
finem temporis iliius propius ad invicem accedunt quam
pro data quavis differentia, hunt ultimo aequales.
“Si negas; fiant ultimo inaequales, et sit earum ultima
differentia D. Ergo nequeunt propius ad aequalitatem ae-
cedere quam pro data differentia D : contra hypothesin.”
Many authors have not rightly understood this lem¬
ma, as Horsley in his note upon it; Hutton on Prime and
463
Exfolia¬
tion
I!
Exhaus¬
tions.
i
4G4
E X H
Exhaus- Ultimate Ratios, in his Dictionary ; and Woodhouse, Prin-
tions. ciples of Analytical Calculation, paragraph 105, where it
 J is said to be “ merely a definition,” and, again, that it
gave a new signification to the term equality.”
& If our opinion be just, it gives no signification to the
term equality which was not given by Euclid and Archi¬
medes. The novelty is in giving to the word ultimate, or
the adverb ultimately, an extension beyond what it ordi¬
narily includes ; as, in the technical language of the Dnn-
cipia, things are often said to be ultimately what, by their
definition, they are incapable of becoming.
In this language, as explained by its author, an ulti¬
mate quantity, or that which a quantity ultimately be¬
comes (fit ultimo), is what is otherwise called the limit of
the quantity; that to which, repeating the words of this
lemma, tempore quovis finito constanter tendit, et ante
finem temporis illius propius accedit quam pro data quavis
differentia. Thus, in the Scholium, after the eleventh
lemma, our author says, ad ultimas quantitatum evanes-
centium summas, id est, ad limites summarum. .
Few as are the words of the demonstration or this ce¬
lebrated lemma, it must be concluded from them that it
only concerns quantities of which it could be questioned
whether they have a fixed difference. Applied to varia¬
bles, it can therefore only compare them in some simul¬
taneous magnitudes. Among simultaneous magnitudes,
Newton, for the sake of brevity, includes limits ; and, in
fact, only these limits are here compared. Perhaps a
slight change in the language may show more clearly the
intention. t .
« Quantities, ns also the ratios of quantities, which m
any finite time soever constantly tend to equality, and be¬
fore the end of that time approach nearer than any dif¬
ference, have equal limits.’
“ If not, let their limits be unequal, and differ by D.
Then the variables, in their approach, cannot come nearer
than D, contra hypothesin.”
This may be too concise, but is fully made out in the
following manner:
Let X and Y be two quantities, continually approaching,
and capable of being brought nearer than any difference
within a finite time. Let A be the limit of X, and B the
limit of Y ; that is, let A and B be fixed quantities, to which
X and Y, during their approach, may be brought nearer than
any difference assignable. Then shall A and B be equal.
For, if not, let A = B + D. And at any time during
the approach of X and Y, let m be the difference of X
from its limit, and n the contemporary difference of Y
from its limit. And,
I. Suppose the variables to approach by the decrease
of the greater and the increase of the less towards their
respective limits (like a circumscribed and inscribed poly¬
gon) ; or X = A + Y = B — n. Then X — Y — A
-B + m + w = D + m + «, so that X and Y neces¬
sarily differ by more than D, contra kypothesin.
II. Suppose both variables to decrease towards their
limits ; or X = A + m and Y == B + «. Then X — Y
— A — B + m — n — Y) m — n.
Now if n were greater than m, we might decrease Y by
a part of n, which we will call y, greater than m itself, and
still greater than its part (a?), the contemporary decrement
of X ; and putting X' and Y' for the variables thus decreas¬
ed, we should have X' = X — a:, Y' = Y — y, and thence
X — Y' = X — Y + (y — x)’, so that the difference of
the variables would be augmented by bringing them near¬
er to their limits. Therefore n cannot be greater than m;
consequently D + w — n cannot be less than D, or the
difference of X and Y cannot become less than D, contra
hypothesin.
III. It only remains to examine the case where both
E X H
increase towards their limits, or X = A — »i, Y = B —• w, £ iUs
and X — Y — A — B + w — m = D + rc — m. i s.'
Here if m exceeded n, we might increase X by a quan- u 'v/
tity a; greater than n, and still more exceeding y, the con¬
temporary increment of Y, and putting X' and Y' to sig¬
nify the variables thus increased, X' — Y' = X + a:
— (Y + ?/), or X' — Y' = X — Y + (a; —y), so that the
variables would again diverge. Therefore again D + w
— m cannot be less than D, or X and Y cannot differ by
less than D, contra hypothesin.
If X, Y, A, B, D, m, n, x, y, represent measures of ra¬
tios, the proof includes the quantitatum rationes.
There results no absurdity from supposing the limits of
two quantities which continually approach to have a dif¬
ference D ; but then the approaching quantities must al¬
ways differ still more, contrary to one of the conditions.
By making n nothing in Case II. we make Y constant,
and coincident in magnitude with B. The proposition ob¬
tained by the reasoning is, for this case, that whatever
quantity A (suppose it a parabolic segment) may be an
acknowledged limit of a variable X, if X can at the same
time be proved to approach indefinitely to Y or B (sup¬
pose it a triangle equal to four thirds of the greatest
triangle in the parabolic segment), A is equal to B. This
is to prove that limits of the same variable are equal, which
is neither giving a new signification to equality, nor con¬
cluding an identical proposition, nor indeed one which
an ancient geometer would have admitted without formal
proof. We come to a similar conclusion by making m
nothing in Case III.
It is true that, in the Principia, when a fixed quantity
is proved to be a limit to a variable, and the variable then
pronounced ultimately equal to the fixed quantity, the au¬
thor or editors refer to the first lemma, when reference
might as well be made to the definition of ultimate quan¬
tities there implied; only (what is the main thing) the
demonstration of the lemma teaches how, by admitting
the limit as a particular value of the variable, we cannot
produce an error measured by any fixed quantity, while
if an error were admitted at all, it must be of fixed amount.
Thus in Lemma IV. where the same multitude of rectan-
gles is supposed to be inscribed in the two figures AacE,
PprT, and when this multitude is indefinitely increased,
and consequently the breadth of the rectangles and the
remainder of the areas indefinitely diminished, each reel-
angle in the one figure has, by hypothesis, the same ratio
to a corresponding rectangle in the other; it is concluded
that this is also the ratio of the whole figures. For the
ratio of the area AacE
to YprT may be view¬
ed as compounded of
AacE to the rectangles
within itself, of these to
the contemporary rect¬
angles within PprT,
and of these latter rect¬
angles to PprT. But _ , . 7
the first and last of the component ratios being *
of equality, the compound ratio is the constant ratio o
contemporary rectangles. For let L be the measure o
the ratio of the inscribed rectangles, and let it be asse
ed that the compound ratio differs from L by a ratio w o
measure is D. The first and last of the component ratios
being ultimately of equality, their contemporary values y
be made such that the measures (m and n) . .
which the former exceeds equality and the latter a
low it, may be each less than D, and, a fortiori, tieir
ference less than D. But L + w — w is the true
sure of the compound ratio; therefore L does no
from the true measure by D.
E X M
da- Thus, by admitting ultimate values, no error is admit¬
ted. The method of exhaustions, which Newton’s first
lemma reduces to an enunciable proposition, only requires
,th: it to be allowed that fixed quantities either have a fixed
difference or are equal. What is often called the princi¬
ple of limits is to comprehend limits at once in the conclu¬
sion of a demonstration which does not apply to them.
Newton’s lemma serves to admit them through the me¬
thod of exhaustions. According to the foregoing expo¬
sition, it is neither an identical proposition nor an arbi¬
trary extension of the meaning of a term, though these
inconsistent charges have both been brought against it.
A and B are proved to be equal in the old signification of
equality; and whilst it is said that X and Y are ultimately
equal, X and Y are also ultimately A and f}. (o. o. o.)
EXHEREDATION, in the civil law, is the father’s ex¬
cluding his sons from inheriting his estate.
There are fourteen causes of exheredation, expressed
in Justinian’s Novellce, without some one of which he de¬
clares the exheredation null, and the testament inofficious,
as the civilians express it. Indeed, by the ancient Roman
law, the father might pronounce exheredation without any
cause; but the rigour of this law was restrained and mo¬
derated by Justinian.
EXHIBITION, in Law, a producing or showing of titles,
authorities, and other proofs, in a matter contested.
Exhibition, in our old writers, is used to signify an al¬
lowance of meat and drink, such as was customary amongst
the religious appropriators of churches, who usually made
it to the vicar incumbent. The benefactions settled for
the maintaining of scholars in the universities not depend¬
ing on the foundation, are also called exhibitions.
EXHORTATION, in Rhetoric, differs only from per¬
suasion in that the latter principally endeavours to con¬
vince the understanding, and the former to work on the
affections.
EXIGENTERS, four officers in the court of common
pleas, who make exigents and proclamations in all actions
where process of outlawry lies.
EXILE. Among the Romans, the word exilium properly
signified an interdiction or exclusion from water and fire ;
the necessary consequence of which was, that the inter¬
dicted person had to betake himself to some other coun¬
try, as there was no living without fire and water in his own.
Thus Cicero observes, that the form of the sentence did
not express exilium, but only aquce et ignis interdictio ;
and he also remarks that exile was not properly a punish¬
ment, but a voluntarily flying from or avoiding the punish¬
ment decreed: Exilium non esse supplicium, sed perfu-
gium portusque supplicii. He adds that there was no
crime among the Romans, as among other nations, pu¬
nished with exile; but exile was a resource of which
people voluntarily availed themselves, in order to avoid
chains, ignominy, famine, or death.
The Athenians frequently sent their generals and great
men into exile, out of envy of their merits, or distrust of
t imr authority and influence in the state.
EXISTENCE, that by which any thing has an actual
68 PYT6’ ^ *S Sa^ t0 ^ ^ee ■M-etaphysics'
f- k properly expresses the departure of a player
^om the stage, when he has performed his part. The
wora is aiso use(j jn a fjgUratjve sensej to express any kind
or departure, even death.
EXIPERIA, in Antiquity, oblations or prayers to any
o ie gods for a prosperous expedition or journey. There
1 a0 ^easts un(^er this denomination, which were ce-
e rated by the Greeks with sacrifices and prayers, when
-^erals undertook expeditions against an enemy.
MOUTH, a town in Devonshire, 166 miles from
°n on, part of the parish of Littleham, and part of Withy-
E X O
465
combe Rawleigh, in the hundred of East Budleigh. It is Exodiary
situated on the north side of the Ex, at its entrance into 0
tne sea. it has risen within a few years, from having be-•^xor(hum-
come the resort of company for sea-bathing in summer,
and in winter the residence of those suffering under pul¬
monary complaints. The air is salubrious, and the pros¬
pects around are beautiful. The population of Exmouth
amounted in 1801 to 1909, in 1811 to 2294, and in 1821
EXODIARY, in the ancient Roman tragedy, was the
person who, after the drama or play was ended, sung the
Exodium. °
EXODIUM, in the ancient Greek drama, one of the
four parts or divisions of a tragedy, being as much of the
piece as included the unravelling and catastrophe of the
plot, and answering nearly to our fourth and fifth acts.
Exodium, amongst the Romans, consisted of certain
humorous verses rehearsed by the exodiary at the end of
the Fabulce Atellance.
Exodium, in the Septuagint, signifies the end or con¬
clusion of a feast; and, in particular, it is used for the
eighth day of the feast of tabernacles, which, it is said,
had a special view to the commemoration of the exodus
or departure out of Egypt.
EXODUS, a canonical book of the Old Testament,
being the second of the Pentateuch or five hooks of
Moses; so called from the Greek word e^odog, the going
out or departure of the children of Israel from the land of
Egypt; the history of which is delivered in this book, to¬
gether with that of many miracles wrought on the occasion.
EXORCISM, the expelling of devils from persons pos¬
sessed, by means of conjurations and prayers. The Jews
made great pretences to this power; and Josephus tells
several wonderful tales of the success of several perform¬
ers in this line. According to him, a pretender named
Eleazer cured many daemoniacs by means of a root set in
a ring. This root, with the ring, was held under the
patient’s nose, and the devil forthwith evacuated the te¬
nement of which he had taken possession. The most part
of the conjurors of this class were impostors, each pre¬
tending to a secret nostrum or charm, which was an over¬
match for the devil.
Exorcism forms no inconsiderable part of the religious
system of the church of Rome, the rituals of which forbid
the exorcising of any person without the bishop’s leave.
The ceremony is performed at the lower end of the church,
towards the door. The exorcist first signs the possessed
person with the figure of the cross, makes him kneel, and
sprinkles him with holy water; then follow the litanies,
psalms, and prayer; after which the exorcist asks the de¬
vil his name, and adjures him by the holy mysteries of the
Christian religion not to afflict the person possessed any
more. Then, laying his right hand on the daemoniac’s head,
he repeats the form of exorcism as follows: “ I exorcise
thee, unclean spirit, in the name of Jesus Christ; tremble,
O Satan, thou enemy of the faith, thou foe of mankind,
who hast brought death into the world, who hast deprived
men of life, and hast rebelled against justice; thou se¬
ducer of mankind, thou root of evil, thou source of ava¬
rice, discord, and envy.” Houses and other places sup¬
posed to be haunted by unclean spirits are likewise ex¬
orcised ; and the ceremony is much the same as that for
persons possessed.
EXORCISTS, in Ecclesiastical History, an order of
men in the ancient church, whose employment it was to
exorcise or cast out devils.
EXORDIUM, in Oratory, is the preamble or beginning,
which serves to prepare the audience for the rest of the
discourse. Exordiums are of two kinds, either just and
formal, or vehement and abrupt. The latter are more
3 N
1
466
EXP
EXP
Expecta
tion.
Exoteric suitable on occasions of extraordinary joy, indignation, or
11 excitement.
EXOTERIC and Esoteric are terms denoting exter¬
nal and internal, and applied to the double doctrine of the
ancient philosophers, particularly those of the Peripatetic
school. The one was public or exoteric; the other se¬
cret or esoteric. The first was that which they open y
professed and taught to the world; the latter was con¬
fined to a small number of chosen disciples. This me¬
thod was derived originally from the Egyptians, who, ac¬
cording to the united testimony of Herodotus, Diodorus
Siculus, Strabo, Plutarch, and others, had a twofold phi¬
losophy ; one secret and sacred, another public and com¬
mon. The same practice also obtained amongst the Per¬
sian Magi, the Druids of the Gauls, and the Brahmins of
India. The Egyptian priests with whom it originated
sustained the character of judges and magistrates, and
probably introduced this distinction with a view to the
public welfare, and to serve the purposes of legislation and
government. Clemens Alexandrinus informs us, that
they communicated their mysteries principally to those
who were concerned in the administration of the state;
and Plutarch confirms this declaration. Others, however,
have supposed that they invented the fables of their gods
and heroes, and the external ceremonies of their religion,
to disguise and conceal natural and moral truths ; but
whatever may have been the motive of their practice, it
was certainly applied to political purposes.
EXOTIC, a term properly signifying foreign or extra¬
neous, that is, brought from a remote or strange country.
In this sense we sometimes say exotic or barbarous terms,
and the like. The word is derived from the Greek
or s^oj&iv, extra, without, or on the outside.
Exotic is chiefly applied to plants which are natives of
foreign countries, particularly those brought from the East
or West Indies, and which do not naturally grow in Europe.
EXPANSION, in Physics, denotes the enlargement or
increase of bulk in bodies, chiefly by means of heat. This
is one of the most general effects of that subtile principle,
and common to all bodies whatever, whether solid or fluid.
In some few cases, indeed, bodies seem to expand as they
grow cold, as water in the act of freezing; but this is
found to be owing to a new arrangement of the particles,
or to crystallization, and is not at all a regular and gra¬
dual expansion like that of metals, or any other solid or
fluid substance by means of heat. In certain metals also,
an expansion takes place when they pass from a fluid to
a solid state; but this too is not to be accounted any pro¬
per effect of cold, but of the arrangement of the parts of
a metal in a peculiar manner; and it is therefore to be
ascribed to a kind of crystallization.
EXPECTATION, in the doctrine of chances, is applied
to any contingent event, and is capable of being reduced
to the rules of computation. Thus a sum of money in
expectation when a particular event happens, has a deter¬
minate value before that event arrives; so that if a per¬
son is to receive any sum, say L.IO, wdien an event takes
place which has an equal probability of happening and
failing, the value of the expectation is half that sum, or
L.5; and in all cases the expectation of obtaining any
sum is estimated by multiplying the value of the sum ex¬
pected by the fraction which represents the probability of
obtaining it. The expectation of a person who has three
chances in five of obtaining L.100, is equal to f X 100,
or L.60, and the probability of obtaining L.100 in this case
is equal to = f.
Expectation of Life signifies that share or number of
the years of human life, which a person of any given age
may expect to enjoy upon an equality of chances. See
Annuities.
EXPERIENCE, a kind of knowledge acquired by long Exp m
use, without any teacher or particular course of inquiry.
EXPERIMENTAL Philosophy is that which has its ^ ion.
foundation in experience, wherein nothing is assumed as ^
a truth but that which is founded upon ocular demonstra¬
tion, or which cannot be denied without violating the com¬
mon sense and perceptions of mankind. See Philoso¬
phy and Physics.
EXPERIMENTUM Crucis, a capital, leading, or de¬
cisive experiment, which is so termed, either on account
of its being like a cross, or direction-post placed in the
meeting of several roads, guiding men to the true know¬
ledge of the nature of that thing they are inquiring after;
or on account of its being a kind of torture, by means of
which the nature of the thing is as it were extorted by
force.
EXPIATION, a religious act, by which satisfaction or
atonement is made for the commission of some crime, the
guilt done away, and the obligation to punishment can¬
celled.
Expiations amongst the heathens were of several kinds,
as sacrifices and religious washings. They were used for
effacing a crime, or averting any calamity, and on num¬
berless other occasions, as purifying towns, temples, and
sacred places, and armies before and after battle; and
they were performed in behalf of whole cities, as w ell as
of particular persons.
The method of expiation amongst the Jews was chiefly
by sacrifice, whether for sins of ignorance, or in order
to purify themselves from certain pollutions.
Feast of Expiation, amongst the Jews, called by our
translators the Day of Atonement, was held on the tenth
day of Tisri, or the seventh month of the Jewish year,
answering to part of our September and October. On
that day the high-priest entered into the holy place, con¬
fessed his sins, and, after several ceremonies, made an
atonement for all the people, in order to cleanse them
from their sins.
EXPLOSION, a sudden and violent expansion of an
aerial or other elastic fluid, by which it instantly throws
off any obstacle that happens to be in the way, sometimes
with great force, and in such a manner as to produce as¬
tonishing effects upon adjacent objects.
Explosion differs from expansion, which is a gradual
and continuous power, acting uniformly for some time,
whereas the former is always sudden, and only of mo¬
mentary duration. The expansions of solid substances
do not terminate in violent explosions, on account of their
slowness, and the small space through which the meta >
or other expanding substance, moves; though their strengt i
may be equally great with that of the most active aena
fluids. Thus we find, that though wedges of wood, when
moistened, will cleave solid blocks of stone, they never
throw them to any distance, as is the case with gun¬
powder. On the other hand, it is seldom that the expan
sion of any elastic fluid bursts a solid substance wit ou
projecting the fragments of it to a considerable distance.
The reasons of this are, first, the immense velocity wi i
which the aerial fluids expand, when affected by a consi¬
derable degree of heat; and, secondly, their celerity in
acquiring heat and being affected by it, which is
superior to that of solid substances. Thus, air, hea e
much as iron when brought to a white heat, is expan e
to four times its bulk; but the metal itself will no
expanded the five hundredth part of its bulk. In t ie c
of gunpowder, which is a violent and well-known e3T ^
sive substance, the velocity with which the flame 1110
is calculated by Mr Robins, in his Treatise upon Uunnery^
to be no less than seven thousand feet in a secojl ’ ce
little less than seventy-nine miles per minute.
i
EXP
on. the impulse of the fluid is inconceivably great, and the
obstacles on which it strikes are hurried off with vast ve¬
locity, though much less than that just mentioned; for a
cannon bullet, with the greatest charge of powder that
can be conveniently given, does not move at a greater
rate than two thousand four hundred feet per second, or
little more than twenty-seven miles per minute. The ve¬
locity of the bullet, again, is promoted by the sudden pro¬
pagation of the heat through the whole body of air, as
soon as it is extricated from the materials of which the
gunpowder is made; so that it is enabled to strike all at
once, and thus greatly to augment the momentum of the
ball. That this contributes much to the force of the ex¬
plosion, is evident from what happens when powder is
wetted or mixed with any substance, which prevents its
taking fire all at once. In this case the force of the ex¬
plosion, even when the same quantity of powder is made
use of, cannot be compared to that of dry powder.
Upon these principles we may conclude that the force
of an explosion depends, first, on the quantity of elastic
fluid to be expanded; secondly, on the velocity it acquires
by a certain degree of heat; and, thirdly, on the celerity
with which the degree of heat affects the whole of the
expansive fluid. These three take place in the greatest
perfection where the electric fluid is concerned, as in
cases of lightning, earthquakes, and volcanoes. In vio¬
lent lightning, where the electric fluid collects itself into
balls, the strength of the explosion is proportional to the
quantity. Every one has heard of the prodigious effects
of lightning when it happens to strike buildings, trees, or
even the most solid rocks; and in some cases, where the
quantity of electricity is still greater than in any flash of
lightning, we hear of still more tremendous consequences
ensuing. Dr Priestley gives an instance of a large fire¬
ball, or quantity of electric matter, rolling on the surface
of the sea, which, after rising up to the topmast of a ship
of war, burst with such violence, that the explosion re¬
sembled the discharge of hundreds of cannon fired at
once. Great damage was done by it; but there is not
the least doubt that most of its force was spent on the
air, or carried down to the sea by the mast and iron work
of the ship. Considering, indeed, that in all cases a great
part of the force of electrical explosions is dissipated in
this manner, it may reasonably be doubted whether they
can be measured by any method applicable to the men¬
suration of other forces.
In those cases where the electrical matter acts like com¬
mon fire, the force of the explosions, though exceedingly
great, is capable of mensuration by comparing the dis¬
tances to which the bodies are thrown with the weight of
such bodies. This is most evident in volcanoes, where
t ie projections of the burning rocks and lava manifest the
greatness of the power, at the same time that they afford
measur*ng if- By means of the electric fire
wnch kindles the volcanoes, the aerial fluids are sudden-
y restored to their elastic state; and not only so, but
ei.r n.afural elasticity is greatly augmented, so that the
exp osions take place with great violence. The case is
me same with gunpowder.
ext in strength to the aerial vapours are those of aque-
s and other liquids. The most remarkable effects of
ese are observed in steam-engines ; but there is one
one ar ?aSe fr°m which it has been inferred that aque-
s earn is vastly stronger than the flame of gunpowder.
her'8 th Waen vyafe.r is thrown upon molten copper; for
na a re explosion is so strong as almost to exceed imagi-
to hfl11 ’ ailr t^le Inost terrible accidents have been known
spitti^6,11 i°m SUC^ a slight cause as one °f the w orkmen
lng m the furnace where copper was being melted,
explaining the phenomenon in question, Dr Black
EXP
supposes that the mere heat of the metal applied to the
aqueous steam produces the explosion ; and in proof of
ns he alleges, that copper imbibes a greater quantity of
heat during fusion than any other metal. Aqueous steam,
however, seems to be too slow for producing such sudden
and violent effects. Explosions, it is true, will be occa¬
sioned by it, but then it must be confined for a consider¬
able time ; whereas the effects of water thrown upon mol¬
ten copper are instantaneous.
It may now be asked, why such explosions do not take
place when water is thrown upon the surface of any other
metal, for instance iron, when in a state of fusion ? In an¬
swer to this it may be observed, that though water is de¬
composed by being applied to red-hot iron in the form of
steam, yet there is a possibility, that when the same ele¬
ment is applied in substance to the fluid metal, no decom¬
position may ensue. Something like this indeed happens
with copper itself; for, notwithstanding the violent ef¬
fects which take place on the contact of water in substance
with the molten metal, no explosion happens from aque¬
ous steam being blown upon its surface. On the con¬
trary, the upper part of the metal is thus cooled, and
forms itself into cakes, which are afterwards taken off,
and new ones formed in the same manner. Neither does
aqueous steam affect red-hot copper in the manner that
it does iron in the same state. A decisive proof that the
explosion is not occasioned by the mere heat of the aque¬
ous steam may be deduced from the example of molten
glass, which produces no explosion though we pour water
upon it in that state; and yet the heat of glass in a state
of fusion is undoubtedly equal at least to that of molten
copper. It may be observed, however, that in all cases
where a very hot body is thrown upon a small quantity
of water in substance, an explosion will follow; but here
the water is confined, and suddenly rarefied into steam,
which cannot escape without throwing off the body which
confines it. Examples of this kind frequently occur where
masons or other mechanics are employed in fastening
cramps of iron into stones; if there happen to be a little
water in the hole into which the liquid lead is poured, the
latter will fly out in such a manner as sometimes to occa¬
sion serious accidents. Occurrences of this kind have
sometimes happened in founderies, when large quantities
of molten metal have been poured ioto wet moulds. In
these cases, the sudden expansion of the aqueous steam
throws out the metal with great violence; and if any de¬
composition take place at the same time, so as to convert
the aqueous into an aerial vapour, the explosion will be
still greater.
To this last kind of explosion we must refer that which
takes place on pouring cold water into boiling or burning
oil or tallow. Here the case is much the same whether
we pour the oil on the water, or the water on the oil.
In the former case, the water, which lies at the bottom, is
rarefied into steam, and explodes; in the latter, it sinks
down through the oil by its superior specific gravity, and
explodes as it passes along. In either case, however, the
quantity of aqueous fluid must be but small in proportion
to that of the oil; a very great quantity would put out
the flame, or destroy the heat, in whatever way it might
be applied.
Another kind of explosion is that which takes place in
solid substances, where we can scarcely suppose either
aqueous or aerial vapours to be concerned. The most re¬
markable of these are the “ volcanic bombs” mentioned
by Sir William Hamilton in his account of the great erup¬
tion of Vesuvius in the year 1779. They were large pieces
of lava, and burst like bombs as they fell to the ground ;
but he does not inform us whether their bursting was at¬
tended with any great violence or not. Other examples
467
Explosion.
J
468
EXP
EXT
Exponent are the bursting of electrical globes when put ^ motion ;
II of other glass vessels exploding spontaneously, and seem
Exposing. Jng]y without any cause; and the bursting of large cas
 1   metal vessels in the act of cooling. These are all so si¬
milar to one another, that it is probable they depend on
one general cause; and all of them agree m this, that the
extreme parts are considerably cooled, whilst the interna
remain very hot. . . ^ ^ u o
The effects of explosions, when violent, are telt at a
considerable distance, by reason of the concussions they
give to the atmosphere ; for all of them act upon the at¬
mospherical fluid with the same force which they exert
upon terrestrial substances subjected to their action, bir
William Hamilton relates, that in consequence of the ex¬
plosions of Vesuvius in 1767, the doors and windows of
the houses at Naples flew open if unbolted, and one door
was burst open though it had been locked ; and the same
thing happened several years ago, when the Stobbs pow¬
der-mills, near Dalkeith, containing several tons of pow¬
der, blew up. . , . ,
EXPONENT, in Algebra, the same with index.
Exponent is also used in arithmetic, in the same sense
as index or logarithm.
Exponential Calculus, the method of differencing, or
finding the fluxions of exponential quantities, and of sum¬
ming up those differences, or finding their fluents. _
Exponential Curve is that the nature of which is de¬
fined or expressed by an exponential equation; as the
curve denoted by ax — y, or by %' — .
Exponential Equation is one in which is contained an
exponential quantity; as the equation a —b, or x ab,
and the like. .
Exponential Quantity is that the power of which is
a variable quantity; as the expression ax, or xy. Ex¬
ponential quantities are of several degrees and orders, ac¬
cording to the number of exponents or powers.
EXPOSING, the act of putting out a thing to public
view. In the Roman Catholic church the sacrament is said
to be exposed, when it is shown in public uncovered, on
festival days and during the time of plenary indulgences.
Exposing of Children, a barbarous custom practised
by most of the ancient nations, excepting the Thebans, who
had an express law by which it was made capital to expose
children, and at the same time ordained that such as were
not in a condition to educate their offspring should bring
them to the magistrates, that they might be brought up at
the public expense. Amongst the other Greeks, when a
child was born, it was laid on the ground ; and if the father
designed to educate it, he immediately took it up, but if he
forbore to do so, the child was carried away and exposed.
The Lacedaemonians indeed had a different custom: with
them all new-born children wrere brought before certain
persons, who were among the gravest in their own tribes,
by whom the infants were carefully examined ; and if the
latter were found lusty and well favoured, orders were
given for their education, and a certain proportion of land
allotted for their maintenance ; but if weakly or deform¬
ed, they were ordered to be cast into a deep cavern in
the earth, near the mountain Taygetus, as it was thought
neither for the good of the infants themselves nor for the
public interest, that defective children should be brought
up. Many persons exposed their children only because
they were not in a condition to educate them ; and it was
the unhappy fate of daughters especially to be thus treat¬
ed, as it required more to educate and settle them in the
world than sons.
The parents frequently tied jewels and rings to the
children whom they exposed, or any other thing by which
they might afterwards discover them, if Providence pro¬
vided for their safety; or perhaps the design was either to Es 3itiog
encourage such as found them to nourish and educate
them, if alive, or to give them human burial if dead. The E
places where it was usual to expose children were such
as people frequented most. This was done in order that ^
they might be found and taken up by compassionate per¬
sons who were in circumstances to defray the expense of
their education. With this intention the Egyptians and
Romans chose the banks of rivers, and the Greeks the
highways and thoroughfares.
EXPOSITION, in general, denotes the setting a thing
open to public view.
Exposition, in a literary sense, is the explaining an au¬
thor, passage, writing, or the like, and setting the mean¬
ing in an obvious and clear light.
EXPOSITOR, or Expository, a title which some wri¬
ters have given to a lesser kind of dictionary or vocabu¬
lary, serving to expound or explain the meaning of the
obscure or difficult words of a language. It is also used in
the same sense with commentary and paraphrase.
EX-POST-FACTO, in Law, denotes something done
after another thing that was done before.
EXPOSTULATION, in Rhetoric, an address to a per-
son who has done another some injury, representing the
wrong in the strongest terms, and demanding redress.
EXPRESSED Oils, such oils as are obtained from
bodies by pressure.
EXPRESSION, in Rhetoric, the elocution, diction, or
choice of words in a discourse.
Expression, in Painting, a natural and lively represen¬
tation of the subject, or of the several objects intended to
be shown. The expression consists chiefly in represent¬
ing the human body and all its parts in the action suit¬
able to it; in exhibiting the several passions proper to the
figures; and in observing the motions they impress on the
external parts.
EXSICCATION (formed from ex, and siccus, dry), in
Chemistry, the act of drying up or evaporating the mois¬
ture of a thing. . .
EXSPIRATION, m Physiology, that part of respiration
by which the air is expelled or driven out of the lungs.
EXTASY, a transport which suspends the functions of
the senses, by the intense contemplation of some extraor¬
dinary or supernatural object.
Extasy, in Medicine, a species of catalepsy, when a
person perfectly remembers, after the paroxysm is ovei,
the ideas which he conceived during the time it lasted.
EXTENSION, in Philosophy, one of the common and
essential properties of body ; or that by which it possesses
or occupies some part of universal space, which is called
the place of that body. See Metaphysics.
EXTENSOR, an appellation given to several muscles,
from their extending or stretching the parts to which
they belong. „
EXTENT, in Law, is used in a double sense. Some¬
times it signifies a writ or command to the sherift tor the
valuing of lands or tenements; and sometimes the ac o
the sheriff, or other commissioner, upon this writ.
EXTERNAL, a term of relation applied to the surface
or outside of a body, or that part which appears °r
sents itself to the eye or touch, in contradistinction o
ternal. . -.u
External is also used to signify any thing that is
out a man, or that is not within himself, particular y
his mind; in which sense we say, external objects, e
nal nature, and the like. . ,
EXTIRPATION, formed from ex, and sttrPs!& ’
the act of pulling up or destroying a thing to ^
roots. Amongst the prayers of the Roman Catholic jubilee
there is one for the extirpation of heresy.
EXT
f spex EXTISPEX, in Antiquity, the person who drew pre¬
sages from viewing the entrails of animals offered in sa-
f /eme. crjfice,
^ EXTORTION is an illegal wresting of any thing from
a person, either by force, menace, or authority.
EXTRACTION, in Chemistry Pharmacy, the ope¬
ration by which essences, tinctures, and the like, are drawn
from natural bodies.
Extraction, in genealogy, implies the stock or family
from which a person is descended.
Extraction of Roots, in Algebra and Arithmetic, is the
method of finding the roots of given numbers or quanti¬
ties. See Algebra and Arithmetic.
EXTRAORDINARII, amongst the -Romans, was a
body of men consisting of the third part of the foreign
horse and a fifth of the foot, which was separated from
the rest of the forces borrowed from the confederate states
with great policy and caution, in order to prevent any de¬
sign which they might possibly entertain against the na¬
tural forces. A more choice body of men were drawn from
among the extraordinarii, under the name of ablecti.
EXTRAORDINARY, something out of the common
course.
Extraordinary Couriers are those sent expressly on
some urgent occasion.
Extraordinary Ambassador, or envoy, is one who is
sent to treat or negotiate some special and important
affair, as a marriage, a treaty, confederacy, or even on oc¬
casion of some ceremony, as condolence, congratulation,
and the like.
A gazette, journal, or other newspaper extraordinary,
is that which is published after some notable event, con¬
taining the detail or particulars thereof.
EXTRAVAGANTES, a name given to those decretal
epistles which were published from the Clementines. They
were so called, because at first they were not digested or
arranged with the other papal constitutions, but seemed to
beasit wrere detached from the canon law. They continu¬
ed to be called by the same name when they were after¬
wards inserted in the body of the canon law. The first ex-
travagantes were those of John XXII. successor of Clement
V. The last collection was brought down to the year
1483, and was called the common extravagants, notwith¬
standing that they were likewise incorporated with the
rest of the canon law.
extravasation, in contusions, fissures, depres¬
sions, fractures, and other accidents of the cranium, is
when one or more of the blood-vessels, wdiich are distri¬
buted in the dura mater, is broken or divided, by which
means there is such a discharge of blood as greatly op¬
presses the brain, and disturbs its office, frequently bring¬
ing on violent pains, and at length death itself, unless the
patient be timeously relieved.
EXTREME is applied to the last and outermost part
of any thing, or that which finishes and terminates it on
one side.
Extremes, in Logic, denote two terms of a syllogism,
me predicate and subject. They are called extremes, from
their relation to another term, which is a medium or mean
between them. The predicate, as being likewise con¬
tained in the first proposition, is called the majus extremum
°r greater extreme ; and the subject, as being put in the
second or minor proposition, is called the minus extremum
or lesser extreme. Thus, in the syllogism, “ Man is an
animal; Peter is a man; therefore Peter is an animal
e word animal is the greater extreme, Peter the less
extreme, and man the medium.
xtreme and mean Proportion, in Geometry, is when a
me is so divided, that the whole line is to the greater
segment as that segment is to the other; or, as it is ex-
EXT 469
pressed by Euclid, when the line is so divided that the Extrinsic
rectangle under the whole line, and the lesser segment, is ||
equal to the square of the greater segment. Ezekiel.
EXTRINSIC, among metaphysicians, is taken in vari-
ous senses. Sometimes it signifies that which does not
belong to the essence of another; in which sense the effi¬
cient cause and end of a thing are said to be extrinsic.
Sometimes it signifies that which is not contained within
another; in which sense those causes are called extrinsic
which introduce something into a subject from without,
as when a fire introduces heat. Sometimes it signifies a
thing added or applied to another ; in which sense acci¬
dents and adherents are said to be extrinsic to the subjects
to which they adhere. Sometimes the vision is said to be
extrinsic from some form which does not exist in it, but
is adjacent to it, or by some means or other without it.
EXUVIiE, among naturalists, denote the cast off parts
or coverings of animals, as the skins of serpents, caterpil¬
lars, and other insects. It is also applied to shells and other
marine bodies, frequently found in the bowels of the earth.
EY, in our old writers, the same with insula, an island;
from which comes eyet, a small island or islet, vulgarly
called eyght.
EYE, in Anatomy. See Anatomy and Optics.
Eye, a borough town of the county of Suffolk, ninety
miles from London, in the hundred of Hartismere. It is
situated in a level country, and nearly surrounded with a
small stream. There is a good market place, but the
streets are neither wide nor well built. The greater por¬
tion of the town belonged to the late Marquis Cornwallis,
but since his death has been sold to Sir Edward Kerrison.
There ivas formerly some trade in spinning worsted, and
in making inferior bone-lace ; but these have been destroy¬
ed by the introduction of machinery. Two members were
returned to the House of Commons, but since 1832 it
sends only one. There was formerly a Benedictine monas¬
tery, the chapel of which, a fine building, is now the pa¬
rish church. The market is held on Saturday. The po¬
pulation amounted in 1801 to 1734, in 1811 to 1893, in
1821 to 1882, and in 1831 to 2313.
EYEMOUTH, a town of Berwickshire, in Scotland, si¬
tuated at the embouchure of the river Eye, from which cir¬
cumstance it takes its name. Eyemouth lies seven miles
from Berwick. It is a place of considerable antiquity, and
enjoys the distinction of being a burgh of barony. It was
at an early period of some importance; first, on account
of its possessing a fort of great strength, which, however, is
now destroyed; and, secondly, from the circumstance of its
being the first harbour in the Scottish territory reached
by vessels sailing from England, or along the English
coast. On this account it no doubt must have frequently
become a place of refuge and shelter to vessels, whether
from hostile pursuit or storms at sea. Eyemouth still de¬
rives advantages from its harbour, which is well fitted for
the reception of vessels in distress; and from it is export¬
ed a great deal of country produce. The town also pos¬
sesses a distillery. The population amounted in 1821 to
1165, and in 1831 to 1181.
EYNAPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province ot
Bejapoor, belonging to the Mahrattas, twelve miles south¬
east from Merritch. It is of considerable size, and con¬
tains some Mahommedans, who subsist on grants of cha¬
ritable lands. Long. 75. 10. E. Lat. 16. 50. N.
EYRIE, in Falconry, a brood or nest; also a place
where hawks build and hatch their young.
EZEKIEL, a canonical book of the Old Testament, re¬
ferring chiefly to the degenerate manners and corruptions
of the Jews at the time when it was written. It abounds
with fine sentences and rich comparisons, and discovers
much learning in regard to profane matters.
470 FAB
Ezetova Ezekiel was carried captive to Babylon with Jehoiachin,
II and began his prophecies in the fifth year of the captivity.
Fabian. j-je was contemporary with Jeremiah, who prophesied at
the same time in Judaea, and foretold many events, par¬
ticularly the destruction of the temple, the fatal catas¬
trophe of those who revolted from Babylon to Egypt, and
the happy return of the Jews to their native land.
EZETOVA, a river of Asiatic Russia, which runs into
the estuary of the Oby, in long. 74. 14. E. and lat. 67.50. N.
EZRA,'a canonical book of the Old Testament, com¬
prehending the history of the Jews from the time of Cy-
F A B
rus's edict for their return, till the twentieth year of Ar- fal;
taxerxes Longimanus. It specifies the number of Jews I
who returned, and Cyrus’s proclamation for the rebuild-
ing of the temple, together with the laying of its founda¬
tion, the obstruction which it met with, and the finishing
of the sacred edifice in the reign of Darius.
The books of Ezra, called in the English version the
First and Second Books of Esdras, though held by some,
particularly the Greeks, as canonical, are thrown by the
English church into the number of apocryphal books, as
they are only extant in Greek.
F.
F.
THE fourth consonant and sixth letter of the alpha-
9 bet. The letter F is borrowed from the digamma
or double gamma, F, of the iEolians, as is evident from the
inscription on the pedestal of the Colossus at Delos; and
though this letter is not found in the modern Greek alpha¬
bet, yet it was in the ancient one, whence the Latins re¬
ceived and transmitted it to us. It is formed by a strong
expression of the breath, and joining at the same time
the upper teeth and under lip. It has but one sort of
sound, which has a great affinity with v and ph, the latter
being written for it by us in all Greek words, as philosophy,
though the Italians write the same term Jilosqfia. The
Romans for some time used an inverted F, instead of
V consonant, which had no peculiar figure in their alpha¬
bet. Thus, in inscriptions we meet with TERMINAJIT,
Kingston, in 1559, all in folio ; whilst the fifth forms part
of the series of Chronicles edited by Ellis, and is reprint¬
ed from Pynson’s edition, with various collations and im¬
provements.
FABII, a noble family at Rome, of Sabine origin, said
to have derived its name from faba, a bean, because some
of its ancestors had cultivated that pulse. It is a curious
circumstance, to which the annals of the Roman republic
afford no parallel, that for seventeen consecutive years,
from 495 to 479 b. c., one of the seats in the consulship
was always filled by members of this house. At this period
they were firm adherents of the aristocratic party, and ex¬
erted all their influence to support their privileges; but at
last, convinced of the fatal consequences that must ensue
to their country from an obstinate resistance to the wishes
the Emperor Claudius who introduced the use of the in¬
verted digamma or J ; but it did not long subsist after his
death; for Quintilian observes, that it was not used in his
time. F or fa, in Music, is the fourth note in rising in
this order of the gamut, ut, re, mi, fa. It likewise denotes
one of the Greek keys in music, destined for the bass.
F, in physical prescription, stands for Fiat, or Let it be
done ; thus, f s. a. signifies fat secundum artem. F was
also a numeral letter signifying forty; according to the
DITI, and so on. Lipsius and others say, that it was of the great body of the nation, the babn changed tlie po-
" ’ ' licy of their family, and joined the popular party. When
they found themselves regarded as traitors and apostates,
they came to the resolution of leaving, with their depend¬
ents and adherents, a place where they could no longer live
in peace, and of founding a settlement which might at least
be of use to the people whom they were so intimately al¬
lied to by blood and birth. It is in this way that we explain
the fact of their being found near Veii. We may infer from
Gellius (xvii. 21), that they were not merely an advanced
guard, occupying a fort in the enemy’s country, but that
they had a settlement on the banks ot the Cremera.
Here the whole family was destroyed by the Veientes,
477 b. c. Only one remained to perpetuate the name,
whose tender years, according to Livy, had kept him at
Rome; but as he w^as consul ten years afterwards, we
must regard this statement as purely legendary.
FABIUS Pictor, the father of Roman history, respect¬
ing whom we knowr but little. In the interval between
the first and second Punic wars we find him taking an
active part in the subjugation of the Gauls in the norti o
Italy (225 b. c.) ; and after the battle of Cannae (21G
verse,
Sexta quaterdenos gerit quae distat ab alpha.
And when a dash was added at top, thus, F, it signified
forty thousand. In the civil law, two f’s joined together
thus,^T, signify the Pandects. In the law of England, F
was a stigma or brand put upon felons (by stat. 4 Henry
VII. c. 13) with a hot iron, on their being admitted to
the benefit of clergy.
FABIAN, or Fabyan, Robert, an alderman of the
city of London, and sheriff in the year 1493, was a person
of some learning, a tolerable poet, and author of a Chro-
nicle of England and France, entitled The Concordance he was employed by the Romans to proceed to Lie p^
of Histories, in two volumes folio, and containing several in order to consult the oracle of Apollo. But it is as
curious particulars, not elsewhere to be found, relative to historian that he is entitled to our attention; as the ear i ^
the city of London. Stowe calls it “ a painful labour, to of the Roman annalists who set the example oi wri i J
the great honour of the city and of the whole realm.” We the history of his country in prose. I he rude muse.
are told that Cardinal Wolsey caused as many copies of Ncevius had already celebrated in verse the 8 or^aj^£n.
this book as he could procure to be burned, because the ed by the Roman arms in the first Punic war, an ^
author had made too clear a discovery of the large reve- nius had clothed the annals of his adopted country in
nues of the clergy. Fabyan died in 1512. There have language of poetry. The sources from which Iabiu® ^
been five editions of his works, the first of which was rived his history were no doubt the annals of the pon >
printed by Pynson, in 1516; the second by Rastell, in who were in the habit of noting on a tablet the rem^
1533 ; the third by Reynes, in 1542; and the fourth by able events of each year, such as prodigies, eclipses, c
i
FAB
us. paigns, triumphs, and the deaths of illustrious men; and
these were afterwards collected into a book. This custom
continued till the pontificate of P. Mucius and the times
of the Gracchi. Such was the foundation for his history;
and his style seems to have partaken much of the dry
and jejune character of the memoirs which he copied.
Polybius has expressed a doubt respecting their credibi¬
lity, but, we think, without sufficient reason. That he
should have copied from a Greek writer, Diodes of Alex¬
andria, as Dionysius hints, carries with it its own refuta¬
tion ; but it is a curious fact that he wrote his annals in
the Greek as well as Latin language. To what period he
brought down his history we are unable to determine.
Livy speaks of his death 169 b. c. (Molleri Diss. de Q.
Fabio Pictore, Altorf. 1689; Lachman, De Fontib. Livii ;
Fabric. Bibl. Lat.)
Fabius Maximus Verrucosus, one of the most distin¬
guished men whom Rome produced, the principal events
of whose life are included between 233 and 203 b. c. He
first makes his appearance in history as the conqueror of
the Ligurians, who had long braved the power of Rome;
and though we have no account of his proceedings from
this period down to the beginning of the second Punic
war, he must have no doubt taken a prominent part in
public affairs, as he was then appointed to head the em¬
bassy (219 b. c.) sent to Carthage to inquire whether that
state approved of Hannibal’s proceedings in attacking Sa-
guntum. The answer proved unsatisfactory; when Fabius,
assuming the haughty dignity of a Roman senator, and
folding up his cloak so as to form a cavity, thus address¬
ed the nobles of Carthage : “ Hie vobis bellum et pacem
portamus; utrum placet sumite.” Being answered that
he might give which he pleased, he indignantly exclaim¬
ed, “ Then 1 denounce war against you;” and the depu¬
ties returned to Rome to state the result of their mission.
The disastrous campaign on the Trebia, and the defeat on
the banks of the Thrasymene Lake, must have warned
Home that her successful resistance to Hannibal, and even
her very existence, mainly depended on the wisdom of
the general to whom she had entrusted her troops. Every
thing pointed out Fabius as the person on whom the fate
of Rome ought to be allowed to depend. The senate ap¬
pointed him dictator; and the fearless character of Minu-
cius probably induced Fabius to make him, as master of
the horse, second in command. The proceedings of Fa¬
bius did not eventually disappoint the expectations of his
countrymen. The grand object of his policy was to weary
out and exhaust the army of Hannibal, without the risk of
a general engagement; and so closely did he adhere to the
plan which he had laid down for himself, that he received
from this circumstance the name of Cunctator. His slow
and cautious policy by no means suited the ardent spirit
of the Romans, and more particularly that of Minucius,
who began to ridicule the proceedings of Fabius, and,
when he was absent at Rome, took the opportunity of at¬
tacking the enemy, and came off victorious. This tended
only more strongly to confirm the opponents of Fabius in
eir opinion; and Varro, who was at this time exerting
;is,u^ost to acquire notoriety, was the only person who
a badness or impudence enough to propose to the
P Minuc*us should be made equal in command
?vitl The result was exactly such as might have
een anticipated. Minucius engaged in battle with Han-
fn tk an(* army would have been cut to pieces, but
1 r ® opportune arrival of Fabius. Minucius seems to
fVe b^d the moral courage to confess his folly, and
Aer„u y to submit to the orders of Fabius. At the
0 six months he resigned his command.
1 ut lt; was n°t long before Rome was again obliged to
e recourse to the experience of Fabius. After the
fab
IVWplf Cr^ ^16 C-)’ he was aPPointed, along with
caHed M^’ 1°/J16 C(?n<"land of the armies; Fabius being
called fbe sfiield, and Marcellus (be sword, of the republic.
Hannih ^ ^ imPortant city of Capua; and when
F K™1'"11611- t0rrds R°me’ threatening the city
knn ]ahlUS rer"ained bmily at his post, trusting in the
own bravery of his fellow-citizens. Again, in his fifth
consulship, we find him taking the city of Tarentum ; and
when U was proposed, towards the conclusion of the war,
that bcipio should pass into Africa, Fabius was decidedly
opposed to the scheme. But he did not live to witness the
final success of Scipio, having died at an advanced age,
2U3 b. c. Plutarch has written his life; and many facts
respecting him may be gathered from Livy, xxi.-xxx,
FABLE, a tale or feigned narrative, disguised under
allegory, and designed both to amuse and instruct.
Fable is also used for the plot of an epic or dramatic
poem; being, according to Aristotle, the principal part,
and, as it were, the soul of the poem. See Poetry.
FABRIANO, Gentile da, an historical painter, was
born at Verona in 1332, and became a disciple of Giovan¬
ni da Fiesole. In that early age of painting he rendered
himself famous, and was employed to adorn a great num¬
ber of churches and palaces at Florence, Urbino, Siena,
Perugia, and Rome, but particularly in the Vatican ; and
one picture of his, representing the Virgin and Child, at¬
tended by Joseph, which is preserved in the church of
Santa Maria Maggiore, was highly commended by Michel
Angelo. By order of the doge and senate of Venice, he
painted a picture in the great council chamber, which was
considered as so extraordinary a performance, that his
employers granted him a pension for life, and conferred
upon him the highest honour of their state, namely, the
privilege of wearing the habit of a noble Venetian. He
died in 1412.
FABRIANO, a city of the papal delegation of Mace-
rata, in Italy, on the river Giano. It is the seat of a bishop,
has nine monasteries, nine nunneries, and 7224 inhabi¬
tants, who are occupied in making paper and preparing
parchment. The paper made here is celebrated through¬
out Italy.
FABRICIUS, George, a Latin poet and historian, was
born at Kemnitz, in Germany, on the 24th April 1516.
He began his studies in his native place, and completed
them at Freyberg and at Leipsic, where he was precep¬
tor to Wolfgang, and also to Philip and Antony Werter.
He travelled into Italy with the elder of his pupils, and
on his return to Germany in 1553, was appointed director
of the college of Meissen, where he died on the 13th July
1571. In his poetical compositions, which obtained for
their author considerable distinction, he aftected not to
employ any word which had the slightest flavour of pagan¬
ism ; and he blamed those poets who had in their works
introduced the pagan divinities. All that he wrote on the
history of his country is, in the judgment of Niceron, esti¬
mable for research and accuracy ; and Lenglet Dufresnoy
pronounces a similar opinion. The following list includes
the principal works which he published, either as author
or as editor : 1. Terentii Afri Comoedice sex cum castiga-
tione duplici Joannis Riviiet G. Fabricii, Strasburg, 1548,
in 8vo; 2. Roma, sive Liber utilissimus de veteris Romce
situ, regionibus, viis, templis, aliisque cedijiciis, Bale, 1550,
in 8vo ; 3. Virgilii Opera cum commentariis Servii et T.
C. Donati, Bale, 1551, in fol.; 4. Virgilii Opera a Fabri-
cio castigata, Leipsic, 1551, 1591, in 8vo; 5. Poematum
Sacrorum libri quindecim, Bale, 1560, in 16to; 6. Poema¬
tum veterum ecclesiasticorum opera Christiana et operum
reliquiae ac fragmenta, 1562, in 4to ; 7. De Re Poetica li¬
bri septem, 1566, in 8vo ; 8. Rerum Misnicarum libri septem,
1569, in 4to; 9. Originum illustrissimce stir pis Saxonicae
472
Fabricius.
FAB
FAB
libri septem, 1597, in fol.; 10. Rerum Germania magna
et Saxonice universce memorabilium volumina duo, Leipsic,
1609, in fol.
Fabricius, or Fabrizio, Jerome, ^umamcA Acquapen-
dente, from his having been a native of the episcopal city
of that name, in Italy, where he was born in 1537. His
parents, though poor, were desirous to give their son an
excellent education, and with this view sent him to Pa¬
dua, where the young Fabricius soon found powerful pro¬
tectors to assist in the cultivation of his talents. Alter
completing his course of philosophy, he applied himself to
medicine, which he studied under the celebrated Fallopius,
and soon became the most distinguished pupil of that learn¬
ed professor, whom he afterwards succeeded. Fallopius
having died in 1562, Fabricius, then only twenty-five
years of age, was at first employed merely to give anato¬
mical demonstrations; but he discharged this duty with
so much zeal and ability that, in 1565, he was formally
promoted to the chair of surgery, whilst that of anatomy,
which had hitherto been considered as merely a depen¬
dence or accessory of the other, was declared primary in
favour of Fabricius, to whom were also assigned very con¬
siderable appointments. And to these preferments the
senators of Venice added the highest distinctions which
it was in their power to bestow. They granted him privi¬
leges not less extraordinary than flattering, gave him pre¬
cedence of the professors of philosophy, named him citizen
of Padua, honoured him with a statue and a gold chain,
decorated him with the order of knight of St Mark, con¬
structed a superb anatomical theatre for his accommoda¬
tion, and assigned him a liberal retired allowance, with the
right of naming his successor. Fabricius practised his pro¬
fession with much dignity and with rare disinterestedness.
Persons of high rank, who were indebted to him for the
re-establishment of their health, made up by rich pre¬
sents for the fees which the generous physician refused ;
and these Fabricius collected in a cabinet, on the door of
which he caused to be inscribed the words Lucri neglecti
lucrum. Fie possessed a beautiful country-house, situat¬
ed on the delightful banks of the Brenta, and still known
by the name of Montagnuola d'Acquapendente, where,
sound in body and mind, loaded with riches, generally
esteemed, and enjoying a brilliant reputation, he calcula¬
ted on spending a happy old age. But his expectations
were cruelly disappointed, and his repose was disturbed
by envy and ingratitude. It is even said that he was
sometimes obliged to employ the knife for other purposes
than surgical operations and dissections. Relations on
whom he had never ceased to lavish favours, unworthily
betrayed his confidence, and are suspected, not without
reason, of having abridged his days by means of poison.
Having attained the age of eighty-two, he died suddenly
in an agony of vomiting, on the 21st May 1619, leaving
to his niece a fortune of two hundred thousand ducats,
and to the republic of letters the following works, which
are much esteemed : 1. JDe Visions, Voce, Auditu, Venice,
1600, in fol.; 2. De formato Fcetu liber, Venice, 1600, in
fol.; 3. De Venarum ostiolis, Padua, 1603, in fol.; 4. De
Locutione et ejus instruments, Venice, 1603, in 4to ; 5. De
Brutorum loquela, Padua, 1603, in fol.; 6. De Musculi ar-
tificio ac Ossium dearticulationibus, Vicenza, 1614, in 4to ;
7. De Motu locali Animalium secundum totum, Padua, 1618,
in 4to ; 8. De Respiratione et ejus Instruments libri duo,
Padua, 1615, in 4to; 9. De Gula, Ventriculo, Intestinis,
Padua, 1618, in 4to ; and also, De totius Animalis integu¬
ments, Padua, 1618, in 4to. These different fragments
were collected and printed by Bohn, with a preface, un¬
der the title of Opera omnia Anatomica et Physiologica,
hactenus variis locis ac formis edita, nunc vero certo ordine
digesta, etin unum volumen redacta, Leipsic, 1687, in fol.
But the Leyden edition, published in 1738, by Bernard-Fa ;
Lifroy Albinus, is preferred to that of Bohn, as contain--
ing a life of the author, and the prefaces of the different
treatises, which Bohn had unaccountably suppressed. All
the writings of Fabricius are truly classical, and fully jus¬
tify the high reputation of their author. His style is pure,
and even elegant; the language of Hippocrates was as fa¬
miliar to him as that of Celsus ; and lucid order pervades
all his writings. In regularity of plan and clear luminous
method he is unsurpassed. “ On a reproche a ce grand
chirurgien trop de timidite dans 1’exercice de son art, et
pourtant nous le voyons,” says his French biographer,
“ pratiquer et perfectionner le trepan, employer avec au-
tant de hardiesse que de talent le bistouri, I’aiguille, le
trois-quarts, la rugine et meme le fer rouge, quoiqu’ en
dise Severino. Haller, qui, certes, ne le juge pas avec
bienveillance, est force de lui rendre justice sur ces di¬
vers points.” In a word, Fabricius was one of the great¬
est ornaments of the university of Padua, and one of the
most celebrated anatomists and surgeons of the sixteenth
century. (a.)
Fabricius, John Albert, one of the most learned, la¬
borious, and useful of bibliographers, was born at Leip¬
sic on the 11th of November 1668. He lost his mother in
1674, and five years afterwards his father, Werner Fabri¬
cius, director of music in the church of St Paul at Leip¬
sic, and author of several works, particularly Delicia Har-
monicce, published in 1657. The subject of this notice
commenced his studies under his father, who, on his death¬
bed, recommended him to the care of Valentine Alberti.
He studied during five years under Wencelaz Buhl, then
for some time under J. S. Herrichen; and, in 1684, he was
sent to Quedlinburg, there to continue his studies under
Samuel Schmidt. From this period the Adversaria of
Barthius formed his delight; and when, in 1687, he saw
the first volume of Morhof’s Polyhistor, the desire which
he had already felt of devoting himself to letters greatly
increased. Having returned to Leipsic in 1686, he was
the same year admitted bachelor in philosophy, and, in
the beginning of 1688, he took the degree of master in
the same faculty ; soon after which he published his first
work, consisting of only one sheet in quarto. He then ap¬
plied himself to the study of medicine, which, however, he
relinquished for that of theology; and having gone to Ham¬
burg in 1693, he proposed to travel into several countries,
when the unexpected and not very agreeable information
which now reached him, that the expense of his education
had absorbed his whole patrimony, and even left him in
debt to his trustee, forced him to abandon his project. He
therefore remained at Hamburg, where J. F. Mayer em¬
ployed him in the capacity of librarian. In 1696 he accom¬
panied his patron to Sweden, and, on his return to Ham¬
burg, not long afterwards, he competed for the chair of logic
and philosophy. The suffrages being equally divided be¬
tween Fabricius and Sebastian Edzardi, one of his oppo¬
nents, recourse was had to chance, which decided in favour
of Edzardi; but in 1699 Fabricius succeeded Vincent Plac-
cius in the chair of eloquence and practical philosophy)
after which he took the degree of doctor in theology at
Kiel. From 1692 to 1697 he had preached regularly
every Friday; but after he received his appointment ol pro¬
fessor, he devoted the greater part of his time to the u-
ties of that office. In 1701, J. F. Mayer having estab¬
lished himself at Greifswald, caused the chair of theo ogy
in that city to be offered to Fabricius, who, however,
refused it on account of his health. But in 1708 he a
accepted the situation of professor of theology, logic, an
metaphysics, and was preparing to enter on his new o ce,
when the senate of Hamburg induced him to renia1!?’. ^
adding to his charge as professor that of rector o
FAB
fabrf
^ v
school of St John, then held by his father-in-law, Schultz,
whom Fabricius was very willing to assist in the discharge
of his duties. Schultz died in 1709, but Fabricius retain¬
ed the rectorship two years longer. In 1719 the land¬
grave of Hesse Cassel made him so advantageous an of¬
fer, that Fabricius was on the point of accepting it; but
this time also the magistrates, by a seasonable increase
of salary, prevailed on him to remain amongst them. An
attempt was subsequently made to draw him to Witten¬
berg. But Fabricius refused to listen to the proposals
which were made to him, and died at Hamburg on the
30th of April 1736. Besides the time which he had de¬
voted to the duties of his office, Fabricius spent a consider¬
able portion in maintaining an extensive correspondence,
and in receiving the visits of foreigners; but he was so
laborious that he was nevertheless the author of a great
number of works, the list of which, according to Niceron
and Reimar, includes as many as a hundred and twenty-
eight. It will be sufficient here, however, to indicate the
most remarkable of these, which are, 1. Scriptorum recen-
tiumDecas, Hamburg, 1688, in4to; 2. Decas Decadum, sive
Plagiarorium et Pseudonymorum centuria, 1689, in 4to;
3. Bibliotheca Latina, sive notitia Auctorwn veterum Lati-
norum quorumcunque scripta ad nos pervenerunt, Ham¬
burg, 1697, in 8vo, a work which was republished in an
improved and amended form by J. A. Ernesti, Leipsic,
1773, in 3 vols. 8vo; 4. Bibliotheca Groeca, sive notitia
Scriptorum veterum Grcecorum quorumcunque monumenta
integra aut fragmenta edita extant, turn plerorumque e ma¬
nuscript, ac deperditis, Flamburg, 1705-1728, in 14 vols.
4to, a work which has justly been denominated maxi-
mus antiquce eruditionis thesaurus ; 5. Centuria Fabricio-
rum scriptis clarorum qui jam diem suum obierunt, 1705,
in 8vo, and a second Century in 1727 ; 6. Bibliotheca An-
tiquaria, sive Introductio in notitiam Scriptorum qui anti-
quitates Hebraicas, Grcecas, Romanos, et Christianas scrip .
tis illustrarunt, 1713 and 1726, in 4to ; 7. Ceniifolium
Lutheranum, sive notitia literaria Scriptorum omnis generis
deB. D. Luthero, 1728 and 172-0, in 8vo; 8. Conspectus
Thesauri Litterarii in Italia, prcemissam habens prceter alia
notitiam Diariorum Italicc litterariorum thesaurorumque
ac corporum historicorum et academiarum, 1730, in 8vo;
9. Delectus argumentorum et syllabus Scriptorum qui veri-
tatem religionis Christiance adversus atheos, epicureos, de-
istas seu naturalistas, idolatras, Judceos et Muhammedanos
lucubrationibus suis asseruerunt, 1721, in 4to ; 10. Salu-
tans lux Evangelii toti orbi per divinam gratiam exoriens,
sive notitia historico-chronologica, litteraria ac geographica
propagatorum per orbem totum Chrislianorum sacrorum,
1731, in 4to; 11. Hydrotheology, in German, 1734, in
to; 12. Bibliotheca Latina medice et infimce Latinitatis,
734-1756, in 5 vols. 8vo. The principal works edited by
abncius were, 1. \ incentii Placcii theatrum anonymorum
rtpseudonymorum, Hamburg, in two vols. fol.; 2. Joannis
1 ywlfonii iter Germanicum, et Joannis Launoii de Scholis
ce ebribus a CaroloMagno etpost Carolum Magnum in occi-
wte instauratis liber, 1717, in 8vo ; 3. Anselmi Bandurii
J 'l°theca Nummaria, 1719, in 4to; 4. Danielis Georgii
or lojii Polyhistor litterarius, philosophicus, acpraclicus,
cum accessionibus Joannis Frikii et Joannis Molleri, 1732,
•n two vols. 4to; 5. Bibliotheca Ecclesiastica, 1718, in
,° ‘ ’ Codex apocryphus Novi Testamenti collectus, cas-
ja us, testimoniisque, censuris et animadversionibus illus-
ratus, 1703, in two vols. 8vo; 7. Codex pseudepigraphus
.ris 7 estamenti collectus, castigatus, testimoniisque, cen-
e? animadversionibus illustratus, 1713 and 1722, in
tw<> vols. 8vo.
Vincent, born at Hamburg on the 13th of
lei em . 1612, studied at Leyden, and there took his
Vtes in medicine in 1634. He had already made him-
F A B
473
VOL. IX.
bpfnrp1*}/1 !'iS f°r ^at'n Poetry ; and two years Fabricius.
befoi e this, had published a collection of verses, at the so- ' ^
Imitation of Ins friend and patron Daniel Heinsius. He
then applied himself to the study of law, in which his pro¬
gress was not less rapid than it had been in the other
sciences, and in due time he became a learned civilian,
ihe bishop of Lubec conferred on him the title of coun¬
sellor, with suitable appointments; but he did not hold
this situation for any length of time; and having estab¬
lished himself with his family at Dantzic, he was soon af¬
terwards named syndic, and then burgomaster, of that
city. The knowledge which he had acquired of the in¬
terests of the republic, and the talent for public speakino-
which he displayed upon occasions of importance, caused
him to be thirteen times returned by the senate as their
deputy to the Polish diet. He died at Warsaw, during
one of the sessions of that body, on the 11th September
1667. Ihe first edition of the poems of Fabricius appear¬
ed at Leyden in 1632 ; and the second, corrected and auo--
mented by the author, in 1638. But his son, Frederic
Fabricius, published a third at Leipsic, 1685, in 8vo, con¬
taining several pieces which had been omitted in the pre¬
ceding editions, besides the Harangues pronounced by
him in the Polish diet, a discourse De Obsidione et Li-
beratione urbis Leidensis, delivered at Leyden in 1632,
and the medical theses maintained by him in the same
city.
Fabricius, John-Christian, the most celebrated ento¬
mologist of the eighteenth century, was born at Tundern,
in the duchy of Slesvvick, in 1742. After having com¬
pleted his studies, at the age of twenty, he repaired to the
university of Upsal, to attend the prelections of Linnaeus.
How long he remained there is uncertain. But no pupil
vvas ever more indebted to the lessons of his master than
Fabricius. All his works on entomology, which have se¬
cured to him a well-merited reputation, indicate the pre¬
cepts, the method, and even the forms of Linnaeus, ap¬
plied to the development of a single new idea, not more
fortunate in conception than fruitful in its consequences.
Far from disguising the obligations which he owed to his
master, Fabricius delighted to expatiate on the happy
moments which he had passed in the society of Linnaeus;
and the grateful scholar has transmitted to us those bio¬
graphical details, which are not only the most interesting
in themselves, but at the same time best fitted to give us
an insight into the character of the great naturalist. It
was in studying under the latter that Fabricius conceived
the idea of his system, and formed the project of his la¬
bours on insects. The first insect’s mouth which he dis¬
sected was that of a cockchafer (scarabceus stridulus) ; he
showed it to Linnaeus, with the description he had made of
it, and proposed to him to employ the organs of the mouth,
in order to establish the characters of insects, in the new
edition of the Systema Natures which Linnaeus was then
preparing. The latter encouraged his pupil to pursue this
course, but refused to enter on it himself, because, as he
said, he was too old to change his method. Forced to
choose a profession, Fabricius studied medicine, and at
the age of twenty-five took the degree of doctor in phy¬
sic ; but being soon afterwards appointed professor of na¬
tural history in the university of Kiel, he devoted himself
entirely to his favourite pursuits, and, in 1775, published
his system of entomology. This work gave a new aspect
to the science. Swammerdam and Hay had classed in¬
sects according to their metamorphoses; Lister, Linnaeus,
and Geoffroy, according to the organs of motion ; and
some entomologists, as Reaumur, Scopoli, and even Lin¬
naeus himself, had employed the nutritive organs in order
to characterize distinctively certain genera. But before
the time of Fabricius no one had thought of making these
3 o
1
474
FAB
Fabricius the basis of a general classification. This idea was at once
II new and bold, and the author evolved it with singular abi-
Fabrot. ]jt„ in a second w^ork, which he published two years
afterwards, he developed the characters of the classes and
genera, showing in the preface the advantages of his me¬
thod, and, at the same time, excusing its inconveniences.
Lastly, in 1778, he published Entomological Philosophy,
in imitation of the Botanical Philosophy of Linnaeus ; and
from this period till his death, that is, during the space of
more than thirty years, he was incessantly occupied in ex¬
tending his system, which he reproduced under different
forms in the various works which, from time to time, he
gave to the world. But in proportion as the number of
species increased, the characters of the genera, and even
of the classes, became more and more uncertain and arbi¬
trary ; and, with reference to this fundamental point, his
later writings are perhaps inferior to those which preceded
them. The basis which he had assumed was excellent;
but it could only conduct him to a natural method, not, as
he supposed, to a system ; and this misconception led him
to neglect other considerations which would have fur¬
nished more exact means of classification. Fabricius had
a very extensive knowledge of botany, and of the othei
branches of natural history. He had been appointed
counsellor of state to the king of Denmark, and professor
of rural and political economy, in which capacity he pub¬
lished, in German and in Danish, several useful w'orks,
though much less celebrated than those which appeared
from°his pen on the subject of entomology. Fabricius
died in 1807, at the age of sixty-five, of a melancholic
affection, produced, as is alleged, by the bombardment
of Copenhagen. The following is a list of his works . 1.
Systema Entomologies, Flensburg, 1775, in 8vo ; 2. Genera
Insectorum, Kiel, 1776, in 8vo ; 3. Philosophia Entomologi-
ca, Hamburg, 1778, in 8vo; 4. Species Insectorum, ibid.
1778, in two vols. 8vo ; 5. Mantissa Insectorum, Copenha¬
gen, 1787, in 2 vols. 8vo; 6. Nova Insectorum Genera, in
Mem. of the Soc. of Nat. Hist. Copenhagen ; 7. Entomo-
logia Systematica, Copenhagen, 1792-1796, in 7 yols.
8vo; 8. Supplementum Entomologies Systematica, ibid.
1798, in 8vo; 9. Systema Eleutheratorum, Kiel, 1801, in
2 vols. 8vo, with an index; 10. Systema Rhyngotorum,
Brunswick, 1803, in 8vo; 11. Systema Piezatorum, ibid.
1801, in 8vo; 12. Systema Antliatorum, ibid. 1805, in
8vo; 13. Description of the Tipula Sericea in the Berlin
Mem. tome v.; 14. De Systema,tihus Entomologicis, in the
same collection ; 15. Considerations sur Vordre general
de la Nature, Hamburg, 1781, in 8vo; 16. Traits de la
Culture des Plantes d l’usage des cultivateurs ; 17. Obser¬
vations sur Vengourdissement des Animaux durant Vhiver,
inserted in the Mag. de Physique, tom. ix. p. 79 ; 18. Re¬
sult at des Ley on s sur I’Histoire Naturelle, Kiel, 1804, in
8vo ; 19. Sur Vaccroissement de la Population, particuliere-
ment en Danemarh; 20. Elements d Economic Politique a
Tusage des etudiants, Flensburg, 1775, in 8vo; 21. Ren-
seignements Historiques sur le Commerce du Danemarh;
22. Hvori bestaaer Borgendyd besvaret; In what consists
civic virtue? Copenhagen, 1786, in 8vo; 23. Sur les Fi¬
nances et la Dette en Danemarh ; 24. Recueil d’Ecrits sur
VAdministration, Kiel, 1786 and 1790, in 2 vols. 8vo; 25.
Sur les Academies, particulierement en Danemarh, Copen¬
hagen, 1796, in 8vo; 26. Voyage en Norwege, Hamburg,
1799, in 8vo; 27. Lettres sur Londres, Leipsic, 1784, in
8vo; 28. Lettres au sujet d un voyage fait en Russie;
29. Remarques Mineralogiques et Technologiques ; 30. Re-
marques sur le Danemarh, written in English, and publish¬
ed by Pinkerton in his Modern Geography, 1807.
FABROT, Charles-Annibal, one of the most cele¬
brated jurisconsults of his time, was born in 1580, at Aix
in Provence, whither his father, originally of Nismes, had
FAB
gone to establish himself during the civil wars. His early
 1:   r%rncf»r»nfprl. nrm np mqrl
studies were successfully prosecuted, and he made great ^
progress in the ancient languages and in the civil and the
canon law. In 1606 he took the degree of doctor, and
was soon afterwards admitted as advocate before the par¬
liament of Aix. As this court then reckoned amongst
its members men of distinguished merit, such as the ce¬
lebrated Peiresc and William Duvair, who was its first
president, their common taste for letters naturally united
them with Fabrot, for whom, in 1609, Duvair procured a
professorship in the university of Aix. Having become
keeper of the seals, the latter carried his young friend
with him to Paris, where Fabrot remained until after the
death of his benefactor, when he returned to resume his
peaceful functions as professor. But these did not ab¬
sorb the whole of his time, and he employed his leisure in
other labours, which, however, had all a relation to juris¬
prudence. The great interpreters whom the sixteenth
century produced had left almost nothing to be added in
regard to the books of this science written in Latin. But
Fabrot opened for himself a different path. The succes¬
sors of Justinian on the throne of Constantinople had
caused to be executed in Greek an abridgment of his
compilations, to which were added articles taken from the
fathers and the councils ; and to this abridgment Leo the
Philosopher gave the name of Basilica, which, in fact,
formed the code of the eastern empire until its destruc¬
tion. The Basilica, long unknown, were in some sort
discovered by Cujas. who made great use of them in his
writings, but did not publish them. Fabrot, however, un¬
dertook this task, and, about 1639, extracted from this col¬
lection, and published in Greek and Latin, fourteen laws,
which are wanting in the Digest. These, with some
other productions of Fabrot, were inserted by Everard
Otton in his Thesaurus Juris Civilis. Of the sixty books
of which the Basilica were composed, thirteen have been
lost. Those which remain Fabrot translated; and he sup¬
plied, by means of summaries, the place of those which
are lost. This work, consisting of seven volumes in folio,
was published in 1647 at Paris, where Fabrot had now es¬
tablished himself, and was dedicated to the Chancellor be-
guier, through whose influence, exerted in his favour, he
obtained a considerable pension, by means of which ie
was enabled to continue his useful labours. Matthieu
Mole, at first procureur-general, then first president ami
keeper of the seals, a man whose heroic firmness is so
well known, and Jerome Bignon, a magistrate distmguisi
ed for his knowledge and integrity, likewise gave ra ro
proofs of the estimation in which they held his talents.
Besides the Basilica, the latter also translated into La in
the Greek paraphrase which Theophilus had made o a
Institutions of Justinian (Paris, 1638 and 1657, m ?y'
The particular nature of his pursuits having rendered nm
familiar with the Byzantine historians, Fabrot pu is
several of their works, such as those of Cedrenus, 1
tas, Anastasius the Librarian, and others, enriched w
notes and dissertations. And as he was not °ny
quainted with the civil, but also with the canon law o
lower empire, which in fact form but one w'loe’
Justel and William Voet compiled their Library of
Law, which appeared in 1661, they inserted in t a . ,
pilation the constitutions of Theodorus Balsamon,
were found amongst the papers of 1'abrot, with no e
peculiar manner. But one of the underta .
have done the greatest honour to this learne J ^
suit, is his edition of the works of Cujas, ^ 1C.‘ .^h
rected according to several manuscripts, and (jnr‘c
notes and several treatises of Cujas, which ia
viously seen the light. Before the appearance ^
of Naples and of Venice, this was the best o a
FAC
Fabul
I!
Fact
'v>Y '
tions of Cujas. Fabrot commenced it in 1652, and com¬
pleted it in 1658. It is believed that the continued and
intense application which he bestowed on this w’ork caused
the malady of which he died on the 16th of January 1659.
His reputation was so extensive, that the most celebrated
universities of France desired to have the benefit of his
services as professor of law ; but he refused every offer of
the kind which was made to him, however advantageous,
that his attention might not be diverted from the great un¬
dertakings in which he had embarked. Fabrot wrote, 1.
Epistola de Mutuo cum responsione Cl. Salmasii ad Mena-
gium, Leyden, 1645, in 8vo ; 2. Les Antiquites de la Ville
de Marseille, translated from the Latin of J. Raymond
de Sober, Marseilles, 1615, and Lyons, 1632, in 8vo; 3.
Exercitationes duce de tempore partus humani et de numero
puerperii, Aix, 1629, in 4to; 4. Prcelectio in titulum De-
cretalium “ De vita et honestate Clericorum," Paris, 1651,
in 4to; 5. Notce at titulum Codicis Theodosiani “ De pa-
ganis sacrificiis et tempi is,'' Paris, 1648, in 4to.
FABULOUS, something consisting of or connected
with fable.
FACATA, or Fucata, a seaport of Japan, in the
island of Ximo, where the Jesuits formerly had a consi¬
derable establishment and a church. It is twenty-seven
miles west-north-west of Taisero.
FACE, the surface or first side which a body presents
to the eye. Thus, we say, the face of the earth, of the
waters, and the like; polyhedrons have several faces; a
die or cube has six faces.
Face is particularly used for the visage of an animal,
especially of man, and comprehends, in the latter, all that
part of the head which is not covered with long hair.
The Latins call it facies, vultus, os. .
FACIES Hippocratic A, in Medicine, is when the nos¬
trils are sharp, the eyes hollow, the temples low, the tips
of the ears contracted and cold, the forehead dry and
wrinkled, and the complexion pale or livid. The Hippo¬
cratic face is chiefly observed towards the close of phthi¬
sis pulmonalis, and other consumptions, and is held as a
sure prognostic of death. If it appear within three days
after the attack of an acute disease, it is deemed a fatal
symptom.
FACTION, a cabal or party formed in a state, city, or
company.
Faction, in Antiquity, a name given to the different
companies of combatants in the circus. They were four in
all; the white, the red, the green, and the blue, to which
Domitian added another of purple colour. They were so
denominated from the colour of the liveries they wore,
and were dedicated to the four seasons of the year; the
green being consecrated to spring, the blue to wdnter,
the red to summer, and the white to autumn. It appears
from ancient inscriptions, that each faction had its procu¬
rators and physician; and that party rage ran so high
amongst them, that in a dissension between two factions,
ln the time of Justinian, nearly forty thousand men lost
their lives.
FACTITIOUS, any thing made by art, in opposition
to that which is the production of nature. Thus, factitious
cinnabar is opposed to native cinnabar.
FACTOR, in Commerce, is an agent employed by mer¬
chants residing at other places, to buy or sell goods, ne¬
gotiate bills, or transact any kind of business on their ac¬
count, and entitled to a certain allowance for his trouble.
A supercargo differs from a factor in this, that the bu¬
siness ot the former is limited to the care of a particular
cargo; he goes along with it, and generally returns when
^is business is completed; whereas the latter has a fixed
residence abroad, and executes business for different mer¬
chants.
i
F A E 475
Factor, in Multiplication, a name given to the multi- Factorage
plier and multiplicand, because they constitute the pro- H
duct. x Faemus.
FACTORAGE, called also commission, is the allow-
ance given to factors by the merchant who employs them.
FACTORY is a place where a considerable number of
factors reside, in order to negotiate for their masters or
employers.
FACULfE, in Astronomy, certain bright and shining
parts, which the modern astronomers have, by means of
telescopes, observed on the surface or disc of the sun.
The word is Latin, being a diminutive of fax, a torch, and
supposed, in this case, to be applied from these spots ap¬
pearing and disappearing by turns.
FACULTY, in Law, a privilege granted to a person,
by favour and indlugence, of doing that which by law he
ought not to do.
Faculty, in the schools, a term applied to the dif¬
ferent members of an university, divided according to the
arts and sciences taught there. Thus, in most universi¬
ties there are four faculties ; that of arts, which includes
humanity and philosophy; that of theology ; that of me¬
dicine ; and that of law.
FAENZA, a city of Italy, in the delegation of Raven¬
na, in the papal dominions. It is situated on a plain wa¬
tered by the river Lamona, from which a canal is formed
to join the Po Primero. It contains, besides a cathedral,
twenty-eight churches, eight monasteries, and eight nun¬
neries, with 14,000 inhabitants, who are employed in silk
and other manufactures. At this place the invention of
porcelain was introduced ; and hence, in most of the lan¬
guages of Europe, that commodity has obtained the name
of the city. It was the birth-place of the celebrated Tor¬
ricelli, the disciple of Galileo. Long. 11. 36. E. Lat. 44.
21. N.
FAERNUS, Gabriel, a celebrated modern Latin poet,
was a native of Cremona, and flourished during the sixteenth
century. He was so eminently skilled in all parts of
polite literature, that the Cardinal de’ Medicis, afterwards
Pope Pius IV. held him in high estimation. He was the
author of some Latin elegies, of a hundred Latin fables
in iambic verse, selected from the ancients, and of several
pieces of criticism. He was also remarkably dexterous
in deciphering manuscripts, and in restoring ancient au¬
thors ; and he took such pains with Terence, that Bent¬
ley has adopted all his notes in the edition which he pub¬
lished of that dramatist. Faernus died at Rome in 1561 ;
and De Thou, who wrote his eulogy, says that the learned
world wras greatly indebted to him, and would have been
still more so, iff instead of suppressing the then unknown
fables of Phsedrus, from fear of lessening the value of his
own Latin fables, written in imitation of iEsop, he had
been content with imitating them. Perrault, however, who
translated the fables of Faernus into French, has defended
him from this imputation, by showing that the first ma¬
nuscript of Phaedrus’s fables, found in the dust of an old
library, was not discovered till about thirty years after
the death of Faernus. In fact, Plautus and Terence
were his models; and the merit of his elegant style is en¬
hanced by the circumstance that he was not an imitator of
Phaedrus, whom it has been satisfactorily shown he did
not know. His fables, immediately upon their appear¬
ance, obtained universal applause, and were reprinted at
Cologne, at Antwerp, and at Brussels. Faernus also wrote,
1. Two Books of Corrections on the philippics and three
other speeches of Cicero, from a manuscript w'hich had
been discovered in the Vatican Library, and which he re¬
garded as the most ancient of all those that existed of the
works of Cicero; and, 2. Notes on Catullus and Plautus,
and a Commentary on Terence, which was printed by
Faggot
II
Fairs and
Markets.
Pietro Vettori, Florence, 1567, in 8vo, and reprinted at
Paris, 1602, in 4to. . . .
FAGGOT, in the times of persecution, was a badge
worn on the sleeve of the upper garment, by such persons
as had recanted or abjured what was then termed hei’esy.
It was put on after the person had carried a faggot, by
way of penance, to some appointed place of solemnity.
Leaving off wearing this badge was sometimes interpreted
as a sign of apostasy. ,
Faggots, amongst military men, persons hired by om-
cers, whose companies were not full, to muster and con¬
ceal the deficiencies of such companies. This disgrace¬
ful practice has long ceased in our army.
PAID, or Feid, a town of Arabia, in the province of
Nedsjed, 140 miles north-east of Hagiar. Long. 40. 36.
E. Lat. 26. 54. N. ™ ,
FAIFO, or Haifo, a town of Cochin-China, situated
about ten miles from the sea, on a navigable river, which
flows into the bay of Huron. It was at one time a place
of some importance, the streets being regular, and the
houses built of brick. But it was destroyed in the course
of the revolutions which befel the country; and its pro¬
sperity is now only reviving. Long. 108. 10. E. Lat. 15.
50. N.
FAILSWORTH, a township of the county of Lancas¬
ter, within the parish of Manchester, inhabited chiefly by
manufacturers of cotton goods, whose numbers amounted
in 1801 to 2622, in 1811 to 2875, in 1821 to 3358, and in
1831 to 3667.
FAINT Action, in Law, a feigned action, or such as,
although the words of the writ are true, yet, for certain
causes, the plaintiff has no title to recover thereby.
FAIRS AND MARKETS. The intimate alliance
which subsists between these institutions renders it as ne¬
cessary as it is convenient to treat of them together. As
the term is now generally understood, a fair is just a greater
species of market, but the periodical recurrence is less fre¬
quent. Both are appropriated to the sale of one or more
kinds of goods, the hiring of servants, labourers, &c. In
most cases, however, fairs are more numerously attended
than markets, and are generally characterized by various
exhibitions got up for the amusement of the people.
The following account of the origin of fairs is given by Mr
McCulloch, in his Dictionary of Commerce. “ Institutions
of this sort are peculiarly serviceable in the earlier stages
of society, and in rude and inland countries. The number
of shops, and the commodities in them, are then either com¬
paratively limited, or they are but little frequented by deal¬
ers ; so that it is for the advantage of all that fairs should
be established, and merchants induced to attend them. For
this purpose various privileges have been annexed to fairs,
and numerous facilities afforded to the disposal of property
in them. To give them a greater degree of solemnity, they
were originally, both in the ancient and modern world, as¬
sociated with religious festivals. In most places, indeed,
they are still held on the same day with the wake or feast
of the saint to whom the church is dedicated; and, till the
practice was prohibited, it was customary, in England, to
Fold them in churchyards. {Jacob’s Law Diet. art. Fair.)
But since the growth of towns, and the opportunities af¬
forded for the disposal and purchase of all sorts of produce
at the weekly or monthly markets held in them, the utility
of fairs, in this country at least, has very much diminished ;
they have also lost much of their ancient splendour; and,
though some of them are still well attended, and of real use,
a good number might be advantageously suppressed.
“ But it is far otherwise in inland countries, where the fa¬
cilities for carrying on commercial transactions are compa¬
ratively circumscribed. There it is of the utmost import¬
ance, that certain convenient places and specified periods
should be appointed for the bringing together of commo- F ail(1
dities and dealers. This is not only the readiest and best M ets,
means of promoting commerce, but also of softening na-'w
tional antipathies, and diffusing a knowledge of the pro¬
ducts, arts, and customs of other countries.”
In England the right of holding a fair must be derived
from the crown, and, in the grant obtained, provision is
made that no other fair shall be injured by the one to be
established. The times of holding the fairs are determined
by the letters-patent appointing the fair or market, or by
usage ; and penalties are imposed if they are held beyond
the time specified. A bona fide sale made in a fair or open
market, in general transfers the complete property of the
thing sold to the vender, so that, however vicious or illegal
the title of the vender may be, the vendee’s is good against
every one except the king. But the sale, in order to come
within this rule, must be made on the market day, and at
the place assigned for the market. Formerly the mayor or
steward presided at a court called the court of pie poudre,
in allusion to the dusty feet of the suitors, where questions
as to contracts, &c. were decided ; but these courts are now
entirely set aside. Still, as of old, however, there is a clerk
appointed, whose duty it is to see that every thing is sold
according to just weights and measures. There is gene¬
rally a toll attached to fairs and markets, which is paid by
the buyer after the thing brought to the market has been
sold.
British Fairs. Amongst these may be specified that of
Stourbridge, in Worcestershire. Bristol has two consider¬
able fairs, one in March and one in September. Exeter De¬
cember fair is for cattle, horses, and most sorts of commo¬
dities. Weyhill fair, in Hampshire (October 10), has pro¬
bably the greatest display of sheep of any fair in the king¬
dom. Bartholomew fair, in London, used to be of consider¬
able importance, but is now appropriated only to shows ot
wild beasts, and such like exhibitions, and might be sup¬
pressed with advantage. St Faith’s, near Norwich (Octo¬
ber 17), is the principal English fair for Scotch cattle. |
They are sold to the graziers and feeders of Norfolk, Sul-
folk, Essex, and other counties, by whom they are fattened
for the London markets, where they are met with in great
abundance. But besides those sold at St Faith’s, large num¬
bers of Scotch cattle are disposed of at Market Harborough,
Carlisle, Ormskirk, and other places. Ipswich has two con¬
siderable fairs ; one in August, for lambs, and one in Sep¬
tember, for butter and cheese ; and it is reckoned that above
100,000 lambs are annually sold at the former. Wood-
borough-hill, in Dorset, is for west-country manufactures,
as kerseys, druggets, &c.; and Woodstock October fair, lor
cheese. Northampton and Nottingham have each seveia
large fairs, for horses, cattle, cheese, &c. The August fair
of Horncastle, in Lincolnshire, is the largest horse fair m
the kingdom, many thousand horses being exhibited for sa e
during its continuance; and it is resorted to by crowds o
dealers from all parts of Great Britain, by several from t e
Continent, and sometimes even from North America. Bou¬
den, in Yorkshire, has also a very large horse fair, P^rtieu
larly for Yorkshire hunters. Devizes, in Wiltshire, a3®se
veral large fairs for sheep and cattle. There is usual y 3
large display of cheese at the Gloucester April fair,
guild, or jubilee, commencing the last week ol August, is
held every twentieth year at Preston, in Lancashire, ie
last was held in 1822, and was well attended. fhe c.°
ber fair of Market Ilarborough, Leicestershire, lasts mn
days, and a great deal of business is usually done in ca >
cheese, See. Woodbridge Lady-day fair is celebrate
the show of Suffolk horses. Falkirk fair, or tryst, lS.onen(j
the most important in Scotland, for the sale of catt e
sheep. The October fair of Ballinasloe, in the cou” ^
Galway, is famous for the display of cattle and s e i >
F A I
F A I
477
and by far the largest proportion of these animals raised for nitons and danp-nmnc ^
<ets sale in Connaught being disposed of at it. [he south-eastern s,VlP if’ ^ -1S ^ accessible upon Fairfax
French Fairs. The principal French fairs are those of ,"affords pastnlage t iVe' 1 bUt the SOi' cl,irf- '^
Tr St Germains, Lyons, Rheims, Chartres, Rouen, Bordeaux, ' FAIRFAX Edwaro n , ,,
Troyes, Bayonne, and Beaucaire, but they are said to be for flourished in the reigns of OuetpnFCrnSKdeirab ^ rte’ Wh°
the most part much fallen off, although that which was held in He was the second son of Sir T1 E IZa£e.thr and -James I.
1833, at the last-named place, was the greatest which had in the count; oT York? “The precS^te S
taken place for many years. uncertain • and if W i ^ CC1Se datf , 118 ^irt 1 ls
German Fairs. The principal German, or rather Euro- legitimate’; but there does^ot ^eem^lnh^ that h? WaS ‘a
pean fairs, are those of Frankfort on the Maine, Frankfort for such a supposition G anV e0°d OTOnnd
mi p c 1 g°od ground
on the Oder, and Leipsic. The business transacted at scended had T strong propensl'tv 1 or°tlm miHtar- WaSfde'
these fairs is in general very great. Merchants of all na- sion; and his father having passed his youth “The w“i
(tons are there assembled, for disposing of the manufactures, of the Continent, was present at the sacking of Rome ™
merchandise, and productions, for which their several coun- der Charles Duke of Bourbon, in the year 1527 In 1 S)l"
tries are distinguished Frankfort on the- Maine has two, the poet’s elder brother, Thomas, who afterwards became
and Frankfort on the Oder three fairs yearly Leipsic has the first Lord Fairfax, received the honour of knighthoad
also three annual fairs, and these are by far the most cele- before Rouen, on account of the bravery he had disnlav
brated. They are held on the first of January, at Easter, ed whilst serving with the army sent to the assistant nf
and at Michaelmas. The first is the least important. The Henry IV.; and the same individual afterwards signalized
two latter, particularly the former, are remarkable for the himself on many occasions in Germany A younger bro
vast number of new publications usually offered for sale, ther, Charles, also distinguished himself in arms having
They are attended by all the principal booksellers of Gcr- been present at the battle of Newport in 1600 and com
many, and by many from the adjoining countries, who ad- manded at the famous siege of Ostend, where he received
just their accounts, learn the state of the trade in all parts a wound in the face from a splinter of the skull of a mar-
of the world, and endeavour to form new connections, shal of France, who was killed near him by a cannon ball"
Most German publishers have agents in Leipsic, which is But whilst his brothers were thus employed in military
to the literature of Germany what London is to that of service abroad, Edward Fairfax devoted himself to the
Great Britain. As many as four thousand new publica- peaceful pursuits of literature at home, and the acquire-
tions have been in a single Leipsic catalogue. The fairs ments he made were such as would have qualified him to
ought to close in eight days, but they usually continue for fill with credit any employment either in church or state,
about three weeks. But an invincible modesty, joined to a love of retirement
Italian Fairs. Of these, the most celebrated is that of and a contemplative turn of mind, induced him to prefer
Sinigaglia, on the Misa. It commences on the 14th of July, the groves and cascades of Denton, and the forest of
and continues for about twenty days. Here, as at the Ger
man fairs, are assembled merchants from almost all nations.
Russian Fairs. These are numerous, and many of them
are well attended. The most important is held at Nishnei-
Novogorod, a city situated at the confluence of the Oka
with the Wolga. It is the great emporium of the internal
trade of Russia. The fair generally lasts from six weeks
to two months, and is well known all over the east of Eu¬
rope. In point of value this fair is considered as second to
none in Europe. Another celebrated Russian fair is that
of Kiachta, on the Chinese frontier. At this fair by far the
largest part of the commerce between the Russian and Chi¬
nese empires is transacted. The goods disposed of are
principally the products of the respective countries.
Eastern Fairs. The most important fair in the eastern
world is that held at Mecca, during the resort of pilgrims
in the month of Dhalhajja. It has declined of late years,
but the concourse which attends it is still very great. The
greatest fair in India is that held at Hurdwar in Hindus¬
tan. The town, although inconsiderable, is famous for be¬
ing one of the principal places of Flindu pilgrimage, which
takes place along with the fair at the vernal equinox.
The fairs of Portobello, Vera Cruz, and Acapulco, once
so famous, are now totally deserted; and that of the Havan-
nah is also much fallen off.
Fair, in nautical language, is used for the disposition
ox the wind, when it is favourable to a ship’s course, in
opposition to that which is contrary or foul. The term
jair is more comprehensive than the term large, and in¬
cludes about sixteen or eighteen points of the compass.
Large is confined to the beam or quarter, that is, to a
lVlnd which crosses the keel at right angles, or obliquely
rom the stern, but never to one right a-stern.
FAIR Isle, an island belonging to Zetland, lying be¬
tween that group of islands and the Orkneys, extending
u ly three miles in length by about two in breadth, and
o an oblong form. It is quite mountainous, with a preci-
Knaresborough, to all the advantages of worldly distinc¬
tion ; and, accordingly, having fixed himself as a private
gentleman at Fuyistone, he devoted his leisure to compo¬
sition both in prose and in verse, and to the education of
his own and the children of his brother, Lord Fairfax,
who are said to have profited much by his instructions.
In his book on Daemonology, Fairfax has given the fol¬
lowing character of himself:—“ I am in religion,” says he,
“ neither a fantastic puritan nor a superstitious papist, but
so settled in conscience, that I have the sure ground of
God’s word to warrant all I believe, and the commenda¬
ble ordinances of our English church to approve all I prac¬
tise ; in which course 1 live a faithful Christian and an
obedient subject, and so teach my family.” In these prin¬
ciples he persevered until his death, which took place
about 1632, at Newhall, in the parish of Fuyistone, be¬
tween Denton and Knaresborough. Fairfax’s first, and
indeed his principal work, was his translation of Tasso,
which he executed when very young, and dedicated to
Queen Elizabeth. The merits of this performance were
at one time much overrated; and, latterly, it has been in
some measure superseded by the translation of Hoole,
which, though not a little stiff and formal, possesses
greater equality, and is perhaps also superior in point of
accuracy : but it must at the same time be confessed, that
the diction of Fairfax is remarkable for its purity, freedom,
and elegance ; that his numbers are often highly musical;
and that he is one of the few writers, if not the only
one, down to the time of Sir William Davenant, who does
not require an apology to be made for him on account
of the age in which he lived. “ Fairfax,” says Hume,
“ has translated Tasso with an elegance and ease, and
at the same time with an exactness, which for that age
are surprising.” But the poetical exertions of Fairfax did
not terminate with this translation. Fie also composed
eclogues, twelve in number, relative to the manners, the
characters, and the incidents of the times; compositions
478
Fairfax.
F A I F A I
which he seasoned with ,n„ny fine touches of piquant sa. prohabiy with the intention, of rendering hhnseif
tire, and dignified with useful b“f tl'" ^’Uaci0„ues As soon as Fairfax, who was then in the north of Eng-
private morality. Ihe fourth in °.ld^ but it is some- land, received the orders of parliament, he repaired to
was printed in the Muses ;ubi nevel. have London, where he arrived on the 18th of February 1645,
what surprising that the whole of them s _ anci was presented to the House of Commons on the fol-
been published, and it is not improbable Fajrfax lowing day, by four members, and complimented by the
scripts are now lost Of the prose writings of ^rfex, lowing 7^ 7^^ him ^ commission. He had full
most of which related to the controversy w ^ ^ 1owerg tQ name all the generals under his orders; and, in
of Rome, none has ever appeared in pri > ‘ • in j.jie ni0nth of April, he proceeded to Windsor, where he
treatise on Dsemonology, if yet extant, , u A empioyea himself in organizing the new army which the
manuscript. This last production, which is entitled A employe^ ^ ^ ^ it was in reality Crom-
Discourse on .Witchcraft, as it was actec in of y^rk ^ell wb0) under the name of Fairfax, constantly acted;
Mr Edward Fairfax of Fuyistone, in th y j 0f for the lieutenant-general had acquired so great an ascen-
in 1621,” and of which a copy ffa^" Sied throw con- dency over his chief, that he did, or caused to be done,
Mr Isaac Reed, would no doubt, if pub , whatever he pleased; and having had the address to per-
siderable light on the superstitious opinions and feelings ^teve^e p ^ ^ the ^ of ^
of the age when it was writte"’ a"CJ exposition of those ligion and the commonwealth, he thereby disposed the
contribute indirectly towards the true e p latter to receive his counsels, and to place entire confi-
spectral illusions and phantasms which, while they com- latter to ^eive^^ appPnted governor of
manded the unhesitating belief, exercise so p_ ^ ^ Hul]> and sent by parliament to succour Taunton in So-
influence over the minds of our foie at • mersetshire, then closely besieged by the royalists, Fair-
several children, sons as well as daughters, the eldest ot ^ls^sl;;ie£'’latter lace/t0 wh£h h/had proceeded with
whom, William, a scholar of much the same L P an p0SSible dilio-ence, received counter-orders to join Crotn-
his father, though rather more cynrcal, translated Dio-
genes Laertius from Greek into English. wen ' who had :ugt itted 0xford. After
Fairfax, Thomas Zorrfuio acte so C^SP1C d vari0us movements, the hostile armies met, on the 14th of
born at Denton in the Parish of ^f^’JXschool’educa- torious Fairfax laid siege to Leicester, which surrendered
rsrtSaSSsta-.'*?
his paternal mansion at Denton, where he conceived an ing it impossible, from the rigour of the season, to bes g
extreme aversion^o the court, either by the instigation of Exeter, a well fortified city in reguto form h con-
his wife, who was a zealous Presbyterian, or by the persua- verted the investment into » Wockade whicl ^
sion and example of his father, who had become strongly the 13th of April 1646. In this nterva
disaffected towards the royal cause. Accordingly, when vera places defeated aad
the king endeavoured to raise a guard for his own per- royalists, and completely hu™^ed’^^ which
son at York, intending it, as the event afterwards proved, this party in the provinces of the south and we ,
to form the nucleus of an army, he was employed by his had formed its great stronghofo and ^
party to present a petition to his sovereign, entreating him cipal resource in England. ^avI“S °“taiaed vheere was
to hearken to the voice of his parliament, and to disconti- cesses, Fairfax marched in all haste to Oxford^ wh
nue the raising of troops; and when Charles attempted the most considerable garrison that je yarned
to avoid receiving it, Fairfax followed him with the pe- king. But the latter, afiaid of bf. 1 , P j Pwjth-
tition, which he presented upon the pommel of his saddle, and thus falling into the hands of his mo a e»ealew;rk) t0
in Heyworth-moor, before an assemblage of nearly a bun- drew secretly, m disguise, ant P10^ Oxford capi-
dred thousand persons. Shortly afterwards, upon the break- throw himself into the arms o the scotch. Ux
ing out of the civil war, his father having received from tulated, and by the end of September Charles ha
the parliament a commission appointing him general-in- army nor garrison in England. i off TVnvpmber,
chief of the forces in the north, Fairfax was at the same Fairfax having arrived in London on t e , bv the two
time made general of the horse under him. In this war was complimented and thanked for his successes uy ^
both father and son distinguished themselves by their houses ot parliament, who repaired to his resi en ^
bravery, intelligence, and activity, particularly at the bat- purpose. But he had scarcely time to enjoy a i _ . -on
tie of Marston-Moor and the taking of York; Thomas Fair- from the fatigues of war, when he receiver a c ,,
fax having been twice severely wounded, and having fre- to escort the two hundred thousand pounds, gian „ earg
quently exposed his life in the most daring manner. His English parliament to the Scotch army, m name o _ ^
exploits, therefore, gained him the confidence of his party ; of pay, but, in reality, according to some, as ® I .e
and, in 1645, when it was judged expedient to new-model the king’s person, which that army had consen e „ __
the army, and to deprive Essex of the command, the par- up. Charles was delivered up to the con^lbSlonurS .eCed-
liament, knowing that Fairfax was a zealous Presbyterian, liament on the 30th January 1646. Fairfax, w o p ^
unanimously appointed him as successor to Essex. In ed the king, having met him beyond Netting ^
this command Cromwell was joined with him in the capa- mounted from his horse, kissed the royal han , an
city, and with the title, of lieutenant-general; but the resumed his seat, discoursed with the unfortuna^P^^
latter only accepted the inferior grade in the hope, and during the journey to Holdenby. lhat Chares
F A 1
rfax. fied with the conduct of Fairfax, appears from the observa-
tion which he addressed to one of the parliamentary com¬
missioners. “ The general,” said he, “ is a man of ho¬
nour, and keeps his word which he had pledged to mea
remark, the precise import of which, however, is not un¬
derstood, as the circumstances to which the king evident¬
ly alludes have not been ’stated by any historian. Fair¬
fax was received at Cambridge with the greatest honours,
and created master of arts. By this time the parliament,
after long debates, had appointed him general of the forces,
which were still to be kept on an effective footing; for it
was now intended to disband the greater part, and send the
remainder to Ireland. But the soldiers being extremely
dissatisfied with a project which threatened to deprive
them of all the advantages they had reaped from the w ar,
Cromwell, who had hitherto allowed Fairfax to enjoy in
appearance the honours of supreme command, resolved,
in concert with Ireton, his son-in-law, a man not less crafty
than himself, but a better speaker and a more able writer,
to profit by this disposition of the army, in order to foment
a revolt against the parliament. Accordingly, they circu¬
lated a report among the soldiers, that the parliament, hav¬
ing the king in its power, intended to disband the greater
part of the army, in order to deprive them of their arrears
of pay, and to send the rest into Ireland, to be extermi¬
nated by the fierce inhabitants of that island. Inflamed by
these rumours, the army, on the suggestion of Ireton, ap¬
pointed a committee of its own number, to consult for its
wellbeing, assist at the councils of war, and watch over
the peace and security of the kingdom. Fairfax now ob¬
served with regret, that these agitators, as they called them¬
selves, had usurped the power which he should have exer¬
cised over the army; he discerned that they were the fore¬
runners of anarchy, and that their design was to raise their
own fortune on the ruin of the state. He therefore re¬
solved to resign his commission; but the chiefs of the In¬
dependents, whose projects were not fully matured, per¬
suaded him to retain it. He then, with culpable weak¬
ness, co-operated in all the proceedings of the army, which
had for their object to destroy the power of parliament. In
vain did the two houses enjoin him to leave his troops at
the distance of at least fifteen miles from London ; he en¬
tered that city in triumph, with the speaker and sixty mem¬
bers of the House of Commons, who, betraying the privi¬
leges of parliament, had retired to the camp, and whom he
now re-instated in their places. For this proceeding, which in
any view deserved a halter, he was rewarded with the thanks
of both houses, and the office of governor of the Tower.
But having soon afterwards learned that the king had been
removed by violence from Holdenby, Fairfax, indignant at
this proceeding, repaired to the place where this unfortu¬
nate prince was detained near Cambridge, conducted him¬
self towards the royal captive in the most respectful man¬
ner, and caused him to follow all the movements of the army,
m order that the parliament might not obtain possession of
his person, for which purpose commissioners had already
been named by both houses. The credit of Fairfax with
the troops, however, diminished daily ; he had neither firm¬
ness of will nor force of character sufficient to oppose him¬
self to a power which had long overtopped his own ; and al¬
though he had in view none of the objects which Cromwell
cherished, he contributed to render them all successful. It
was doubtless in consequence of this inconceivable weak¬
ness that he concurred in the manifesto of the army, pub-
ished in the month of January 1648, which adhered to the
vote of the commons, that no more addresses or messages
should be presented to the king, and protested that it
would obey parliament in every thing which might hence-
orth be necessary for the government of the kingdom and
ie safety of parliament, whether with the king or against him.
F A I 479
At this period Fairfax lost his father, whom he succeeded Fairfax,
in his titles and employments ; but still he remained, as be-
fore, the docile instrument of the ambition of Cromwell. He
displayed the greatest activity in putting down insurrections,
and took Colchester, whither the remains of the royalist
party had betaken themselves. At the end of the year he
returned to London, in order to keep in check that city and
the pai liament; and he took up his head-quarters in the
palace of Whitehall. Here, being struck with a sort of moral
stupefaction, which prevented him from reflecting on the
character or tendency of his own actions, all his proceed¬
ings served to accelerate the crisis of the king’s fate; but
although placed at the head of the judges before whom
Charles was to be tried, he refused to act, probably at the
instigation of his wife, wTho on this occasion displayed a
boldness and intrepidity w orthy of all admiration. He even
exerted himself to prevent the execution of the sentence,
and tried to persuade his regiment to rescue the king from
the hands of those who had condemned him to death. But
Cromwell and Ireton, ably assisted by Harrison, imposed
on the pious credulity of Fairfax; and, whilst these hy¬
pocrites kept the imprudent general engaged in prayer,
the fatal blow was struck. A few days after the ex¬
ecution of Charles, he was appointed a member of the
council, but refused to sign the form of oath by which
all that had been done relative to the king and to the
royal authority was approved of. Towards the end of March
he received the title of general of the troops in Eng¬
land and in Ireland; but he no longer possessed any real
power. He marched against the levellers, who having be¬
come numerous, had occasioned considerable uneasiness,
and would soon have rendered themselves formidable, and
completely routed them at Burford in Oxfordshire. Fie
then repaired to Oxford, where he received the degree of
doctor of laws; after which he proceeded to allay the trou¬
bles in Hampshire, assembled the army at Guildford, ex¬
horted it to obedience, and returned to London, where he
was presented with a basin and ewer of beaten gold. In
June 1650, when the Scotch had declared for Charles II.,
the council of state in England having resolved to send an
army to Scotland, in order to prevent an invasion, Fairfax
was consulted respecting the design, which he appeared at
first to approve ; but afterwards, by the persuasion of his
lady and the presbyterian ministers, he declared himself sa¬
tisfied that the parliament of England had no just ground
for sending an army to invade Scotland; and, in terms of
this declaration, he resigned his commission. The supreme
command of the army was then conferred upon Cromwell,
who saw with pleasure the retirement of a man who, being
no longer necessary to his ambitious projects, now7 formed
an obstacle to their entire accomplishment. The parliament,
however, in some measure indemnified Fairfax, by grant¬
ing him a pension of five thousand pounds sterling.
Being thus released from all public employment, Fairfax-
retired to Nunappleton, Yorkshire, where he passed his time
in tranquillity, earnestly praying, it is said, for the restora¬
tion of the royal family, and resolved to seize the first op¬
portunity which offered to contribute towards its accom¬
plishment. Accordingly, when General Monk inyited him
to assist in the operations about to be undertaken against
Lambert’s army, he promptly obeyed the call, and on the
3d December 1659 appeared at the head of a body of York¬
shire gentlemen ; and such was the influence of his name
and reputation, that the Irish brigade, consisting of twelve
hundred horse, quitted Lambert’s colours and joined him;
an event which was speedily followred by the breaking up
of all Lambert’s forces. On the 1st January 1660 he made
himself master of York, and on the 2d he was chosen by
the Rump Parliament, one of the council of state, an ap¬
pointment which was renew ed on the 23d of February en-
480
F airford
Fairv.
F A I
suing. On the 29th of March he was elected one of the
knights of the county of York in the healing parliament;
and he was put at the head of the commission appointed by
the House of Commons, on the 3d of May, to wait upon
Charles II. at the Hague, and urge his speedy return.
After the dissolution of the healing parliament, which w-as
of short duration, he again retired to his seat in the coun¬
try, where he lived, in a manner strictly private, till his
death, which happened on the 12th of November 1671, in
the sixtieth year of his age. In person Lord Fairfax was
tall, but of a gloomy and melancholy disposition. He was,
however, of a meek and humble demeanour, and of few
words in discourse or council; but wrhen his judgment had
once been satisfied, he remained unalterable, and frequent¬
ly acted in opposition to the opinions of his council. His va-
lour was unquestionable, though not of a cool and steady, but
rather of a passionate and excited kind; in battle he seem¬
ed transported beyond himself, and appeared like one dis¬
tracted and furious. In a word, Fairfax would have been
considered as the greatest of the parliamentary command¬
ers, had not his exploits been eclipsed by the more bril¬
liant achievements of Cromwell; and he would have, been
thought one of the greatest heroes of the rebellion, it the
extreme narrowness of his genius in every thing but war
had not disqualified him for shining as a statesman.
Lord Fairfax had some taste for literature, and both at
York and at Oxford endeavoured to save the libraries from
pillage. He also presented twenty-nine ancient manuscripts
to the Bodleian library, including a beautiful one of Gow¬
er’s Confessio Amantis. Lord Orford has introduced him
not only as an historian, but as a poet, among his royal
and noble authors ; and in Thoresby’s Museum the follow¬
ing pieces were preserved in manuscript, viz. 1. the Psalms
of David; 2. the Song of Solomon; 3. the Canticles; 4.
Songs of Moses, and other parts of Scripture, versified ; 5.
a Poem on Solitude ; 6. Notes of Sermons ; and 7. a Trea¬
tise on the Shortness of Life. But of all his productions,
the most curious was a copy of verses written on the horse
which Charles II. rode at his coronation, and which had
been bred and presented to the king by his lordship; a
strange tribute, no doubt, from the veteran hero of repub¬
licanism and the covenant. Besides these, several of his
manuscripts are preserved in the library at Denton, of
which a list has been published in Park’s edition of Lord
Orford’s Royal and Noble Authors.
FAIRFORD, a market-town of Gloucestershire, in the
hundred of Brightwalls Barrow, 80 miles from London.
It is situated on the small river Coin, at its junction with
the Thames, over which are two bridges. The church is a
remarkably fine Gothic structure, erected about the year
1470 by an individual; and the painted window, said to
have been captured by a ship belonging to the founder,
a merchant of London, is highly beautiful. It is about
three miles from the Thames and Severn Canal, by which
some trade is carried on in coals, salt, and other heavy
goods. The market is held on Thursday. The population
amounted in 1801 to 1326, in 1811 to 1444, in 1821 to
1547, and in 1831 to 1574.
FAIRY, in ancient traditions and romances, signifies a
sort of sprite, or imaginary genius, of this lower sphere,
and distinguished by a variety of fantastical actions either
good or bad.
Fairies were commonly imagined to be women of an order
superior to human nature, yet subject to wants, passions,
accidents, and even death; sprightly and benevolent
whilst young and handsome; morose, peevish, and malig¬
nant, if ugly, or in the decline of their beauty; and fond
of appearing in white, from which circumstance they were
often called the White Ladies.
Concerning these iiflaginary beings, Jervaise of Tille-
F A I
berry, marshal of the kingdom of Arles, who lived in the Fain-
beginning of the thirteenth century, writes thus in a work the M;
inscribed to the Emperor Otho IV.:—“ It has been as- tl
serted by persons of unexceptionable credit, that fairies
used to choose themselves gallants from among men, and
rewarded their attachment with an affluence of worldly
goods ; but if they married, or boasted of a fairy’s favours,
they as severely smarted for such indiscretion.” Similar
tales still were current in Languedoc; and throughout
the whole province there was not a village without some
ancient seat or cavern which had the honour of being a
fairy’s residence, or at least some spring in which a fairy
used to lave its tiny form. This idea of fairies has a near
affinity with that of the Greeks and Romans concerning
the nymphs of the woods, mountains, and springs; and
an ancient scholiast on Theocritus says, that “ the nymphs
are demons which appear on the mountains in the figure
of women.” The Arabs and other orientals have also
their Peris, of whom they entertain notions somewhat
similar to those held in the west respecting fairies.
But fairies have likewise been described as of either
sex, and generally as of small stature, though capable of
assuming various forms and dimensions. The most charm¬
ing representation of these children of romantic fancy is
to be found in the Midsummer Night's Bream, in referring
to which we no doubt have been already anticipated by
the recollection of the reader.
Fairy of the Mine, an imaginary being, an inhabitant
of mines. The Germans believed in two species: one
fierce and malevolent; the other a gentle race, appearing
as little old men dressed like the miners, and not much
above two feet in height. These sprites wander about
the drifts and chambers of the works; seem perpetually
employed, yet do nothing ; and appear to cut the ore, or
fling what is cut into vessels, or turn the windlass; but
never do any harm to the miners, unless provoked. Such
is the relation of Agricola, in his book Be Animantibus
Subterraneis.
Fairy Circle, or Ring, a phenomenon pretty frequent in
the fields, and supposed by the vulgar to have been traced
by the fairies in their dances. There are two kinds of fairy
ring: one of about seven yards in diameter, containing a
round bare path, about a foot broad, with green grass in
the middle of it; and another of difiPerent dimensions, en¬
compassed with a circumference ol grass. Jessop and
Walker, in the Philosophical Transactions, ascribe these
rings to lightning; and this is thought to be confirmed
by their being most frequently produced after thunder
storms, as well as by the colour and brittleness ot the
grass-roots when first observed. Lightning, like all other
fires, moves round, and burns more in the extremity than
in the middle; and the second circle arises from the first,
as the grass burnt up grows very plentifully afterwards.
But others maintain that these circles are formed by ants,
which are frequently found in great numbers therein.
Mr Cavallo, in his Treatise on Electricity, does not think
that lightning is at all concerned in the formation of them.
“ They are not,” says he, “ always of a circular figure;
and, as I am informed, they seem to be rather beds o
mushrooms than the efl’ects of lightning.”
FAITH, in Theology, that assent which we give to a
proposition advanced by another, the truth of which we
do not immediately perceive from our own reason or ex¬
perience; or it is a judgment or assent of the mind, the
motive of which is not so much any intrinsic evidence, as
the authority or testimony of some other who reveals or re¬
lates it. Hence, as there are two kinds of authorities an
testimonies, the one of God and the other of man, fait i
becomes distinguished into divine and human. Divine
faith is that founded on the authority of God; or it is
F A H
that assent which we give to what is revealed by God.
The objects of this faith, therefore, are matters of revela¬
tion. Human faith is that by which we believe what is
told us by men; and its object is matter of human testi¬
mony and evidence.
Faith, in practical theology, constitutes the first of the
theological virtues or graces.
Faith in God, in this sense, denotes such a conviction
of his being, perfections, character, and government, as
produces love, trust, worship, obedience, and resignation.
Faith in Christ, as it has been defined by some theolo¬
gians, is a mere assent to the gospel as true; but accord¬
ing to others, it signifies such a persuasion that he is the
Messiah, and such a desire and expectation of the bles¬
sings which he has promised in his gospel to his sincere
disciples, as engage the mind to fix its dependence upon
him, and to subject itself to him in holy obedience. Faith
likewise, in respect of futurity, is a moral principle, im¬
plying such a conviction of the reality and importance of
a future state, as is sufficient to regulate the etmper and
conduct in the affairs of this life.
FAITHORN, William, an ingenious English artist, a
native of London, was the disciple of Peak the painter,
with whom he worked three or four years. At the break¬
ing out of the civil war, Peak espoused the cause of his
sovereign; and Faithorn, who accompanied his master,
was taken prisoner by the rebels at Baringhouse, whence
he was sent to London, and confined in Aldersgate. In
this uncomfortable situation he exercised his graver; and
a small head of the first Villiers, Duke of Buckingham, in
the style of Melan, is reckoned as one of his performances
at this period. The solicitations of his friends in his fa¬
vour at last prevailed ; and he wras released from prison,
with permission to retire to the Continent. In France he
found encouragement and protection from the Abbe de
Marolles; and it was at this time that he formed an ac¬
quaintance with Nanteuil, from whose instructions he de¬
rived very considerable advantage. About the year 1650
he returned to England, and soon afterwards married the
sister of a Captain Ground, by whom he had two sons,
Henry, who became a bookseller, and William, an engraver
in mezzotinto. Faithorn opened a shop near Temple-Bar,
where he sold not only his own engravings, but those of
other English artists, and imported a considerable num¬
ber of prints from Holland, France, and Italy. About the
)ear 1680 he retired from his shop, and resided in Print¬
ing-House Tard; but he still continued to work for the
booksellers, especially Royston, Martin, and Peak the
younger, his former master’s brother. He painted por-
tiaits from the life in crayons, an art which he had learn¬
ed of Nanteuil during his abode in France; he also paint¬
ed in miniature; and his performances in both these styles
were much esteemed. But his spirits were broken by
t ie indiscretion and dissipation of his son William ; and
a mgering consumption put an end to his life in 1691.
e wrote a book Upon Drawing, Graving, and Etching,
oi which he wms highly commended by his friend Tho¬
mas Flatman the poet.
FAKENHAM, a market-town of Norfolk, in the hun-
,le of Gallon, 109 miles from London. It is situated in
an open district, but fertile, especially in wheat and bar-
oy, with a large corn market on Thursday, but little other
r^a e, since the spinning of worsted has been performed by
acnneiy. The river Var runs near it towards Lynn,
je c lurch is a very handsome building. The population
mounts m 1801 to 1236, in 1811 to 1382, in 1821 to
and in 1831 to 2077.
of wh °r ^KEEP'S’ In(Fan monks or friars, some
cient 0In, ex?eed In severities and mortifications the an-
Vol3 i °riteS °r so^tar*es’ though the greater part are
F A L 481
and”vagrbho° dTfr C'’araCter in °rder t0 PaSS an idIe
j'ALAISE, an arrondissement of the department of Falconer.
Ca yados, in France, extending over 336 square miles. It   
divided into five cantons, and these again into 142 com-
munes, containing 71,500 inhabitants. The capital is the
city of the same name, situated on the river Ante. It is
we] bmlt, and contains 13,960 inhabitants, who are occu¬
pied in making serges, linen, thread-lace, cotton goods,
leather, and cutlery, and in distilling brandy. This place
gave birth, in the year 1027, to William the Conqueror,
m Hie castle, the ruins of which are among the finest re¬
mains of antiquity in France. Long. 0. 10. W Lat 48
45. N.
F ALASIIA, a people of Abyssinia, described by Bruce,
and supposed to be of Hebrew origin. According to the
leceived accounts, the Falasha are the descendants of
those Jews who went from Palestine into Ethiopia, as at¬
tendants of Menilek, the son of the queen of Sheba or
Saba by Solomon. But the language of this people is very
different from the Hebrew, Samaritan, or any other which
the Jews ever spoke in their own country. On beino- in¬
terrogated concerning it by Bruce, they said that itVas
probably one of the dialects spoken by the nations on the
Red Sea, among whom they had settled at the period of
their first emigration.
EWLCADE, in the manege, the motion of a horse
when he throws himself upon his haunches two or three
times, as in very quick curvets, which is done in forming
a stop and half stop.
FALCATED, something in the form of a sickle. Thus,
the moon is said to be falcated when she appears horned.
FALCO, the eagle and hawk. See Ornithology.
FALCON, a name bestowed on various birds of prey,
but chiefly on such as are serviceable to man for the pur¬
suit of game. See Ornithology Index.
F'ALCONER, William, a poet of considerable eminence,
born at Edinburgh about the year 1730, was the son of a poor
but industrious barber, all of w hose children, except the sub¬
ject of the present notice, were either deaf or dumb. William
appears to have passed but a short period at school, where he
received the scanty education required to qualify him for
an inferior employment; yet he is believed to have con¬
tracted a taste for reading, and a desire for higher attain¬
ments than his circumstances permitted him to aspire to.
At an early age he was entered as an apprentice on board
a merchant-vessel belonging to Leith ; and Dr Currie men¬
tions, on the authority of a naval surgeon, that he after¬
wards served as a common sailor on board the ship of which
Campbell, author of Lexiphanes, was purser, and attracted
the notice of that individual by indications of talent which
were deemed by him worthy of cultivation. How long he
continued in this humble capacity is not known; but by
some friendly intervention, he was appointed second mate
of a vessel called the Britannia, employed in the Levant
trade, which, however, was wrecked during her passage from
Alexandria to Venice, and only three of the crew, including
Falconer, saved. This event, the date of which has not been
ascertained, appears to have made a deep impression on his
mind, and probably suggested the idea of his poem entitled
The Shipwreck, on which his reputation chiefly rests. The
first essays of his muse attracted little attention, and were pro¬
bably commonplace enough; though, if Clarke be right in the
opinion that he was the author of “ Cease, rude Boreas,” an
exception must, of course, be made in favour of that popular
song. Falconer is supposed to have continued in the merchant
service until the spring of 1762, when he recommended
himself to the notice of Edward Duke of York, by the de¬
dication of The Shipwreck, and enlisted his royal highness
amongst the number of his admirers and patrons. Desirous
3 p
482
F A L
F A L
Falconer.
to place him in a situation where he could be befriended,
the duke advised him to enter the navy; and before the end
of summer, he was rated as midshipman on board the Koya
George. But as this ship was paid off at the peace of i7bd,
and as Falconer’s period of service had been far too short
to enable him to obtain the commission of lieutenant, ne
was advised to exchange the military for the civil depart¬
ment of the navy; and, in the course of the same year, he
received an appointment as purser of the Glory frigate, a
situation which he held until that vessel was laid up m or¬
dinary at Chatham. Being thus once more left without
professional employment, he devoted his leisure to literary
pursuits. In 1764, he published a new edition of Ike
Shipwreck, in 8vo, corrected and enlarged; and the to -
lowing year appeared The Demagogue, a political satire,
intended as a sort of antidote to the writings of Wilkes and
Churchill, but much more remarkable for virulence than
wit. His time, however, was chiefly occupied with the com¬
pilation of an Universal Marine Dictionary, a work much
wanted, and which, when brought outm 1769, was received
with general approbation. Before this period he appears
to have left his retreat at Chatham for an abode of a less
comfortable kind in the metropolis, where, depressed by
poverty, that evil-spirit which tracks the footsteps of genius,
he subsisted for a time on various resources. But, in the
midst of his difficulties, when his situation had become truly
distressing, he received an appointment to the pursership
of the Aurora frigate, which had been commissioned to
carry out to India Messieurs Vansittart, Scrof ton, and Foi de,
as supervisors of the Company’s affairs; and he was also
promised the office of private secretary to these function¬
aries. From this favourable turn of fortune the friends of
the poet, whilst they rejoiced in the present relief which it
afforded, conceived him in a fair way eventually to realize
a competent independence; but dis aliter visum, 1 rovidence
had decreed it otherwise. The Aurora sailed from England
on the 30th September 1769, and after touching at the
Cape of Good Hope, was never more heard of; she was
supposed to have foundered in the Mozambique Channel,
but not a trace remained by which the cause of the cala¬
mity could be discovered, or even conjectured.
Besides the productions already mentioned, Falconer
was the author of several pieces, the most considerable of
which are an Ode on the Duke of York’s second departure
from England as rear-admiral, and a Poem on the death of
Frederick, Prince of Wales. But as these and similar effu¬
sions could never have survived the occasion which pro¬
duced them, his fame as a poet must entirely rest on The
Shipwreck, which, with all its faults, has a fair chance of
immortality, appealing, as it does, directly to the feelings of
one class of men, and indirectly to the natural sympathies
of all. There is a warmth in its colouring, and a reality in
its descriptions, which strongly impress the minds particu¬
larly of youth, and, notwithstanding the didactic character
pf the poem, sustain its interest, and enliven even the duller
parts by a sort of reflected radiance. Natural feeling, na¬
tural imagery, and natural truth, are expressed in natural
language, which, if it never rises to a great elevation, seldom
sinks below the dignity of the subject, and is throughout
animated by a glow of feeling which awakens a kindred
emotion in the breast of the reader. Falconer has no strik¬
ing outbursts of genius; he does not aspire to produce a
great effect by a few bold touches, or the rapid and mas¬
terly grouping of appalling or horrible circumstances. He la¬
bours in detail, bringing before us, without apparent effort,
the events as they arise, and conducting us with an interest
constantly increasing towards the catastrophe. He paints
with minute fidelity as well as picturesque effect; but it is
from the general result, rather than from any portion or
portions of the work considered separately, that the talents
of the artist should be judged. Such a tremendous picture
of shipwreck as that which Byron has, in wild sportiveness,
thrown out inDon Juan, immeasurably transcends the powers
of Falconer, and indeed stands alone in its terrible sublimity;s
but, on the other hand, the latter, by the careful elaboration
of natural circumstances, and the general truth of his deli¬
neation, ultimately impresses the mind of the reader, if not
with such vivid force, perhaps with even more enduring
effect. Of the didactic merits of the poem, nautical men,
who are necessarily the most competent judges in this par¬
ticular, have spoken in terms of high commendation; and
it has even been said that the rules and maxims therein
delivered for the management of a ship in a perilous emer¬
gency are the very best which a practical mariner could
adopt. But in our estimation this forms one of the prin¬
cipal defects of the poem considered as such, though it fell
in with the spirit of the time when The Shipivreck was
produced, and may still recommend it to sailors; nor by
ordinary readers, who cannot understand or appreciate this
sort of instruction, is it likely to be viewed in any other
light than hs an incumbrance to the march of the narrative
and the progression of events.
FALCONRY, a field sport considered as of high im¬
portance in former ages, though greatly fallen into disuse
in recent times. See Falcon in Ornithology Index.
FALKIRK, a town of Scotland, in the county of Stir¬
ling. It is beautifully situated on the face of an emi¬
nence which overlooks the wdde expanse of country call¬
ed the Carse of Falkirk, and consists of one broad street,
with a number of narrow streets and lanes branching oft
from it, or running parallel to it. The houses are in gene¬
ral lofty and well built; and the High Street is ornament¬
ed by a spire and clock of modern erection. Besides
the parish church, there are a number of meeting-houses
for dissenters. Several fine villas have recently been built
towards the north of the towm, and form a handsome con¬
tinuation of it, uniting it with the villages of Graham-
stone and Bainsford. Falkirk enjoys considerable trade;
but the only manufacture carried on is one of leather.
The inland trade constitutes the support of the town, the
populous neighbourhood being supplied by it with most
of the necessaries of life. The Carron iron-works, which
are very extensive, are situated about two miles north of
the town, and the numerous individuals there employed
make Falkirk their general market. There are also some
extensive coal-works, distilleries, malt-w^orks, and flour¬
mills, in the immediate neighbourhood; and brewing is
carried on to some extent, balkirk is thus calculated to
be a commercial depot for a population amounting to
nearly thirty thousand individuals. The town is chiefly
noted for its three great cattle markets or trysts, held an¬
nually in August and the two following months, these
markets are considered as amongst the largest in urea
Britain, and to them a vast quantity of live stock °f e^ry
description is brought. The traffic carried on in ir
is assisted by branches of the Bank of Scotland and Com
mercial Banking Company. It was at one time a burgi
of barony under the earls of Linlithgow; but since ie
fall of that family, and the abolition of the heritable ju
risdictions, it has possessed no form of municipal §0^elT
ment. The affairs of the town are administered by a bo y
of stent-masters, chosen by the different trades. A justice
of-peace court is held on the first Monday of every mon
Falkirk is a town of considerable antiquity, and appc®
to have been a place of some note in the early part o
eleventh century. Its original name was Lghs rc >
which signifies the “ speckled church,” in allusion,1
supposed, to the colour of the stones, and transla e j
Buchanan variwn sacellum. The old church, wine
demolished in 1810, was erected in 1057, the yea
Fait cj
Fait k
F A L
nd which Malcolm Ceanmore assumed the sovereignty. The
new church, which was built upon the site of the old one,
lf in front of the town, is a very plain edifice, with an an-
cient spire attached to it. In the neighbourhood of this
' town was fought a celebrated battle between the Scotch
and English, during the period when Edward I. of Eng¬
land attempted to usurp the sovereignty of Scotland. The
Scotch, under Cuming of Badenoch and the renowned Sir
William Wallace, were worsted, and two Scottish chiefs,
Sir John Graham and Sir John Stewart, fell in the con¬
flict. Their graves are still pointed out in the church¬
yard ; and over the former a monument was erected with
an inscription, which has been from time to time renew¬
ed. A second battle was fought here on the 17th of
January 1746, between the royalists and the insurgents
under Prince Charles Edward Stuart. The population of
Falkirk, in 1821, amounted to 4000, and in 1831, including
the parish, to 12,743. It is at the distance of twenty-four
miles from Edinburgh, and twenty-two from Glasgow.
FALKLAND, a small town of Scotland, in the county
of Fife, and the chief place of a parish of the same name.
It is situated in rather a secluded part of the district, some
miles west from the great thoroughfare through the coun¬
ty. It consists of a single street, broad and spacious at the
east end, but insignificant at the opposite extremity, with
several cross lanes. The houses are in many cases cover¬
ed with thatch, and of an antique and primitive appear¬
ance. The chief occupation here is weaving; but there is
little or no traffic of any kind. The principal attraction in
Falkland is the royal palace, originally a stronghold be¬
longing to the Macduflfs, earls of Fife. On the attainder of
Munro Stewart, the seventeenth earl, it became forfeited
to the crown in 1424. James V. who was very fond of the
place, enlarged and improved it. The remains evince its
former magnificence and elegance, and the fine taste of
the princely architect. The gateway is placed between two
fine round towers, and on the right hand adjoins the chapel,
whose roof is of wood, handsomely gilt and painted, but
in a most ruinous condition. Beneath are several apart¬
ments. The front next to the court was beautifully
adorned with statues, heads in bas-relief, and elegant
columns not reducible to any order, but of fine propor¬
tion, with capitals approaching the Ionic scroll. Beneath
some of these pillars was inscribed I. R. M. G. 1537, or Ja¬
cobus Rex, Maria de Guise. This place was also a favourite
residence of James Yl. on account of the fine park and
abundance of deer. The east side was accidentally burnt
in the time of Charles II. and the park ruined during
Cromwell’s usurpation, when the fine oaks were cut down
in order to build a fort at Perth. There are various his¬
torical associations connected with Falkland. In a dun¬
geon of the original castle, which is supposed to have con¬
stituted the north side of the court-yard of the palace,
Robert, Duke of Rothesay, brother of James I. was ataasit
to death by his uncle Albany. Falkland was erected into a
burgh by James II. in 1458 ; and in 1595 James YL re-
i newed and confirmed its charter. The population of the
place amounted in 1821 to 1050, and in 1831 to 2658.
Falkland, Lord. See Carey.
FALL, the descent of a heavy body towards the centre
of the earth. It is also the name of a measure of length
used in Scotland, containing six ells.
Fall of Man, in sacred history, that memorable event
by which sin and death were introduced into the world.
I he account which Moses has given of this transaction is
extremely concise ; and hence several learned men, find¬
ing a difficulty in interpreting his statement, have been
inclined to believe that all which is contained in Scripture
on the subject ought to be taken in an allegorical sense,
and not according to the strictness of the letter. They
F A L 483
allege that the ancients, particularly the eastern nations, Fallopian
lad two different ways of delivering their divinity and phi- Tubes
losophy, one popular, and the other mysterious; that the ^ II
Scripture uses both occasionally, sometimes accommodat-
ing itself to the capacities of the people, and at other times Y
to the real but more veiled truth ; and that, to obviate the
many difficulties which occur in the literal history of this
sad catastrophe, the safest way is to understand it as a
parabolical story, under which the real circumstances are
disguised and concealed, as a mystery not fit to be more
explicitly declared.
FALLING Sickness, or Epilepsy. See Medicine.
Falling-Stars. See Star.
FALLOPIAN Tubes, \n Anatomy, two ducts arising
from the womb, one on each side of the fundus, and thence
extending to the ovaria, and which have a considerable
share in conception. They are called tuba:, from their
form, which bears some resemblance to a trumpet; and
their denomination of Fallopian they derive from Gab¬
riel Fallopius, by whom they were first discovered.
FALLOPIUS, or Falloppio, Gabriel, a celebrated
anatomist and surgeon of the sixteenth century, was born
at Modena in 1523. Although he taught anatomy with
great distinction, and enjoyed an immense reputation, the
details of his life are not exactly known, and have been va¬
riously related by different biographers ; some, as Tomma-
sini and Ghilini, fixing his birth in 1490, which is a mani¬
fest error, refuted by Fallopius himself; and others, again,
contending that he was the disciple of Vesale, although
Martine and Haller attest the contrary. But be this as it
may, F'allopius made great progress in medical study, first
at Ferrara under Antonio Musa Brassavola, and afterwards
at Padua. For a time, indeed, he possessed a canonry in
the cathedral of Modena; but he soon renounced this func¬
tion, which prevented him from indulging his taste for dis¬
section. After having taught anatomy for some months in
the university of Ferrara, and during three years in that of
Pisa, he was chosen by the senate of Venice, in 1551, to
fill the chair of anatomy and surgery at Padua. Fie was,
besides, entrusted with the demonstration of medicinal
plants, and the inspection of the botanic garden, which he
enriched with several vegetables collected during his tra¬
vels in Italy, France, and Greece. But whilst discharging
with equal zeal and distinction the various duties which
these functions imposed upon him, his career was sud¬
denly arrested by death, on the 9th of October 1562, be¬
fore he had attained the fortieth year of his age. Fallo¬
pius only published a single work, which is not volumi¬
nous, but full of curious facts and useful discoveries ; it is
entitled Observationes Anatomicce, Venice, 1561, in 8vo,
also, Padua, 1562, Paris, 1562, Cologne, 1562, Helmstadt,
1588; and certainly forms an epoch in the annals of ana¬
tomical science. It is the first work, indeed, in which
we find the exact osteology and augiology of the foetus;
notions perfectly sound in regard to the epiphyses; and a
luminous description of the delicate and complicated organ
of hearing. The illustrious author clearly makes known
the cochlea, the demi-circular canals, and the tortuous ca¬
nal, which still bears the name of Fallopius. He describes,
with a care formerly unknown, the ethmoid and sphenoid
bones, the alveolar processes in which the teeth are encased,
and the arteries, with the veins and nerves connected with
them. He has likewise bequeathed his name to the ligament
which runs from the anterior point of the ileon to the sym¬
physis pubis. He points out, sometimes individually, at
other times with more of method and detail, the occipital,
palatine, laryngian, pharyngian, and pyramidal muscles of
the abdomen ; also the auricular, ocular, and facial mus¬
cles ; together with the elevator of the eyebrow, and the
sphincter of the bladder. Less profound in the knowledge
484 F A L
Falmouth of the vessels, he nevertheless enriched that portion of an¬
il thropotomy. Before his time anatomists had the most
Fa Is ter- confused and inaccurate ideas respecting the sinus of the
spinal marrow, the carotid, meningean, and ethmoidal arte¬
ries, the jugular and vertebral veins, and the origin of the
artery of the penis. Nor was neurology less indebted to
the researches of Fallopius, who discovered the fourth pair
of nerves, enumerated the three branches of the fifth, and
completed the description of the eighth. Lastly, he car¬
ried the same critical spirit into splanchnology in general,
over which he diffused much light, particularly in regard
to the different sets of apparatus for secreting the bile, the
urine, and the semen ; and he also traced an excellent de¬
scription of the clitoris, of the round ligaments, and of the
extremities of the womb. To this enumeration of the ana¬
tomical labours of Fallopius it may be added, that he was
powerfully seconded in his efforts by the principal men of
the state. The protection afforded him by the grand duke
of Tuscany was carried a length which may probably strike
our readers with horror : Princeps jubet ut nobis dent homi-
F A M
FALU, one of the provinces of northern Sweden. It is y
bounded on the north by Flernosand, on the east by Gefle-
borg, on the south-east by Wastera, on the south by Ore- F* •
bro, on the south-west by Carlstadt, and on the west by J
Norway. It extends over 12,980 square miles, compre¬
hends three cities, one market-town, and 1747 insulated
establishments, and contains 124,816 inhabitants. The
province is generally mountainous, the highest points ris¬
ing to about 4000 feet above the level of the sea. Some
agriculture is practised in the southern part, and rye, bar¬
ley, and oats are grown; but in the north nothing is to be
seen except barren wastes. There are annually upwards of
2000 head of cattle brought from other parts to supply the
few inhabitants who can afford to indulge in their flesh.
The chief products are wood, potash, pitch, and tar from the
soil, and iron, copper, and porphyry from the mines.
Falu, a town of Sweden, the capital of the province of
that name. It is situated between the lakes Warpen and
Runn, on a river which flows from one to the other. It
is an ancient town, containing chiefly wooden houses to the
Viem auem nostro modo interjicimus, et ilium anatomisamus. number of 1135, and 4709 inhabitants, who chiefly find
The unfortunate men here alluded to were no doubt crimi- employment in the mines around them, but in some degree
nals ; yet it is impossible to avoid being shocked beyond from various manufactures. Long. 15. 29. 34. L. Lat. 60.
expression by the perusal of these words. The lectures of 35. 49. N. - „ , , ,
Fallopius were published, after his death, by several of his FAM A Clamosa, in the judicial procedure of the church
disciples ; but none of the latter seems to have performed of Scotland, a ground of action before a presbytery against
this task in a manner either creditable to himself or worthy one of its members, independently of. any regular complaint
of the crreat teacher of anatomy by whom they were de- by a particular accuser.
livered. Any Person who is of g00(* character may prefer to the
FALMOUTH, a sea-port of the county of Cornwall, presbytery a complaint against one of their members; but
in the hundred of Kerriar, 273 miles from London, at the the presbytery is bound not to proceed to the citation of the
snot where the river Fale falls into the sea. It has risen person accused, until the accuser under his hand shall give
to importance from the excellence of its harbour, which inthecomplaint, with some account of its probability, and un¬
is capable of containing large fleets of heavy ships in per- dertake to make out the libel, under the pain of being con-
• 1 ^ ’ ’ ' 1 sidered as a slanderer. But when such an accusation is
brought before them, they are obliged to examine or try
the case. Besides this, however, the presbytery considers
itself obliged to proceed against any of its members, if a
feet security ; though difficult to get out of when the wind
is easterly, and consequently fair for the passage across
the Atlantic. The Lisbon packets sail regularly from
this port, and at one period a beneficial trade was exten¬
sively carried on by them. Falmouth has now a considera- fama clamosa of the scandal is such that the person impli-
' ' ’ ' cated cannot be vindicated unless they begin the process.
This they can do without any particular accuser, after they
have inquired respecting the origin, occasion, and authors of
this report. It is a maxim in the kirk of Scotland, that religion
must suffer if the scandalous or immoral actions of a mini¬
ster are not corrected ; and wherever a minister is reputed
guilty of any immorality, although previously the most
popular preacher in the kingdom, none almost will attend
upon his ministry. Therefore the presbytery, for the sake
of religion, is obliged to proceed against a minister in case
of a, fama clamosa. This, however, is generally done with
great tenderness. After they have considered the report
raised against him, they then order him to be cited, and
draw out a full copy of what is reported, with a list of the
names of the witnesses to be produced for proving the
allegation. He is then formally summoned to appear be¬
fore them ; and he has notice served upon him, at least ten
days before the time of his appearance, to give in his answers
to what is termed the libel. If at the time appointed t e
minister appear, the libel is read to him, and his answers are
also read. If the libel be found relevant, then the pres¬
bytery endeavours to bring him to a confession. If a ml
ble trade in the pilchard fishery. Near to it is Pendennis
Castle, one of the defences of the harbour, built in the
reign of Henry VIII., improved by Elizabeth, and greatly
strengthened by Cromwell. It was occupied as a prison
for Americans captured at the early stages of the war
with the colonies in 1776. There are markets on Tues¬
day, Thursday, and Saturday. The population amounted
in 1801 to 4849, in 1811 to 5307, in 1821 to 6374, and in
1831 to 7284.
FALSE, in general, something contrary to truth, right,
or justice. Thus, we say a false action, false weights, false
claim, and the like.
FALSI Crimen, in the civil law, is fraudulent suborna¬
tion or concealment, with design to darken or hide the
truth, and make things appear otherwise than they are.
The crimen falsi is committed, first, by w ords, as when a
witness swears falsely; secondly, by writing, as when a
man antedates a contract, or the like ; and thirdly, by deed,
as when he sells by false weights and measures.
FALSIFY, in Law, is used for proving any thing to be
false. Hence we find falsifying a record for showing it
to be erroneous.
FALSTER, an island in the Baltic, forming a part of nister absent himself by leaving the place, and prove con-
the kingdom of Denmark. It is separated from Zealand tumacious, without making any relevant excuse, a new ci
by the Gaade Sound, from Langeland by Guldborg Sound, tation is given him, and intimation is made at his own
and from Moen by Green Sound. In extent it is 184 square church w hen the congregation is met, that he is to be o .
miles, and contains 16,500 inhabitants, in two cities and den as confessed, since he refused to appear before them,
thirty parishes. Its produce of corn exceeds its consump- and accordingly he is deposed from his office,
tion; and it assists other parts of the kingdom with some FAME, a heathen goddess, celebrated chiefly by ^
supplies of butter, meal, live cattle, and fruit. The chief poets. She is feigned to have been the last of tne race
town is Mykopping, on Guldborg Sound. Titians produced by the earth, to have had her palace
FAN
Fs
Far
i the air, and to have possessed a vast number of eyes, ears,
and tongues. She is mentioned by Hesiod, and particular-
s- ly described by both Virgil and Ovid.
'J FAMIA, or Famieh, a town of Syria, the ancient Apa-
mea. Here, under the rule of the Seleucidae, was a school
and nursery for cavalry, where 30,000 horses and 500 ele¬
phants were fed. There are now only a few buffaloes and
sheep. It is thirty miles north of Damascus. Long. 36.
43. E. Lat. 35. N.
FAMILIARS of the Inquisition, persons who assist in
apprehending such as are accused, and carrying them to
prison. They are assistants to the inquisitor, and called
familiars, because they belong to his family. In some pro¬
vinces of Italy they were called cross-bearers, in others the
scholars of St Peter the Martyr; and they wore a cross in
front on the outside of the garment. They are properly
bailiffs of the inquisition ; and the office is esteemed so ho¬
nourable, that in Portugal noblemen have been ambitious of
belonging to it.
FAMILY denotes the persons who live together in one
house, under the direction of one head or chief manager.
It also signifies the kindred or lineage of a person ; and is
used by old writers to indicate a hide or portion of land
sufficient to maintain one family.
Family, in Natural History, a term used to express any
order of animals, or other natural productions, which exhi¬
bit certain affinities, or the same characters.
Family Islands, a cluster of small islands near the
north-east coast of New Holland, and twelve miles north¬
west of Cape Sandwich.
FAN, a machine employed to produce coolness by agi¬
tating the air. That the use of the fan was known to the
ancients is very evident from what Terence says :
Cape hoc flabellum, et ventulum huic sic facito ;
and also from the words of Ovid,
Profuit et tenues ventos movisse flabello.
The fans of the ancients were made of various mate¬
rials; but the most elegant were composed of peacocks’
feathers, or perhaps painted so as to represent these.
In the Greek church, a fan is put into the hands of the
deacons in the ceremony of their ordination, in allusion to
a part of the deacon’s office in that church, which is to keep
the flies oft’ the priests during the celebi'ation of the sacra¬
ment.
What is called a fan amongst us is a thin skin, or piece
of paper, taffety, or other light stuff, cut semicircularly,
and mounted on several little sticks of wood, ivory, tor¬
toise-shell, or the like.
Fan is also an instrument used to winnow corn. The
machine employed for this purpose by the ancients seems
to have been of a form similar to ours. The fan, which
Virgil calls mystica vannus Inachi, was used at initiations
into the mysteries of the ancients. For as the persons who
were initiated into any of the mysteries required to be par¬
ticularly good, the instrument which separates the wheat
from the chaff was a fit emblem of setting apart the good
nnd virtuous from the vicious and useless part of mankind.
FANATICS, enthusiastic, visionary persons, who pre¬
tend to revelation and inspiration. The ancients called
thosewho passed their time in the^maor temples,
and being often seized with a kind of enthusiasm, as if in¬
spired by the divinity, showed wild and antic gestures.
rudentius represents them as cutting and slashing their
arms with knives.
FANCY. See Imagination.
• ^ANIONS, in the military art, small flags carried along
Wltp t^e baggage.
ANNERS, a machine for winnowing corn, or for sepa-
ra mg the chaff from the grain. See Agriculture.
fan 485
rvu, a city of the delegation Urbino, in the papal Fano
dominions, in Italy. It is situated on an arm of the river II
Metauro, on the sea shore, is surrounded with walls, and F’aushawe.
contains a cathedral, sixteen parish churches, nine monas- 
tenes, and five nunneries, a Targe opera house, and many
handsome private houses, with a population of 14,670 per¬
sons, who depend for subsistence on the various branches of
the silk trade, and on the fishery from its port. Lone. 12.
54. 33. E. Lat. 43. 51. N. 8
F AN SHAWL, Sir Richard, a distinguished cavalier
in the heroic age of the civil wars and the protectorate, was
the youngest son of Sir Henry Fanshawe, brother of Lord
Viscount Fanshawe of Dromore in Ireland, and born at
Ware-park, Hertfordshire, in June 1608. He had only-
attained his seventh year at the time of his father’s death',
when the care of his education devolved on his mother,
who placed him under the celebrated schoolmaster Thomas
Farnaby, and, in due time, sent him to Cambridge, where
he was admitted as a fellow-commoner of Jesus College in
November 1623. Having prosecuted his studies with suc¬
cess, and, in particular, discovered a taste for classical learn¬
ing, he was, in January 1626, removed to the Inner Temple;
but at his mother’s death, which happened soon afterwards,
he resolved to pursue a line of life more congenial to his
inclination, and, with this view, he visited France and
Spain, where, in the course of his travels, he acquired the
languages and studied the manners and institutions of those
countries. On his return to England he was appointed se¬
cretary of legation to the embassy at Madrid, whither he
immediately repaired, and was left as charge d’affaires at
the Spanish court from the time of Lord Aston’s resigna¬
tion till the appointment of Sir Arthur Hopton as his suc¬
cessor in 1638.
On the breaking out of the civil war, Fanshawe, being
then in England, declared at once for the king, and was
entrusted with several important employments. In 1644,
whilst attending the court at Oxford, he was made secre¬
tary to the Prince of Wales, whom he accompanied in his
expedition to the western parts of England, and thence to
the islands of Scilly and Jersey. In 1648, he was appointed
treasurer of the navy under Prince Rupert, an office which
he held till 1650, when he was created a baronet, and sent
to Madrid to represent the necessitous condition of the king
his master, and to implore assistance from Philip IV. Re¬
called to Scotland, where Charles II. had now made his
appearance, he served there in the capacity of secretary of
state, but without taking either the covenant or the engage¬
ment; and being recommended by the king to the York
party, he was received with great kindness by the latter,
and entrusted with the broad seal and signet. In 1651, Sir
Richard was taken prisoner at the battle of Worcester, con¬
veyed thence to London, and there committed to close cus¬
tody ; but having contracted a dangerous illness, he was libe¬
rated on giving bail to the amount of four thousand pounds,
chiefly, as would appear, through the intercession and influ¬
ence of Cromwell. In 1654, we find him at Tankerley-
park, which he had hired of his friend Lord Strafford, to whom
he dedicated his translation of the Lusiad of Camoens, writ¬
ten during his residence there. Early in 1659, he obtained
the discharge of his bail, on pretence of going abroad with
the eldest son of the Earl of Pembroke, and immediately
repaired to Breda, where Charles II. received him with
open arms, knighted him, and appointed him master of re¬
quests and Latin secretary.
On the restoration, Sir Richard expected, from a promise
w hich had been formerly made to him, to be appointed se¬
cretary of state ; but, through the paramount influence of
Monk, Duke of Albemarle, the office was conferred on a
creature of his own, Sir William Morrice. “ The king,”
says Lady Fanshawe, in her Memoirs, “ promised Sir Rich-
486
Fansbawe
F A 'N
ard that he should be one of the secretaries of state, in the
event of his restoration, and both the Duke ot Ormond and
Lord Chancellor Clarendon were witnesses to it; but that
false man (Monk) made the king break his word for his own
accommodation, and placed Mr Morrice, a poor country gen¬
tleman of about L.200 a year, a fierce presbytenan, and one
who never saw the king’s face ; but still promises were made
of the reversion to Sir. Richard.” In the parliament whic i
met on the 8th May 1661, he took his seat as one of the re¬
presentatives of the university of Cambridge, and was soon
afterwards sworn a privy counsellor for Ireland. He was
then sent as envoy extraordinary to Portugal; and being
shortly afterwards appointed ambassador to the couit o
that country, he negotiated the treaty of marriage between
Charles II. and the Infanta Donna Catharina, daughter ot
John VI. and returned to England towards the close ot the
year. In 1662 he was again sent as ambassador to the
court of Lisbon, and, on his return to England the follow¬
ing year, was sworn a member ot the privy council. Being
considered by the king of Portugal as the fittest person to
bring about an accommodation between that country and
Spain, Sir Richard was, in the beginning of 1664, sent as
ambassador to the court of Philip IV. by whom he was re¬
ceived with the most flattering marks of distinction, under
the impression, as appears, that he was authorized, on the
part of England, to give up Tangier and Jamaica to Spain.
The Spaniards, however, finding themselves disappointed
in this expectation, altered their tone ; and cordiality hav¬
ing given place to coldness and distrust, the ambassador
found himself exposed to frequent mortifications, and in¬
volved in the greatest perplexities. At the earnest desire
of Spain he had made a journey to Lisbon, for the purpose
of endeavouring to bring about an accommodation with
Portugal, but returned without effecting any thing. At
length, however, when the life of Philip IV. appeared to
be drawing towards a close, a project of a treaty, contain¬
ing greater commercial advantages, and insisting on fewer
inconvenient conditions, than any that had formerly been
proposed, was suddenly submitted to him, accompanied
with an urgent demand of immediate acceptance or re¬
jection, on account of the king’s illness, which, it was al¬
leged, might be followed by an entire change in the Spa¬
nish councils. In this emergency, the ambassador, after
comparing the project with his instructions, and suggesting
certain additions and modifications, which were agreed to,
consented to sign the treaty, to which was annexed a se¬
cret article respecting Portugal, and immediately transmit¬
ted it to England. But objections having been taken to it
in council, chiefly on the ground that the ambassador had
exceeded his pow ers, the king was advised to withhold his
ratification, and Sir Richard was in consequence recalled.
But whilst he was preparing to return home, he was, on
the 4th of June 1666, seized with a violent fever, which
put an end to his life, at Madrid, on the 16th of the same
month, the very day on which he had intended to take his
departure for England.
Sir Richard Fanshawe was married in Wolvercot church,
near Oxford, on the 18th May 1644, to a daughter of Sir
John Harrison, by whom he had six sons and eight daugh¬
ters, of whom only one son and four daughters survived
him. Lady Fanshawe was related to her husband, inas¬
much as her mother was daughter to Robert Fanshawe,
Esq. of Fanshawe-gate, grand-uncle to Sir Richard. She
is also the author of Memoirs which she composed for the
use of her only surviving son, and which, besides many traits
of natural feeling and noble sentiment, contain a very inte¬
resting account of the losses and sufferings of the Fanshawe
family in the royal cause, and more particularly of the pro¬
ceedings of her husband, Sir Richard, to whom she seems
to have been most affectionately attached, and of whom,
FAR
from the time of their marriage, she was the constant com- Fan
panion, amidst all the difficulties and perils of those troubled
times. For a very judicious and discriminating notice of Dk
these Memoirs the reader is referred to the Edinburgh Re- W
view (vol. 1. p. 75.)
Although much of Sir Richard Fanshawe’s life was spent
in active employment, he found leisure to produce the fol¬
lowing works : 1. An English translation, in verse, of Gua-
rini’s Pasto Fido, 1646, in 4to ; 2. A translation from
English into Latin verse of Fletcher’s Faithful Shep¬
herdess, 1658; 3. An Ode on the king’s proclamation in
1630, an English translation of the fourth book of the
ASneid, Odes of Horace translated into English, and a Dis¬
course of the Civil Wars of Rome, inserted in the octavo
edition of the Faithful Shepherdess; 4. A translation of
the Lusiad of Camoens, 1655, in folio ; 5. Two pieces, en¬
titled, Querer per solo querer, published after his decease,
1671, in 4to, and Fiestas de Aravjuez, both written by
Antonio de Mendoza in 1623, and translated into English
by Sir Richard in 1654; 6. Correspondence, entitled Ori¬
ginal Letters of his Excellency Sir Richard Fanshawe, dur¬
ing his Embassy in Spain and Portugal.
FANTASIA, in the Italian music, signifies/awcy, and
is used for a composition, in which the composer ties him¬
self to no particular time, but ranges according as his fancy,
amidst various movements and different airs, dictates.
This is also called the capricious style. Before sonatas
were used, many compositions of this kind appeared, some
of which even now remain.
FANUM, among the Romans, a temple or place con-
secrated to some deity. The deified men and women
among the heathens had likewise \\~\e\v fana; and Cicero
even erected one to his daughter Tullia.
FAR AH A, a town of Arabia, on the south coast of the
Persian Gulf, 200 miles east-south-east of El Catif. Long.
51. 30. E. Lat. 25. 7. N.
FARANDMAN, a traveller, or merchant stranger, to
whom, by the laws of Scotland, justice ought to be done
with all expedition, that his business or journey be not
hindered.
FARCE was originally a droll petty show or enter¬
tainment, exhibited by charlatans, and their buffoons, in
the open street, in order to gather the crowd together.
The word is French, and signifies, literally, forced meat
or stuffing. It was applied on this occasion on account
of the variety of jests, gibes, and tricks, with which the
entertainment was interlarded. Some authors derive the
word farce from the Latin facetia ; others from the Celtic
farce, mockery ; and others from the LoXm farcire, to stun.
Modern dramatists have reformed the wildness of the
primitive farces, and brought them to the taste and manner
of comedy. The difference between the two on our stage
is, that comedy keeps to nature and probability; whereas
farce disallows all laws, or rather upon occasion sets
them aside. Its end is purely to excite mirth; and i
sticks at nothing which may contribute thereto, however
wild and extravagant. Hence the dialogue is usua y
low, the persons of inferior rank, the fable or action tri¬
vial or ridiculous, and nature and truth everywhere neig -
tened and exaggerated, to afford the more palpable n i
cule. See Drama.
FARDAFOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the province
of Berar. The fort is of no strength. It is forty-three mi e
north-west of Jalnapoor. Long. 76.12. E. Lat. 20. • •
FAREHAM, a market-town of the county of boutn’
ampton, in the hundred of its own name, seventy'
miles from London. It stands nearly at the ea
Portsmouth harbour, and vessels of considerable ur
can discharge their cargoes there. It is resorted to in
summer for the purpose of sea-bathing. There is a
a
=: 'a
FAR
;11 poration who regulate the local business of the town. The
market is held on Wednesday. The inhabitants amounted
in 1801 to 3030, in 1811 to 3225, in 1821 to 3677, and in
'J 1831 to 4402.
FAREWELL Cape, on the north-west coast of Tavai
Poenammoo, the southern island of New' Zealand. Long.
186. W. Lat. 40. 33. S.
FARLEU, money paid by the tenants in the west of
England, in lieu of a heriot. But in some manors of De¬
vonshire, farleu is often distinguished as the best goods,
whilst heriot is the best beast, payable at the death of a
tenant.
FARM, Fakin, or Ferm (Firma), in Law, signifies
a little country messuage or district, containing house or
land, with other conveniences, and which is liired or taken
by lease, at a certain yearly rent. See Agriculture.
In the corrupted Latin,signified a place inclosed
or shut in ; and hence, in some provinces, as Menage ob¬
serves, they call closerie, or closure, what in others they
call Si farm. We also find locare adjirmam, signifying to
let to farm ; probably on account of the sure hold the te¬
nant here has in comparison of tenants at will.
Spelman and Skinner, however, chuse to derive the
word farm from the Saxon fearme, or feorme, that is, ric¬
tus, provision ; by reason of the country people and ten¬
ants having anciently paid their rents in victuals and
other necessaries, which were afterwards converted into
the payment of a sum of money. Hence a farm was ori¬
ginally a place which furnished its landlord with provi¬
sions. Amongst the Normans, farms which pay in kind,
that is, in provisions, and those which pay in money, are
still distinguished ; the former being simply caWoA ferrnes,
and the latter blancheferme, or white farm.
Spelman showrs, that the word firma anciently' signified
not only what we now call a farm, but also a feast or en¬
tertainment, which the farmer gave the proprietor or land¬
lord, during a certain number of days, and at a certain
rate, for the lands held of him. Thus fearme in the laws
of King Canute has been i*endered rictus ; and thus also
we read of reddere firmam unius noctis, and reddebat unum
i dim de firma, denoting provision for a night and day.
About the time of the conquest rents were all paid in
provisions; a custom which is said to have been first al¬
tered under King Henry I. We also speak of farming
duties, imposts, and the like.
FARMER, he who tenants a farm, or is lessee thereof;
and generally every lessee for life, years, or at will, is
called Earner. As this word implies no mystery', except
it be that of husbandry, husbandman is the proper addi¬
tion for a farmer.
Farmer, Hugh, an English clergyman and a man of
letters, belonging to the protestant nonconformists, was
descended from people of respectability in North Wales,
and first drew breath at Shrewsbury, in the year 1714. Dr
Charles Owen was for some time his tutor; but previous-
y to the period when he was under that master, he had
been at a school in Llanegrin. His parents from the first
laving designed him for the ministry, he was in 1730 sent
to prosecute his studies under Dr Doddridge at Northamp-
t.on‘ Here, by the rectitude of his conduct and won-
erful proficiency, he gained the esteem of that excellent
pei son, who always spoke of him in the most respectful
erms. Having completed his academical studies, Mr
aimer became^ the chaplain of William Coward, Esq. of
a thamstow, in the county of Essex, and was at the
same time chosen minister of a dissenting congregation
H^age. But notwithstanding the gratitude with
f l Covv’ard deserves t° be remembered by many
or is charitable institutions, he had certain peculiarities
0 *emper which rendered him a very disagreeable compa-
FAR
nion. His doors were shut at an uncommonly early hour
ot the night, and neither visitor nor resident could after¬
wards obtain admission. Mr Farmer having one evening
been detained a little beyond that hour, found the doors
shut against him, and was under the necessity of apply¬
ing to a Mr \\ illiam Snell, solicitor, a man of eminence,
and possessed of many excellent qualifications. In the
family of this gentleman he remained for about thirty years,
living in the greatest friendship and intimacy. Here also
he gradually prepared those valuable treatises and disserta¬
tions which were afterwards given to the public, and which
acquired him so much celebrity as a man of letters. He
likewise continued to discharge the duties of his ministe¬
rial function to the people of Walthamstow.
When a day of thanksgiving was appointed for the sup¬
pression of the rebellion in 1745, Mr Farmer preached a
sermon on that occasion, which was published the follow¬
ing year. His next work was of much greater importance,
being entitled, An Inquiry into the Nature and Design of
our Lord’s Temptation in the Wilderness. In this pro¬
duction it was the design of Mr Farmer to prove that the
whole was transacted in vision, the different stages of
which were intended to point out to him the difficulties
and duties of his subsequent ministry. The originality
of thought and profound erudition which this work dis¬
played, soon obtained for it a very extensive circulation,
and called forth the exertions of those who were of an op¬
posite opinion. It received one reply under the title of
Christ’s Temptations real Facts, which possessed consider¬
able merit, but was much inferior to Mr Farmer’s in energy
of expression, depth of thinking, and force of argument.
But the most masterly, perhaps, of all Mr Farmer’s lite¬
rary productions was his Dissertation on Miracles, design¬
ed to show that they are arguments of a divine interposi¬
tion, and absolute proofs of the mission and doctrine of a
prophet; a work which was first published in the year 1771.
But as great talents are frequently envied, so this work of
Mr Farmer was declared by some to have been chiefly bor¬
rowed from Lemoine’s treatise on the same subject; slan¬
der which he refuted in a very able and satisfactory man¬
ner. In the year 1775 he published his celebrated Essay
on the Demoniacs of the New Testament, which may be
considered as the completion of the design he had in view
by his dissertation on miracles. The hypothesis which
he adopted had formerly been defended with great ability
by Mede, Sykes, Lardner, and others ; but it was reser¬
ved for the critical acuteness of Air Farmer to free it
from those difficulties with which it was surrounded, and
to place the subject in a much clearer light. His essay
on demoniacs was successively attacked by Dr Worthing¬
ton and Air Fell, both of them men of considerable erudi¬
tion, but much inferior in ability to their antagonist.
Mr Farmer having continued for several years the sole
pastor of the congregation at Walthamstow, an able col¬
league was appointed him in 1761, in consequence of
which he became the afternoon preacher to the congre¬
gation of Salter’s Hall, in the city of London, and soon
afterwards the Tuesday lecturer at the same place. But
he resigned his ministerial employments as he advanced
in years, a circumstance which the people committed to
his charge very much regretted. In the year 1785 an
affection in his eyes nearly deprived him of sight, but by
means of a surgical operation he was for some time en¬
abled to resume his studies. Mortality is, however, the
inevitable lot of all men, and in 1787 the growing infirmi¬
ties of Mr Farmer brought him to the grave, in the seven¬
ty-third year of his age.
Farmer, Richard, D. D. a scholar and critic of consi¬
derable eminence, was the son ot a hosier at Leicester,
at which place he was born in the year 1735. Here he
487
i
488
FAR
FAR
Farmer.
received the rudiments of his education, and afterwards of September 1^9/, in the sixty-second 3rear of his age. Far
became a student at Cambridge, and pensioner of Ema- Dr Parr wrote an epitaph for his tombstone, in which we
nuel College. He was considered as a young man well find the following testimony to his worth: Vir facetus et
acquainted with books, much esteemed among his friends, dulcis, festique sermonis, Grczce at iMtina doctusr in expli-
and looked upon as possessed of lively parts, even before canda veterum Anglorum poesi subtilis at elegans.
he had acquired any extraordinary reputation as a scho* EARN ABIE, J homas, son of a carpenter in London,
lar. He was made bachelor of arts in 1757, and master and born in 1575, staid a short time at Oxford, where be-
of arts in 1760. Several years after this period, having ing enticed to abandon his religion, he went to Spain, and
been for some time a curate, he took the degree of bache- was there educated in a college belonging to the Jesuits,
lor in divinity, and became a preacher at Whitehall. Be- Being w^eary of their severe discipline, he accompanied Sir
sides the attention he paid to the Greek and Roman au- John Hawkins and Sir Francis Drake in their last voyage
thors, he prosecuted the study of books in his own lan- in 1595. He was afterwards a soldier in the Low Coun-
guage, printed in black letter, and thus laid the founda- tries; but being reduced to great want, he returned to
tion of a work which added more to his literary reputa- England, where, wandering about for some time under
tion than any other performance. This was an Essay on the name of I homas Bainrafe, the anagram of his name,
the Learning of Shakspeare, which he published in 1766. he settled at Mattock in Somersetshire, and there taught
Men of letters had long turned their attention to the a grammar school with good reputation. He afterwards
learning of Shakspeare, in order to ascertain its real ex- removed to London, and opened a school with large ac-
tent. It could not be questioned that he was acquainted commodations for young gentlemen. Whilst he taught
with the history and mythology of the ancients, but it w'as this school, he was made master of arts at Cambridge,
still a matter of dispute from what sources that acquaint- and incorporated into the* university of Oxford. In 1636,
ance had been derived. To obviate this difficulty, Mr he removed to Seven Oaks in Kent, and taught the sons
Farmer’s knowledge of books enabled him to demonstrate, of several noblemen and gentlemen, who boarded in his
that translations of the far greater part of the classical au- house, with great success, and grew rich. His works gain-
thorswere to be met with in the time of our distinguished ed him reputation. Upon the breaking out of the civil
dramatist; and as he showed that Shakspeare had even commotions in 1641, he was cast into prison, and it was
copied the blunders and errors of these translations, he debated in the House of Commons whether he should be
made it manifest beyond the possibility of a rational sent to America; but this motion being rejected, he was
doubt, that he was wholly incapable of consulting the ori- removed to Ely House, in Holborn, where he died in the
ginals. This essay passed through three editions in a year 1647. Farnabie was a very eminent grammarian;
very short time, and was much admired for the spright- and many writers have spoken with great approbation of
liness of its composition, whilst the readers of it were in his labours. Mr Bayle in particular says, “ His notes
general persuaded that he had fully established his point, upon most of the ancient Latin poets have been of very
This performance brought him into notice, and became great use to young beginners; being short, learned, and
extremely favourable to his professional advancement, designed chiefly to clear up the text.”
By the influence of Bishop Hurd, he procured the chan- FARNHAM, a market-town at the western end of the
cellorship and a prebend in the cathedral of Lichfield; county of Surrey, in the hundred of the same name, 41
and in 1775 he was elected master of Emanuel College, miles from London, on the road to Portsmouth. The vi¬
and took the degree of doctor in divinity. He was soon cinity is chiefly remarkable for the quality of the hops
afterwards appointed principal librarian to the university, produced, which by their celebrity, and consequently
and served in turn the office of vice-chancellor. He was high price, have extended the cultivation very considera-
made prebendary of Canterbury by Lord North, at that bly. There is an ancient castle transformed into a palace,
time prime minister, and Mr Pitt twice offered him a bi- the residence of the Bishop of Winchester. The making
shopric; but the constraints and solemnity of the episco- of worsted hose, which once flourished, has now disap-
pal character were not congenial to his natural temper, on peared. The market is held on Thursday, and the sale
which account he declined the offer, and having resigned of wheat at it is extensive. The population amounted in
his office as prebendary, he accepted of a residentiaryship 1801 to 2508, in 1811 to 2911, in 1821 to 3132, and in
of St Paul’s. This obliged him to reside three months an- 1831 to 3142.
nually in London, which he spent with equal pleasure and FARNOVIANS, in Ecclesiastical History, a sect of So-
advantage in the society of literary men. From nature cinians, so called from Stanislaus Farnovius, who separat-
he inherited a fund of good humour, and was of such an ed from the other Unitarians in the year 1568, and was
obliging turn, that he buried party spirit in the satisfac- followed by several persons eminent for their learning,
tion which he found in the performance of beneficent ac- This sect did not last long; for having lost their chief,
tions. Though in general an enemy to reforms of every who died in 1615, it was scattered abroad and reduced to
kind, and anxious to preserve things as they were, both nothing. Farnovius was engaged by Gonesius to prefer
in church and state, he was nevertheless instrumental in the Arian system to that of the Socinians; and conse-
amending the police of Cambridge, especially as it related quently asserted that Christ had been produced out of
to the paving and lighting of the streets. At his instiga- nothing by the Supreme Being, before the creation of this
tion also, monumental sculpture was admitted into theca- terrestrial globe. His sentiments concerning the Holy
thedral of St Paul’s, and will continue to exhibit a strik- Ghost are not certainly known; but it appears that he
ing proof of national gratitude, as well as serve to cover warned his disciples against paying the tribute of religious
the nakedness of the walls. worship to the Divine Spirit.
It was at one time the intention of Dr Farmer to pub- FARNWORTH, a township of the county of Lancas-
lish a history of the town and antiquities of Leicester; ter, within the parish of Dean, occupied chiefly by manu-
but either his independent circumstances, or a degree of facturers of cotton goods, whose numbers amounted in
native indolence, made him relinquish the design, and the 1801 to 1439, in 1811 to 1798, in 1821 to 2044, and m
few materials which he had collected were therefore given 1831 to 2928.
to Mr John Nichols, at that time engaged in an elaborate FARO, a city on the sea coast, in the province of
wot k on the same subject. After a painful illness of some garve, in Portugal, in lat. 37. 2. N. It is a little to the wes
length, Dr Farmer died at Emanuel College in the month ward of Cape Santa Maria, and only admits ships to enter
)i«
#
i
FAR
jj ? or depart at spring tides. It has some trade with the
I is s- north of Europe, to which it exports figs, resins, oranges,
f lemons, olives, and almonds, cork, sumach, and ropes and
cords of esparto and the tunny fish. The streets of this
town are broad and regularly built, and it contains a ca¬
thedral, 927 houses, and 6025 inhabitants.
FAROE, Faroer, or Feroe, a group of European
islands, situated in the Northern Ocean, between Zetland
and Iceland, about 200 miles north-west of the former.
They appear to form the country described by the early
Venetian navigators under the name of Friesland, though
that term was afterwards applied by the English to the
northern extremity of Greenland. These islands are
twenty-two in number, of which the principal are Stro-
moe, Osteroe, Suderoe, Wangoe, and Sandoe. They con¬
sist throughout of rocks and hills, rising to a considerable
height, and separated from each other by narrow valleys,
or rather ravines. Although, however, these hills rise ab¬
ruptly, there are often on their summits, or at different
stages of their ascent, plains of considerable magnitude.
They everywhere present to the sea perpendicular cliffs,
broken into a thousand fantastic forms, and which, to those
who sail along the coast, present at every turn the most
picturesque and varied scenery. The highest peak is that
of Skellingfell, in the island of Stromoe, which is supposed
to rise about 3000 feet above the sea. The rocks consist
generally of trap, and exhibit little variety of composition,
though they present some striking geological phenomena.
The zeolites and chalcedonies here collected have long
supplied the best specimens of these minerals to the ca¬
binets of Europe.
The population of the Faroe Islands, according to a
statistical table drawn up in 1812, amounted to 5209.
Agriculture is in a very imperfect state, the infield, or
cultivated land, being supposed to bear to the outfield, or
uncultivated, the proportion of one to sixty. The plough
is scarcely ever used, being in fact ill suited to the rugged
and uneven surface of which all the islands consist. The
ground is therefore turned up with the spade, care being
taken not to destroy the roots of the grass. Horses and
cows are few in number, and the latter give very little
milk, in consequence, probably, of the very coarse hay upon
which they are fed. Sheep form the chief riches of the
islanders, and the number possessed by them was calcu¬
lated in 1812 at 35,307. Some individuals have flocks of
two or three hundred. These sheep are allowed to run
about, both in summer and winter, without ever being
housed, and in severe seasons they suffer considerably. The
wool is generally coarse, and is torn off the animals in so
rough a manner, as often to lacerate the skin. The fish¬
ery, which was once considerable, has been neglected, and
is now of little consequence. The catching of the nume¬
rous birds which build their nests upon the face of the
cliffs, forms a great source of subsistence to the inhabi¬
tants. Those persons employed in this hazardous trade
display great ingenuity and the most adventurous spirit,
^ometimes the fowler is let down from the top of the cliff
by a rope fastened to his waist; at other times, where
tiere is any footing at all, he climbs the steepest rocks,
or, where that is impossible, has himself thrust up by poles
fflade for the purpose. The puffin (Alca Arctica) is the
"l081 common of these birds, and the eider duck is here
often shot for food.
P16 government has given the monopoly of the
ra ^ t^le Faroe Islands to a mercantile house at Co¬
penhagen, under the condition of supplying the inhabi-
aots with a sufficient quantity of grain at a constant fixed
price. Should the market price be such as to render this
a osing transaction, the merchant is indemnified by' go-
ernnient. This care of provisioning the islands is proba-
par 489
bly superfluous ; and the natural bad effects of a monopoly Faroe
are felt in the high price of other imported articles, a Islands
good jacket being often given for a few leaves of tobacco. II
I he exports consist of hose knit on the islands, to theranluhar-
annual amount of 100,000 pairs; tallow, fish, train-oil, fea-
thers, skins, and butter. During the war between Britain
and Denmark, the Fort of Thorshaun was, in 1808, de¬
stroyed by Captain Baugh, lest it should afford harbour to
privateers. A German adventurer, who assumed the name
of Baron Hompesch, afterwards landed and plundered the
place; but his conduct was disavowed by the British go-
vernment, who even restored the value of the property of
which the natives had been robbed. Finding also, that
the people having lost their communication with Denmark,
were in danger of suffering from famine, Britain permit¬
ted a limited intercourse to be carried on, under license,
from Leith. But the peace restored all things to their
usual channel.
Ihorshaun, the principal place in the country, does not
contain above 520 inhabitants. It is situated on the east¬
ern coast of the island of Stromoe, upon a narrow tongue
of land, having creeks on each side, where ships may be
safely moored. The houses are built of wood, and roofed
with birch bark covered with turf; the greenness of
which makes it impossible, at a very short distance, to
distinguish the place from the surrounding fields. The
character of the people is generally marked by great sim¬
plicity of manners, kindness, and hospitality. (See A De¬
scription of the Faroe Islands ; by the Rev. G. Landt;
translated from the Danish ; London, 1810. An Ac¬
count of some Geological Facts observed in the Faroe
Islands; by Sir George Stewart Mackenzie, Bart, in the
Transactions of the Royal Society of Edin. vol. vii. An
Account of the Mineralogy of the Faroe Islands ; by Tho¬
mas Allan, Esq. ibid?)
FARQUHAR, George, a celebrated comic writer,
was the son of a clergyman, and born in 1678 at London¬
derry, in Ireland, where he received the rudiments of his
education, and gave early indications of that genius for
which he afterwards distinguished himself. As he was one
of a numerous family, his parents, having no fortune to leave
to their children, resolved to give him the compensatory
benefit of a liberal education; and, with this view, young
Farquhar, as soon as he was qualified for the university, was
sent to Trinity College, Dublin. This took place in 1694.
At first our youth Farquhar made great progress in his
studies, and even acquired considerable reputation ; but at
length the retirement and restraint of a college life prov¬
ing distasteful to him, he quitted Trinity, where he found
himself incapable of seeking advancement by the slow and
regular progression of university degrees; and betaking
himself to the stage, he obtained admission into the com¬
pany of the Dublin theatre. Though his voice was some¬
what weak, he had the advantage of a good person, which,
with his evident talents, ensured him a favourable recep¬
tion as an actor ; and he resolved to continue on the boards
until something better should present itself for his accept¬
ance. But an accident of rather a serious kind put an end
to this resolution, and suddenly altered the whole com¬
plexion of his life. Being to play the part of Guyomar in
Dryden’s Indian Emperor, and having forgotten to blunt
his sword, or exchange it for a theatrical rapier, Farquhar,
in the scene where Guyomar is supposed to kill the Spanish
general Vasquez, run through the body his brother trage¬
dian who represented that part. The poor general of the
scene believed himself killed in good earnest, but happily
the wound, though dangerous, did not prove mortal. Far¬
quhar, however, was so shocked at the occurrence, that he
quitted the stage, determined never again to expose himself
to the risk of such accidents. But this histrionic essay had
3 Q
490 FAR
Farquliar. been sufficient to form his taste and develope his talents for
dramatic literature.
Having now no inducement to remain at Dublin, rar-
quhar proceeded to London, where, in 1696, Wilks the ac¬
tor, knowing his humour and abilities, prevailed on him
to write a play, at the same time assuring him that he was
generally considered as better qualified to furnish compo¬
sitions for the stage than to act a part in those of other
writers. His first comedy, called Love in a Bottle, was
brought out in 1698, and well received, on account of its
sprightly dialogue and busy scenes. About this time the
Earl of Orrery, to whom Farquhar was already known by
his literary talents, and esteemed for his character, gave
him a commission as lieutenant in his own regiment, then
in Ireland, in which capacity he served several years, and
gave proofs both of courage and conduct. In 1700 he pro¬
duced his Constant Couple, or Trip to the Jubilee, so called
because it was then the jubilee year at Rome, whither persons
of all countries flocked for indulgences and amusements.
In Sir Harry Wildair he delineated a gay and airy charac¬
ter, so impregnated with wit and vivacity, and withal so well
adapted to the peculiar talents of Wilks, that the player ac¬
quired almost as much reputation as the dramatist. To¬
wards the close of this year Farquhar visited Holland, pro¬
bably in his military capacity, and, in several letters which
he wrote, gave a very humorous description of the people,
and the adventures he met with, particularly of an enter¬
tainment given by the Earl of Westmoreland, whilst not
only that nobleman himself, but King William and others,
were detained by a violent storm. In 1701 he was a specta¬
tor, if not a mourner, at the funeral of Dryden. Encouraged
by the success of his Constant Couple, he this year wrote
a continuation of the play, called Sir Harry Wildair, or
the Sequel of the Trip to the Jubilee, in which Mrs Oldfield,
whom the author had introduced to the stage, was as great¬
ly admired, and obtained as much reputation, in her part,
as Wilks had previously done in his.
FAR
ance in 1706. His last production, The Beaux Stratagem, Farq r
was only performed a few days before his death, which hap¬
pened in April 1707, but not until he had been made aware Fari'
of the complete success of the comedy. The Beaux Stra- ^ '
tagem is generally regarded as Farquhar’s masterpiece, and,
certainly, of all his plays it is that which has kept the firm¬
est hold of the stage. The characters are said to have been
drawn from living originals whom the author met with in
Lichfield and its vicinity ; but whether this was the case
or not, he has sufficiently generalized his delineations to
divest them of partial or localized distinctions, and has
thus imparted to them an interest which neither time nor
change of manners has in any material degree impaired.
Towards the close of his life Farquhar was unhappily op¬
pressed with debt, which obliged him to sell his commis¬
sion ; a circumstance which, with some collateral disappoint¬
ments, preyed upon his spirits, and hurried him to a pre¬
mature grave before he had attained the age of thirty. Soon
after his death, the following letter, addressed to Mr Wilks
the actor, was found amongst his papers: “ Dear Bob, I
have not any thing to leave thee to perpetuate my me¬
mory but two helpless girls; look upon them sometimes,
and think of him that was to the last moment of his life,
thine, George Farquhar.” This affecting recommendation,
resembling the testament of Eudamidas, was not lost on
the generous player, who wratched over the orphans of his
gifted friend, and, when they came of age to be put out in
the world, procured each of them a benefit to supply the
means necessary for the purpose.
Of Farquhar’s merits as a dramatic writer various opi¬
nions have been entertained, and different judgments con¬
sequently pronounced. It can scarcely be disputed, how¬
ever, that he was commonly fortunate in the choice of his
subjects, which he embellished with a great variety of cha¬
racters and incidents ; that his style is in general simple,
unaffected, and natural; that his dialogue is full of gaiety
and wit, and flows in a natural, easy current, less sparkling
In 1702 he published his Miscellanies, consisting of and brilliant than that of Congreve, but at the same time
poems, letters, and essays, all filled with humorous and plea- also less elaborate ; and that his plots, though almost all
sant sallies. Some of these letters were, it is said, publish- founded on improbable or romantic suppositions, are na-
ed from copies returned at his request by Mrs Oldfield, to turally conducted, and full of amusing vivacity. He has
whom they had been addressed. At the end there is a been justly reproached with licentiousness, which, m his
Discourse upon Comedy, in reference to the English stage ; discourse upon comedy, he even attempts to defend; but
and one of the letters contains The Picture, a descriptive this was the vice of the age rather than of the writer, w o
character of the writer, in which he is represented as an felt himself obliged to consult its taste, and adapt his com
ingenious, good-natured, and thoughtless person. In 1703 positions to its prevailing manners; and is certain y no
he brought out another comedy, entitled The Inconstant, or less imputable to Congreve than to Farquhar. 1 he tone
the Way to win him ; but as the public taste, influenced of their characters, indeed, appears to have been that o
by fashion, was now turning in favour of French and Ita- the society of the time, of which these are, as it were, re
lian operas, which have long been the bane of our native flections; and hence in the comedies of both there is a
genius, this production, though not inferior in merit, was relative truth, which must not be lost sight of in estima
more coldly received than any of its predecessors. This ing the moral qualities of their works. The manners re
year Farquhar married (as he was led to believe) a person presented are no doubt detestable, and vice appears ram
of fortune. The lady, it seems, had fallen violently in love pant and unblushing, without the mask of hypocrisy, v ic >
with him, and resolved to have him at any rate; but, in less degenerate times, she is compelled to assume as a
knowing his habits, and aware that he was too dissipated reluctant homage to virtue ; but these manners are rea,
Fr* mQfrimryntr nnlocc orlironforrcicj uroro onno-vorl Fr* nnt inrtQfnnQrv • it. IS "fVoTn SIIC'It (lGllI10citlOnS cilonG ^
to think of matrimony unless advantages were annexed to jiul imagine^ , an« ^ x.w...    ,
it, she caused a report to be circulated that she had a great we can acquire accurate conceptions of the true spin an
fortune, and followed this up by an intimation of her love character of the age when they were relished and applau
for the dramatist. Farquhar fell into the snare, and mar- ed. Pope, it seems, used pettishly to stigmatize Farqu ar
ried her. But although he found himself grossly deceived, as a mere farce-writer. But posterity has been rooreju
his circumstances embarrassed, and his family increasing, to his merits than the Wasp of Twickenham; and his p
he, with rare magnanimity, never once upbraided his wife ductions, with all their faults, still keep their place on ^
with the imposition she had practised on him, but behaved stage, and are likely to do so, as long as the redeeming
to her with all the delicacy and tenderness of a kind and tributes of wit and genius possess any attraction in see
indulgent husband.
Early in 1704, Farquhar, in conjunction with another per¬
son, produced a farce called The Stage-coach, which was
well received. His comedy entitled The Twin Rivals was
played in 1705, and The Recruiting Officer made its appear- the verb Ferrer, to shoe a horse ; all these
representation. .
FARRIER, one whose employment it is to shoe ftorst^
and cure them when diseased or lame. The term/®
is probably a corruption of ferrier, in French ferrous,
flip vprh fprrpr. tn shop a hnrSP : all tllCSC WOFUS
k .
F ng-
| :i
3.
W
FAR
rived from the Latin/emm, iron. There is no doubt that
the word farrier was at first used to denote a person who
shod horses; but as persons of this description were for a
long period the only horse-doctors, the term was soon used
in the more extensive sense of horse-doctor or horse-leech;
and hence farriery came to signify the art of curing the
diseases of horses. _
There can be little doubt that the word farrier was ori¬
ginally spelt ferrier or ferrer, as we meet with this latter
orthography in some of our older writers. Thus Blunde-
ville, who wrote in the time of Queen Elizabeth, in his
Address to the Gentlemen of England, book fourth, has the
following sentence: “ All horses, for the most part, do
come into their decay sooner than they should do, by one
of these four waies; that is to say, either for lacke of
being well bred, or through the rashness of the rider, the
negligence of the keeper, or else through the unskilful-
nesse of the ferrer” Again, the same author mentions
“Martin Ghelly of Aston, called Martin Alman, chiefe
fener to the queen’s magistie.”
Farriery, in the usual acceptation of the word, forms
only a part of the more general art, which has been com¬
monly called the veterinary art, by which is understood
the art of medicine as applied to the inferior animals,
an art which has been long called by the French Vart vete-
rinaire, or medicine veterinaire. This word veterinary is
of very ancient date, being derived from the Latin vete-
rinarias, which is used by Columella to denote a horse-
doctor or cattle-doctor. The term veterinary, being de¬
rived from veterinus, a softened and abbreviated form of
veheterinus, d vehendo, carrying, is properly applicable on¬
ly to beasts of burden ; but veterinary medicine is now com¬
monly employed in a more comprehensive sense, to denote
the art of curing the diseases oi' domestic animals in gene¬
ral. See Veterinary Medicine.
FARRINGDON, a market-town of the county of Berks,
in the hundred of the same name, sixty-eight miles from
London. It is finely situated on the declivity of the ter¬
mination of a range of hills, at the foot of which the
Thames runs, and where the ruins of an ancient castle
are to be seen. It is a towm of but little trade, except
what arises from a good market held on Tuesday. The
inhabitants amounted in 1801 to 1691, in 1811 to 1843, in
1821 to 2784, and in 1831 to 2729.
PARS, a province of Persia, bounded by Irak on the
north, Kerman and Laristan on the east, Kuzistan on the
west, and on the south by the Persian Gulf. This pro¬
vince is divided into the Germaseer and Sirhud, or the
warm and the cold climates. It is in general sandy and
barren, though with some considerable exceptions. The
Tabris, formed by the junction, within a few miles of the
town of Zeitoon, of two streams which take their rise in
the mountains of Ears, is the most considerable river of
the province. It divides Ears from Kuzistan, and, eight
miles below the town of Endian, falls into the sea. The
warm region of this district extends from the sea to the
latitude of Kazeroon, and runs parallel with the gulf from
the banks of the Tabris to the confines of Laristan. It is
chiefly a sandy plain at the foot of the mountains, the cul¬
tivation of which depends on the periodical rains; and
when these prove abundant, the country yields abun¬
dance of dry grain ; but when the rains fail, which too
requently happens, a famine generally ensues. The sandy
plain, or the Dushtistan as it is called, is divided into
two districts, which are separated by the projecting moun-
ain of Bung. These twm districts are thinly peopled and
adly cultivated ; and the few mud villages which are
scattered over the plain bespeak but too clearly the
wretchedness and poverty of their possessors. The cold
region comprehends most of the mountainous part of Ears,
FAR 49i
extending from the latitude of Kazeroon to that of the Fartach
own o ezdekhast, situated on the bed of what appears II
to have been formerly a river, which separates this pro- Earthing
vince from Irak. The mountains are here intersected by /li’and‘
plains, which seldom exceed eight or ten miles in breadth,
whilst in length they vary from fifteen to a hundred. They
are in general fertile, affording abundance of pasturage •
nor are they so deficient in water as they have sometimes
been i epresented. A few of them, such as those of Shiraz,
Kazeroon, and Merdesht, are tolerably well cultivated.
But they are for the most part, particularly to the north¬
ward and westward, destitute of inhabitants. It is men¬
tioned by Kinneir, in his Geographical Memoir of the
Persian Empire, that in 1809 he travelled in this country
“ through the most delightful valleys, covered with wood
and verdure,” but all was solitary, nor was the face of a
human being anywhere to be seen. The country, it ap¬
pears, had been possessed by a predatory tribe, who, in
consequence of their licentious conduct, had been extir¬
pated by the vengeance of the prince, and who having in
consequence fled to the lofty and inaccessible mountains,
lived there on the scanty fare of a sort of bread afforded
by acorns, and thence sallying forth on the low country be¬
neath, robbed and plundered the unwary traveller, some¬
times extending their inroads to villages, the inhabitants
of which they either murdered, or carried away captive,
to be sold for slaves in an unknown and distant land. The
face of the country in the eastern parts of Ears is some¬
what different, being open, the plains of greater extent,
and of a sandy soil, where water is not so plentiful. The
great range of mountains seen from the coast is a mere
elongation of the chain of Mount Tagros, which extends
in a continued succession of ridges from the borders of
the Persian Gulf to the Caspian Sea and the Caucasus.
These hills in Ears are situated at different distances from
the sea. At Bushire they are distant twenty-four miles.
But towards Bunder Reig the plain becomes contracted ;
and a low ridge, known by the name of Kohi Bung, or the
hill of Bung, and about seven or eight miles broad, sud¬
denly projects to the south, and touching the sea, sepa¬
rates the district of Leerawee from that of Hiadouat. Be¬
yond this hill, at the plain of Leerawee, the mountains
are about twenty miles distant from the sea, at which
distance they continue for eighteen or nineteen miles,
when they again approach the south; and this branch is
known by the name of Zeitoon, on turning the southern
point of which they again abruptly retire to the north¬
ward ; and at the port of Mashoor they are thirty miles
from the sea. The principal towns of the province are
Shiraz, the capital, with 40,000 inhabitants ; Bushire,
the chief port in the Persian Gulf; Darabjerb, Bebahan,
and some others. Within its confines also are the ruins
of the cities of Shapoor and Persepolis ; the latter contain¬
ing some magnificent remains of antiquity.
FARTACH, or Fartak, a sea-port of Arabia, in the
province of H^dramaut, belonging to the sheik of Keshun.
It is 133 miles south-east of Hadramaut, and 480 east of
Mocha.
FARTHING, a small English copper coin, amounting to
one-fourth of a penny. It was anciently called fourthing,
as being the fourth of the integer or penny.
Farthing of Gold, a coin used in ancient times, con¬
taining in value the fourth part of a noble, or 20d. in sil¬
ver. It is mentioned in the statute 9 Henry V. cap. 7,
where it is enacted that there shall be good and just
weight of the noble, half noble, and farthing of gold.
Farthing of Land seems to differ from farding-deal
For in a survey-book of the name of West Hapton, in De¬
vonshire, there is an entry thus: A. B. holds six farth¬
ings of land at L.126 per annum. So that the farthing
492
Fasces
II
Fast.
FAS
of land must have been a considerable quantity, indeed
far more than a rood.
FASCES, in Roman antiquity, axes bound together
with rods or staves, and borne before the Roman magi¬
strates as a badge of their office and authority. Accord¬
ing to Florus, the use of the fasces was introduced by the
elder Tarquin, the fifth king of Rome; and they were
then the mark of the sovereign dignity. In after times
they were borne before the consuls by turns, who had
each twelve, borne by as many lictors. These fasces
consisted of branches of elm, with a securis or axe in
the middle, the head of which projected beyond the rest.
But Publicola took the axe out of the fasces, as I lutaic i
assures us, in order to remove all occasion of terioi. Af-
ter the consuls, the praetors assumed the fasces. In t le
government of the decemvirs, it was the practice at fiist
for only one of their number to have the fasces borne
before them; but afterwards each had twelve, after the
manner of the kings. hen the magistrates, who by
right had the axes carried before them, intended to show
deference to the people, or some person of singular merit,
they either sent away the lictors, or commanded them to
lower the fasces, which was denominated submittere fasces.
Many instances of this occur in Roman history.
FASCETS, in the art of making glass, are the irons
thrust into the mouths of bottles, in order to convey them
to the annealing tower.
FASCIA, in Antiquity, a thin sash which the Roman
women wrapped round their bodies next to the skin, in
order to make them slender. Something of this sort seems
also to have been in use amongst the Grecian ladies.
Fascia, in Architecture, signifies any flat member hav¬
ing considerable breadth and but small projection, as the
band of an architrave, larmier, and the like. In brick
buildings, the juttings out of the brick beyond the win¬
dows in the several stories except the highest are called
fascias or fasciae.
FASCINATION, from the Greek fSafaamiv, to fasci¬
nate or bewitch, a sort of witchcraft supposed to operate
either by the eye or the tongue. Ancient writers distin¬
guish two sorts of fascination ; one performed by looking,
or the efficacy of the eye, and the other by words, espe¬
cially by malignant praises.
Fascination of serpents, a faculty which these ani¬
mals are supposed to possess of attracting birds from the
air, and making prey of them.
FASCINES, in Fortification, are a kind of faggots
made of small branches of trees or brushwood, tied in
three, four, five, or even six places, and are of various di¬
mensions, according to the purposes to which they are to
be applied. Those which are to be pitched over, for
burning lodgments, galleries, or any other works of the
enemy, should be one and a half or two feet in length ;
but those which are intended to form epaulements or
chandeliers, to raise or fill up ditches, are made from six
to ten feet in length, and from one foot to one and a
fourth in thickness. Fascines are made in the following
manner : Six small pickets are stuck into the ground, two
and two, forming little crosses well fastened in the mid¬
dle with willow bindings; on these trestles the branches
are laid, and bound round with withes at every two feet.
Six men are employed in making a fascine; two cut the
boughs, two gather them, and the remaining two bind
them. These six men can make twelve fascines every
hour.
FAST, in general, denotes abstinence from food; but
is more particularly used for such abstinence on a religi¬
ous account
Religious fasting has been practised by most nations
from the remotest antiquity. Some divines even pretend
FAS
that it had its origin in the earthly paradise, where our p
first parents were forbidden to eat of the tree of knowledge, 'w-■ j
But though this seems carrying the matter too far, it is
certain that the Jewish church has observed fasts ever
since its first institution. Nor were the neighbouring na¬
tions, the Egyptians, Phoenicians, and Assyrians, without
their fasts. The Egyptians, according to Herodotus, sa¬
crificed a cow to Isis, after having prepared themselves
by fasting and prayer; a custom which he likewise ascribes
to the women of Gyrene. Porphyry affirms, that the
Egyptians, before their stated sacrifices, always rested a
number of days, sometimes even of weeks ; and that during
this time the priests and devotees not only abstained from
flesh, fish, wine, and oil, but even from bread, and some
kinds of pulse. These austerities were communicated by
them to the Greeks, who observed their fasts much in the
same manner. The Athenians had the Eleusinian and
Thesmophorian fasts, the observance of which was very
rigorous, especially amongst the women, who spent one
whole day sitting on the ground in a mournful dress, with¬
out taking any nourishment. In the island of Crete, the
priests of Jupiter were obliged to abstain during their whole
lives from fish, flesh, and baked meats. Apuleius informs
us, that whoever had a mind to be initiated in the myste¬
ries of Cybele was obliged to prepare himself by fasting
ten days; and, indeed, all the pagan deities, whether male
or female, required this duty of those who desired to be
initiated into their mysteries, of the priests and priest¬
esses who gave out the oracles, and of those who came to
consult them. . •
Amongst the heathens fasting was also practised before
some of their military enterprises. Aristotle informs us,
that the Lacedaemonians having resolved to succour a city
of the allies, ordained a fast throughout the whole extent
of their dominions, without excepting even the domestic
animals; and this they did for two ends, first, to spare
provisions in favour of the besieged, and, secondly, to draw
down the blessing of heaven upon their enterprise. The
inhabitants of Tarentum, when besieged by the Romans,
demanded succours from their neighbours of Rhegium,
who immediately commanded a fast throughout their whole
territories. Their enterprise having proved successful by
throwing a supply of provisions into the town, the Romans
were obliged to raise the siege; and the Tarentines, m
memory of this deliverance, instituted a fast to be annually
observed ever afterwards. . .
Fasting has always been reckoned a particular duty
amongst philosophers and religious people, some of whom
have carried their abstinence to an incredible length. At
Rome it was practised both by kings and emperors. Nurna
Fompilius, Julius Caesar, Augustus, Vespasian, and others,
we are told, observed stated fasts; and Julian surname
the Apostate was so exact in this observance as to outdo
the priests themselves, and even the most rigid p i
phers. The Pythagoreans kept a continual lent; but witn
this difference, that they believed the use of hsh to
equally unlawful with that of flesh. Besides t_ em
stant temperance, they also frequently fasted rigi y
a considerable time. In this respect, however, they
all outdone by their master Pythagoras, who contm
his fasts for no less than fifty days together. Even P
lonius Tyaneus, one of his most celebrated disciples,
never equal him in the length of his ^asts’ t l(?ubrl „
greatly exceeded those of the ordinary Pyt abo
The Gynmosophists, or Brahmins of the East, are
very remarkable for their severe fastings; an 1 .
nese, according to Father Lecomte, have .
stated fasts, with forms of prayer, for preserving 1 itjeS
barrenness, inundations, earthquakes, and other ca .
The Mahommedans too, who possess so large a par
FAS
r- are very remarkable for the strict observance of fasts ; and
s the exactness of their dervises in this respect is extraor¬
dinary.
Fasting was often used by the heathens for superstitious
w purposes; sometimes to procure the interpretation of
dreams; at others, to serve as an antidote against the
pernicious consequences of nocturnal visions. The Jews,
though expressly forbidden to fast upon Sabbath days,
think themselves at liberty to dispense with this duty
when they happen the night preceding to have had fright¬
ful and unlucky dreams, which they consider as presa¬
ging great misfortunes. On these occasions they observe
a formal fast during the whole day; and at night the patient,
having invited three of his friends, addresses himself to
them seven times in a very solemn manner, saying, “ May
the dream I have had prove a lucky one and his friends
answer as many times, “ Amen, may it be lucky, and God
make it so after which, in order to encourage him, they
conclude the ceremony with the words of Ecclesiastes,
“Go eat thy bread with joy,” and then set themselves
down to table. They have also added several fasts not
commanded in the law of Moses, particularly three, in
memory of sore distresses which their nation has at differ¬
ent times suffered. The abstinence of the ancient Jews com¬
monly lasted twenty-seven or twenty-eight hours at a time,
beginning before sunset, and not ending till some hours
after sunset the next day. On these days they were oblig¬
ed to wear white robes in token of grief and repentance, to
cover themselves with sackloth, or their worst clothes, to
lie on ashes, to sprinkle these on their heads, and to per¬
form other like ceremonies. Some spent the whole night
and day following in the temple or synagogue, in prayers
and other devotions, barefooted, with a scourge in their
hands, of which they sometimes made a good use, in or¬
der to excite their zeal. Lastly, to complete their absti¬
nence, they were accustomed at night to eat nothing but
a little bread dipped in water, with some salt for season¬
ing; except indeed they chose to add to their repast some
bitter herbs and pulse.
The ancients, both Jews and Pagans, had also their fasts
lor purifying the body, particularly the priests and such
as were any way employed at the altars; for when noc¬
turnal disorders happened to them, it was unlawful to ap¬
proach the altars all the next day, which they were bound
to employ in purifying themselves. On this account, at
great festivals, where their ministry could not be dispensed
with, it was usual for them, on the eve of these solemn oc¬
casions, not only to fast, but also, for the greater certainty,
to abstain from sleep. For this purpose the high priest
had under officers to awake him, if overtaken with sleep,
against which other preventives were also employed.
FASTERMANS, or Fasting-men, was used in our an¬
cient customs to signify men of repute and substance; or
rather pledges, sureties, or bondsmen, who, according to
the Saxon polity, were bound fast to answer for one an¬
other s peaceable behaviour.
FASH, in Roman antiquity, the kalendar in which
were expressed the several days of the year, with their
easts, games, and other ceremonies.
There were two kinds offasti, the greater and less ; the
ormer being distinguished by the appellation offasti ma-
fjtdrales, and the latter by that of fasti kalendares. The
■fsU. halendares, which were property and primarily called
^re defined by Festus Pompeius to be books contain-
lng a description of the whole year, that is, ephemerides,
or lanes, in which the several kinds of days,, festi, pro-
i, and fasti, nefasti, are distinguished. The author of
ofdf 'f'8 .^urna> w^° committed the care and direction
to 0 to the pontfex maximus, whom the people used
consult on every occasion. This custom continued until
FAT
the year of Rome 450, when C. Flavius, secretary to the
pontihees, exposed in the forum a list of all the days on
which it was lawful to work; and this proved so accept-
a i e o t le people, that they made him curule aedile. The
jasti kalendares were of two kinds, namely, urbanized rus-
u- , , urhuni> or fasti of the city, were those
which obtained or were observed in the city. Some are
ol opinion that they were thus called, because they were
exposed publicly m different parts of the city ; though from
the various inscriptions of this kind upon antique stones, it
may be conjectured that private persons had likewise/asCi
in their houses. Ovid undertook to illustrate these fasti
urbani, and comment on them, in his Libri Fastorum, of
which the first six books are still extant; the last six, if
they were ever written, being now lost. In \]\e fasti ras-
tici, or countryjfas^', were expressed the several days, feasts,
and the like, to be observed by the country people. For
as the latter were occupied in tilling the ground, fewer
feasts, sacrifices, ceremonies, and holidays, were enjoined
on them than on the inhabitants of cities; and they had
also some peculiar ones not observed at Rome. These
rustic fasti contained little more than the ceremonies of
the kalends, nones, and ides; the fairs, signs of the zo¬
diac, increase and decrease of the days, the tutelary gods
of each month, and certain directions for rustic labours to
be performed each month. In the greater fasti, or fasti
magistrales, were expressed the several feasts, with every
thing relating to the gods, religion, and the magistrates;
the emperors, their birthdays, offices, days consecrated to
them, with feasts and ceremonies established in their ho¬
nour, or for their prosperity. When flattery had at length
swelled the fasti with a number of such circumstances, they
came to be denominated magni, in order to distinguish them
from the bare kalendar, or fasti kalendares.
Fasti was also a chronicle or register of time, in which
the several years were denoted by the respective consuls,
with the principal events which happened during their con¬
sulates. This register was denominated fasti consulares,
or the consular
Fasti, or Dies Fasti, likewise denoted court days. The
word fasti, fastorum, is formed from the verb fari, to speak,
because during those days the courts were opened, causes
might be heard, and the praetor was allowed fari, to pro¬
nounce the three words, do, dico, addico. The days in
which this was prohibited were called nefasti.
The dies fasti were noted in the kalendar by the letter
F; but it is to be observed that there were some days ex
parte fasti, partly fasti, partly nefasti, in which justice might
be distributed at certain times of the day, and not at others.
These days were called intercisi, and were marked in the
kalendar by the letters F. P. fastos primo, in which jus¬
tice might be demanded during the first part of that day.
FASTOLF, Sir John, a renowned English officer, who
served in France under Henry IV., Henry V., and Henry
VI., was descended from an ancient family in Norfolk, and
was born about the year 1377. He wras as much distinguished
for his virtue at home, as for his valour abroad; and be¬
came no less amiable in his private than he had been ad¬
mired in his public character. He died in 1457, being
then upwards of eighty years of age, as we learn from his
contemporary William Caxton, the first English printer.
By an unaccountable mistake it has been asserted, that
Shakspeare’s Falstaff was drawn in order to ridicule Fas-
tolf; and this circumstance has made judicious biogra¬
phers the more studious to vindicate his reputation.
FAT, an oily concrete substance, deposited in different
parts of animal bodies.
Fat, in nautical language, signifies the same with broad.
Thus a ship is said to have a fat quarter, if the trussing in
or tuck of her quarter be deep.
493
Fasti
II
Fat.
i
494
FAT
Fat Fat likewise denotes an uncertain measure of capacity.
II Thus a fat of isinglass contains from three and a fourth
Fata hundredweight to four hundredweight; a fat of unbound
books, half a maund or four bales ; of wire, from twenty to
twenty-five hundredweight; and of yarn, from 2:20 to 2^1
bundles.
Fat, or Vat, is also applied to several utensils; as, a
great wooden vessel, employed for measuring of malt, and
containing a quarter or eight bushels; a large brewing
vessel, used by brewers to run their wort in; and a leaden
pan or vessel for making salt at Droitwich. #
FATA Morgana, a very singular phenomenon, mentioned
by different philosophical writers and travellers, who inform
us that it is seen in the Straits of Messina, and sometimes
denominated the Castles of the Fairy Morgana. The ac¬
counts of this phenomenon differ considerably from one
another, and travellers are not agreed as to the causes of
its production. , „
Minasi, in his dissertation on the Fata Morgana, gives a
description of this remarkable phenomenon. When the
rising sun shines from that point whence its incident ray
forms an angle of 45° on the Sea of Reggio, and the bright
surface of the water in the bay is not disturbed either by the
wind or the current, whilst the spectator is placed on an
eminence, with his back to the sun and his face to the
sea, there appear on a sudden in the water, as in a catop¬
tric theatre, multiplied objects, numberless series of pilas¬
ters, arches, castles well delineated, regular columns, lofty
towers, superb palaces, with balconies and windows, extend¬
ed alleys of trees, delightful plains with herds and flocks, ar¬
mies of men on foot and horseback, and many other strange
images, in their natural colours and proper actions, passing
rapidly in succession along the surface of the sea during the
whole of the short period of time that the above-mentioned
circumstances remain as described. But if, in addition to
these circumstances, the atmosphere be highly impregnated
with vapour and dense exhalations, not previously dispersed
by the action of the wind or w aves, or rarefied by the sun,
it then happens that in this vapour, as in a curtain extended
along the channel to the height of from fifteen to twenty
feet, and nearly down to the sea, the same objects are be¬
held not only reflected from the surface of the sea, but like¬
wise in the air, though not so distinct or well defined as
the former objects from the sea.
If the air be slightly hazy and opake, and at the same
time dewy and adapted to form the iris, then the above-
mentioned objects will appear only at the surface of the
sea, as in the first case, but all vividly coloured, or fringed
with red, green, blue, and other prismatic colours.
From this account, then, it appears, that there are three
different species of Fata Morgana; the first, that which ap¬
pears at the surface of the sea, being denominated the Ma¬
rine Morgana; the second, that which is seen in the air,
called the Aerial Morgana ; and the third, that which is ob¬
served only at the surface of the sea, being the Morgana
fringed with prismatic colours. Minasi has attempted to
trace the etymology of the word Morgana, wThich, he thinks,
is derived from /xoigog, tristis, and yuvow, Icetitia afficio. This
splendid sight affects all descriptions of men with such joy,
that they run towards the sea, exclaiming Morgana, Mor¬
gana. The etymology of Minasi, therefore, though it may
at first view seem to be a contradiction in terms, will ap¬
pear not unnatural, when, besides the joy which the Mor¬
gana inspires, we take into account the corresponding sor¬
row or dejection which must be felt when it vanishes awray.
The same author informs us, that he beheld this magnifi¬
cent appearance three times, and would rather behold it
again than the most superb theatrical exhibition in the
world.
In his physical and astronomical remarks on this pheno-
FAT
menon, Minasi observes that the sea in the Straits of Mes¬
sina exhibits the appearance of a large inclined speculum;
that, in the alternate current or tide which flows and re¬
turns in the straits six hours each way, and is constantly ^
attended by an opposite current along shore to the medium ^
distance of about half a league, there are many eddies and
irregularities at the time of the change of its direction;
and that the Morgana usually appears at this period. He
ascribes the effects produced by it to the supposed inclina¬
tion of the surface of the sea, and its subdivision into diffe¬
rent planes by the contrary eddies ; and the effects produced
in the air he considers as the result of saline and other ef¬
fluvia suspended in the air. These appearances are pro¬
duced by a calm sea, and one or more strata of superincum¬
bent air differing in refractive, and consequently in reflec¬
tive power, rather than from any considerable change in
the surface of the water, with the laws of which we are
much better acquainted than with those of the atmosphere.
To this account may be added that given by Houel,
whose judgment and accuracy render his authority highly
respectable. In fine summer days, says he, when the wea¬
ther is calm, there arises above the great current a vapour,
which acquires a certain density, so as to form in the at¬
mosphere horizontal prisms, the sides of which are disposed
in such a manner, that when they come to their proper de¬
gree of perfection, they reflect and represent successively,
for some time, like a moveable mirror, the objects on the
coast or in the adjacent country. They exhibit by turns
the city and suburbs of Messina, trees, animals, men, and
mountains; and are certainly beautiful aerial moving pic¬
tures. There are sometimes two or three prisms, equally
perfect; and they continue in this state from eight to ten
minutes. After this, some shining inequalities are observed
upon the surface of the prism, which render confused to
the eye the objects which had before been so accurately
delineated, and the picture vanishes. The vapour forms
other combinations, and is dispersed in air. Different
accounts have been given of this singular appearance,
which may perhaps be attributed to a bitumen which issues
from certain rocks at the bottom of the sea, and is often
seen to cover part of its surface in the Straits of Messina.
The subtile parts of the bitumen being attenuated, com¬
bined, and exhaled with the aqueous globules which are
raised by the air, and formed into bodies of vapour, give
to this condensed vapour more consistence, and contribute,
by their smooth and polished particles, to the formation ot
a kind of aerial crystal, which receives the light, reflects it
to the eye, and transmits to it all the luminous points which
colour the objects exhibited in this phenomenon, and ren¬
der them visible. ,
FATE {fatum), denotes an inevitable necessity depend-
ing upon a superior cause. The word is formed afano,
from speaking, and primarily implies the same with etfa-
tum, a word or decree pronounced by God, or a fixed sen¬
tence by which the Deity has prescribed the order of
and allotted to every person what shall befal him. 1 e
Greeks called it as if it were a chain or series o
things indissolubly linked together. _ ., ,,
The term is also used to express a certain unavoi
destination of things, by which all agents, voluntary as"
as necessary, are swayed and directed to prescribed en s.
this last sense, fate is distinguished into astrologica >‘*n
from the influence and position of the heavenly o >
which, it was supposed, gave laws both to the e}en'e\1J' fi
mixed bodies, and to the wills of men; and Stoica ,
by Cicero an order or series of causes, in which cau®e ,. _
linked to cause, one produces another, and thus a
flow from one prime first cause. To this fate t e
subject even the gods. But fate is divided by latei a
into physical and divine. Physical fate is an order ai
Y
Mb jia
F A U
F A W
Fa
Fail
h ries of natural causes, with their consequent effects; and the
results of it are all the events and phenomena of nature.
■a' Divine fate is what is more usually called Providence.
'J FATESCH, one of the circles into which the Russian
province of Kursk is divided. It is a district fertile in corn,
watered by the Usoscha, and contains about 46,000 inhabi¬
tants. The chief place is of the same name, and has a popu¬
lation of 2450 persons. It is situated in long. 37. 5. E.
and lat. 52. 20. N.
FATHEMITES, Fathimites, or Fatimites, the de¬
scendants of the prophet Mahommed by Fathema, or Fa¬
tima, his daughter.
FATHER, a term of relation denoting a person who
has begotten a child. By the laws of Romulus, a father
had an unlimited power over his children. ~ Amongst the
Lacedaemonians, as we learn from Aristotle’s Politics, the
father of three children was excused from the duty of
mounting guard for the security of the city; and the
father of four children was exempted from every public
burden. The Poppaean law, amongst the Romans, granted
many valuable privileges to the father of three children,
one of which was, that he should be excused from civil of¬
fices, and that the mother should have liberty, in her father’s
lifetime, to make a will, and manage her estate without the
authority of tutors.
Natural Father is he who has illegitimate children.
Adoptive Father is he who takes the children of some
other person, and acknowledges them as his own.
Putative Father is he who is only the reputed or sup¬
posed father.
Father is also used in theology to signify the first per¬
son in the Trinity.
Father, in Ecclesiastical History, is applied to ancient
authors who have preserved in their writings the traditions
of the church. Thus, St Chrysostom, St Basil, and others,
are called Greek Fathers ; St Augustin and St Ambrose,
Latin Fathers. No author who w rote later than the twelfth
century is dignified with the title of Father.
Father is also a title of honour given to prelates and
dignitaries of the church, to the superiors of convents, to
congregations of ecclesiastics, and to persons venerable
for their age or quality. Thus we say, the right reverend
father in God, the father general of the Benedictines, the
fathers of the council of Nice, the father of his country,
and so in many other cases.
FATHOM, alineal measure containing six feet, and used
chiefly at sea for measuring the length of cables and cor¬
dage.
FATSISIO, a barren and almost inaccessible island,
about eighty miles from the south coast of the isle of Ni-
phon. Thither criminals are banished, and employed in
making gold brocade. Long. 140. 10. E. Lat. 33. 40. N.
FATUARII, in Antiquity, were persons who, appearing
inspired, foretold things to come. The word is formed from
Patua, wife of the god Faunus, who was supposed to in¬
spire women with the knowledge of futurity, as Faunus
himself did men. Fatua had her name from fari, used in
the same sense as vaticinari, to prophesy.
FAUNA, a deity amongst the Romans, who was daugh¬
ter of Picus, and originally called Marica. Her marriage
with Faunus procured her the name of Fauna, and her
knowledge of futurity that of Fatua and Fatidica. It is
said that she never saw a man after her marriage with
Faunus, and that her uncommon chastity occasioned her
being ranked among the gods after death. According to
Some, she is the same as Bona Mater.
FAUNALIA, in Antiquity, Roman feasts celebrated in
mnour of the god Faunus, who was the same amongst the
womans as Pan amongst the Greeks.
The Faunalia were held on the day of the nones of De¬
cember, or on the fifth day of that month. The principal
sacrifice was a roebuck, or rather, according to Horace, a
id, attended with libations of wine and the burning of in-
cense. It was properly a country festival, being perform-
e m the fields and villages with peculiar joy and devotion,
btruvius in his Roman kalendar marks the feast of Faunus
on the day of the ides of February; and the Faunalia he
places on the fifth of the ides of December, or the 9th of
that month. He also shows, that there really were two
Faunalia; the one in February, mentioned by Ovid {Fast.
lib. iy. ver. 246), and the other on the 9th of December,
mentioned by Horace in the eighteenth ode of his third
book.
FAUNS (Fauni), among the ancients, were a species of
demi-gods inhabiting the forests, called also Sylvans (Syl-
vani), and differing little from the Satyrs. They delight¬
ed more particularly in vineyards, and generally appear as
attendants of Bacchus, in the representation of Bacchana¬
lian feasts and processions. The Fauns were represented
as half men, half goats, having the horns, ears, feet, and
tail of a goat, a very flat nose, and the rest of the figure hu¬
man. Though the Fauns were considered as demi-gods,
yet they were supposed to die after a long life. Arnobius
shows that their father or chief, Faunus himself, lived only
a hundred and twenty years.
FAUSSIGNY, a province of the duchy of Savoy, in the
kingdom of Sardinia, with the title of a barony. It extends
over 748 square miles, and contains three cities and se¬
venty-two towns and villages, with 54,520 inhabitants. It
is one of those provinces the neutrality of which was fixed
by the congress of Vienna.
FAUSTUS. See Fust.
FAVERSHAM. See Feversham.
FAVIGNANA, an island on the west coast of Sicily, in
the Mediterranean, named collectively the Formiche. It
is situated to the south of Levanso, is a very fertile spot,
and contains 2500 inhabitants, who grow corn, oil, wine,
and cotton.
FAVISSiE, in Antiquity, were, according to Festus
and Aulus Gellius, cisterns for containing water. But the
favissce in the capitol at Rome were subterranean cellars,
where old statues, broken vessels, and other things used
in the temple, were usually laid up. They were much the
same with the archives and treasury of modern churches.
FAVONIUS, amongst the Romans, the wind which
blew directly from the west.
FAVOIUNUS, an ancient orator and philosopher of
Gaul, who flourished under the emperor Hadrian, and
taught with high reputation both at Athens and Rome.
Many works are attributed to him, amongst which may be
mentioned a Greek miscellaneous history, often quoted by
Diogenes Laertius.
FAWKES, Francis, a poet of some note, who received
his school education at Leeds, whence he was removed to
Jesus College, Cambridge, where he took the degrees in
arts. Having early entered into holy orders, he settled^
first at Bramham in Yorkshire, near the elegant seat of
that name, which he celebrated in verse in 1745, in a quar¬
to pamphlet published anonymously. His first poetical
publications were, Gawin Douglas’s Description of May
and Winter modernized. Having afterwards removed to
the curacy of Croydon in Surrey, he recommended himself
to the notice of Archbishop Herring, then residing there
on account of his health, to whom, besides other pieces, he
addressed an ode on his recovery in 17o4, which is printed
in Mr Dodsley’s collection. In 1755 his grace collated him
to the vicarage of Orpington, with St Mary Gray in Kent;
and Mr Fawkes lamented his patron’s death in I7o7 m an
eleerv styled Aurelius, first printed, with his grace’s seven
sermons, in 1763. In April 1774, by the tavour of Dr
f]
496
Fawn
II
Feast.
F E A
F E A
Plumtree, he exchanged his vicarage for the rectory of
Hayes. He was also one of the chaplains to the princess
dowager of ^Wales. He published a volume of poems by
subscription in 8^0, 1761; the Poetical Kalendar, 1763,
and Poetical Magazine, 1764, in conjunction with Mr \\ oty ;
Partridge Shooting, an eclogue, to the honourable Charles
Yorke, 1767, 4to ; and a Family Bible with notes, in 4to,
a compilation. But his great strength lay in translation, in
which, since Pope, few have surpassed him. His fragments
of Menander ; his works of Anacreon, Sappho, Bion, Mos-
chus, and Musaeus, 12mo, 1760; his Idyllia of 1 heocritus,
by subscription, 8vo, 1767 ; and his Argonautics of Apol¬
lonius Rhodius, by subscription, a posthumous publication,
completed by the Reverend Mr Meen of Emanuel College,
Cambridge, 8vo, 1780, may be referred to in proof of this
observation. He died on the 26th August 1777.
FAWN, among sportsmen, a buck or doe of the first
year, or the young one of the buck’s breed in its first year.
FAYOUM, a province of Egypt. See the article Egypt.
FE, Santa, a city of Spain, on the river Xenil, in the
province of Granada, which was almost entirely overthrown .
by an earthquake in 1807. Near to it is Sota de Roma,
the estate conferred on the Duke of Wellington by the go¬
vernment of Spain.
FE, Fo, or Fohi, the name of the chief god of the Chi¬
nese, whom they adore as the sovereign of heaven. They
represent him as shining all in light, with his hands hid un¬
der his robes, to show that his power does all things invi¬
sibly. He has at his right hand the famous Confucius, and
at his left Lanza or Lanca, chief of the second sect of their
religion.
FEALTY, in Law, an oath taken on the admittance of
any tenant, to be true to the lord of whom he holds his
land. By this oath the tenant holds in the freest manner,
on account that all who have fee hold per fidem et Jidu-
ciam, that is, by fealty at the least.
This fealty, at the first creation of it, bound the tenant
to fidelity, the breach of which was the loss of his fee. It has
been divided into general and special; general, that which
is to be performed by every subject to his prince ; and
special, required only of such as, in respect of their fee,
are bound by oath to their lords. To all manner of te¬
nures, except tenancy at will, and frank-almoign, fealty is
incident, though it chiefly belongs to copyhold estates held
in fee and for life.
FEAR is defined an apprehension of impending evil, at¬
tended with a desire of avoiding it. Fear in the extreme
is called terror. Fear, in Scripture, is used in various
senses. The fear of God is either filial or servile. Filial
fear is a holy affection or gracious habit in the soul, by
which it is inclined to obey all God’s commandments, and
to hate and avoid evil. Slavish or servile fear is the conse¬
quence of guilt; a judicial impression produced by sad
thoughts of the provoked majesty of heaven ; an alarm
within that disturbs the rest of a sinner. Though this fear
be in wicked men, yet it is often preparative to faith and
repentance. Fear is likewise used for the object of fear.
God says that he will send Yns fear before his people ; that
is, a dread wrought hy him, in order to terrify and destroy
the inhabitants of Canaan.
Fear was deified by the Pagans. Tullius Hostilius
brought the worship of this deity to Rome. The Ephori
of Sparta erected a temple to Fear, near their tribunal, in
order to strike awe into those who approached it. Fear
was likewise worshipped at Corinth.
FEAST, or Festival, in a religious sense, is the cere¬
mony of feasting and thanksgiving. The word is formed
from the Latin festum, which some derive aferiari, to keep
holiday ; others, however, derive it from the Greek kanau, I
feast or entertain, from sffrva, hearth, or fire. Feasts and the
ceremonies connected with them have formed great part of p
the religion of almost all nations and sects ; of the Greeks,
Romans, Hebrews, Christians, and Mahommedans.
The first feasts amongst the Greeks were celebrated in
solemn assemblies of the whole nation, on occasion of their
games, as the Olympian, the Pythian, the Isthmian, and
Nemaean ; but in process of time they had many others,
the principal of which are enumerated in the course of this
work.
The Romans also had abundance of stated feasts in ho¬
nour of their deities and heroes; as the Saturnalia, Cerealia,
Lupercalia, Liberalia, Neptunalia, Consualia, Portumnalia,
Vulcanalia, Palilia, Divalia, and others. They had also
feasts instituted occasionally, as Carmentalia, Quirinalia,
Terminalia, Floralia, Compitalia, Lemuria, Yernalia; be¬
sides other moveable and occasional ones, to give thanks to
the gods for benefits received ; to implore their assistance,
or to appease their wrath, as the Paganalia, Feralia, Bac¬
chanalia, Ambarvalia, Amburbalia, Suovetaurilia, and vari¬
ous others, denominatedas Sementinae, Latinae, &c.
The feasts were divided into days of sacrifice, and days of
banqueting and feasting ; days of games, and days of rest
or ferice. As there was but little history written, or at
least published, in those days, one end of these feasts was
to preserve the remembrance of past occurrences.
The principal festivals of the Jews were the feast of trum¬
pets, that of the expiation, that of tabernacles, that of the
dedication, that of the passover, that of pentecost, and that
of purification. The modern Jews have other feasts mark¬
ed in their kalendar, but these are of modern institution.
The Mahommedans, besides their weekly feast or Sabbath,
which rs observed on Friday, have two solemn feasts, the first
of which is called the Feast of Victims, and celebrated on
the tenth day of the last month of their year ; and the se¬
cond is called Bairam. The Chinese have two solemn
annual feasts, in the memory of Confucius, besides others
of less note on various days of the year.
Festivals amongst us are either immoveable or moveable.
Immoveable feasts are those constantly celebrated on the
same day of the year. The principal of these are Christ¬
mas day or the Nativity, the Circumcision, Epiphany,
Candlemas or the Purification, Lady Day or the Annunci¬
ation, called also the Incarnation and Conception, All
Saints, and All Souls ; besides the days of the several apos¬
tles, which with us are feasts, though not feria. Move-
able feasts are those which are not confined to the same
day of the year. Of these, the principal is Easter, which
gives the law to the rest, all of them following and keeping
their proper distances from it; as Palm Sunday, Good
Friday, Ash-Wednesday, Sexagesima, Ascension-Day,
Pentecost, and Trinity-Sunday. The four feasts which the
English laws take special notice of are, the Annunciation
of the blessed Virgin Mary, or Lady Day, the 25tn 0
March; the nativity of St John the Baptist, on the Jfii
of June ; the Feast of St Michael the Archangel, on t ie
29th of September; and that of St Thomas the Apost e,
on the 21st of December. _
Besides these feasts, which are general, and enjoined >
the church, there are others local and occasional, enjoina
by the magistrate, or voluntarily observed by the peop e,
as days of thanksgiving for delivery from wars, plagues,
and other evils ; and also the vigils or wakes in commemo
ration of the dedication of particular churches.
The prodigious increase of festival days in the Chris ian
church commenced towards the close of the fourth cen
tury, and was occasioned by the discovery which was t en
made of the remains of martyrs and other holy 1^en> ^
the commemoration of w hom they were established,
instead of being set apart for pious exercises, these festn
were abused in indolence, voluptuousness, and crimina pr
It.
•w
F E A
Y tices. Many of them were instituted on a Pagan model,
and perverted to the most scandalous purposes.
Feast is also used to signify a banquet or sumptuous
entertainment, without any immediate view to religion.
The use of the word, in this sense, arises from the cir¬
cumstance that part of the ceremony in many of the ancient
festivals, both those of the heathens and of the Christians,
was good eating; though Huet chooses to derive the word
from festinare, which, in an ancient Latin version of Ori-
gen’s. Commentary on Matthew, signifies to feast: Ut ve-
niens illuc Jesus festinet, cum discipulis suis.
Social or civil feasts were also expressed by the words
eonvivium and compotatio or conccenatio. Cicero says that,
in the Roman language, the word convivium, which means
people assembled at table, is more significant of refinement
than the Greek word compotatio or conccenatio. The Ro¬
man term, says he, expresses the conjunction of body and
mind which ought to take place at an entertainment; the
Greek merely denotes what relates to the body alone.
As food is necessary to our existence, eating together
forms a bond of association among mankind. People at a
feast, says one of the ancients, seem to form but one body
and one soul. All nations, whether savage or civilized,
have regarded the pleasures of the table as the occasion of
the most agreeable society. This species of enjoyment,
abstracting from its susceptibility of abuse, makes but one
family of all whom it brings together. It levels the dis¬
tinctions introduced by policy or prejudice, and disposes
men to regard one another as brethren. It is here that
people feel the equality established by nature, forget the
evils of life, extinguish their hatred, and cause their enmi¬
ties to cease. For this reason Aristotle considers as a
breach of the social principle the custom of eating apart
which obtained amongst the ancient Egyptians, and praises
the convivial repasts established by Minos and Lycurgus.
The Persians generally deliberated on business at table,
but never determined or put their determinations in exe¬
cution, except in the morning before having eaten.
When the Germans, says Tacitus, wanted to reconcile
enemies, to form alliances, to appoint chiefs, or to treat of
war and peace, it was during the repast that they took coun¬
sel ; a time in which the mind is most open to the impres¬
sions of simple truth, or most easily animated to great at¬
tempts. These artless people during the conviviality of
the feast spoke without disguise, and next day weighed the
counsels of the former evening; they deliberated at a time
when they were not disposed to deceive, and took their re¬
solution when they were least liable to be deceived.
By a fundamental law of the state, people of rank amongst
the Rhodians were obliged to dine daily with those who
had the management of affairs, in order to deliberate with
them concerning such things as were necessary or useful
for the country; and on this account the principal mini¬
sters of the kingdom were obliged to keep open table for
all who could be of service to the state.
Amongst the Romans, the place where they supped was
generally the vestibule, lest a more retired part of the house
should encourage licentiousness and disorder. There were
several laws which restricted their meals to the vestibules.
But when luxury reigned at Rome, the wealthy had su¬
perb halls for their entertainments. Lucullus had many,
each of which bore the name of some deity ; and this was
a mark which indicated to the servants the expense of the
entertainment. The expense of a supper in Lucullus’s
ia I of Apollo amounted to fifty thousand drachmas. The
Ia 1 which Nero feasted imitated the revolutions of the
eavens, by the circular motion of its walls and its ceiling;
. rePresented the different seasons of the year, chang-
'ng at every course, and showering down flowers and per-
umes on the guests.
VOL. IX.
F E A
tJhe^°manc did not’ like us’ confine themselves to one
Sito f1611- fewtS Lthery had SeneraUy two ; one for the v
e vice of animal food, which was afterwards removed; and
another for the dessert, at which last they sung, and pour-
ed out their libations. The Greeks and eastern nations
observed the same custom, and even the Jews in their
solemn feasts and at sacrifices.
The Romans, in the time of Nero, had tables made of
citron wood brought from Mauritania, which were cover¬
ed with purple and gold, and raised on feet of carved ivory.
It is said that these tables were more precious than goid-
itseit. Dion Cassius affirms that Seneca had five hundred
of these, which he made use of one after another; and
I ertulhan informs us that Cicero had only one. The Ro¬
mans usually chose the king of the feast, or chairman as
we would call him, by a cast of the dice.
\\ e learn from Herodotus that the ancients had neither
cups nor bowls, but drank out of little horns tipped with
silver or gold.
The Greeks and Romans kept a domestic for the pur¬
pose of reading during their meals and feasts. The head
of the family sometimes performed the office of reader him¬
self ; and we learn that the Emperor Severus often read
whilst his family sat or rather reclined at table. The time
of reading was generally at supper; and guests were in¬
vited to a reading, as they are now a-days to play cards.
In their flourishing times the Greeks did not, according
to their own expression, profane the sanctity of the table,
but rather adorned it with ingenious and elegant conversa¬
tion, proposing moral topics, of which Plutarch has pre¬
served a collection. Ancient philosophers have remarked,
that heroes rarely assembled convivially without bringing
affairs of consequence into discussion, or deliberating upon
those which regarded either present affairs or future con¬
tingencies.
4«)7
Feast.
\Y hen Rome became corrupted with luxury, singers, dan¬
cers, musicians, stage-players, and people who told pleasant
tales, were brought into the hall to amuse the guests. Plu¬
tarch informs us that Ceesar, after his triumphs, treated the
Roman people at twenty-two thousand tables ; and by cal¬
culation it would seem that there must have been at these
tables upwards of two hundred thousand persons.
It was a custom among the Romans, at the end of a feast,
to drink out of a large cup as often as there w ere letters in
the names of their mistresses.
Feasting seems to have been the chief delight of the
Germans, Gauls, Britons, and all the other Celtic nations;
and in this they indulged themselves to the utmost, as often
as they had an opportunity. “ Amongst these nations,” says
an author who had carefully studied their manners, “ there
is no public assembly, either for civil or religious purposes,
duly held ; no birth-day, marriage, or funeral, properly ce¬
lebrated ; no treaty of peace or alliance rightly cemented,
without a great feast.” It was by frequent entertainments
of this kind that the great men or chieftains gained the af¬
fections and rewarded the services of their followers; and
those who made the greatest feasts were sure to be most
popular, and to have the largest retinue. These feasts, in
which plenty was more regarded than elegance, commonly
lasted several days, and the guests seldom retired until they
had consumed the provisions and exhausted the liquors pro¬
vided for the occasion. Athenaeus describes an entertain¬
ment given by Arcamnes, a wealthy prince of Gaul, which
continued a whole year without interruption, and at which
all the people of Gaul, and even all strangers who passed
through that country, were made welcome. At these feasts
they sometimes consulted about the most important affairs
of state, and formed resolutions relating to peace and war ;
imagining that men spoke their real sentiments with the
greatest freedom, and were apt to form the boldest designs,
u
498
EEC
FEE
Feather when their spirits were exhilarated with the pleasures of the pearance, though the houses are low, from the walls and F
II table. The conversation at these entertainments frequent-
Fechingse.jy turned on the great exploits which the guests them-
selves or their ancestors had performed in war ; a circum¬
stance which sometimes occasioned quarrels, and even
bloodshed. . .
As to the drink used at these feasts, particularly in Britain
pavilions being kept in good repair. Near the town is a
fine bridge crossing the river; it is built of stone, and is
216 paces in length.
FECAMP, a sea-port city of the department of the Lower
Seine, in France, situated at the mouth of the river of the
same name. It has a good tide harbour. It contains 1000
mp
it seems probable that before the introduction of agricul- houses and 7939 inhabitants, many of whom are employed
ture into the island, mead, or honey diluted with water, in the herring and mackerel fisheries, some m ship-build-
was the only strong liquor known to its inhabitants, as it mg, and others in the manufacture of sail-cloth, flannels,
was to many other ancient nations. And this continued to counterpanes, and tent-cloth. Long. 0. 16. 40. E. Lat.49.
be a favourite beverage amongst the ancient Britons and 46-N- , c • . m
their posterity long after they had become acquainted with FECIALES, or Fceciales, an order of priests or officers
other liquors The mead-maker was the eleventh person amongst the ancient Romans, consisting of twenty persons,
in dignity in the courts of the ancient princes of Wales, and appointed to proclaim war, to negotiate peace, and to per-
took place next to the physician. An ancient law of that form various other duties.
principality shows how much this liquor was esteemed by Festus derives the word from feno, I strike, m feme
the British princes. “ There are three things in the court fiedus signifies to conclude a treaty ; and accordingly, in-
which must be communicated to the king before they are stead offeciales he would have it written fenaks. Others
made known to any other person : first, every sentence of derive it from fmlus, which was anciently writtenpro-
the iudge • second, every new song ; and, third, every cask bably from^/zcfes, faith ; and others again from facio^ feci, I
of mead” ’ This was perhaps the liquor which is called by make, because they made war and peace. Vossius chooses
Ossian the joy and strength of shells, with which his heroes to derive it from fata, the latter supine of the vevbfari, to
were so much delighted. After the introduction of agri- speak, in which sense the feciales should be the same with
culture, ale or beer became the most general drink of all oratores ; and this opinion is also confirmed by the autho-
the British nations who practised that art, as -it had long rity of Varro, who says that they were called indifferently
been of all the Celtic nations on the Continent. If the feciales and oratores.
Phoenicians or Greeks imported any wine into Britain, it The feciales were a sort of heralds, who, when the Ro-
was only in small quantities ; and that generous liquor was mans had any dispute with their neighbours, were sent first
but little known in this island until after it had been con¬
quered by the Romans.
In the reign of Charles V. of France, the custom of
placing the lights upon the table had not yet been intro¬
duced. A number of domestics held the lights in their
hands during the whole time of the repast.
FEATHER, in Physiology, a general name for the co¬
vering of birds ; it being common to the animals of this class
to have their whole body, or at least the greater part of it,
covered with feathers or plumage. Feathers form a con¬
siderable article in commerce, particularly those of the os¬
trich, heron, swan, peacock, and goose, for plumes, orna¬
ments of the head, filling of beds, writing-pens, and the
like.
Geese are plucked five times a year in some parts of
Great Britain ; and in cold seasons many of them die by
this barbarous custom. Those feathers which are brought
from Somersetshire are esteemed the best, and those from
Ireland the worst.
Eider down is imported from Denmark ; the ducks which
supply it being inhabitants of Hudson’s Bay, Greenland,
Iceland, and Norway. Our own islands west of Scotland
breed numbers of these birds, v/hich form a profitable
branch of trade to the poorer class of the inhabitants. Hud¬
son’s Bay also furnishes very fine feathers, supposed to be
of the goose kind. The down of the swan is brought from
Dantzic.
FEBRIFUGE, an appellation given to such medicines
as serve to mitigate or remove a fever.
FEBRUARY, in Chronology, the second month of Nu- The feciales were crowned with verbena or vervain wnen
ma’s year. This month is not found in the calendar of they proceeded to declare war. The head was covere
Romulus, but was added to the year by Numa. It had its a veil, over which the crown was applied. In this eq^
name from Februa, Februaca, or Februalis, all names of page they proceeded to the frontiers of the country w
Juno, who presided over the purifications of women ; in had been declared hostile, and threw a bloody dart or ja^
this month also the Lupercalia were held in honour of Juno,
and women were purified by the priests of Pan Lyceus at
that festival. February, in a common year, consists only
of twenty-eight days ; but in bissextile year it has twenty-
nine, on account of the intercalary day added that year. tuau sxgumcs a, <_ci tam emu..   , ,
FECHINGSE, a small and neatly-built city of China, in barristers, physicians, and certain other professiona p
the province of Pe-tche-li, near Pekin. It has a good ap- sons, as a reward for their pains and labour.
to demand the thing intended to be usurped, or to require
satisfaction for the injury alleged to be done. If an answer
satisfactory to the people and the senate was not returned
by them, they were dispatched again to declare war; and
the same thing took place in treating for peace, fixe, feci¬
ales being the only persons appointed to negotiate between
the senate and the enemy.
Plutarch, in the life of Numa, and Dionysius of Halicar¬
nassus, observe that the feciales were first instituted by that
prince. The latter adds that they were originally chosen out
of the best families in Rome ; that their office, w hich was re¬
puted a sort of sacerdotium, or priesthood, only ended with
their life ; that their persons were sacred and inviolable, lihe
those of other priests ; that they were even charged to see
that the republic did not declare war unjustly; that they were
authorized to receive the complaints and remonstrances of
nations who pretended to have been in any way injured by
the Romans ; that if these complaints were found just, they
were bound to seize the criminals, and to deliver them up
to those whom they had offended ; that they were invested
with the rights and privileges of ambassadors; that they not
only concluded treaties of peace and alliance, but took care
that these w ere executed, and even abolished them, if they
were found not to be equitable. Livy (lib. i. cap. 24) ^s"
cribes the institution of feciales to Ancus Martius, in the
year of Rome 114. But Varro assures us, that in his time
most of the functions of the feciales were set aside ; thoug i
Plutarch observes that they had still some authority in is
time. . .
when
Cfc Kt J  v
lin into the ground within the same. In Livy and other an
cient authors we have the formula used in such declara ion
FEE, in Law, signifies a complete feudal propel ty.
Feudal Law. ■ ,* to
Fee also signifies a certain allowance or 'iono\an^
Fee
F'elo 'e-
F E L
Fee-Farm, a kind of tenure without homage, fealty, or
other service, except that mentioned in the feoffment, which
is usually the full rent, or at least a fourth part of it.
FEEJEE Islands, a group of islands in the South Paci¬
fic Ocean, the exact number of which has not been ascer¬
tained. They are situated from about 15. 33. to 19. 15.
of south latitude, and extend to about 175. east longitude.
They are equally fertile with the generality of the islands
in the South Pacific Ocean, and abound in the same sort
of produce. Sandal wood is plentiful, and a considerable
trade is carried on with the Europeans in this article. The
inhabitants are a ferocious race, being all cannibals. These
islands were originally discovered by Tasman in the year
1643. They were seen by Captain Bligh in the years 1789
and 1792; and many European vessels have since visited
them.
FEET-Bearer, the name of an officer in the courts of
the ancient Anglo-Saxon and Welsh princes. He was a
young gentleman, whose duty it was to sit on the floor, with
his back towards the fire, and hold the king’s feet in his
bosom all the time he sat at table, in order to keep them
warm and comfortable ; a piece of state and luxury un¬
known, and, we may add, unnecessary, in modern times.
FEHRABAD, or Fahrabad, a town of Persia, in the
province of Mazanderan, situated on the southern shore
of the Caspian Sea, at the mouth of a river. Its popula¬
tion, formerly computed at 16,000, consisted principally of
Armenians and Georgians, who are represented as having
been lively, active, and industrious. The neighbouring
country is fertile, producing sugar, cotton, and silk ; and
the inhabitants carry on a trade in rice, salt-fish, and pot¬
tery. It is 126 miles west of Asterabad, and 270 north of
Ispahan. Long. 53. 12. E. Lat. 35. 56. N.
FELANICHE, a Spanish town on the island and in the
province of Majorca, with some distilleries of brandy and
wine, and with a population of 6800 souls. Long. 0. 14. W.
Lat. 39. 32. N.
FELAPTON, in Logic, one of the six first modes of
the third figure of syllogisms ; the first proposition being
an universal negative, the second an universal affirmative,
and the third a particular negative.
FELEGYAZA, a city of Hungary, in the circle of the
Hither Danube, where the archives of the circle are pre¬
served, and all the legal processes are carried on. It is
also the head quarters of the army. It contains 1028 houses
and 9405 inhabitants. Long. 19. 45. E. Lat. 46. 43. N.
FELIBIEN, Andre', was born at Chartres in 1619, and
w ent as secretary under the Marquis de Fontenay-Mareuil,
who was French ambassador at the court of Rome in 1647.
On his return M. Colbert procured him the place of historio¬
grapher to the king, and also that of superintendent of build¬
ings, and of the arts and manufactures, in France. He be¬
came afterwards deputy comptroller-general of the bridges
and dykes in that kingdom ; and died in 1695. Felibien
WTote several pieces relating to the fine arts, the principal
0 wnich is his Dialogues on the Lives and Works of the
most eminent Painters.
, ^hJCITAS, Felicity, or Happiness, was deified by
t ie ancient Pagans. Lucullus built a temple to this god-
ess, and Lepidus erected another. The Greeks paid di-
\ine worship to Macaria, daughter of Hercules, who was
e same with the Felicitas of the Romans. This deity is
pictured upon medals, generally with a cornucopia in one
pn ^ a ca(^uceus in th6 other.
ELICUDI, one of the Lipari Islands, in the Mediter¬
ranean Sea, belonging to the kingdom of Naples. It is in-
a ited by about 1200 persons, who grow wheat and pro-
Uppj™e’ some of which is shipped at the small haven,
vi 1 l DE ^E’ a Person who deliberately lays
0 ent hands on himself, and is the occasion of his untime-
F E L
ly death, whether by hanging, drowning, stabbing, shoot-
mg, or in any other way.
vrwvS’v0 a Person Suilty of felony.
Y, in the general acceptation of the law, com-
pre lent & every species of crime which occasions at com¬
mon law the forfeiture of lands or goods. This most frequent¬
ly happens in those crimes for which a capital punishment
either is or used to be inflicted ; for those felonies which are
called clergyable, or to which the benefit of clergy extends
wxme anciently punished with death in all lay or unlearned
ottenders ; though now, by the statute law, that punish¬
ment is lor the first offence universally remitted. Treason
itself, says Sir Edward Coke, was anciently included under
the name oifelony ; and in confirmation of this we may ob¬
serve, that the statute of treasons (25 Edw. III. c. 2), speak¬
ing of some dubious crimes, directs a reference to parlia¬
ment, that it may be there adjudged “ whether they be
treason or other felony.” All treasons, therefore, strictly
speaking, are felonies ; though all felonies are not treason.
And to this also we may add, that all offences now capital
are in some degree or other felonies ; but this is likewise
the case with^some other offences which are not punished
with death, as suicide, where the party is already dead,
homicide by chance-medley or in self-defence, and petit-
larceny or pilfering ; all which are, strictly speaking, felo¬
nies, as they subject those who commit them to forfeitures.
Upon the whole, therefore, the only adequate definition of
felony seems to be that which was before laid down, name¬
ly, an offence which occasions a total forfeiture of either
lands or goods, or both, at the common law, and to which
capital or other punishment may be superadded, according
to the degree of guilt.
The felony, or felonia, is undoubtedly of feudal ori¬
ginal, being frequently to be met with in the books of feuds,
and in other works ; but the derivation of it has much puz¬
zled the juridical lexicographers Prataeus, Calvinus, and
others. Some derive it from the Greek tprikog, an impostor
or deceiver ; others from the Latin fallo, fefelli, to coun¬
tenance which they would have it caWed fellonia. Sir Ed¬
ward Coke, as his manner is, has given us a still stranger
etymology; that it is crimen animo felleo perpetratum, a
crime perpetrated with a bitter or gallish inclination. But
all agree in the description that it is such a crime as works
a forfeiture of the offender’s lands or goods. And this gives
great probability to Sir Henry Spelman’s derivation from
the Teutonic or German, in which language, indeed, as the
word is clearly of feudal origin, we ought rather to look
for its signification, than amongst the Greeks and Romans.
Felon, then, according to him, is derived from two north¬
ern words, namely, fee, signifying the fief, feud, or benefi¬
ciary estate ; and lon, which means price or value. Felony
is therefore the same as pretium feudi, the consideration for
which a man gives up his fief; as we say in common speech,
such an act is as much as your life or estate is worth. In
this sense it clearly signifies the feudal forfeiture or act by
which an estate is forfeited, or escheats to the lord.
To confirm this we may observe, that in the sense of
forfeiture to the lord, the feudal writers constantly use it.
For all those acts, whether of a criminal nature or not,
which at this day are generally forfeitures of copyhold es¬
tates, are styled felonice in the feodal law : scilicet, per quas
feudum amittitur. Thus, si domino deservire noluerit; si
per annum et diem cessaverit in petenda investitura; si
dominum ejuravit, id est, negavit se a domino feudum ha¬
bere ; si a domino in jus eum vacante, ter citatus non com-
paruerit; all which, with many others, are still causes of
forfeiture in our copyhold estates, and were denominated
felonies by the feudal constitutions. So likewise injuries of
a more substantial or criminal nature were denominated
felonies, that is, forfeitures; as assaulting or beating the
499
Felon
II
Felony.
ii
500
F E L
Felt lord ; vitiating his wife or daughter, si dominum cucurbi-
II taverit, id est, cum uxore ejus concubuent; all these are es-
Feiacea. teemej felonies, and the latter is expressly so denominat-
J e(i si fecerit feloniam, dominum forte cucurbitando. And
as these contempts or smaller offences were felonies or acts
of forfeiture, of course greater crimes, as murder and rob¬
bery fell under the same denomination. On the other
hand, the lord might be guilty of felony, or forfeit hisseig-
norv to the vassal, by the same act as that by which the vas¬
sal would have forfeited his feud to the lord. Sidommus
commisit feloniam, per quam vasallus amitteret feudum si
eum commiserit in dominum, feudi propnetatem etiam do-
minus perdere debet. One instance given of this sort ot
felony in the lord is beating the servant of his vassal, so
that his service is lost; which seems merely m the nature
of a civil iniury, in as far as it respects the vassal. And all
these felonies were to be determined per laudamentum sive
judicium parium suorum, in the lord’s court; as with us
forfeitures of copyhold lands are presentable by the homage
in the court-baron. , , , , . ^ n
Felony, and the act of forfeiture to the lord, being thus
synonymous terms in the feudal law, we may easily trace
the reason why, upon the introduction of that law into
England, the crimes which induced such forfeiture or es¬
cheat of lands (and, by a small deflection from the original
sense, such as induced the forfeiture of goods also) were
denominated felonies. Thus it was that suicide, robbery,
and rape, were felonies; that is, the consequence ot such
crimes was forfeiture : but by long use we began to signi¬
fy by the term of felony the crime actually committed, and
not the penal consequence thereof. And upon this system
only can we explain the reason why treason in ancient
times was held to be a species of felony; we mean, be¬
cause it induced a forfeiture.
Hence it follows, that equal punishment does not by any
means enter into the true idea and definition of felony.
Felony may be without inflicting capital punishment, as in
the cases instanced of self-murder, excusable homicide, and
petit-larceny; and it is possible that capital punishments
may be inflicted, and yet the offence be no felony, as in the
case of heresy by the common law, which, though capital,
never worked any forfeiture of lands or goods, an insepar¬
able incident to felony. And of the same nature was the
punishment of standing mute, without pleading to an in¬
dictment ; which at the common law was capital, but with¬
out any forfeiture, so that such standing mute was no fe¬
lony. In short, the true criterion of felony is forfeiture;
for, as Sir Edward Coke observes, in all felonies which are
punishable with death, the offender loses his lands in fee-
simple, and also his goods and chattels ; but in such as are
not punishable he loses his goods and chattels only.
The idea of felony is indeed so generally connected with
that of capital punishment, that we find it hard to. separate
them; and to this usage the interpretations of the law
now conform. If a statute, therefore, makes any new of¬
fence felony, the law implies that it shall be punished with
death, that is, by hanging as well as forfeiture, unless the
offender pray the benefit of clergy ; which all felons are
entitled once to have, unless the same is expressly taken
away by statute.
F£!LT, in Commerce, a sort of stuff deriving all its con¬
sistence merely from being fulled, or wrought with lees
and size, without either spinning or weaving. Felt is made
either of wool alone, or of wool and hair.
FELTING, the method of working up hair or wool
into a species of cloth, independently of either spinning
or weaving. Felting in Britain is not much practised, ex¬
cepting in the manufacturing of hats. See Hat-making.
FELUCCA, in nautical affairs, a little vessel rowed with
six oars, and frequent in the Mediterranean. It has this pe-
F E N
culiarity, that its helm may be applied either in the head
or stern, as occasion requires.
FELUDJE, Felugia, a village of Asiatic Turkey, situ¬
ated on the eastern shore of the Euphrates, north of Hil-
lah, in a fertile soil, productive in dates, grapes, grain, and
cotton. Here a palace was erected by Soliman the Great,
pasha of Bagdad. It was anciently a place of celebrity,
and taken by the Romans under the Emperor Julian.
FELUDSJE, Feluja, a small island in the north-west
part of the Gulf of Persia, near the Arabian shore. It is
ten miles east of Koueit. Long. 48. E. Lat. 29. 45. N.
FEMALE (fosmina), a term peculiar to animals, sig¬
nifying that sex which conceives and generates its young.
FEMERN, an island in the Baltic Sea, a part of the
kingdom of Denmark, the centre of which is in latitude
54. 29. north, and longitude 10. 24. east. The extent of
it is fifty-two square miles, or 33,280 acres. It contains a
city and market-town, and forty villages, with 7626 inha¬
bitants. The soil is productive, and the sea around it
abounds with fish, the taking of which affords occupation
to many of the inhabitants. The capital is Burg.
FEMME Covert, in Laic, signifies a married woman.
Femme Sole, an unmarried woman, whose debts, con¬
tracted before marriage, become those of her husband
after it.
FEMININE, in Grammar, one of the genders of nouns,
namely, the second.
The feminine gender is that which denotes that the noun
or name belongs to a female. In the Latin the feminine gen¬
der is formed from the masculine by altering its termina¬
tion, particularly by changing us into a. Thus, of the
masculine bonus equus, a good horse, is formed the femi¬
nine bona equa, a good mare ; and so, of parvus homo, a
little man, is formed parva fcemina, a little woman.
In French, the feminine gender is expressed, not by a
different termination, but by a different article. Thus, k
is joined to a male, and la to a female.
In English, we are generally more strict, and express
the difference of sex, not by different terminations nor by
different particles, but by different words ; as boar and sow,
boy and girl, brother and sister ; though sometimes the fe¬
minine is formed by varying the termination of the mas¬
culine into ess, as in abbot, abbess, and the like. .
FEN, a place overflowed with water, or abounding with
bogs. Fens are either made up of a congeries of bogs, or
consist of a multitude of pools or lakes, with dry spots ot
land intermixed, like as many little islands.
FENCE, in Gardening and Husbandry, a hedge, wau.
ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made round gardens, fields,
woods, and the like. ... rn,I7n
Feece-Month, the month in which deer begin to law ,
and during which it is unlawful to hunt in the ^ orest.
commences fifteen days before midsummer, and ends n -
teen days after it. This month, by ancient foresters, is can¬
ed defence-month. , f •]
FENCING, is the proper use of the small-sword orto •
The small-sword is a light court-dress sword, made W
per gradually from the hilt to the point, and ot a size
gulated by the judgment of the wearer, if he ul?der “ f
the use of the weapon. The foil, with which the
fencing is practised, is a small quadrangular blad ,
the length of a small sword, and mounted in
same manner; but, for the convenience of the e ^
it is made lighter, blunted, and covered with lean
the point, to prevent accidents in practice. por
The first weapon in use amongst mankind, w i ^
offensive or defensive purposes, appears to have ne ^
sword, and combat with this weapon is perhaps *
old as the world. The most ancient book extant n
frequent mention of the sword, and the same thing >
Ft je
f4
fencing.
ng. said of Homer, who is full of continual allusions to this wea-
-*/ pon. The earliest swords were probably made of wood, like
those used by the natives of Mexico when first visited by the
Spaniards; but after the discovery of metals, copper swords
were introduced, of which kind many have at different times
been found in Ireland. As soon, however, as the art of
tempering steel had been discovered, that metal supersed¬
ed all other substances in the fabrication of arms; nor is it
probable that any change in this respect will take place, or
that any further improvement is attainable. The form of the
sword, however, has varied at different times and in different
countries. Those used by the Roman legions were short
and strong, with a blade seldom exceeding nineteen inches
in length, but two-edged, and calculated both for the cut
and the thrust. The British swords, called spathce, were
large, long, and heavy; and the Saxon and the Norman
partook of the same character. The ancient practice of
the weapon was probably carried to its greatest perfection
amongst the Romans, whose partiality for gladiatorial ex¬
hibitions formed a remarkable feature of their character.
The various and complicated methods of combat in which
this celebrated people took delight are either alluded to or
described by most of'their writers, particularly by Livy,
Juvenal, Seneca, and Suetonius.
The history of the modern small-sword or rapier is in¬
volved in some obscurity. The latter term, though now
considered as synonymous with the former, properly de¬
notes a long, ordinary, old-fashioned, cutting sword. But
modern usage has identified the expressions, and by a ra¬
pier is now always meant a sword for the thrust, in contra¬
distinction to one constructed for cutting. The small¬
sword or rapier is undoubtedly very ancient, although there
is reason to believe that it was not brought into general
use until armour began to wrear out of fashion. Since that
time the art of fencing has always been considered as a
gentlemanly accomplishment, and in many parts of the
Continent it is cultivated with the greatest zeal and assi¬
duity. Shakspeare, indeed, makes Hamlet, who lived at
the court of Florwendillus, a fencer ; but as our great dra¬
matist has not been very careful in avoiding anachronisms,
it may reasonably be doubted whether the small-sword has
any claim to such antiquity. Some have maintained that
the weapon was not used in England before the reign of
Elizabeth; and Darcie {Annals of Elizabeth) informs us
that one Rowland York, who appears to have betrayed De¬
venter to the Spaniards in the year 1587, wTas the first who
brought into England “ that wicked, pernicious fashion to
fight in the fields in duels with a rapier called a tucke only
for the thrust.” Stowe also mentions that long tucks and
long rapiers began about the twelfth or thirteenth year of
Elizabeth, and that “ he was held the greatest gallant that
had the deepest ruffe and largest rapier. The offence,”
he adds, “ to the eye of the one, and the hurt unto the
life of the subject that came by the other, caused her ma¬
jesty to make proclamation against them both, and to place
selected grave citizens at every gate to cut the ruffes and
breake the rapier’s points of all passengers that exceeded
a yard in length of their rapiers, and a nayle of a yard in
depth of their ruffes.”1
But at what time soever the small-sword came into use
m this country, it is not surprising that, when once intro¬
duced, it should have been cultivated as the fairest and
toost equitable instrument of duelling. Before this period
meetings for the purpose of single combat were utterly re¬
volting to human nature. No regard wras paid to equality
of arms or numbers; advantages, however unfair, were
seized whenever an opportunity offered; and the ferocious
passions, instead of being curbed, had fuller scope given
for their gratification. “ The duellist of former times,”
say s Sir Walter Scott, in a note to The Lady of the Lake,
dui not always stand upon those punctilios respecting
equality of arms, which are now judged essential to fair
combat. It is true that in formal combats in the lists,
parties were, by the judges of the field, put as nearly as
possible m the same circumstances. But in private duels
it was often otherwise." In the desperate combat which
was fought between Quelus, a minion of Henry III. of
France, and Antraquet, with two seconds on each side,
and from which only two persons escaped alive, Quelus
complained that his antagonist had the advantage of a po¬
niard which he used in parrying, whilst his own left hand,
which he was obliged to use for the same purpose, had been
cruelly mangled. When he charged Antraquet with this
odds, “ Thou hast done wrong,” answered the latter, “to
forget thy dagger at home ; we are here to fight, not to set¬
tle punctilios of arms.” In another duel of a similar kind,
however, a younger brother of the house of Aubange in
Angouleme behaved more generously, and at once threw
away his dagger when his antagonist challenged it as an
undue advantage. Nevertheless, it would be difficult to
conceive any thing more brutal and savage than the mode
in which private quarrels were at this time conducted in
France. Those who were most jealous on the point of
honour, and who thence acquired the title of raffines, did
not scruple to avail themselves of every advantage of
strength, numbers, surprise, and arms, in order to accom
plish their revenge.
Brantome, in his discourse on duels, informs us that the
Italian masters of the science of defence made a great mys¬
tery of their art and mode of instruction ; that they never
suffered any person to be present except the scholar who
was to be taught, and even examined beds, closets-, and other
places of probable concealment. The lessons of these teach¬
ers often gave the most treacherous advantages to their
pupils ; for the challenger having by usage a right to choose
his weapons, frequently selected some strange and inconve¬
nient kind of arms, the use of which he had practised un¬
der his instructor, and thus killed at his ease an antagonist,
to whom, perchance, the weapon was presented for the first
time on the field of battle. Nor can we doubt that the
same, or even still more treacherous advantages, are taught
by some Italian masters of the present day, especially when
we learn, from an authentic publication of the life of a late
pope, that in Rome upwards of a thousand persons annual¬
ly fall victims to the stiletto, either by the hands of hired
assassins, or in private quarrels. Dr Moore estimates the
number of murders perpetrated by the dagger in Naples
alone at not less than four hundred annually. Such are
the cowardly and ferocious modes in which vengeance usu¬
ally seeks its gratification amidst an enslaved and degraded
people.
The practice of deciding duels with the sword, however,
may be considered as now extinct in this country. When
the rapier was looked upon as an indispensable part of a gen¬
tleman’s dress, the facility of immediate rencounter which
it offered gave occasion to frequent and dangerous brawls,
by which the public tranquillity was disturbed, and the
lives of peaceable citizens sometimes sacrificed. But still
it may reasonably be doubted, whether the comparatively
rare occurrence of duels since the introduction of the pis-
501
Fencing.
In The Two Angry Women of Ahingdon, a comedy minted in 159.9, we find the following pathetic complaint: Sword and buckler
fights begin to grow out of use. 1 am sorry for it; 1 shall never see good manhood again. If it be once gone, this poking tight ot
rapier and dagger will come up ; then a tall man, and a good sword-and-buckler man, will be spitted like a cat or a rabbit.
502
Fencing.
fencing.
tol, be not fearfully overbalanced by a long list of fatal re-
suits, not to mention amputated limbs and distressing mu"
tilations. Be this as it may, however, the discontinuance of
sword duels in England has, in a great measure, removed
one of the chief objections against fencing; namely, that
adroitness in the use of weapons creates a fondness for con¬
tention, and a disposition to indulge in violence and insult.
Since arms have ceased to be worn, such an objection can
no longer be urged against the art of defence ; and it may
perhaps be questioned whether it had much weight, even
when arms formed part of the equipment of every one who
called himself a gentleman. All parties were thus placed
upon nearly an equal footing ; and if turbulent characteis
went about armed, there was nothing to prevent the peace¬
ably disposed from being as well provided as the brawlers,
and also on a par with them in respect of skill in the use
of weapons. If the thief makes use of a crowbar, the honest
housekeeper has the protection of an iron bolt. The pri¬
mary intention of fencing is the security of one’s own
person ; and where the weapons and the art of using them
skilfully were equally accessible to all, the evil disposed had
no advantage, and therefore small temptation to indulge
their turbulent propensities.
The practice of the foil in England, however, is now
confined to the most laudable purposes, namely, the en¬
joyment of salutary recreation, and the acquisition of a
graceful and unconstrained deportment. The beneficial
effects of moderate fencing to persons of weak constitutions,
or of studious and sedentary habits, have been attested
by medical practitioners of the first eminence. On this
subject the suffrages of the most distinguished members of
the British schools of medicine and of surgery, which Mr
Angelo has annexed to his engravings, illustrative of the
fencing attitudes, seem completely decisive.1 To the pub¬
lic speaker, also, the practice of the fencing-room has been
found to impart an ease and freedom of gesture attainable
perhaps by no other exercise, not excepting even the dis¬
cipline of the ballet-master. A modern writer on the sub¬
ject of delivery or elocution, gives it as his opinion that
the use of the foil and the broadsword diffuses ease, ele¬
gance, and grace all over the body, and imparts to the
look and gesture an appearance of intellectual vigour. It
does more ; it teaches invaluable lessons of patience and
self-command, and contributes to discipline the temper,
whilst it serves to develope the corporeal powers, and to
strengthen them by unconstrained and salutary exercise.
We may add here, that several works of merit have ap¬
peared on this subject; but the most valuable and complete
one yet published is Roland’s Treatise on the Theory and
Practice of the Art of Fencing, Edinburgh, 1823; nearly
all the others we have met with being deficient either in
explanation or in practical utility.
Having already described the weapons used in fencing,
we shall now proceed to give such definitions as appear to
be requisite for conveying a general idea of the subject,
referring the reader for the necessary details to the excellent
work of Mr Roland, which will be found equally clear in its
explanations, and comprehensive in its views of every
branch of the art.
After the first positions have been acquired, the differ¬
ent modes of attack come to be considered. Attacks are
made in three ways: first, by a quick thrust proceeding Fere,
merely from the wrist, the arm at the same time being ele- j
vated and advanced, with the point directed towards the
adversary’s breast; secondly, by what is technically called
an extension ; and, lastly, by longeing and recovering.
The parades, in which consists the defensive part of the
art, naturally follow the attack. A parade is a defence of
the body, made by an opposition of one’s blade to that of
an adversary, in such a situation as, upon his attack, to pre¬
vent the point of his sword hitting. The parades are eight
in number, viz. six simple, and two round or counter pa¬
rades, and they are called quarte, tierce, circle, octave, prime,
quinte, and round or counter in quarte and tierce. When
and how these parades are made in fencing may be learned
by consulting Mr Roland’s work (p. 32 et seqq.).
The next division of the subject includes straight thrusts,
simple disengagements, and bindings of the blade. A straight
thrust is used as an attack, when an antagonist, from his po¬
sition on guard, leaves sufficient opening to enable him to
be touched upon that side of the body on which blades are
joined. When such an opportunity offers, the wrist must
be suddenly raised, so as to bring the forte of one’s sword
to the foible of the adversary’s; after which longe immedi¬
ately on the same line to his breast, observing, however, to
preserve a correct opposition. In fencing, opposition sig¬
nifies the art of covering the body at the time of delivering
a thrust, on that side where the foils happen to cross, in
order to prevent an antagonist exchanging hits. The dis¬
engagement is made either as an attack, or as a return after
defending one’s-self from a thrust, and is executed both
under and over the wrist or foils. A disengagement over
the arm may be parried with tierce or prime, and, if made
low, by the parade of circle; from the position of octave,
by quarte, or, if the thrust be delivered low, by circle; from
the position of quinte, by prime as the readiest defence, but
quarte and tierce are also correct parades against this thrust.
There are three different ways of bincring the blade-. Ot
these, flanconnade is the principal, as it is sometimes a safe
attack when any other mode would be attended with con¬
siderable danger ; it is also made as a riposte. The attack
of flanconnade is commenced wdien the blades, are joined
in quarte, and it is parried either by octave or quinte, or
by the parade of quarte. The return over the arm, after
the parade of circle, is parried by prime or tierce, or by
changing quickly to the counter in quarte. The return
over the arm, after the parade of prime, is parried by prime
or tierce, or, if made at a considerable distance, by t e
counter in quarte. .
In fencing there are a great variety of feints, which it is
not easy to describe intelligibly without figures. K feint is
an intentional movement made to deceive an adversary.
All thrusts, therefore, may, strictly speaking, come under
the definition of feints, as the fencer’s object, in all his at¬
tacks, is to deceive his antagonist. For the sake ot conve¬
nience, however, straight thrusts and simple disengagements
have been arranged under a separate head. In executing
the feint called one, two, inside of the arm, supposing the
adversary’s body to be covered in quarte, the parade o
tierce is deceived ; commencing from the outside, that o
quarte is deceived ; from the position of the circle the oc
tave, and from that of the octave the circle is deceiv
1 “ Perhaps there is no exercise whatever,” says Mr Roland, “ more calculated for these purposes (developing and cu^tiv’® in^cer.
dily strength and activity) than fencing. Riding, walking, sparring, wrestling, running, and pitching the bar, are all or t e
tainly highly beneficial; but, beyond all question, there is no single exercise which combines so many advantages as fencing.
the muscles of every part of the body are brought into play ; it expands the chest, and occasions an equal distribution ot t e
and other circulating fluids, through the whole system. More than one case has fallen under the author’s own observation, in ^
affections of the lungs, and a tendency to consumption, have been entirely removed by occasional practice with the foil; an ^
state, upon very high medical authority, that since the institution of a Salle d'Armes at Geneva, scrofula, which was long iamen
prevalent there, has been gradually disappearing.” {Theory and Practice of Fencing, p. 163.)
t
FENCING.
i This feint, if made inside the arm, is parried by the parade
13 of quarte, or by the counter in tierce, made upon an oppo¬
nent’s second disengagement; upon the outside of the arm,
by tierce, prime, or the counter in quarte; and from the
position of the octave, by octave or quinte. The feint one,
two, is likewise made as a return after the parade of quarte
or tierce, or sometimes after that of circle or octave. The
cut and disengage is a species of one, two, in making which
from the position of quarte, an adversary’s parade of tierce
is deceived, and from the position of tierce his parade of
quarte. Cut and disengage, if made inside of the arm, is
parried by quarte, or the counter in tierce; if outside, by
tierce or counter in quarte. Feint seconde is another feint
very nearly resembling one, two, and is generally made as
a return after the parades of tierce, prime, or quinte. In
this feint the octave or quinte is deceived ; and it is parried
by tierce, prime, or quarte, the two former being the readiest
where quinte is the parade deceived, but if the feint has
been answered with octave, the thrust must then be parried
with quarte. The feint one, two, three, is made on either
side of the blade, upon precisely the same principles as one,
two; the only difference between them consisting in making
one disengagement more in the latter than in the former
movement. The cut and one tivo is a species of one, two,
three. These feints, if made over the arm, are parried with
the simple parade of tierce; if on the inside, with simple
quarte. The other feints are, doubling, which, mutatis mu¬
tandis, is executed upon precisely the same principles ; one
two and deceive the circle, executed from the inside position
of quarte; one two and deceive the counter, which may be
made from either side of the blade, but is most frequently
used commencing from the position of tierce ; feint flan-
connade, which can be commenced only from the engage¬
ment of quarte ; feint one two and deceive octave, which is
commenced either from the outside or inside engagement;
feint seconde and deceive quarte, which is always commenced
from the outside engagement, whether made as an attack
or a return; feint seconde and deceive tierce, which differs
from the preceding only in the last disengagement; one
two and deceive quarte from the position of the circle, when
the first disengagement is made over the adversary’s wrist
towards the body under the arm, and the second over the
wrist towards the inside of the body ; and doubling on both
sides of the arm, which is too complicated a feint to be fre¬
quently used in actual fencing, because it is difficult to fol-
, low the adversary’s sword with certainty through many dif¬
ferent parades, and there is much danger of time thrusts
upon feints which consist of so many disengagements.
Time thrusts are so called because the success of these
movements depends entirely upon their being executed at
the exact moment of time employed by the adversary in
planning or in executing his attack; and, when made cor¬
rectly, they are by far the most scientific movements in
fencing. There are two sorts of time thrusts, in the exe¬
cution of one of which it is necessary that the blades should
cross each other, but for the completion of the other it is
not absolutely necessary that the blades should even meet.
Those time thrusts in the execution of which the blades
cross are more scientific, and expose the fencer less to ex¬
changed hits. There are two time thrusts in opposition ;
one the time over the arm, and the other the time in octave.
I he former is applicable to all thrusts, however simple or
complex the feint may be, provided the longe is made upon
t e outside; whereas all longes directed to the inside of
t e body, or under the arm, are exposed to the time in oc-
ave ’ and thus almost every thrust made in fencing affords
an opportunity for one or other of these two movements.
ose time thrusts in which the opposition is not essential
fre upon incorrect movements of the adversary, when
ie exposes himself by the wideness of his attacks, or by
quitting the blade in a dangerous position, or by making
too many disengagements in his feints, or by giving a va¬
riety of openings wdiich the judgment of the fencer must
determine how he is to take advantage of. This thrust is
practised almost entirely upon irregular attacks, and re¬
quires great caution to be observed. It has been already
stated, that time thrusts in opposition, when correctly made
upon good attacks, are, perhaps, the finest movements in
fencing ; but young fencers should nevertheless attempt
them very seldom, from the danger of misjudging the at¬
tack, and thus exposing themselves to the certainty of being
hit. And the time out of opposition is attended with still
greater hazard, as its success depends rather upon the wide¬
ness and irregularity of an adversary’s movements, than on
the security of one’s own situation afforded by the opposi¬
tion in the former species of time thrust.
When fencing was comparatively little known, it was
thought necessary that there should be some intermediate
practice for the pupil between the lesson of the master and
his making the assault; for which purpose, it appears, he
was taught to longe, at a proper distance, at the wall. This
was called by the French tirer au mur, and was considered
as useful for planting the learner well upon his legs, accus¬
toming him to measure distance correctly, and causing his
motions, in making his extension and longe, to follow one
another in the proper succession. But as the art became
better understood, observation induced masters to place
pupils together for their mutual advantage, the one to attack
by simple disengagements, the other to parry by quarte and
tierce alternately; and this practice, from its origin, was
for a considerable time called tirer au mur, a denomination
which it still retains amongst fencers of the old school. It
is now, however, generally known by the denomination of
quarte and tierce, and, in its improved state, is not merely
intended as an exercise for the scholar, but also as a graceful
display of the principal motions of fencing; for which reason
it should be invariably practised before commencing the as¬
sault, and in fencing before company it is never dispensed
with. Quarte and tierce appears very simple in its execu¬
tion, yet it is exceedingly useful to fencers in all stages of
their progress, and difficult to acquire with such correctness
that all its movements shall take place in their proper suc¬
cession, and be made with the grace and precision charac¬
teristic of a good fencer. For a description of the method
of thrusting quarte and tierce, we must refer the reader to
the fifth chapter of Mr Roland’s work, section first. The
counters is also a practice of importance to young fencers,
and should consequently be attended to by them.
In the language of the fencing-room, making the assaidt
and playing loose are synonymous, signifying the practice of
attackand defence, or, in otherwords,.a just application of the
lessons received, which, in fact, ought to be done as correctly
as if with sword in hand. In the assault, the mere movements
should be almost mechanical; for the mind being wholly
employed in discovering and counteracting the designs of
the adversary, as well as in concealing its own, the hand
should, on the proper opportunity being given, instantly
execute that which the mind conceives, without any con¬
sideration of the manner in which the particular motion is
to be made, as loss of time would most probably prove fatal
to its success. The rules to be observed are few and dis¬
tinct. The first thing which the attention of a young fencer
should naturally be directed to is, the most secure manner
in which he can come into the position of the guard, when
opposed to an adversary ready to take every advantage of
his inexperience. Whilst advancing into distance, it is
also an object of importance to have one side of the body
secured by the position, particularly that side to which the
antagonist’s blade is opposed; so that, if he commence an
attack during this movement, he must quit the blade in or-
503
Fencing.
*
j
504
Fencing
It
Fenelon.
fen fen
der to direct his thrust or feint at any opening afforded him pieces of Grecian genius, his taste was formed on the purest Fe'i
bv the position of his opponent; and the opportunities of models, whilst Ins benign genius was simultaneously de-
attack being few, his designs will thus be the more easily veloped. Called to Pans by his uncle, the Marquis of Fe-
-b- - - - nelon, to complete his philosophical studies, and commence
the course of theology requisite for the vocation to which
he was destined, he, at the age of fifteen, underwent the
same trial as Bossuet, and preached before an auditory,
less distinguished, perhaps, than that which assembled in
the hotel de Rambouillet, but still highly respectable, who
discovered. In short, the commanding an opponent’s blade
almost obliges him to effect some change in the relative
situations of the contending parties, before he advances into
distance; and as the necessity of such previous movement
must be foreseen, any attempt of this kind is favourable for
making an attack on him. And, generally, whilst standing
in the position of the guard, it is an advantage to have one
side of the body covered, and to command the foible of
the adversary’s blade. Straight thrusts and simple dis¬
engagements, executed with quickness and vigour, should
frequently be attempted, even though they do not succeed
in hitting ; and this counsel should be particularly attended
to in fencing with a stranger. Quick simple thrusts are
almost the only certain way of ascertaining his favourite
parades, and consequently of knowing by what feints to at¬
tack him with a probability of success. The suddenness
and rapidity of the attack will inevitably extort from him
the secret of his favourite defence.
Many masters of the old school, and some, too, of the
present day, have treated disarming as a matter of import¬
ance in the art; but, from its inutility, not to mention dan¬
ger, in the field, it is now considered by the highest autho¬
rities on the subject as incompatible with good fencing.
Mr Roland, in the work already referred to, shows by what
methods this may be accomplished, and at the same time
demonstrates the utter uselessness of the trick, for it is no
better. The only advantage of disarming indeed is that
of annoying the person disarmed; for, sword in hand, it is
rendered nugatory by the use of a sword-knot, with which,
it may be presumed, every person at all acquainted with the
weapon will take especial care to fasten it to his wrist in
a serious affair. As the manoeuvre of disarming may there¬
fore be defeated by the most ordinary precaution, attempt¬
ing it can serve no other purpose than to make one play
heavily and unpleasantly; whilst, from the strength it re¬
quires for the execution of its movements, it takes from
the necessary quickness, and affords an adversary favourable
moments of attack during the time an attempt is being
made to bind his blade. In short, disarming is considered
as characteristic of unskilful fencing; since perfection in
the trick can only tend to render fencing disagreeable with
the foil and ineffectual with the sword. W e may add, that
volting, demi-volting, •pirouetting, parrying with and op¬
posing the left hand, are manoeuvres now totally disused in
fencing.
As far back as 1692 a very curious book on the subject
of fencing was published by Sir William Hope ; it is now
very scarce. In 1780 a Lieutenant M‘Arthur published a
work on fencing, which he dedicated to the Duke of Ar¬
gyll, and which, we believe, is considered as a respectable
performance. But since the latter period nothing worth
noticing appears to have been written on the subject, with
the exception of Angelo’s book, illustrated by engravings
listened to him with a mixture of surprise and admiration.
But this premature reputation rather alarmed than grati¬
fied the Marquis of Fenelon, who, in order to withdraw the
young apostle from the seductions of the world and of
glory, placed him in the seminary of St Sulpice. In this
retreat Fenelon imbibed the evangelical spirit, and acquired
the friendship of the virtuous Tronson, the superior of the
establishment; and here also he received holy orders.
About this time his religious fervour inspired him with the
design of devoting himself to the missions in Canada. But
being thwarted in this scheme by the apprehensions of his
family and the weakness of his constitution, he soon turned
his regards towards the missions of the Levant, particu¬
larly Greece, where the sacred and the profane, St Paul
and Socrates, the church of Corinth, the Parthenon, and
Parnassus, equally invited his poetical and religious ima¬
gination. Fortunately for the Catholic church and for
France, however, this project also misgave; and Fenelon,
diverted from distant missions, devoted himself to an apos-
tleship, which he thought not less useful, namely, the in¬
struction of the Nouvelles Catholiques, or newly-converted
women in Paris. The duties and cares of this employ¬
ment, in which he buried his genius during ten years, pre¬
pared him for the composition of his first work, entitled
Trade de TEducation des Filles, a masterpiece of delicacy
and of reason, which has not been equalled by the author
of Emile and painter of Sophie. This work was intended
for the Duchess of Beauvilliers, the pious mother of a nu¬
merous family. In the modest obscurity of his ministry,
Fenelon had already formed with the Dukes of Beauvil¬
liers and of Chevreuse that virtuous friendship which re¬
sisted equally the seductions of favour and the frowns of
disgrace, the smiles of the court and the decree of exile.
But in the case of Bossuet he met with an attachment
which was destined to be much less durable. Admitted
into familiarity with this great man, Fenelon studied his
genius and his life; and the example of Bossuet, whose
polemical religion exercised itself in controversies and
conversions, probably suggested to him the Trade du Mi-
nistere des Pasteurs, a work in which he combats the he¬
retics with a moderation which formed no part of the cha¬
racter of his illustrious model. The subject, the merit ot
this work, and the all-powerful suffrage of Bossuet in its
favour, induced Louis XIV. to confide to Fenelon the charge
of a new mission to Poitou. The rigorous uniformity whic
the French monarch was desirous of establishing in mat¬
ters of religion, and the resistance which sprung from the
' CiU S UUUJtV, liJLUSLI CtLCU. Uy a v/a    ’   1 ^ i j*
and the works of the two Rolands ; of these, the most com- oppressive measures adopted for this purpose, otten o
plete and satisfactory is Mr George Roland’s Treatise on ged the monarch to cause his missionaries be suppor e
the Theory and Practice of Fencing above referred to.
The only standard French works on the subject are, a
Treatise by M. Danet, director of the royal academy of
privileged fencing-masters; and one by M. Laboissier;
both works of great merit, and highly esteemed in France.
FENELON, Francois de Salignac de Lamotte, was
descended of an ancient and illustrious family, and born at
the castle of Fenelon in Perigord, on the 6th of August
1651. Under the eyes of a virtuous father, he advanced
in his literary studies with equal rapidity and success ; and
being from childhood nurtured in classical antiquity, and
in particular familiarised in his solitude with the master-
ged   H  
by troops. Fenelon, however, not only rejected peremp¬
torily the co-operation of the dragoons, but even reserv
ed to himself the choice of the ecclesiastical colleagues
who should share with him in the ministry of persuasion
and gentleness. He converted without persecuting, an
made the faith of which he was the apostle an objec o
love instead of hatred. The importance which was e
attached to such missions fixed all eyes upon l‘ene 0 ’
who had so happily acquitted himself of that entruste
his care. . . . ^
A great object was now presented to his ambition
his talents. The dauphin, grandson of Louis XI •>
( -V
F E N E L O N.
Ion. at length passed the period of childhood, and the king was
looking out for a person to whom the education of the
young prince might be confided. This was in the year
1689. By the favour of Madame de Maintenon, virtue
obtained the preference in this appointment. M. de Beau-
villiers was named governor, and he recommended to the
king Fenelon as preceptor of the young prince. These
virtuous friends, seconded by the attentions of men worthy
of imitating them, commenced the task of educating the
future king ; and history attests that there was never seen
a more perfect concurrence of principle and exertion. But
Fenelon, by the natural superiority of his genius, formed
the soul of this reunion; it was he who, transported by
the hope of one day realizing the 6eau ideal of a prince
on the throne, and viewing the happiness of France as
in a great measure dependent on the education of its fu¬
ture sovereign, destroyed with admirable art all the danger¬
ous germs which nature and the premature sentiment of
power had implanted in his youthful breast, and gradually
moulded an almost indomitable character to the habit of
the most salutary virtues. This system of education, pre¬
cious vestiges of which remain in some of the writings of
Fenelon, appears to have been a masterpiece of that genius
which devotes itself to advance the happiness of mankind.
When brought into the midst of the court, Fenelon, with¬
out intermingling in its intrigues, secured general admira¬
tion by the graces of his brilliant and ready wit, and the
charm of his noble and eloquent conversation. In his cha¬
racter the apostle and the great lord seemed to be strangely
united. Imagination and genius escaped him on all occa¬
sions ; and the most refined politeness at once embellished
and rendered pardonable in the eyes of courtiers, the ascen¬
dency of his talents. This personal superiority indeed ex¬
cited much more admiration than even the writings which
proceeded from his pen, and, at the period of his reception in
the Academy, was made the subject of eloquent commenda¬
tion. “ On sent,” says La Bruyere, writing of him soon after¬
wards, “ la force et 1’ascendant de ce rare esprit, soit qu’il
preche de genie et sans preparation, soit qu’il prononce un
discours etudie et oratoire, soit qu’il explique ses pensees
dans la conversation ; toujours maitre de 1’oreille et du coeur
de ceux qui 1’ecoutent, il ne leur permet pas d’envier ni tant
d’elevation, ni tant de faculte de delicatesse de politesse.”
This ascendency of virtue, of grace, and of genius, wdrich
excited in the hearts of the friends of Fenelon a tenderness
mixed with enthusiasm, and which had even won Madame
de Maintenon, in spite of her distrust and reserve, proved
altogether unavailing against the prepossessions of Louis
XIV. This monarch no doubt esteemed the man to whom
he had confided the education of his grandson, but he never
had any relish for his society. It is supposed indeed that
the brilliant and ready elocution of Fenelon wras distasteful
to Louis, intolerant as he was of any sort of pre-eminence
except his own. But if we cast our eyes on the letter in
which Fenelon, in an expansion of confidence, informed
Madame de Maintenon “that Louis XIV. had no idea of his
duties as a king,” we shall probably find, in the expression
of this honest but uncourtly opinion, a better explanation
of the aversion of a monarch accustomed to adulation, than
in any supposed jealousy of the superiority of his conversa¬
tional powers. Fenelon passed five years in the eminent
situation of preceptor to the dauphin, without asking or re¬
ceiving anything; and, indeed, during his residence at court
c had preserved the most irreproachable disinterestedness,
t^ouis XIV. however, who knew how to recompense merit,
even though its possessor might not be personally agreeable
0 himself, wished to repair this oversight, and, in 1694,
named Fenelon Archbishop of Cambrai.
But at this moment of favour and prosperity his credit
Was destined to receive a blow, which would have inflict-
yol. ix.
ed a mortal wound on a less inviolable reputation. Fene¬
lon, whose natural temperament disposed him to cherish
a lively and spiritual devotion, had for some time fancied
that he recognised some of his own principles in the mouth
ot a pious mad woman, who, not doubt, had great talents
tor persuasion, since she obtained an extraordinary influ¬
ence over several superior minds. Madame Guyon, writ¬
ing and discoursing on grace and on pure love, at first per¬
secuted and arrested, soon afterwards admitted into the
intimate society of the Duke of Beauvilliers, received by
Madame de IVlaintenon, and authorized to disseminate
her doctrine in St Cyr, then suspected by Bossuet, ar¬
rested of new, interrogated, and condemned, served as a
pretext for the disgrace of Fenelon. The inexorable Bos¬
suet, who loved not the mystical subtilties and refine¬
ments concerning divine love, with which the lively and
tender imagination of Fenelon was captivated, wished to
bring it about that the new Archbishop of Cambrai should
himself condemn the errors of a woman who had been his
friend. Fenelon, however, refused, both from conscience
and delicacy, to gratify his antagonist in this particular.
Fearing to compromise opinions which were dear to him,
wishing to manage and restrain an unfortunate woman,
whose only offence appeared to consist in some venial ex¬
aggeration about the love of God, and perhaps also shock¬
ed at the theological haughtiness of Bossuet, who pressed
upon him as if for the purpose of proselytism, he stood
upon the defensive, and published his Maximesdes Saintes,
which may be regarded as an indirect apology for, or
even as a subdued exposition of, the principles of Ma¬
dame Guyon. In an age when a religious opinion was a
political event, the first appearance of this work excited
murmurs of astonishment; and all those who had been
secretly envious of the genius and the promotion of Fene¬
lon, declared loudly against the errors of his theology.
Bossuet, a man incapable of indulging mean or unworthy
sentiments, but at the same time inflexible, impatient of
contradiction, and regardless of all external observances,
when he believed the faith to be compromised, denounced
to Louis XIV. in the midst of his court, the alleged he¬
resy of the Archbishop of Cambrai; and at the moment
when this attack was made upon Fenelon, the burning of
his palace at Cambrai, and the consequent loss of his li¬
brary, manuscripts, and papers, put his patience to a new
trial, yet only drew from him the touching remark, u It
is better that the fire should have consumed my dwelling
than the cottage of a poor labourer.” Nevertheless Bos¬
suet, committed by his declaration to the king, prepared
to pursue his rival, and seemed eager to extort from him
a recantation ; whilst, on the other hand, Madame de Main¬
tenon, hitherto the friend and protectress of Fenelon, treat¬
ed him with the greatest coldness. In the mean time Fe¬
nelon submitted his book to the judgment of the holy see.
Bossuet, however, having already composed remarks, in
which bitter and vehement censure is surrounded with
ostentatious expressions of friendship and regret, proposed
a conference ; but this Fenelon declined, preferring to de¬
fend his book at the tribunal to which he had appealed.
It was then that he received orders to quit the court and
retire into his diocese; a circumstance which occasioned
great grief to the Duke of Burgundy. The cabal wished
to profit by the fall of Fenelon to overthrow the Duke ot
Beauvilliers; but the latter was saved by his own virtuous
conduct; for his devotion to the cause his unfortunate
friend interested the generosity of Louis XIV. and their
design miscarried. Notwithstanding the evident desire
of this monarch, however, the court ot Rome hesitated to
condemn an archbishop so illustrious as Fenelon. But the
repugnance evinced by Innocent VIII. only served to sti¬
mulate the talents of the accuser and accused ; and, whilst
a s
505
F^ncflon.
506
F E N E L O N.
Pension, the judges (a commission consisting of ten cardinals) re-
mained undecided, the writings of the two adversaries
succeeded one another with prodigious rapidity. The
contest had, in fact, now changed its character. After
having exhausted the dogma, Bossuet threw himself upon
the facts; and the Relation du Quietisme, written with
equal spirit and malignity, seemed calculated to involve
Fenelon in a portion of the ridicule which inseparably
attached to Madame Guyon. The Abbe Bossuet, an
unworthy nephew of the Bishop of Meaux, extended s^1||
further these personal inculpations, and, having collected
some odious rumours, sought to impeach the purity of
Fenelon s character. Never did the indignation of a vir¬
tuous and calumniated spirit display itself in greater elo¬
quence. Fenelon, in his defence, demolished these vile
accusations ; and it required new letters from Louis XIV.
prepared by Bossuet, and new intrigues, carried even to
the extent of menace, to extort from the court of Rome a
reluctant condemnation, which, when obtained, was found
to be softened both in the form and in the expressions.
But the long and glorious resistance of the Archbishop
of Cambrai had exasperated to the utmost the resent¬
ment of Louis XIV.; and the hesitation of the court of
Rome to condemn him rendered his disgrace at that of
France more irrecoverable than ever. When the brief, so
long delayed, and obtained after so much discussion and
intrigue, at length arrived in 1699, Fenelon hastened to
subscribe it, and to ratify his own condemnation by a
mandatory letter, conceived in the most touching and
simple language, although Bossuet did not fail to discover
in it much parade and ambiguity.2
The modest submission of Fenelon, his silence, his epis¬
copal virtues, and the admiration which these had inspired,
would not, in all probability, have re-opened to him the
doors of the court of Louis XIV.; but an unexpected event,
which occurred at this time, served to irritate that monarch
more than ever against him. The Telemaque, composed
several years previously during the period of his favour, was
published some months after the affair about Quietism,
through the infidelity of a domestic who had been employ¬
ed to transcribe the manuscript, and who, it appears, had
contrived to take a copy for himself. The work, though
suppressed in France, was reproduced by the presses of
Holland, and obtained throughout all Europe a success
which malignity rendered injurious to Louis XIV., by seek¬
ing in it allusions to the conquests and misfortunes of his
reign. This prince, who had always disliked the political
notions of Fenelon, and had even described him as “ un
bel esprit chimerique,” regarded the author of TUlemaque
as a detractor of his glory, who to the guilt of ingratitude
added the more irritating injustice of satire. There can¬
not be a greater absurdity, however, than to construe this
production as a political satire, or to seek in it for allego¬
rical and premeditated censure of Louis XIV.; all the de¬
tails being, in fact, combined in the best manner imagi¬
nable for disconcerting allusions, and avoiding as much
as possible the inevitable fatality of resemblances. We
1 The interest of this discussion, so foreign to the ideas of our age, has been admirably preserved in the excellent / IS^ t j;ve.
by T\I- de Bausset, in which will be found an animated picture of the court of Rome and of the court of I ranee, which too * 0f the
ly interest in this frivolous question, which, however, was aggrandized by the opinions of the time, and the prodigious a
rival disputants. a m ■ v. of Cambrai,
2 Pope Innocent, who appears to have heartily disapproved the violent proceedings adopted against the Archbishop , ^
wrote thus to the prelates who had particularly distinguished themselves as adversaries of Fendlon •. Peccavit excessu anions >
tos pcccastis defectu arnoris proximi; one of the most pungent reproofs, perhaps, which is to be found in all history. , ])roduc-
3 It is now known that the Vie du Prince Eugene, though written as if it were an autobiography in the first person, is jjme.
tion of the Prince de Ligne. In this clever performance, the veteran is made to speak thus of the great Preac. ^s.° nnU^son
“ Quand Bourdaloue me fait tout craindre, Massillon me fait tout esperer. Nous sommes nes la memo annee, et je al. sge. ft
entree dans le monde, parfaitement aimable. Bossuet m’etonne;. Fenelon me touche. Je les avals vus aussi dans ma je^
Marlborough et moi, nous avons rendu au dernier tous les honneurs possibles, quand nous avons pris Cambrai.” ( Vieau ri
p. 225. Paris, 1810, 8vo.)
are convinced indeed that this generous precaution occu- Fdi: n.
pied the mind of Fenelon whilst composing the work, and W J
that, writing for the happiness of nations, he selected those
primitive manners, and antique forms of society, which
are the most remote from the picture of life presented by
modern Europe, but which served equally well to embody
his poetical conception, and to suggest those instructive
lessons which it was his grand object to inculcate. .Be¬
sides, why should he have thought of representing Louis
XIV. under the character of the imprudent Idomeneus, or
that of the sacrilegious Adrastus, rather than under the
masterly delineation of the great and virtuous Sesostris ?
Fenelon, however, soon learned the indelible impression
which Telemaque had produced upon the heart of the king;
and, resigned to his banishment from court, which he had
sometimes the weakness to call his disgrace, he sought to
console himself for the loss of the royal favour by endea¬
vouring to diffuse happiness around him in his retreat at
Cambrai. The sanctity of the ancient bishops, the severity
of the primitive church, the attraction of the most indul¬
gent virtue, the charm of the most captivating politeness,
the utmost eagerness to fulfil even the humblest duties of
the ministry, indefatigable goodness, inexhaustible charity;
such are the traits of Fenelon’s character as delineated by an
eloquent and virtuous prelate, who knew him well, and who
dwells with enthusiasm on the picture which he has drawn
of his illustrious friend. The first care of Fenelon was to
instruct the clergy of a seminary which he had founded;
nor did he even disdain to teach their catechism to the chil¬
dren of his diocese. Like the bishops of ancient days, he
often ascended the pulpit of his cathedral, and, trusting at
once to his faith and his feelings, spoke without prepara¬
tion, diffusing all the treasures of his natural eloquence.
When the misfortunes of the war, which chastised the am¬
bition of Louis XIV., brought the allied army into the
diocese of Cambrai, the occasion called for new efforts and
new sacrifices upon the part of the good archbishop, who, by
his wisdom, his firmness, and the nobleness of his language,
inspired the hostile commanders with a salutary respect for
the unfortunate provinces of Flanders. Marlborough and
Eugene indeed were worthy of listening to the voice of
the great man whose genius and worth they so well appre-
ciated.3
The situation of Cambrai on the frontiers of France at¬
tracted to the archiepiscopal residence many strangers, none
of whom approached or quitted its lord without being a -
fected with a sort of religious admiration. Not to mention
Ramsay, who passed several years under his roof, the cele¬
brated Marshal Munich, and the unfortunate Chevalier de
St George, called James III., experienced the delight ot
his society, and derived instruction from his superior saga¬
city. By the wise counsels which he gave to James 1 •>
Fenelon showed his high esteem for the English constitu¬
tion, powerful alike against despotism on the one hand, ana
anarchy on the other. The archbishop was exempt from
that narrow patriotism which undervalues whatever exis
beyond the frontiers. His virtuous and benevolent spin
F E N E L O N.
Ion. concerned itself for the welfare of the whole human family.
“ I love my family,” said he, “ better than myself; I love
my country better than my family; but I love the human
race better than my country ” The humanity of Fenelon
was not, however, confined to exaggerated speculations
and impracticable generalities, which always suppose great
ignorance of the details of human affairs. His politics were
not the dream of a virtuous but fanciful mind. He had
seen and judged both the court and the world ; he was ac¬
quainted with the history of all ages; and he was endowed
with an independence of spirit w hich raised him above the
prejudices of his age and nation. In the different memoirs
which he addressed to the Duke of Beauvilliers may be
seen proofs of the wisdom of his views respecting the great¬
est interests, particularly the succession to the throne of
Spain, the policy best suited to Philip V., the views of the
allies, the conduct of the war, and the necessity of peace.
The disastrous war of the succession having brought the
theatre of action near to the archiepiscopal residence of
Fenelon, afforded him an opportunity, after ten years’ ab¬
sence, of seeing the young prince whom he had formed,
and who had just assumed the command of the French
troops. It cannot be disguised, however, that, in the com¬
mand of armies, the pupil of Fenelon fell far below the pro¬
mise of his youth and the opinion of France respecting
him. The letters of the archbishop to the Duke of Bur¬
gundy, at this decisive epoch, evince a severe frankness,
and show the ascendency which the master had acquired
over the mind of the scholar; so much so, indeed, as to cre¬
ate a suspicion that the young prince, though well inform¬
ed, docile, and virtuous, was of too timid a genius. In
these letters also severe judgments are pronounced on all
the generals who then formed the hope of France. Fene¬
lon, in fact, though he possessed great sweetness of dispo¬
sition, had not a little of domination in his character. His
ideas were absolute and decisive ; the promptitude and force
of his mind rendered his judgments energetic and inflexible.
But the continual attention which he gave to the political
interests of France in no degree diminished his zeal for the
affairs of religion and the church ; and those who have been
accustomed to honour him as a philosopher, will perhaps
be surprised to find him entering into all ecclesiastical dis¬
cussions with an ardour equal to that of Bossuet himself.
When the unfortunate disputes about Jansenism were, af¬
ter a long interruption, revived, Fenelon wrote against men
who did not imitate him in his respect for the court of
Rome, and he soon found himself engaged in a controversy
scarcely less animated than that which had taken place
concerning Quietism.
The courtiers supposed that in acting thus Fenelon had
views of ambition and flattery. But if he had desired to
regain the favour of the sovereign, he employed, about the
same period, a much more effectual method for accomplish¬
ing his object, by feeding at his own expense the whole
french army during the disastrous winter of 1709. His aim
m both cases was to serve religion and his country. The
same sentiments dictated the view which he presented the
ollowing year of the evils of France, and also the project
of associating the nation with the government, by convok¬
ing an assembly of the notables, a proposition remarkable
in itself, and still more so w'hen considered in connection
with subsequent events. In the memoir which contains
the exposition of this scheme, Fenelon shows that he had
rightly estimated the strength and the weakness of despo¬
tism, as well as the salutary power of liberty. Meanwhile,
an unexpected event appeared to accelerate the moment
w en the counsels of Fenelon were to govern France.
he grand dauphin died, and the Duke of Burgundy, long
oppressed by the mediocrity of his father, saw himself all
a once brought close to the throne of which he was heir,
507
and to the king, whose stay and support he now became. Fefnelon
H,s Tirtues, freed from a jealous tutelage, had at length
scope for action; and the pupil of Fenelon showed himself
worthy of h,s master. Full of hope and joy, the latter
wrote to the young prince, who, according to St Simon,
reigned in advance, Ml „e faut pas que tons soient a un
seul, mais un seul doit etre a tous pour faire leur bonheur •”
language which, we believe, has but rarely been addressed
to the heirs apparent of thrones. But whilst Fenelon was
devising plans for promoting the welfare of France, and
advancing the glory of its future sovereign, all his hopes
wei e blasted by the sudden death of the young heir of the
old king, who remained unshaken amidst all the humilia¬
tions of his glory, and all the disasters of his family. Fe¬
nelon survived this event some time, and, notwithstanding
his grief, laboured to prevent the evils incident to a long
and inevitable minority. In several confidential memoirs
which he wrote on this subject, we discover the novelty of
his political views, and that spirit of liberty which, in his
age, was not the least of its innovations. One of these
papers is devoted to a discussion of the probabilities of the
guilt of the Duke of Orleans, and whether he was actuated
by an ambition which required other crimes besides that
which had been laid to his charge; a memoir in which,
without dwelling upon all the horrors of the popular re¬
ports, he judges severely the scandalous profligacy of the
Duke of Orleans, and condemns his vices in the tone and
language which it became a Christian bishop to assume.
The last public discussion in which Fenelon engaged relat¬
ed to the bull Unigenitus, which, as is well known, gave rise
to much controversy, and occupied his attention towards
the close of his life. Malignity has supposed that the zeal
of Fenelon in this matter was sharpened by an old grudge
against the Cardinal de Noailles; but when the conduct of
this virtuous and excellent man seems to be authorized by
his duty, it is not necessary to explain it by reference to
his alleged weaknesses. Faithful above all things to his
episcopal character, he conceived himself bound to com¬
bat errors which he considered as calculated to disturb the
consciences of men, and to interrupt the repose of the
church. But his wine of life was now upon the lees. His
friends, like the travellers on the bridge in the Vision of
Mirza, had dropped off one by one, till the Duke of Beau¬
villiers alone remained to him; and when the latter was
also removed by death, Fenelon followed him to the grave
at the brief interval of four months. This great and good
man expired on the 7th January 1715, at the age of sixty-
four ; and his death, which a slight fall had accelerated,
was, like his life, that of a virtuous and exemplary Chris¬
tian bishop. In the Dissertations prefixed to this work
(vol. i. p. 335) the reader will find the characters of Fe¬
nelon and Bossuet ably contrasted, by Sir James Mackin¬
tosh.
The following list of the works of Fenelon includes
every thing of any consequence which proceeded from his
pen : 1. Traite de VEducation des Filles, 1681 and 1687 ;
2. Traite du Ministers des Pasteurs, 1688, in 12mo; 3.
Explication des Maximes des Saints, 1697, in 12mo; 4.
Aventures de Telemaque, 1699, the editions of which are
innumerable; 5. Dialogues des Morts, composes pour Vedu¬
cation dun Prince, 1712, in 12mo; 6. Dialogues sur FElo¬
quence en general, et sur celle de la Chaire en particulier,
avec une Lettre d VAcademic Franpaise, 1718, in 12mo;
7. Examen de la Conscience dune Roi, 1734; 8. Lettres
sur divers sujets, concernant la Religion et la Metaphysique,
1718 ; 9. Demonstration de lExistence de Dieu, tiree de la
connaissance de la Nature, et proportionee d la faille intelli¬
gence des plus simples, 1713, in 12mo ; 10. Recueil de Ser¬
mons choisis sur differents sujets, 1710, in 12mo; 11. (Euvres
Spirituelles. There is no very complete edition of the
j
508
fen
Fenton, works of Fenelon. The clergy of France undertook one
some years before the Revolution, and entrusted the pre¬
paration of it first to the Abbe Gallard, and afterwards
to the Abbe de Querbeuf; but, from whatever cause, in
this collection of the writings of Fenelon, which appeared
at Paris in nine volumes 4to, 1787-1792, the reader will
seek in vain for those on Quietism and Jansenism, his
Explication des Maximes, and his Mandernents. In the
edition of the (Euvres de Fenelon, published at Toulouse,
1809-1811, in nineteen vols. 12mo, the life of Fenelon by
Querbeuf has been introduced, together with four Instruc¬
tions Pastorales, and an Abregedes Vies des ancxens Philo-
sophes, which are not contained in the former edition.
Some years after the death of Fenelon there appeared
Recueil de quelques Opuscules de M. de Sahgnac de La-
motte-Fenelon, archeveque de Cambrai, sur di ferentes ma¬
tures importantes, in 8vo, a rare volume, which is precious
as containing a detailed catalogue or notice of all his
works, reprinted in the edition of Les Aventures de Te-
lemaque published at Lyons in 1815. The eloge of Fene¬
lon by D’Alembert will be found in the Histone des Mem-
bresde I'Academie Frangaise (tom. i. and in.), ihat ot
Laharpe gained the prize proposed by the Academy,
whilst the abbe obtained the accessit. But the most com¬
plete biographical account of this illustrious man is that
o-iven by M. de Bausset, formerly bishop of Alais, in Ins
Histoire de Fenelon, 1808, in 3 vols. 8vo, reprinted the
year following with corrections and additions. _ (a.)
FENTON, Sir Geoffrey, an eminent writer and
statesman during the reigns of Elizabeth and James I.,
was brother to Edward Fenton, the navigator, who ac¬
companied Sir Martin Frobisher in his expeditions, and
was afterwards sent out independently to endeavour to
discover a north-west passage. The time of Sir Geoffrey s
birth is uncertain, but he appears to have received a libe¬
ral education, and certainly gave many proofs ot his ac¬
quaintance with ancient and modern learning, particular¬
ly of his knowledge of the French, Spanish, and Italian
languages. He is best known, however, for his transla¬
tion of the History of the Wars of Italy by Guicciaidini,
which he dedicated to Queen Elizabeth. But this was
his last work, as is proved by the date of the dedication
(7th January 1579) just mentioned. He had previously
published, 1. Certain Tragical Discourses, written oute of
French and Latin, 1567, in 4to; 2. An Account of a dis¬
pute at Paris, between two Doctors of the Sorbonne and
two Ministers of God’s Word, 1571; 3. An Epistle, or
Godly Admonition, sent to the Pastors ot the blemish
Church at Antwerp, exhorting them to concord with
other Ministers ; translated from the original of Antonio
de Carro, 1578; 4. Golden Epistles, containing variety of
Discourses, both moral, philosophical, and divine, gathered
as well out of the remainder of Guevara s works, as other
authors, Latin, French, and Italian, 1577. I he familiar
epistles of Guevara had been published in English by Ed¬
ward Fellowes, in 1574; but Fenton s collection consists
of pieces not contained in that publication, and, like his
translation of Guicciardini, has risen in public estimation
since the language and literature of the Elizabethan age
have been more generally studied. In the capacity of
queen’s counsellor or secretary, Fenton served for a consi¬
derable time in Ireland, where his conduct appears to have
given great satisfaction to his royal mistress, and whence
lie was frequently sent for to be consulted lespecting
Irish affairs. Nor does the confidence which his sovereign
had in his judgment and understanding appear to have been
FEN
misplaced. Maintained in office by her favour alone, he py
repaid her kindness by communicating salutary truths, and 'w.,
recommending wise and liberal measures. To his honour
be it stated, he took every opportunity of impressing on
the mind of the queen the important truth, that the Irish
were to be governed only by a strict observance of the
rules of justice, and that the safety and glory of her go¬
vernment in that island depended on her subjects enjoying
the protection of equal laws. How much misery, and
suffering, and humiliation, might have been spared to
Ireland, if succeeding counsellors and secretaries in that
country had been capable of appreciating the enlightened
policy so strongly recommended by Fenton ! In 1603 Sir
Geoffrey married his only daughter to Mr Boyle, after¬
wards Earl of Cork, and died at his house in Dublin on
the 19th October 1606. (a.)
Fenton, Elijah, an English poet of considerable note,
was born at Shelton, near Newcastle-under-Line, in Staf¬
fordshire, on the 20th May 1683. Being the youngest of
twelve children, he was destined for the church as a pro¬
fession ; and with this view, after passing through the usual
course of grammatical education, he was, on the 1st July
1700, admitted a pensioner of Jesus College, Cambridge,
where he prosecuted his studies with much diligence and
assiduity ; but having refused to take the oaths to govern¬
ment, he was obliged -to quit the university without a de¬
gree, and forced to trust to his abilities for a subsistence.
Whatever were the difficulties and discouragements which
he had to struggle with, however, Fenton never descended
to mean or dishonourable shifts; and as his conduct was
without reproach, so his name was never mentioned ex¬
cept with commendation. His first employment promised
more than it afterwards realized. He accompanied the
Earl of Orrery to Flanders in the capacity of private secre¬
tary, and returned with his lordship to England in 1705.
Being thus left without employment, he became assistant in
a school at Headley, in Surrey, and was soon afterwards ap¬
pointed master of the free grammar-school at Sevenoaks in
Kent. In 1710 he was prevailed on to give up the drudg¬
ery of teaching, for the worse drudgery of political depend¬
ence ; Lord Bolingbroke, who had persuaded him to take
this unwise step, having, with characteristic recklessness,
neglected his interest, and left him disappointed and in
debt. But not long afterwards he was appointed tutor to
Lord Broghill, only son of the Earl of Orrery ; and when
this engagement expired, he was, on the recommendation o
Pope, employed to give private instructions to Mr Braggs,
secretary of state, who, feeling his own want of literature,
was anxious, with the aid of such an instructor, to supply me
deficiencies of his education. The sudden death of Braggs,
however, disappointed the expectations which had been
formed from this connection, and Fenton was again thrown
out of employment. His next engagement was with Pope
himself. The success of the translation of the Iliad having
induced the latter to undertake that of the Odyssey, he, in
order to lighten the task, resolved to engage auxiliaries,
and, with this view, retaining twelve books for “ls
share, he distributed the remaining twelve between r
and Fenton. Of these, according to Johnson andvvar-
ton, Fenton translated the first, fourth, nineteen ,
twentieth ; though the Earl of Orrery has asserted tha
translated double the number of books which Pope
knowledged.1 In 1723 his tragedy of Mariamne was broug
out, and performed with such success that the au io P
fits are said to have amounted to nearly a thousand P ,
The poetical merit of this tragedy is considerable; o
1 In a letter to Mr Buncombe, Lord Orrery says, “ His reward was a trifle, an arrant trifle. He has ^tterbury.
Pope feared him more than he loved him. He had no opinion of Pope’s heart; and declared him, m the worus P
Merit curva in corjiore curvo.’\
F E R
H
l im.
diction is too figurative and ornate for a dramatic compo¬
sition, and accordingly it has not retained its place on the
stage. In 1727, Fenton superintended a new edition of
Milton’s Poems, to which he prefixed a life, of which John¬
son has spoken with commendation ; and, in 1729, he pub¬
lished a splendid edition of Waller, with notes, which is
accounted among the best of that poet’s works. The lat¬
ter part of Fenton’s life was passed in tranquillity. By the
recommendation of Pope, Lady Trumbull appointed him
tutor to her son, first at home, and afterwards at Cam¬
bridge ; and when he had acquitted himself of the duties
of this office, she still retained him in her family as auditor
of her accounts, in which capacity he seems to have en¬
joyed his ease, and found leisure to pay frequent visits to
his literary friends in London. He died at East Hamp¬
stead, Berkshire, on the 13th July 1730, and was inter¬
red in the parish church, where his tomb bears inscribed
on it an epitaph written by Pope. Fenton, naturally in¬
dolent, was capable of greater things than he performed.
His reputation as a poet rests chiefly on his Mariamne,
and his share in the translation of the Odyssey, which the
readers of poetry have never been able to distinguish from
the portion executed by Pope himself; but to his Miscel¬
laneous Poems, published in 1717, he has been indebted
for a place amongst the English poets in Dr Johnson’s
collection. Of his morals and conversation the account is
uniform. “ He was never named,” says Dr Johnson, “ but
with praise and fondness, as a man in the highest degree
amiable and excellent. Such was the character given of
him by the Earl of Orrery, his pupil; such is the testimony
of Pope; and such were the suffrages of all who could
boast of his acquaintance.” (a.)
FEOD, or Feud. See Feudal Law.
FEODOSIA, one of the circles into which the Russian
province of Taurida is divided. It stretches along the east¬
ern side of the peninsula which separates the Black Sea
from the Sea of Azoph. It is a fertile tract of land, and
was formerly much more thickly peopled, and much better
cultivated, than it is at present. The chief place, known
before the Russian possession by the name of Kaffa, but now
by that of the province, is situated on a bay in the Black Sea,
and has an excellent harbour, though not safe in the win¬
ter. It contains from 400 to 500 houses, and about 4500
inhabitants. It was declared a free port in 1806, since
which period its inhabitants and trade have greatly increas¬
ed. It is situated in latitude 45. 4. N. and longitude 35.
14. E.
FEOFFMENT, in Law (from the xexb feoff are or iiifea-
dare, to give one a fief), the gift or grant of any corporeal
hereditament to another. He who so gives, or enfeofs, is
ealled thefeoffer, and the person enfeoffed is denominated
the feoffee.
FERALIA, in Antiquity, a festival observed amongst the
womans on the 21st February, or, according to Ovid, on
me Dth of that month, in honour of the manes of their
deceased friends and relations.
Varro derives the word from inferi, or from fero, on ac¬
count of a repast carried to the sepulchres of such as had
t at day the last offices rendered to them. Festus derives
>t from ferio, on account of the victims sacrificed. Vos-
■''us observes that the Romans called death fera, cruel, and
at hence might arise the word feralia. Macrobius (Sa-
urmlia, lib. i. cap. 13), refers the origin of the ceremony
o JNuma Pompilius. Ovid, in his Fasti, goes back for its
institution as far as the time of /Eneas. He adds, that on the
same day a sacrifice was performed to the goddess Muta,
r umb ; and that the persons who officiated were an old
oman and a number of attendant young girls.
unng the continuance of this festival, which lasted
even days, presents were made at the graves of the de-
F e R 509
ceased, marriages were forbidden, and the temples of the Per de
gods were shut. Whilst the ceremonies continued, it was Fourchette
imagined that the ghosts suffered no punishments in hell, II
but that their tormentors allowed them to wander round FerS'
their tombs, and to feast upon the meats which their surviv-
ing friends had prepared for them.
At the feralia public feasts were sometimes given to the
people, at the tombs of the rich and great, by their heirs
or particular friends.
PER de Fourchette, in Heraldry, a cross having at
each end a forked iron, like that formerly used by soldiers
to rest their muskets on. It differs from the cross fourche,
the ends of which were bent as well as forked; whereas’,
this has the same sort of fork fixed upon the square end.
See Heraldry.
FERAH, a town of Persia, in the province of Seistan,
ninety miles north-north-east of Zareng, and a hundred
and fifty west of Candahar. Long. 62.22. E. Lat. 33. 20. N.
FERE, La, a town of the department of the Aisne, in
France, at the junction of the rivers Serre and Oise. It
is strongly fortified, and has in it an establishment for edu¬
cating artillery officers. It contains 436 houses, and 2604
inhabitants. Long. 3. 13. E. Lat. 49. 40. N.
FERENTARII, in Roman antiquity, were auxiliary
troops, lightly armed, whose weapons were a sword, a bow
and arrows, and a sling
FERETRIUS, a surname of Jupiter, aferendo, because
he had assisted the Romans ; or a feriendo, because he had
conquered their enemies under Romulus. He had at Rome
a temple built by Romulus, to which the spoils called opima
were always carried.
FERETRUM, amongst the Romans, the bier used in
carrying out the bodies of the dead, a duty w7hich was per¬
formed by the nearest male relations of the deceased.
Thus, sons carried out their parents, brothers their sisters,
and so on.
FERG, or Fergue, Francis Paul, a landscape paint¬
er, w7as born at Vienna in 1689, and there learned the first
principles of his art. He successively practised under Hans
Graf, Orient, and Thiele. The last of these, who was
painter to the court of Saxony, having invited him to Dres¬
den to insert small figures in his landscapes, Ferg repair¬
ed to that city, whence he proceeded into Lower Saxony,
and painted for the Duke of Brunswick and for the gallery
of Salzdahl. From Germany he passed over to London,
where he might have lived in esteem and affluence, if, by
an indiscreet marriage, he had not been so effectually de¬
pressed, not to say degraded, that he was ever afterwards
involved in difficulties. The necessities which arose out
of his domestic troubles compelled him to diminish the
prices of his paintings in order to procure immediate sub¬
sistence ; and as these necessities increased, his pictures
sunk still more in price, though not in intrinsic value. By
a series of misfortunes, however, he became overwhelmed
in debt, and, to avoid the pursuit of his creditors, was con¬
strained to secrete himself in different parts of London. He
died suddenly in the street one night as he was returning
from some friends, about the year 1738, before he had at¬
tained his fiftieth year, and left four children wholly des¬
titute. This pleasing artist, Mr Walpole observes, had
formed a manner of his own from various Flemish painters,
though resembling Poelemburg most in the enamelled soft¬
ness and mellowness of his colouring ; but his figures are
greatly superior, every part of them being sufficiently
finished, and every action expressive. He painted small
landscapes, fairs, and rural meetings, with much natural
truth; his horses and cattle are not inferior to those of
Wouvermans ; and his buildings and distances seem to owe
their respective softness to the intervening air, not to the
pencil. More faithful to nature than Denner, he knew hovr
510
Ferguson.
FERGUSON.
who had obtained his office in 1699 ; but, though no other Ferjn
teacher of that language in Scotland could pretend to rival
him, the average number of students who were received
annually under his charge, from 1738 to 1747, did not
exceed eleven; whilst the average of entries to the cor¬
responding class in St Salvator’s College scarcely amounted
to six. Adam Ferguson was enrolled in Mr Pringle’s class
as a ternar, the same rank of students which, in the days of
Buchanan, was characterized by the term pauper ; that is
to say, one who pays the lowest rate of fees. It has been
alleged that Ferguson, after a comparative trial, was ad¬
mitted one of the foundation bursars, having stood first in
the list of successful competitors. If it were so, the vic¬
tory was not very splendid, as, of the twelve who entered
the class along with him, not more than eight (being of
the denomination of ternars) could have been permitted to
take a share of the contest.
Besides Pringle, the other masters in St Leonard’s Col¬
lege were, John Craigie, admitted professor of philosophy
inl691; Ninian Young, professor of humanity, and Henry
to omit exactness, when the result of the whole demanded
less precision in parts. The greater number of his works
are in London and Germany ; and the price they now bear
is the best proof of their real merit. He also etched well
with aquafortis ; and his prints of that description are ge-
nerallv esteemed by the curious.
FERGUSON, Adam, LL.D., a distinguished philoso¬
pher and historian, was born at Logierait, in the Hig -
lands of Perthshire, on the 20th of June 1723. His fa¬
ther, the Reverend Adam Ferguson, a native of the neigh¬
bouring parish of Moulin, had been minister of Crathie anc
Braemar, in Aberdeenshire, from 1700 to 1714 ; but, on
the eve of the rebellion under the Earl of Mar, had been
translated to Logierait, where he passed the remainder of
his long life, discharging the duties of his laborious charge
with such exemplary piety, fidelity, and firmness, that,
though at the period of his induction the parishioners
were almost universally hostile to presbyterian principles,
he speedily secured the respect and admiration of all ranks;
dai^tCT ofnMrVGor^on^UHal^eadfin^bCTdeenshire!0n, whoTthou^h a”ery ordinary ™n, was the most popular
if ifbel eved that Adam received the first part of his teacher of geometry ever known in that un.vemty, wh ch
edition af the vlhage school of his native parish, under had many years before numbered amongst its professors the
the sunerintendence of Mr John Connacher, of whose lite- inventor of the reflecting telescop . „ .. ..
r^ Xto“h“le can now be ascertained. Whatever The method of teach.ng m St Leonard o Colhrge at Uus
mav have been the merits of this teacher, they do not seem period did not materially differ fiom
to have been estimated so highly as those of the schoolmas- pursued in the former century. The professors in gene ,
ters of Dunkeld and Perth ; to one or other of which places
it was at this time customary for the parishioners of Lo¬
gierait to send such of their sons as they wished to pre¬
pare for a course of academical study. Two, at least, of ry. — j—-o  associates
Mr Ferguson’s younger sons attended the grammar-school guish himself as much as his most ingenious associa es,
of Perth tetwlen the years 1732 and 1738, whilst Mr who, on the other hand, might be apt to underrate acquire-
James Martin was rector! and Mr Andrew Cornfute one ments which were more accessible to plodding industry than
of T assistants!*5 uX the tuition of these able and di- to original talents. We have good reason to beheve that
ligent instructors, Adam is said to have made uncommon Ferguson acquired little more at ^semmfflT |e
progress in classical literature ; and in addition to the be- admiration of the Grecian and ^l^JSed than he
nefit which he derived from his teachers, he possessed the beauties of which he was more neaf^ ^rod^e1d
advantage of living under the protection of a respectable had hitherto been ; and that his advances . Ev*n
citizen, Mr William Ferguson, his relative, a merchant in of philosophy were all made at.a subseque P •
the town, and at one time chief magistrate or provost. under the vigilant and severe S effec-
Towards the end of autumn 1738, when he had entered lideph, the discipline of the college washy no mean
into his sixteenth year, he was removed from school to the tive ; and, in Mr 1 nngle s class partic j as
University of St Andrews, where his father had commen- young gentlemen conducted themsel e , ? PrefuSed
ced his studies fifty years before, under a very meritorious to have narrowly escaped the disgrace0 g ^
regent, Mr John Row, son of the minister of Ceres ; who, their degrees, after they had undergone the * ^
being grandson of the well-known David Ferguson, minis- Mr Ferguson obtained the degree of maste
ter of Dunfermline, was induced, by the claims of kindred 4th of May 1742, when he had nearly comjktedh^
as well as of duty, to pay particular attention to the im- teenth year. The regent un erwom ic , atext
provement of a youth whom he soon discovered to be of physical study was Mr Da\ i oung, w
highly deserving of his favour. It so happened that one book Keill’s Introductio ad veram lysicam.
of the colleagues of Mr Row was still a master of St Leo- The minister of Logierait had attemp e . asthey
nard’s College, and that all the other masters were of near- of his other sons to follow his own pro ession ,
ly the same standing with the elder Mr Ferguson, who had all testified a disinclination to t ns me o ’ n(j ac.
was thus confirmed in his preference of the college in termined to breed his youngest son to t e c 11 Andrews,
which he had prosecuted his own philosophical studies, cordingly he was sent to the divinity hal a 0f
At this very juncture the principal of St Leonard’s Col- in November 1742, wdien the theologica eP‘ . profes.
lege died, and the other professors, at whose almost unani- study was superintended by Principal Munson a , .gand
mous recommendation Mr Tullideph was appointed to sors Shaw and Campbell, the last ot whom, a man o
the vacant chair, anticipated the most prosperous results learning, was well known by his writings; u , * rjeC.
from his efforts to promote the good of an establishment of his predecessors in the same chair, he scarce ^ ^
which they considered as having fallen into disrepute, in tured at all. Mr Ferguson studied also a ye ^ ^
consequence of the feeble and undignified administration Edinburgh under Professors Gowdie and uming ’ gujts
of his predecessors. attention appears to have been chiefly
The Greek class in St Leonard’s College wras at this not immediately connected with his clerical y1®' _ onjy
time taught with great reputation by Mr Francis Pringle, In the year 1745, when he had attende
pursued in me lumici o -
followed the beaten track in which they had been guided
by their predecessors; and the tasks which they exacted
from the students were little more than exercises of memo-
A young man of slender abilities might easily distin-
1 • i/’ __  1, T-r^of inn-orn/viic nsftnrifttPS.
Ferj
FERGUSON.
;,n. one half of the usual period, an appointment was offered to
him, which he could not hold without ordination. It was, in
fact, represented to the General Assembly that Lord John
Murray, colonel of the Highland regiment (the 42d), was
desirous of having a chaplain of the communion of the
Church of Scotland possessed of the Erse language ; and
that Mr Adam Ferguson, though he had not studied divi¬
nity for the full period of six years, was pitched upon for
that office, provided the Assembly would allow the presby¬
tery of Dunkeld to take him on trials. The Assembly, in
respect of the young man’s capacity and good character,
authorized the presbytery to ordain him on passing his first
trials, and accordingly he was ordained at Dunkeld, on the
2d of July 1745. A few days afterwards he joined the
regiment, in which he continued to serve till 1757; about
the beginning of which year he was elected keeper of the
Advocates’ Library, on the resignation of the celebrated
David Hume. About a year after, Mr Ferguson was suc¬
ceeded in this office by Mr William Wallace, junior, advo¬
cate.
In the course of the year 1757, Mr Ferguson rendered
himself conspicuous by the interest which he took in the
success of the tragedy of Douglas, written by his friend
Mr Home. He published a defence of the morality of
stage plays, which, though its merit is not of the highest
order, was admitted by the opposite party to be “ the only
piece on that side that was written with any tolerable de¬
gree of discretion.” After Mr Home resigned his living
in June 1757, Mr Ferguson and he retired to country
lodgings at Braid, in the neighbourhood of Edinburgh,
where they spent several months in a course of laborious
study, enlivened by the intercourse of friendship. As Mr
Ferguson’s campaigning habits had reconciled him to a
migratory life, it is not easy to trace him through all his
changes of residence. During his father’s lifetime he had
great satisfaction in making occasional excursions to the
Highlands, and thinking aloud in his solitary walks, amidst
the lakes and forests of Rannoch, or on the summit of his
native mountains, where one of the most magnificent pro¬
spects in nature was displayed before his eyes. It was
here that the lofty enthusiasm of his spirit was nursed and
matured ; and it was not so much in the intercourse with
polished society as in the wilds of Athole that he acquired
that dignity and ease of manner for which he was distin¬
guished above most of the literary men of his country. To
use his owrn expressive words : “ If I had not been in the
Highlands of Scotland, I might be of their mind who
think the inhabitants of Paris and Versailles the only po¬
lite people in the world. It is truly wonderful to see per¬
sons of every sex and age, who never travelled beyond the
nearest mountain, possess themselves perfectly, perform
acts of kindness with an aspect of dignity, and a perfect
discernment of what is proper to oblige. This is seldom
to be seen in our cities or in our capital; but a person
among the mountains, who thinks himself nobly born, con¬
siders courtesy as the test of his rank. He never saw a
superior, and does not know what it is to be embarrassed.
He has an ingenuous deference for those who have seen
more of the world than himself; but never saw the ne¬
glect of others assumed as a mark of superiority.”
In the year 1759 he was elected professor of natural
philosophy in the University of Edinburgh, in the room of
1 John Stewart. He had not made physical science the
Principal object of his inquiries ; and indeed he had not
? offied it much more attentively than most young men do
ln | ^ oonimon routine of academical instruction. But with
on y four months to prepare for the labours of the winter,
e qualified himself so wTell as to give universal satisfaction,
e conducted this branch of education five years, and by
‘ aPtlnS bis lectures to the capacities of the young, con-
511
tnved to render the study more interesting than it had Femuson
been commonly considered At this time hf was a mem- C53
tuted in 1754 f 7° * of Edinburgh, insti¬
tuted in 1754, for the purpose of promoting philosophical
discussion, and training the members to the practice of
public speaking The ardour of this society did not begin
to languish till the year 1762, when another association,
equally celebrated, was formed by the literary circle of
Edinburgh, the design of which was to rouse the country
to demand from the legislature the establishment of a mi¬
litia in Scotland. Mr Ferguson may almost be considered
as the founder of this society; and it was at his sugges¬
tion that it received a name ( The Poker) which was suf¬
ficiently significant in the ears of the initiated, but utterly
unintelligible by strangers. His satirical pamphlet en¬
titled The History of Sister Peg, was intended to forward
the object of this patriotic society ; and it is perhaps the
only production connected with that cause, which, at this
distance of time, is capable of exciting any interest.
In 1763 Mr Ferguson was applied to by the Earl of
Warwick, to take charge of his two younger sons, the Ho¬
nourable Charles and Robert Greville, whose eldest bro¬
ther, Lord Greville, had received part of his education
under the eye of Erincipal Robertson. These young gen¬
tlemen resided some years in his house, and both they and
their tutor Mr Macpherson repaid his attention to their
improvement by the warmest affection and gratitude. Lord
Warwick, who had been advised by General Clerk to place
his sons under Mr Ferguson’s care, was not insensible of
the “ great benefit they had reaped from his tuition, and
advantageous as well as manly and friendly conversation.”
Mr, afterwards Sir John, Macpherson, at the same time ac¬
knowledged, that “ to him he owed all his knowledge, as
well as all his success in life.”
On the appointment of Mr Balfour to the professorship
of the law of nature and nations in 1764, Mr Ferguson
was elected by the magistrates of Edinburgh to succeed
him in the chair of moral philosophy. This had long been
a favourite object of his ambition; and about ten years be¬
fore, when the able and accomplished Mr Cleghorn was on
his death-bed, he urged his young friend to apply for the
office, which, in his apprehension, no man was more capa¬
ble of adorning. Mr Cleghorn, after expressing his regret
at having no such influence with the patrons as to secure
such an arrangement, added, as Mr Ferguson sometimes
related with much emotion, “ I can only say of you, as
Hamlet did of Fortinbras, He has my dying voice."
Mr Ferguson entered on his new duties with a degree
of spirit and activity, from which the most splendid results
were to be anticipated. In one particular his mode of lec¬
turing was singular, and not easily imitated. After having
delineated the general plan of his course, and committed it
to writing, he resolved not to write a system of lectures,
but to endeavour to make himself master of every part of
his subject, and to trust to the moment of delivery for the
expression of his sentiments. This method of discoursing
was in his hands very happily executed; but its success de¬
pended, in a great measure, on the state of his health and
spirits, as well as upon the interest excited by the different
subjects of discussion. Perhaps no lecturer, with the ex¬
ception of his immediate successor, was ever more admired.
His class was crowded by great numbers of gentlemen of
high rank and official station, as well as by younger stu¬
dents. In the mean time, eagerly as he applied to the dis¬
charge of his professional duties, his attention was extend¬
ed to other branches of inquiry; and within little more
than a year after he commenced his labours as a lecturer
on morals, he sent to the press his Essay on the History
of Civil Society, a work which was received with an ex¬
pression of public approbation which even exceeded the
.i
512
FERGUSON.
Ferguson, high expectations of his friends. “ Ferguson’s book,” says
Mr Hume, writing to Dr Robertson from London, “ goes
on here with great success.” Gray the poet says, “ There
are uncommon strains of eloquence in it; and I was sur¬
prised to find not one single idiom of his country (I think)
in the whole work.” Mr Hume, in a letter to the author,
(dated 10th March 1767), congratulates him on the suc¬
cess of the book, adding that he had “ met with nobody
that had read it who did not praise it. Lord Mansfield
is very loud to that purpose in his Sunday societies. I
heard Lord Chesterfield and Lord Lyttleton express the
same sentiment; and, what is above all, Caddel, I am told,
is already projecting a second edition of the same quarto
size.” Mr Hume then informs him, that Lord Shelburne
and Lord Bute were amongst his most zealous partisans;
the last declaring the book one of the best he had ever
read. Charles Townshend appears to have been of the
same opinion, as he read it five times.
General Clerk had pressed the author to dedicate his
work to Lord Shelburne, who had signified his intention
of offering Mr Ferguson the government of West Florida ;
upon which occasion his lordship laughed very heartily,
when the general expressed his conviction that Mr Fer¬
guson was more usefully employed as a teacher of science.
The book, however, appeared without any dedication.
In the course of the following year, Lord Shelburne inti¬
mated a hope of getting Mr Ferguson established with a
proper appointment at Oxford ; and some other persons of
influence meditated a design of employing him in one of
the departments of state. This purpose was frustrated in
all probability by a temper which did not permit him to
accommodate himself to the views of those whose maxims
of conduct he did not entirely approve. Another circum¬
stance may be considered as having also operated to ob¬
struct the fulfilment of the schemes which were devised
for his advancement. At this time he married Miss Bur¬
net, a young lady nearly connected with his mother’s fa¬
mily, and still more nearly related to his intimate friend
Dr Black. Soon afterwards he began to cultivate a farm
in the parish of Currie, and, at a considerable sacrifice of
private interest, gratified his taste for improvement, by
transforming a barren heath into a scene which became
distinguished for beauty and fertility.
It was impossible, however, for any combination of cir¬
cumstances to abate his literary activity; and he not only
continued to conduct the business of his class with unre¬
mitted diligence, but seized every interval of leisure which
he could command, to collect materials for a history of the
Roman commonwealth. Whilst he was proceeding in his
researches, he was solicited by Philip, Earl of Stanhope,
the editor of Dr Robert Simson’s posthumous works,
and the other guardians of Charles, Earl of Chesterfield,
to superintend the education of that young nobleman, then
in his nineteenth year. The negotiation was conducted
through the mediation of Dr Adam Smith, who, judging
the offer to be advantageous to his friend, exerted himself
with great earnestness to induce him to accept it. Lord
Stanhope was extremely anxious to obtain the able ser¬
vices of Dr Ferguson without delay, as he conceived it to
be of the utmost consequence to his young kinsman to be
placed under the care of “ a person so well qualified to
complete the remaining part of his education, and to re¬
pair the neglects, omissions, and errors, which had unfor¬
tunately been committed in the former part of it.” The
proposal had originally been made early in the year 1773,
and was renewed in December, soon after the commence¬
ment of the session of the college, when Dr Ferguson was
engaged not only in teaching his own class, but also in
lecturing on natural philosophy, the professorship of which
had recently become vacant by the death of his relation
Mr Russell. Fie was not able to prevail on the patronsF-'w
to accept of a substitute to complete the labours of that'*,>!/
session ; but after obtaining leave of absence for the next
session, he joined his young charge at Geneva in May
1774, and at first entertained hopes that his labours might
prove beneficial. The connection, however, was not so
agreeable as he expected, and it terminated about twelve
months afterwards. In the mean time, he had very nearly
been deprived of his office in the university. The town-
council had, at his desire, appointed Mr John Bruce, then
assistant and afterwards successor to Mr Stevenson, to
teach the moral philosophy during the session 1774-1775;
but before the conclusion of the session they thought fit
to rescind this act, and to declare the office vacant. His
friends in the university, particularly Drs Robertson, Blair,
and Black, were exceedingly indignant at this proceed¬
ing; more especially as Sir John Pringle had been per¬
mitted to be several years absent; and at that very time
the professors of mathematics and of the theory of medi¬
cine had both been allowed to discharge their duty by sub¬
stitutes for two years without challenge or complaint. As
the council, however, seemed to have determined to fill up
the place by a new election, it became necessary for his
friends to apply to the Court of Session to put a stop to
their proceedings. “ I have been much obliged,” says he,
in a letter to a friend, “ to the general voice that was raised
in my favour, as well as to the ardent zeal of particular
friends. Hay Campbell (afterwards Lord President) has
given me proofs of friendship which I can never forget.
Pulteney has behaved to me in every thing as he would
have done at the beginning of the Poker Club. I have
always been an advocate for mankind, and am a more de¬
termined one than ever; the fools and knaves are no more
than necessary to give others something to do.”
After his return, he continued, as formerly, to divide
his time between his literary’ and agricultural pursuits,
and engaged occasionally^ in the political controversies
which agitated the country during the progress of the
American war. Besides his pamphlet in answer to Dr
Price’s observations on liberty, he communicated his views
from time to time to Sir William Pulteney, and other
members of parliament; and when it was resolved by go¬
vernment to send out commissioners to quiet the disorders
in the colonies, he was appointed secretary to the com¬
mission. It appears from a letter of General Putnam,
dated July 1778, that the nomination of Dr Ferguson was
very agreeable to the more intelligent part of the Ameri¬
cans, who, not without reason, were dissatisfied to find
that the commissioners were fettered by restrictions,
which rendered their appointment nugatory. “ I am very
sorry,” he writes, “ that the parliament of Great Britain
is still so blind to their own and our interest, as to send
Dr Ferguson and the rest of the worthy gentlemen over
to America with limited power, and that to last only till
July 1779, and then to be revoked by them it they think
fit; by which means I am deprived of seeing your friend
Dr Ferguson, which gives me great pain, as 1 always have
heard of his being a gentleman of the first character lor
learning, good sense, and humanity.” It is well known
that the commissioners returned without accomplishing
the object of their mission; but they had an opportunity
of acquiring more useful information of the state and tem¬
per of the country than government had received m a
the previous course of the contest. Whilst Dr Ferguson
was absent during the session 1778—1779, his place wassup-
plied by Mr Dugald Stewart, who, about five years alter-
wards, was destined to succeed him in the chair of mora
philosophy.
In the year 1780 he was seized with an attack of apoplexy*
which, though not violent, was nevertheless sufficient
FERGUSON.
Fer
alarm his friends for his safety. This formidable affection
did not in the slightest degree impair the force of his under¬
standing ; and so abstemious did he afterwards become, as
not only to secure himself against the recurrence of the
disease, but to enjoy almost uninterrupted health for more
than thirty years. As he could not now venture to lec¬
ture as formerly without the use of written notes, he
therefore found it necessary to write out a course of in¬
struction to be read during the remainder of his incumben¬
cy. In his endeavours to recover the substance of his lec¬
tures, he availed himself of the notes taken by intelligent
young men, who had studied under him different sessions,
and who might thus be expected to have preserved the va¬
rious modes in which he had stated his doctrines, and the
different arguments and illustrations by which he had hap¬
pened to supply in one session what might have been omit¬
ted in another. But, in the prospect of soon relinquishing
his office, it was scarcely conceivable that the compilation
which he thus executed could possess all the excellencies
which he was capable of imparting to it; more especially
as he was now busy in carrying his great historical work
through the press. This was the History of the Progress
and Termination of the Roman Republic, in three volumes
quarto, published in 1783, a book which not only delights
by the clearness of its narrative and the boldness of its de¬
scriptions, but instructs and animates by profound and mas¬
terly delineations of character, as well as by the philosophi¬
cal precision with which it traces the connection of events.
It is written in that tone of high-minded enthusiasm, which,
if it can only snatch from oblivion whatever is noble and
generous in the record of human actions, regards the graces
of style as objects merely of secondary account, and is
chiefly studious of impressing the lessons of wisdom w hich
may be gathered from the survey of distant ages.
1 he fatigues and anxieties of public teaching now be¬
came oppressive to his spirits, and not altogether fa¬
vourable to his health ; and he therefore deemed it expe¬
dient to resign his office in 1784, when he had com¬
pleted his sixty-first year. Mr Dugald Stewart, then pro¬
fessor of mathematics, succeeded to his office; and in or¬
der to entitle Dr Ferguson to retain his salary, he was con¬
joined in the professorship of mathematics with Mr Play¬
fair. He now proceeded to revise the notes of his lec¬
tures on ethics and politics, with a view to publication;
and in 1792 the work appeared, under the title of Princi¬
ples of Moral and Political Science. Though composed
under disadvantageous circumstances, and though he has
omitted many of the questions which were treated in his ele¬
mentary course, it contains an admirable view of the sys¬
tems both of ancient and modern philosophers, particularly
respecting the foundations of moral approbation, and the
sources of private happiness and public security. The au¬
thors to whose suggestions he was most indebted wrere Xe¬
nophon, Plato, and Aristotle, amongst the Greeks, Cicero
and Seneca amongst the Latins, Epictetus and Antoninus
amongst the later scholars of the Grecian school; and,
amongst the moderns, Shaftesbury, Hutcheson, Montes-
flineu, and Adam Smith. It has been considered as a
ameable omission in this work, that too slight notice is ta-
en of the importance of religious principle; and the author,
in act, seems to have been aware that he had exposed him-
se to this objection. No man, however, was ever more
anxious to establish the foundations of natural theology, and
-^gthen the arguments for a future state ; subjects on
W ™ work abounds in passages of uncommon beauty.
iter the publication of this work, Dr Ferguson, nowr in
is seventieth year, resolved to pay a visit to the ancient
0P°ijs of the world. He passed a short time at some
e principal cities of Europe, Berlin, Vienna, Florence,
apes, and Venice, and resided part of the winter 1793 at
vol. ix. r
Rome, in all of which places his reception was extremely Fergi
nattering. He was elected a member of the Academy of
.Deihn, as well as of other learned societies. Upon his re¬
turn to Britain in 1794, he took up his residence at Nidpath
Lastle in Tweeddale, from which he soon removed to
HaHyards m Manor Water. In this agreeable retreat he
spent the next fourteen years of his life, a longer period
than he had ever before resided in any one place. At last,
however, when his sight and his hearing had in a great
measure failed, he deemed it advisable to settle in a town,
where he might occasionally enjoy the conversation of in¬
telligent friends ; and his early prepossessions induced him
to settle at St Andrews. Here his strength gradually de¬
clined, but the vigour of his mind continued unimpaired as
long as he lived. No man took a more lively interest in
the great events which were then passing in the world, or
contemplated more anxiously the consequences of the ar¬
duous struggle in which his country was engaged. He lived
long enough to witness the triumphant issue of the contest;
and after a short illness, he died on the 22d of February
1816, in the ninety-third year of his age, leaving three
sons and three daughters.
In the various situations which it was his lot to occupy,
he had uniformly conducted himself with a dignity and de¬
cision which bespoke the elevation and force of his mind.
As a military chaplain, he happily united the strict decorum
of the clerical character with the unembarrassed address of
a man of the world; so that he at the same time secured
the respect of the officers and the devoted attachment of
the private soldiers. It was while accompanying the army
on different expeditions, one of the first of which was an
ill-conducted descent on the coast of Bretagne in 1745,
that he applied his mind to study the art of war ; and it can¬
not be denied that he excels particularly in the descrip¬
tion of military evolutions. In private life his conversation
was easy and elegant, and, among his intimate friends, en¬
livened by a fascinating gaiety and refinement of humour.
He was not very patient of contradiction, however, and ra¬
ther apt to testify his contempt of assumed superiority.
His writings are,
1. A Sermon, preached in the Erse language to his ma¬
jesty’s first Highland regiment of foot, commanded by Lord
John Murray, at their cantonment at Camberwell, on the
18th day of December 1745. By the Rev. Mr A. F. chap¬
lain to the said regiment, and translated by him into Eng¬
lish for the use of a lady of quality in Scotland, at whose
desire it is now published. London, 1746.
2. The Morality of Stage Plays seriously considered.
Edinburgh, 1757.
3. A Pamphlet on the Militia. London, 1758.
4. The History of the Proceedings in the case of Marga¬
ret, commonly called Sister Peg. Three editions. London,
1762. Another, 1777.
5. Analysis of Lectures on Mechanics. Edinburgh.
6. An Essay on the History of Civil Society. London,
1767. This book has passed through many editions, and
has been translated into almost all the European languages.
A translation into German was published at Leipsig in 1768,
under the title of Bersuch uber die Geschichte der Burger*
A French translation, by M. Bergier,
513
lichen Gesellschaft.
was published in 1783.
7. Analysis of Pneumatics and Moral Philosophy. A
German translation, by Mr Garve of Leipsig, is said to
be well executed. Edinburgh, 1766. Fifty-five pages
12mo.
8. Institutes of Moral Philosophy, 1769 ; 319 pages 12mo.
Another edition, revised and corrected, 1773; 294 pages.
A translation of this edition into French was published at
Geneva in 1775, and it had the advantage of being revised
by the author. A third edition, enlarged, was published at
3 T
514
FERGUSON.
Ferguson. Edinburgh, 1785; 317 pages 12mo. This elementary work
^ has been used as a text book in several foreign universities.
A translation into the Russian language (from the German)
was printed at Moscow in 1804.
9. Remarks on a pamphlet lately published by Dr Price,
entitled Observations on the Nature of Civil Liberty, fyc.
in a letter from a gentleman in the country to a member of
Parliament. London, 1776. These remarks having been
addressed to Sir Grey Cooper, secretary of the treasury,
were printed by his direction.
10. The History of the Progress and Termination of the
Roman Republic. London, 1783. 3 vols. 4to. A transla¬
tion into German was printed at Leipsig in 1784. It has
been translated into several other modern languages, and
has passed through a number of English editions, one of
which was printed at Basel, in Switzerland, in 1791.
11. Principles of Moral and Political Science, being
chiefly a retrospect of lectures delivered in the College
of Edinburgh. London, 1792. 2 vols. 4to.
12. Minutes of the Life and Character of Joseph Black,
M. D. 1801. (Published in the Transactions of the Royal
Society of Edinburgh?)
13. Biographical Sketch, or Memoir of Lieutenant-Co¬
lonel Patrick Ferguson. Edinburgh, 1817. This tract,
though printed, has not been published for sale.
He left behind him many papers on the subjects which
had chiefly occupied his thoughts from the time of his
last academical appointment; but a great mass of let¬
ters and other valuable documents had been indiscrimi¬
nately destroyed by his direction some years before his
death. (p. p. p.)
Ferguson, James, an eminent experimental philosopher,
mechanist, and astronomer, was born in Banffshire, Scot¬
land, in 1714. His parents were very poor. At an early
age, however, his extraordinary genius began to unfold it¬
self. He first learned to read by overhearing his father
teach his elder brother ; and he had made this acquisition
before any one suspected he had done so. He soon disco¬
vered a peculiar taste for mechanics, which first indicated
itself on seeing his father use a lever ; and having pursued
this study a considerable time, even when very young, he
at length made a watch in wood work, from having once
seen one. As he had no instructor, nor any help from
books, every thing he learned had all the merit of an ori¬
ginal discovery ; and such in fact he very naturally believed
it to be. As soon as his age permitted he went out to ser¬
vice ; but he met with hardships in this humble capacity,
which rendered his constitution feeble through life. Whilst
he was servant to a farmer, whose goodness he acknow¬
ledges in the modest account of himself which he prefixed
to his Mechanical Exercises, he frequently contemplated
the stars; and he began the study of astronomy by laying
down, from his own observations alone, a celestial globe.
His kind master observing these marks of his ingenuity,
procured him the countenance and assistance of some
neighbouring gentlemen, by whose help and instructions
he went on acquiring further knowledge, and was at length
sent to Edinburgh. There, having obtained some notion
of drawing, he began to take portraits in miniature, by
which means he supported himself and family for several
years, both in Scotland and England, whilst engaged in
pursuing more serious studies. In London he first publish¬
ed some curious astronomical tables and calculations, and
afterwards gave public lectures on experimental philoso¬
phy, which he repeated in most of the principal towns in
England with general approbation. He was elected a fel¬
low of the Royal Society without paying for admission;
and he had a pension of L.50 per annum given him, unso¬
licited, by King George HI. on his accession, who had
heard his lectures, and who frequently sent for and con¬
versed with him on curious topics. 'He also received se- Pc
veral presents from his majesty, and from other patrons of
merit. The degree of consideration which Mr Ferguson
attained by the strength of his natural genius alone is in
fact known to every one. He was universally considered
as at the head of astronomy and mechanics in this nation
of philosophers; and he might justly be styled self-taught,
or rather heaven-taught; for in his whole life he had not
received above half a year’s instruction at school. He was
a man of the clearest judgment and the most unwearied
application to study ; benevolent, gentle, and innocent in
his manners as a child; humble, courteous, and commu¬
nicative ; and, instead of pedantry, philosophy seemed to
have produced in him only diffidence and urbanity. He
died in 1776, at the age of sixty-two.
The following is a list of Mr Ferguson’s published works:
1. Astronomical Tables, and Precepts for calculating the
true times of New and Full Moon, 1763; 2. Tables and
Tracts relative to several Arts and Sciences ; 3. An easy In¬
troduction to Astronomy, 1769, second edition ; 4. Astrono¬
my explained upon Sir Isaac Newton’s Principles, 1772, fifth
edition ; 5. Lectures on select subjects in Mechanics, Hy¬
drostatics, Pneumatics, and Optics, 1772, fourth edition;
6. Select Mechanical Exercises, with a short account of the
Life of the Author by himself, 1773 ; 7. The Art of Draw¬
ing in Perspective made easy, 1775; 8. An Introduction
to Electricity, 1775; 9. Two Letters to the Reverend Mr
John Kennedy, 1775; 10. A Third Letter to the Reverend
Mr John Kennedy, 1775. Mr Ferguson also communicat¬
ed several papers to the Royal Society, which were print¬
ed in their Transactions. In 1805, a valuable edition of
his Lectures was published at Edinburgh by Dr, now Sir
David, Brewster, in two volumes 8vo, with notes and an
appendix, intended to adapt the whole to the actual state
of science.
Ferguson, Robert, a Scottish poet, who acquired a con¬
siderable share of celebrity at a very early period of life,
was born at Edinburgh on the 5th of September 1750 or
1751. Flis father, whose name was William, paid court to
the muses as well as the son ; but he wisely relinquished
the study of poetry for the more certain emoluments of
trade and commerce, and was employed in different mer¬
cantile houses both in Edinburgh and in Aberdeen. He
was an accountant in the Linen Hall when he died, but
never acquired any thing like an independent fortune.
The subject of this notice was of a weak and delicate
constitution during infancy, so much so, indeed, that sma
hopes were entertained of his ever reaching the years o
manhood. Yet such were the care and attention of his pa¬
rents, that he wTas able to attend an English school by t e
time he was six years of age, when his progress was C(®S1
dered as very extraordinary ; and it proved no less rapi a
the High School of Edinburgh, which he attended for tour
years, acquiring a competent knowledge of the Latin tongue
with very little labour or exertion. He then went to e
grammar school of Dundee, and in two years afteiwar s
the university of St Andrews, which his father Pre er*
to Edinburgh, because a gentleman of the name of er&
son had left two bursaries for the education of as ma y
boys of the same name. . • a hv
Ferguson’s health was never at any time impaue y
severe study ; yet he kept alive at the university the 0Pin ,
had been entertained of him whilst at schoo,
ison,
which
he was decidedly the first mathematician of his own s
ing. He was patronized by Dr W ilkie, professor o n
ral philosophy, but better known as the author of t e ^
goniad, who conceived an attachment for him, as ^
perhaps for his poetical as his mathematical talents. ^ ^
kindness was repaid by Ferguson, on the tiea
Wilkie, by a beautiful eclogue to his memory, wn
LI
F E R
the Scottish dialect. A little before he left the university,
,«/ Ferguson had conceived the idea of writing a tragedy on
the death of Sir William Wallace, for which he had collect¬
ed materials; but as he subsequently met with a work on
the same subject, he abandoned the design, after he had
completed two acts. His own reason for so doing is thus
expressed: “ Whatever I publish shall be original, and this
tragedy might be considered as a copy.”
He returned to Edinburgh when he had finished his
studies, without having fixed on any particular employ¬
ment ; for although he was destined for the church by his
father, on the death of the latter he paid but little attention
to the expostulations of his mother. He also declined to
enter on the study of physic, assigning as a reason, that
when he read the description of diseases, he believed that
he felt the symptoms of them all in himself. He was, how¬
ever, induced to attempt the study of the law, in which, as
might have been expected, he made no proficiency. He
seems, however, to have turned a wishful eye to some sine¬
cure place, in order to obtain which he paid a visit to an
uncle who resided at Aberdeen, a man of literature and opu¬
lence, hoping that, through his influence, he might be set¬
tled in a manner suited to his merit. But in this expecta¬
tion he was completely disappointed ; for although his uncle
at first showed him every mark of attachment, his fondness
decreased by degrees, and in six months he desired his
nephew in an abrupt manner to leave his house, without
attempting to procure for him any kind of living.
His necessities at this period wrere so great that he co¬
pied papers in the commissary clerk’s office for so much
per sheet, an employment which he soon left in disgust.
His exuberant wit, equalled only by his good nature, thought¬
lessness, and social propensities, made all who knew him re¬
ceive him with affection; but his powers of song and ta¬
lents for mimicry often led him into the company of the dis¬
sipated, whose example could not fail to do him essential in¬
jury, and who had neither the power nor the inclination to
provide for him through life. The irregularities in which
he was thus led to indulge often awakened in him the re¬
proaches of conscience ; and the conversation of a minis¬
ter, who understood his manner of life, appears to have
made a deep impression on his mind. His remorse indeed
soon afterwards assumed the appearance of absolute despair.
His sprightliness entirely forsook him; but he gradually
recovered from this despondency, and his health was at
length fully restored. Soon afterwards he cut his head so
severely in consequence of a fall, that he became delirious
from the loss of blood; and in this condition he remained for
some months, till the want of sleep and perpetual talking
put a period to his existence on the 16th of October 1774.
He was buried in the Canongate churchyard. Over his
grave a monument was erected by Robert Burns, who loved
his genius, and naturally sympathized with failings akin to
his own. Had Ferguson united prudence with his abilities,
he would have no doubt risen to distinguished eminence in
the literary world. His poems in the Scottish dialect have
been universally admired by his countrymen ; and when w'e
reflect that they were composed in the intervals of dissipa¬
tion, they must be considered as unequivocal evidences of
his genius.
FERIA, in the Roman Catholic breviary, is applied to
the several days of the week; thus Monday is the feria
secunda, and Tuesday the feria tertia, though these days
are not working days, but holidays. The occasion of this
p38’ that the first Christians were accustomed to keep the
Easter week holy, calling Sunday the prima feria, and so
on; hence the term feria was given to the days of every
week. But besides these, there were extraordinary ferice,
P the three last days of Passion-week, the two following
Easter-day, and the second ferice of Rogation.
F E R
FERLE, in Roman antiquity, holidays, or days upon
which the people abstained from work. Proclamation was
generally made by the herald, by command of the Rex Sa-
crorum or Flammes, that all should abstain from business •
and w hoever transgressed the order was severely fined. ’
, r were of two kinds ; public and private. The
pubhc/mffi were fourfold : first, Stativce, which were kept
as public feasts by the whole city upon certain immoveable
days appointed by their calendar, as the Compitalia, Car-
mmtalia, and Lupercaha; secondly, Ferice Conceptivce,
which were moveable feasts, the days for the celebration of
winch were fixed by the magistrates or priests, as the Fe¬
nce Latince, Paganalia, Compitalia, and others, which hap¬
pened every year, though the days for observing them were
lett to the discretion of the magistrates or priests ; thirdly
I'erice ImperativcB, which were instituted by the mere com¬
mand of consuls, praetors, or dictators, upon the gaining of
some victory or other fortunate event; and, fourthly, Nun-
dince. i he private feriae were holidays observed by parti¬
cular persons or families, on several accounts, as birth-days,
funeials, and the like. The fence belonged to and formed
one division of the dies festi.
I eri/e Latince, a festival at which a white bull was usual¬
ly sacrificed. On this occasion the Latin and Roman towns
provided each a quantity of meat, wine, and fruits; and
during the celebration, the Romans and Latins swore eter¬
nal fi lends]up to each other, taking home a piece of the
victim to every town. The festival was instituted by Tarqui-
nius Superbus, when, having overcome the Etruscans and
made a league with the Latins, he proposed to build a com¬
mon temple to Jupiter Latialis, at which both nations might
meet and offer sacrifices for their common safety. At first
the solemnity lasted but one day, but it was at different
times extended to ten days. It was held on the Alban
Mount, and celebrated with chariot races at the capitol,
where the victor was treated with a large draught of worm¬
wood drink.
FERIANA, the ancient city of Thala in Africa, which
was taken and destroyed by Metellus in the war with Ju-
gurtha. It was visited by Bruce in his travels through
Africa, and he expected to find many magnificent ruins
in the place, but was disappointed.
FERMANAGH, a county in the south-western part of
the province of Ulster, in Ireland, is bounded on the north
by the counties of Donegal and Tyrone, on the east by the
county of Monaghan, on the south by the counties of Ca¬
van and Leitrim, and on the west by those of Leitrim and
Donegal. It extends over a surface of 471,348 acres, of
which 320,999 are arable land, 101,952 are mountain and
bog, and 48,797 are under water.
In the time of Ptolemy it was inhabited by the tribe of
the Darini. Afterwards it came into the possession of
the Maguires, the O’Flanagans, and the O’Reillys; the
first-named of which families had the greatest share of
property and influence, and its head was looked upon as
the dynast or chieftain of the territory. On the settlement
of Ulster in the commencement of the reign of James I. the
English family of the Coles was ranked among the princi¬
pal residents. The county was made shire-ground, along
with the rest of Ulster, by Elizabeth, when it was divided
into the eight baronies of which it consists at present, viz.
Clonkelly, Coole, Glenawly, Knockninny, Lurg, Maghera-
boy, Maghera-Stephana, and Tyrkennedy. These baro¬
nies are subdivided into eighteen parishes and six parts of
parishes, the remaining parts of which are included within
some of the adjoining counties. According to the ecclesias¬
tical arrangements of Ireland, the chief portion of this coun¬
ty is in the diocese of Clogher; three parishes only being
in the adjoining diocese of Kilmore.
The surface is very uneven. The borders towards Ty-
515
Feriae
Ferma¬
nagh.
516
' yfi .
FERMANAGH.
Ferma¬
nagh.
' rone and Cavan, on the east, are mountainous. The north¬
western portion towards Leitrim presents one continuous
J mass of hills, many of them high, rough, and boggy, amongst
which Belmore Mountain, swelling out its massive sides
towards Lough Erne, stands proudly conspicuous. From
the summit of the Tossid Mountain is a most extensive
prospect, commanding the view of several counties, and
taking in the whole of the lake just mentioned. Quilca
Mountain, partly in this county and partly in Cavan, rises
to a very considerable height. The hills on the south¬
eastern side of the lough are disposed more in ridges than
those near them in the adjoining county of Cavan.
The great feature of the county is Lough Erne, which
divides it nearly throughout its whole extent from north¬
west to south-east. This fine sheet of water forms two long
lakes, connected by a strait, on which the town of Ennis¬
killen is situated. They are distinguished by the names of
the Upper and Lower Lakes. The former, or the more
inland, which lies between Belturbet and Enniskillen, is
eleven miles in length, and from half a mile to six miles
in width. The latter, which lies between Enniskillen and
Belleek, is thirteen miles long, and from two to ten broad.
The borders of both are finely broken by numerous bays
and inlets, formed by the projections of the surrounding
mountains and hills. Both parts of the lake are studded
with numerous islands. Popular report makes the.'number
of these equal to that of the days of the year; and, if all the
detached points of rock or land visible above water were
taken into the account, this number would not be above the
truth. There are not, however, more than a hundred and
fifty of themiwhich deserve the name of islands. They are
in general well formed for scenic effect, and many of them
are planted, chiefly with ash and oak, even to the water’s
verge. Part of the Upper Lake is so much crowded with
them as to give it the appearance, in some parts, more of
a flooded country than of an extensive sheet of water. The
islands in the Lower Lake are more numerous and pictu¬
resque. The largest is Bo or Cow Island, so called from
being employed as pasturage ; it is situated near the western
extremity of the lake. But Devenish Island, near its east¬
ern end, though smaller, is much more celebrated, from hav¬
ing on it one of the most perfect pillar towers in Ireland. Its
height is eighty-two feet, and its circumference forty-nine. It
is built of cut stone, and finished at the top with a conical
roof. Near the summit of the hill which forms the island is
the abbey of St Mary’s, of which the belfry staircase and
some of the Gothic pillars still remain. At the foot of the
hill is a church dedicated to St Molush ; and in its vicinity
are the remains of that saint’s house, roofed and finished with
cut stone. Within a few paces of the house is a stone trough,
about six feet long, said to have been his bed, in which
those affected with various complaints perform certain pre¬
scribed ceremonies, in the hope of obtaining relief. In the
island of Ennism’saint are the ruins of an abbey founded
by St Nevnid, whose festival is annually celebrated in it.
The saint’s bell, ornamented with gold and silver, is still
preserved in the island, and held in such veneration as to
be used as a relic to swear upon. In the same island is
a burying-ground, having a large stone cross at its en¬
trance. Innismore is the largest island in the Upper
Lake. Belle-isle, containing about two hundred acres, once
the favourite residence of the Earl of Ross, and celebrated
as well for its natural beauties as for the taste displayed in
its improvements, has been suffered to fall into such decay
that scarcely a vestige remains of what it once had been.
It is connected with the main land by a bridge. Innishar-
key Island, near the village of Crum, has been the residence
of the representative of the Erne family since the destruc¬
tion of Crum Castle. The navigation of the lake is chiefly
carried on by small vessels called cotts, about ten feet long be¬
low, flat-bottomed, with upright sides, and sloping outwards F?
at the stem and stern, so as to allow them to be brought rt
close to the shallow margin of the lake. They are worked ^
by oars; and a broad paddle at the stern serves instead of a
rudder. This lake has been pointed out by a late celebrat¬
ed engineer as an excellent station for steam navigation,
although steamers cannot pass from it to Ballyshannon by
the Erne, in consequence of the numerous cascades and ra¬
pids in that river. Neither is the harbour of Ballyshannon
an advantageous site. The course of the steamers should
be from Lough Erne through Lough Melvin, and by Ma¬
nor Hamilton to Sligo ; and thence to communicate with the
head of the Shannon. Two other lines of inland naviga¬
tion have been projected, commencing at Lough Erne, and
terminating, the one eastwards at Lough Neagh, the other
northwards at Lough Foyle; but nothing has as yet been
effected towards the accomplishment of either of them.
There are some smaller lakes in the county, the largest of
which are Lough Melvin, on the borders of Leitrim, and
Lough Macnean or Cane, on the confines of Cavan and
Leitrim.
The only river of any importance is the Erne, which
rises in the county of Cavan, and after passing through Bel¬
turbet, falls into Lough Erne at its south-eastern extremi¬
ty ; thence, passing by Enniskillen, it enters the Lower Lake,
at the north-western extremity of which it again narrows
into a river, and, passing through Belleek, forms a fine wa¬
ter-fall, bursting out through a thick wood in a broad sheet;
and afterwards breaking over a ledge of shelving rocks, it
foams through the arches of the bridge here thrown over
it, after which it becomes more tranquil; yet, still main¬
taining a rapid current, during a course of nine miles, in
which it crosses many lesser ridges of rock, it at length pre¬
cipitates its water down a noble cataract into the Atlantic
at Ballyshannon. The other remarkable rivers are, the
Arney, the Ballenclarogh, the Ballycassidy, the Clodagh,
the Kish Water, the Moorlaugh, and the Sillas ; all of which,
together with upwards of fifty smaller streams, contribute
to the supply of Lough Erne.
The geological structure of the county consists of sand¬
stone and secondary limestone, alternating with tolerable
regularity. Red standstone exists in Tossid Mountain,
Yellow sandstone, well adapted for building, lies round the
town of Enniskillen. Limestone may be found in several of
the islands in Lough Erne. A beautiful species of brown
marble is found near Florence-court, a limestone district;
but it requires to be worked to a greater depth than at pre¬
sent, in order to procure blocks and slabs free from flaws.
Coal is said to have been raised in Glengarron Hills; but as
no effort has lately been made to procure this mineral there,
notwithstanding the avidity with which mines of every de¬
scription have been sought out and purchased up, it may
be inferred that it is not to be had in sufficient quantities
to render it an article of general consumption. The cheap¬
ness of turf fuel, which is to be had in all parts, is anothei
reason why coal is not more sought after.
Mineral springs are numerous. Rutty gives a list o
nineteen, mostly sulphureous, but none are much frequent¬
ed by strangers ; the superior character of the waters o
Swadlingbar, in the adjoining county of Cavan, having pre
vented any successful rivalry. .
The population of this county has increased prodigious
ly from the period in which the subject became an o jec
of special inquiry. According to the several au^r^ 16.
by which it has been ascertained, its progress is as follow •
1760, De Burgo  28,860
1792, Beaufort  71>8^
1812, Parliamentary census 111,800
1821, Ditto   130,997
1831, Ditto 149>353
FERMANAGH.
rma-
517
As far as these authorities can be relied on, it appears t , - ■ ■ , , ^
that the population has increased five-fold in little more Sws is to be met sheep* A sma11 breed of .Ferma.
than seventy years. At present it exhibits an average of sheen is of on infpJ i pa.r^s' The general stock of' nagh.
one inhabitant to every three acres of land generally, and a flock to be seen ? neither 18 there any thing like  
MiPuroPia on-.oo . • floats are common, in consequence of
tnp\r Q-rp iv. 1 • ^
to every two cultivable acres.
The state of education, according to the returns made
under the population act in 1821, and to those of the Board
of Education in 1824-26, is as follows :
Boys. Girls. Sex not Total.
ascertained. oiai
1821 4032 2303  — 6335
1824-6 5685 3848  260 9793
Of the numbers in the latter return, 5283 were of the
wiThwih;ch ;h2'are n,aintaine’d
the quantity of land requisite to feed one. The hilly coun¬
try affords coarse pasturage for large herds of young cattle •
yet that it could be made still more productive by being
brought under tillage, is evinced from the success which has
attended every judicious effort of industry when thus direct-
established church, 246 were Roman Catholics, and 4204 of the nSghbourhlg countieT1 ^ S°-me
dissenters, whilst the religious persuasion of sixty was not Ash is a tree peculiarly abundant boKre a^ nftTad'
ascertained. Eighteen schools, containing 1012 pupils, were joining counties of Cavan and IVrone. In ?he first-met'
supported by grants of public money ; fifty-nine, containing tioned of these counties indeed it k rnnet.ntpVf f • ?p "
8433 pupils, by voluntary subscription; and the remaining, hedgerows; and, more ’particularly in the ntrthZ side
163 schools, containing 5348 pupils, were wholly maintained Lough Erne, it runs like a weed through the county
b, the fees of the pupils. As far as the proportions between The linen manufacture is carried on here me extent
the religious persuasion of the pupils can be applied as a The principal kind made is what is termed seven-etehth '
cale for estimating the adu t popu afon, the Catholic por- There are several bleachfields in different parts A good
non of it must be extremely small, not constituting more deal of wool is also spun, which is generally worked up toto
than one-fiftieth of the whole, the remaining forty-nine druggets, the warp being of tow yarn and the weft of wool,
parts being divided in nearly equal proportions between the It is chiefly consumed within the county. These manufac-
Protestants of the established church and the dissenters, tures, and the rearing of black cattle, may be considered
But i deducing this inference, due allou-ance should be as the main sources of wealth among the small farmers,
made for the circumstance, that the Catholic population The fish chiefly taken in Lough Erne and its tributary
chiefly prevails m the mountainous districts, in which the streams are, pike, perch, white and speckled trout, bream,
desire for education is more checked by local obstacles than red roach, pullein, salmon, and eels both silver and mud,
m those parts nearer the towns and the general channels of much esteemed for the excellence of their flavour. There
communication. are several large eel-weirs at Enniskillen, where great nuan-
Previously to the Lmon, the county was represented in titles of these fish are caught. They come fi-om the sea
the Irish parliament by four members, two of whom were when young, and are intercepted in their return. They
returned for the county at large, and two for the borough of never take the bait, nor are they known to take any kind of
Enniskillen. At that period the number was reduced to food. The country people catch them by extending across
ree, one aving been deducted from Enniskillen. No the stream a band of hay, in which they are so entangled
alteration has been produced by the reform act. that they are easily taken. Their average weight is about
he state of the constituency at three periods, the first, three pounds. Those not sold fresh or sent to Dublin are car-
e ore t e disfranchisement of the forty-shilling freehold- ried in barrels, each of which contains eight dozen, and are
ers, which took place on the passing of the Catholic relief sold in Belturbet. Eighty dozen are sometimes caught in a
bill; the second, subsequent to that event, but previously night. There is also an eel-weir near the falls of Belleek.
to the passing of the reform bill; and the third, exhibiting
its present state, will appear from the following table :
L.50. L.20. L.10. 40s. Total.
1st Jan. 1829...252 183 ... 6443 6878
1830.. . 254 256 522 ... 1032
1832.. . 178 250 1001 ... 1429
Fermanagh has a few resident proprietors of high rank
or large income. They are all members of the established
church, and derive their titles to their estates from Eliza¬
beth, James L, or Cromwell. A class of yeomanry is also
to be met with, who distinguish themselves by the charac¬
ter of being “ as good Protestants as any in Irelanda
av/v/j. ... ucing eta guuu a iutcdtctiito cts ciiiy m , a
Of the last-named number of electors, 1015 voted at the phrase implying not so much any superiority in religious
unc^er tbe rePorm act. qualifications, as a rooted aversion to their Roman Catho-
Inis county is almost exclusively agricultural. Farms lie neighbours. These are farmers, who hold tracts of land
vary from nine acres, chiefly under tillage, to large tracts for of considerable extent, and were settled in the county when
grazm?. Much land is let in the gross to middle-men, who the right to the elective franchise was exclusively in the
r, cmoiiviv. Landowners of this description hands of Protestants. At that period, Catholic tenants
grazing. 111 
sublet it to smaller tenants.
^ LdiclilLo* JLidllLlU Wilt?! o 01 llllb OOlsCriptlOll HdilLlo Ol A 1 ULt-oLdllLs* XaL Lildl pdlOlAj \vdLllUllL/ LOlldllLO
are distinguished by the name of terny-begs, or little land- were often turned out of their farms, and sent farther up
ords. Tiernagh is the Irish word for a prince. There is the mountains, to make room for the privileged class. The
much land belonging to the see of Clogher in the county,
ents are paid in the mountainous districts in young cattle,
Protestants are a fine race of men, much superior in appear-
ie mountainous custncts in young cattle, ance to those of any other of the northern counties. This
^irn’ and butter. Oats and barley are the kinds of grain superiority arises, in all probability, from their habits of life,
cnieny raised; wheat is comparatively little grown. Thema- which, being peculiarly agricultural, with very little inter-
nures are, marl, limestone, limestone gravel, bog-mold, and mixture of sedentary employment at manufactures, are more
og-ashes. The marl is white and light, found under bogs favourable to the free expansion of the bodily powers.
aad in banks. That about Florence-court is upon clay and They are tall, well made, and robust. Their countenances
gravel, with springs under it, which cause the marl to run into display the bloom of health ; and they enjoy that uninter-
orms like cinders petrified, and of a reddish cast, as if from rupted flow of animal spirits which is the constant atten-
Vl nolic acid. Marl is but little used in farming, limestone dant on regular living and active employment. Yet, wdie-
an,| gravel being found more productive. Land is gene- ther from custom or natural propensity, the peasants do not
w tk f?repared Por potatoes by manuring it with dung, or rise early, and the cows are not milked till noon. There
1 h hme and bog-mud mixed, and with burnt clay, which being but few markets for the produce of the soil, little
ound to answer well. Some excellent pasture lands are encouragement is given to extraordinary exertion ; they
518
Ferma¬
nagh.
F E R
therefore seldom think of turning their time to the best ad¬
vantage. The cottars are poor, and their cabins wretched
huts, with a wattled door, and a mat on the inside. Y et
many of the herdsmen who reside in the mountains are able
to give their daughters on their marriage twenty guineas
and a feather bed, although the cabins in which they reside
are of the wretched description just mentioned, and seem
to contain nothing but dirt and wretchedness. In cases
of disease the lower classes have no confidence in medicine.
When they send for the physician, they consider themselves
as having signed their death warrant. An aversion is there¬
fore entertained to the whole medical profession ; and those
who would not lay out sixpence in an apothecary s shop will
hoard up considerable sums to provide for the expenses ot
a wake. The custom of assembling round the body ot a
deceased friend prevails universally amongst the Catholics
of all ranks ; but it is declining evefy year more and more
amongst the Protestants. . .
The seats of the gentry are very splendid, the princi¬
pal are, Castle Caldwell, a fine mansion at the foot of a large
mountain, having in front the promontory of Rossagoul pro-
ieeting into the lake, which is here studded with several fine
islands ; Florence-court, the seat of the Earl of Enniskillen,
the facade of which, of the Ionic order, extends 260 feet;
Belle-isle, already noticed ; Castle Saunderson, near which
are some druidical monuments; Eromcoo, Castlecoole, Cas¬
tle Archdall, Brookborough, and Crum, where there is an
extraordinary yew tree, which throws out branches to the
distance of forty-five feet.
The towns in this county are few and small, none amount¬
ing in population to 6000 souls, and but two having more
than 1000 souls each. Enniskillen, the county town, is si¬
tuated on an island in the strait or river that connects the
two portions of Lough Erne. As it was one of the great
passes from Ulster into Connaught, it has always been con¬
sidered as a place of importance. During the war of 1688
it was particularly celebrated for the stand it made against
the forces of James II. At a very early period it was the
seat of the chief, of the Maguire family, the remains of
whose castle still exist, having been converted into an ar¬
tillery barrack. The town occupies the whole island, and
is connected with the main land on both sides by a bridge
at each end of the High Street. The parish church is a
venerable structure, on an elevated position. There is also
a Roman Catholic chapel, and three dissenting meeting¬
houses. The exterior of the county infirmary presents the
appearance of a private gentleman’s seat. The market-
house is a light and graceful building, ornamented with a
steeple, and containing a suite of rooms for balls and assem¬
blies. The court-house is a plain, grave edifice. I he other
public buildings are the infantry barrack and the coun¬
ty jail, in the latter of which the prisoners, who are all
clothed in a prison-uniform, and arranged in four classes,
are employed in breaking stones. A school is kept in it;
and the females are superintended by a matron. There is
also a tread-mill. The average number of prisoners for the
last few years has been seventy. At a small distance from
the town is the public school founded by Charles I. who
endowed it with an estate of 3360 acres. The head master
receives a salary of L.500 per annum, with other advanta¬
ges. The town maintains a good corn, butter, and flesh-
market, which last is held in convenient shambles. The
environs of the town are very beautiful. It opens on the
view in a manner peculiarly fine from Florence-court. The
hill above the town was formerly planted. A French en¬
gineer, sent over by Lord Pelham, cleared it of wood, and
erected a fort on it, which, after it had been built, was dis¬
covered to be completely commanded by higher ground in
the neighbourhood. Enniskillen is celebrated as a depot for
obtaining recruits for the army. A regiment of horse was
F E R
raised here in the time of King William, which is still dis- per
tinguished by the name of the Enniskillen dragoons. This W
circumstance, together with the general habits and charac¬
ter of the peasantry, has tended to keep up a military spirit
throughout the county. There are few families which have
not one or more sons in the army. Young men who intend
to enlist travel from very distant parts to this town, where
they are sure to meet with recruiting parties to receive
them. The population of Enniskillen in 1821 was 2399;
in 1831 it was returned at 5270. The only other town
containing more than a thousand inhabitants is Irvinestown,
formerly Lowtherstown, the population of which, accord¬
ing to the census of 1831, amounted to 1047. The other
collections of houses are mere villages, nor are there many
even of these.
FERMAT, Pierre de, equally celebrated as a restorer
of ancient mathematics, and an original author of modern
improvements, was born at Toulouse about 1595. His
public life was occupied by the active duties attached to
the situation of a counsellor of the parliament of Toulouse,
in which he was distinguished both for legal knowledge
and for strict integrity of conduct. Besides the sciences,
which were the principal objects of his private studies, he
was an accomplished scholar, an excellent linguist, and
even a respectable poet.
His Opera Mathematica were published at Toulouse, in
two volumes folio, 1670 and 1679 ; they are now become
very scarce. The first contains the Arithmetic of Dio-
phantus, illustrated by a commentary, and enlarged by a
multitude of additional propositions. In the second we
find a Method or the Quadrature of Parabolas of all kinds,
and a Treatise on Maxima and Minima, on Tangents, and
on Centres of Gravity ; containing the same solutions of a
variety of problems as were afterwards incorporated into
the more extensive method of fluxions, by Newton and
Leibnitz; and securing to their author, in common with
Cavalleri, Roberval, Descartes, Wallis, Barrow, and Sluse,
an ample share of the glory of having immediately prepa¬
red the way for the gigantic steps of those illustrious philo¬
sophers. The same volume contains also several other
treatises on Geometric Loci, or Spherical Tangencies, and
on the Rectification of Curves, besides a restoration of
Apollonius's Plane Loci; together with the author’s cor¬
respondence, addressed to Descartes, Pascal, Roberval,
Huygens, and others.
It was too much Fermat’s custom to leave his most im¬
portant propositions wholly undemonstrated; sometimes,
perhaps, because he may have obtained them rather by in¬
duction than by a connected train of reasoning; and, in
other cases, for the purpose of proposing them as a trial oi
strength to his contemporaries. The deficiency, however,
has in many instances been supplied by the elaborate in¬
vestigations of Euler and Lagrange, who have thought it
no degradation to their refined talents to go back a cen¬
tury in search of these elegant intricacies, which appeared
to require further illustration. It happened not uncom¬
monly, that the want of a more explicit statement ot the
grounds of his discoveries deprived Fermat, in the opinion
of his rivals, of the credit justly due to him for accuracy
and originality. It was thus that Descartes attempte o
correct his method of maxima and minima, and could neve
be persuaded that Fermat’s first propositions on the subjec
were unexceptionable. Fermat , was however ena e
pursue his favourite studies with less interruption
Descartes; and the products of his labour were Pr0P°
tionate, as Lacroix remarks, to the opportunities he enj >
ed, as well as to the talents he possessed. ^
There is a very ingenious proposition of Fermat, w
deserves to be particularly noticed, on account ot
cussion that it not long ago excited among mathem
U
%
aent
;nen-
on.
F E R
philosophers. He has demonstrated that the true law of the
refraction of light may be deduced from the principle, that
it describes the path by which it can arrive in the shortest
j possible time from any one point of its tract or course to
another; on the supposition, however, that the velocity of
light is inversely proportional to the refractive density of
the medium : and the same phenomena of refraction have
been shown by Maupertuis to be deducible, upon the op¬
posite supposition with respect to the velocities, from the
law of the minimum of action, considering the action as
the product of the space described into the velocity. But
the law of Fermat is actually a step in the process of na¬
ture, according to the conditions of the system to which it
belongs in its original form ; whilst that of Maupertuis is at
most only an interesting commentary on the operation of
an accelerating force. It was Newton who showed the ne¬
cessary connection between the action of such a force and
the actual law of refraction; demonstrating that all the
phenomena might be derived from the effect of a constant
attraction, perpendicular to the surface of the medium: and,
except in conjunction with such a force, the law of Mau¬
pertuis would even lead to a false result. For if we sup¬
posed a medium acting on a ray of light with two variable
forces, one perpendicular to the surface, and the other pa¬
rallel to it, we might easily combine them in such a man¬
ner as to obtain a constant velocity within the medium,
but the refraction would be very different from that which
is observed, though the law of Maupertuis would indicate
no difference; so that the law must be here applied with
the tacit condition that the refractive force is perpendicu¬
lar to the surface. In Laplace’s theory of extraordinary
refraction, on the contrary, the tacit condition is, that the
force must not be perpendicular to the surface ; so that this
theory not only requires the gratuitous assumption of a dif¬
ferent velocity for every different obliquity, which is made
an express postulate, but also the implicit admission of the
existence of a force, determinate in direction and in mag¬
nitude, by which that velocity is modified, and without
which the law of Maupertuis would cease to be applicable.
It may indeed be said, that the supposition of a medium
exhibiting unequal velocities, and attracting the light per¬
pendicularly, is unnatural, and that the law is the more
valuable for not being applicable to it; but a mathematical
equation is true even with respect to impossible quantities,
and a physical law, however useful it may be, requires phy¬
sical proof; and it will not be asserted that the law of Mau-
pertuis has been or can be established by physical evidence
sufficiently extensive to render it universal.
Fermat died at Toulouse in the end of 1664i, or begin¬
ning of 1665, at the age of seventy. He left a son, Samuel
e F ermat, who was a man of some learning, and published
tianslations of several Greek authors. (l. l.)
FERMENT, any body which, being applied to another,
produces fermentation.
Ferments are either matters already in the act of fer-
nientation, or those which soon pass into this state. Of the
rst kind are the flowers of wine, yeast, fermenting beer,
or ermenting wine, and of the second are the newly-ex-
pressed vegetable juices of summer fruit.
mongst distillers ferments are all those bodies which,
^ en added to the liquor, only correct some fault in it, and,
Y removing some obstacle to fermentation, forward the
process by secondary means ; also such as, being added in
ime of fermentation, make the liquor yield a larger propor-
Epfeib and give it a finer flavour.
. *~EN FATION may be defined a sensible internal
_ lon °J ^le constituent particles of a fluid, mixed, or
pound body; by the continuance of which motion
tuatf ^artlc^es a?’e gradually removed from their former si-
on or combination, and again, after some visible sepa-
F E R
ration is made, combined together in a different order and
anangement, so that a new compound is formed, having
qualities very sensibly differing from those of the original
nuid. feee Brewing and Chemistry.
• nEiRMr?A °ne of the legations of the papal dominions,
in Italy, o80 square miles in extent. It contains one city,
eleven market-towns, and thirty villages, with 77,089 inha¬
bitants. It is situated on the shore of the Adriatic, and on
taut side is fruitful in wheat, maize, pease, beans, and fruit,
and produces some silk. On the western side it consists of
the Appennines, and is less fertile. The capital, of the
same name, is about two miles from the shore, where is
Porto Fermo, whence several fisheries are carried on. The
city is surrounded with walls, and contains ten churches,
besides the cathedral of the archbishop, eleven monasteries,
and five nunneries. The inhabitants amounted in 1816 to
19,678, and are occupied in various trades. Long. 13. 36.
21. E. Lat. 43. 10. 18. N. b
FERMOSELLE, a town of Spain, in the province of
Leon, with an ancient castle adjoining it. The river
Duero passes by it a little above the part at which the
Formes, that flows by Salamanca, joins that river. This
town possesses a population of 3000 souls.
FERNANDO, or Fernandes, an island in the Pacific
Ocean. See Juan Fernandes.
FERNANDO DE NORONHA, or Naronho, an island
in the Atlantic Ocean, situated about 210 miles from the
coast of Brazil. It is only about three miles in length, and
is full of mountains, which, however, are clothed with ver¬
dure. It possesses a fort, which is garrisoned; but the
island is of little use, except as a place of banishment for
male criminals. Long. 32. 28. W. 'Lat. 3. 56. S.
FERNANDO PO, an African island, situated near the
coast of Benin. It was discovered in 1471 by a Portu¬
guese navigator, whose name it bears. It is about sixty
miles in circumference, and is both fertile and beautiful,
yielding abundance of rice, fruit, sugar canes, and tobacco.
It is however little frequented by strangers ; and the inha¬
bitants, who are about 1200 in number, are said to be rude
and uncivilized. Long. 8. 40. E. Lat. 3. 28. N.
FERNANDO SAN D’APURE, a town of South Ame¬
rica, in the province of Caraccas. It is situated on the great
river Apure, and is chiefly inhabited by shepherds; who
pasture their flocks and herds upon the surrounding plains.
The population has been estimated at about 6000.
FERNELIUS, John, physician to Henry II. king of
France, was born at Picardy towards the close of the fif¬
teenth or beginning of the sixteenth century. Being sent
to Paris to study rhetoric and philosophy, he applied him¬
self so intensely that all other pleasures became insipid,
and he cared neither for play, nor walking, nor entertain¬
ments, nor even conversation. He read Cicero, Plato, and
Aristotle, and also applied himself earnestly to the mathe¬
matics. This continual study brought on an attack of sick¬
ness, which obliged him to leave Paris. On his recovery
he returned, designing to study physic ; but before he had
an opportunity of applying himself to this pursuit he was
employed to teach philosophy in the college of St Barbara.
After this he spent four years in the study of physic; and
having taken a doctor’s degree, confined himself to his closet,
in order to read the best authors, and to improve himself
in the mathematics, as far as the business of his profession
would permit. Never, in fact, was there a man more diligent
than Fernel. He used to rise at four o’clock in the morn¬
ing, and study till it was time either to read lectures or to
visit his patients. But as attending patients did not oc¬
cupy his whole time, he read public lectures upon Hippo¬
crates and Galen, which soon gained him a great repu¬
tation throughout France and in foreign countries. When
his business increased, however, he left off reading lec-
519
Fermo
II
Fernelius.
'  
520
F E R
Femey tures, and spent all the hours he could spare in compos-
II ing a work on physic, entitled Physiologia, which was soon
Ferrara, afterwards published. But he was prevailed with to read
V-^Y~w/ lectures upon this new work, which he did for three years ;
and having published another work, De Vena Sectione, he
was under the necessity of reading lectures some years
longer, in order to explain this new book to his pupils. Whilst
thus employed, he was sent for to court, in order to try
whether he could cure a lady whose recovery was despair¬
ed of; and being fortunate enough to succeed, this circum¬
stance was the cause of the esteem which Henry II., then
dauphin, and in love with that lady, conceived for him. 1 his
prince offered him the place of first physician ; but Fernel,
who preferred his studies to the bustle of a court, respect¬
fully declined the employment. When Henry came to
the throne, he renewed his entreaties; but Fernel repi e-
sented that the honour offered him was due, as an heredi¬
tary right, to the late king’s physician, and that, besides,
he required time to make experiments concerning seveial
matters relating to medicine. 1 he king admitted the vali¬
dity of this excuse ; but as soon as the physician of Fran¬
cis I. died, Fernel was called to occupy his place at the
court of Henry II. And here the contrary of what he had
apprehended came to pass ; for he enjoyed more leisure at
court than he had done at Paris ; and he might have con¬
sidered it as an agreeable retirement, had it not been for
the journey which the new civil war obliged the king to
undertake. Fernel died in 1558, leaving behind him many
works besides those which have been mentioned. They
have been printed several times, with his life prefixed,
written by William Plantius, his disciple.
FERNEY, a town of France, in the department of the
Ain, and arrondissement of Gex. It is situated on an ele¬
vated spot, not far from the lake of Geneva, and contains
750 inhabitants. It is only remarkable from the chateau
there having been the residence of Voltaire from 1762 to
1777.
FEROKABAD, a town of Hindustan, on the coast of
Malabar, which was taken by the British under Colonel
Hartley, in 1790. It is ten miles south of Calicut.
FERONIA, the pagan goddess of woods and orchards.
This deity took her name from the town of Feronia, si¬
tuated at the foot of Mount Soracte in Italy, where a wood
and temple were consecrated to her worship. Both are
mentioned by Virgil in the catalogue of Turnus’s forces.
Strabo relates that those who sacrificed to this goddess
walked barefoot upon burning coals, without being hurt.
Feronia was the guardian deity of freed men, who received
their cap of liberty at her temple.
FEROZEGUR, a town of Hindustan, belonging to the
Nizam, in the province of Beeder, 120 miles south-west by
south from Hyderabad. Long. 77. 22. E. Lat. 16. 8. N.
FEROZEPOOR, a town of Hindustan, in the Sikk ter¬
ritories, in the province of Lahore, fifty-two miles south by
east from the city of Lahore. Long. 75. 58. E. Lat. 31.
5. N
FERRAH, a large walled town of Afghanistan, situat¬
ed in a fertile valley, which was visited by Captain Chris¬
tie. It gives name to a considerable river, which falls into
the lake of Zarra, and is supposed to be the Parrah of an¬
cient Parthia, a place of great splendour and extent. Long.
61. 40. E. Lat. 33. 7. N.
FERRAJO-Porto, a city, the capital of the Isle of
Elba, in the Mediterranean. It is situated on a rocky pro¬
jection into the sea, to which there is but one accessible
passage from the land. It contains 3143 inhabitants ; but
since the departure of Bonaparte, is again become a mere
place for the fishery. Long. 9. 55. E. Lat. 42. 49. N.
FERRARA, one of the delegations of the papal domi¬
nions in Italy, which extends over 1210 souare miles. It
F E R
contains two cities, thirteen market-towns, and 254 villages, Fe r
with 170,727 inhabitants. The greater portion of the dis¬
trict is the delta formed by the mouths of the Po, and is %
very unhealthy; but it is fertile, and produces good crops
of wheat, rice, maize, hemp, flax, oil, and silk. The breed
of cattle is very good; the dairy is extensively followed, and
produces excellent cheese. There are two fortified places,
which are occupied by Austrian garrisons. The capital is
a city of the same name, situated on a branch of the Po,
one of the finest in Italy, with broad and regular streets;
but the houses and magnificent palaces are nevertheless very
thinly inhabited. It contains, besides the cathedral, 100
churches, twenty-two monasteries, sixteen nunneries, and
5100 houses, but only 23,100 inhabitants. The university
has been destroyed. There is little or no trade, and no ma¬
nufactures. The citadel is garrisoned by Austrian troops.
Long. 11. 31. 5. E. Lat. 44. 49. 56. N.
FERRARS, George, was descended from an ancient
family in Hertfordshire, and born about the year 1510, at
a village near St Alban’s. He was educated at Oxford,
and thence removed to Lincoln’s Inn, where, having ap¬
plied with uncommon diligence to the study of the law, he
soon became distinguished for his elocution at the bar.
Cromwell, earl of Essex, the great minister of Henry VIII.
introduced him to the king, who employed him as his me¬
nial servant, and in 1535 gave him a grant of the manor of
Flamstead, in his native county. This is supposed to have
been a profitable estate ; but Mr Ferrars being a gay cour¬
tier, and probably an expensive man, about seven years after¬
wards he was taken on execution by a sheriff’s officer, for a
debt of two hundred merks, and lodged in the compter.
Being at this time member for Plymouth, the House of
Commons immediately interfered, and he soon obtained
his liberty. He continued in favour with the king till the
end of his reign ; and in that of Edward VI. he attended
the lord protector Somerset as a commissioner of the army,
in his expedition to Scotland in 1548. In the same reign,
the young king being then at Greenwich, Mr Ferrars was
proclaimed Lord of Misrule, that is, prince of sports and
pastimes ; which office he discharged during twelve days, in
Christmas holidays, to the entire satisfaction of the court.
This is all that is known of Mr Ferrars, excepting that he
died in 1579, at Flamstead in Hertfordshire, and was buried
in the parish church. He was not less celebrated for his
valour in the field than for his accomplishments as a gen¬
tleman and a scholar, and he wrote, 1. History of the
Reign of Queen Mary, published in Grafton’s Chronicle,
1569, fol.; and, 2. Six tragedies, or dramatic poems, pub¬
lished in a book called the Mirror for Magistrates, first
printed in 1559, afterwards in 1587, and again in 1610.
FERREANAH, atown of Tunis, in Africa. Itbearsevi-
dent traces of great antiquity, and of having been formerly t e
largest city of this portion of the Tunisian territory. Ihis,
it is usually affirmed, is somewhat unaccountable, because,
though the town enjoys a good climate, and is well supp ie
with water, yet the surrounding country is arid and barren
in the highest degree. But the difficulty vanishes w en
we consider that it lies in the vicinity of a great desert o
sand, which is perpetually shifting, and gradually over¬
whelming whole tracts of country, which were former y
covered with l&xuriant vegetation. Such may have een
the case with regard to the country surrounding Ferrean •
Dr Shaw conjectures that it is the site of the ancient a >
which is so particularly described by Sallust in his narra |
of the Jugurthan war. Ferreanah is about 130 miles sou
west of Tunis.
FERRETTO, in glass-making, a substance which sene
to colour glass. Panarv
FERRO, or Hiero, the most westerly of the uuw J
Islands, and, besides being the smallest, also the mos
F E R
ol and barren. It has a population of about 5000 souls, and a
superficies of twenty square miles. The coast is rugged,
t3, and the soil contiguous to it is barren; but in the interior
the face of the country improves, and there is a consider¬
able portion of the island level and fruitful. The chief
product is figs, which are produced in great quantities ; and,
to prevent their being lost, they are frequently used in
making brandy. This spirit, together with wine, which is
also made here, is exported to Teneriffe. Various aro¬
matic flowers grow in great abundance; and bees thrive
exceedingly well, yielding excellent honey. Ferro is but
scantily supplied with water, there being only two or three
fountains on the island ; so that the cattle, which are nume¬
rous, are but ill provided with this indispensable commo¬
dity. Ferro was formerly supposed to be the most wester¬
ly point of the old world, and hence geographers drew their
first meridian of longitude through it. This practice, how¬
ever, has been abandoned; and almost every nation now
makes the first meridian to pass through its own capital,
not, we apprehend, with any advantage to science, but ra¬
ther the reverse. Long. 17. 46. W. Lat. 27. 45. N.
Ferro, or Feroe Islands. See Faroe.
FERROL, a city of Spain, in the province of Gallicia.
It is one of the most important of the naval arsenals of the
kingdom. Its harbour is deep, capacious, and secure ; and
the entrance so narrow that not more than one ship at a time
can enter. From the mouth being so narrow, it is exposed
to the inconvenience of not admitting the entrance or de¬
parture of vessels, but with a wind blowing from one parti¬
cular point. The dock-yard is supplied with ship timber
from the Asturias, and with hemp and flax from Aragon;
and cordage and sail-cloth are manufactured in the royal
workshops. The dry-docks for building and repairing ships
in the suburb called Esteyro, are well constructed. At
Neda, near the city, a building was lately erected, upon a
large scale, for rolling copper into sheets for the bottoms
of ships, and for preparing the other works required for
coppering ships. The harbour, as well as the city, is very
strongly fortified; but some heights are said so to command
them as to render the defences of little importance. The
population of the city and suburbs amount to about 20,000,
most of whom are subsisted by the wages of the arsenal.
Long. 7. 41. 14. W. Lat. 43. 29. 30. N.
FERRUGINOUS, any thing partaking of iron, or which
contains particles of that metal.
FERTE-LA-MILON, a fortified city of the department
of the Aisne, in France, situated on the river Ourcq, con¬
taining 480 houses and 2070 inhabitants. It was the birth¬
place of the celebrated dramatist. Racine in 1639.
FERTE SOUS JOUARRE, a town of France, in the
department of the Seine and Marne, situated at the junc¬
tion of the Lesser Morin with the Marne. It contained a
university, and has now 434 houses, and 3700 inhabitants.
Ihe neighbourhood is celebrated for its cheese.
FERULA, a little wooden pallet or slice, reputed the
schoolmaster’s sceptre, wherewith he chastises the boys
hy striking them on the palms of the hands. The word
's Latin, and has also been used to denote the prelate’s
crosier and staff. It is supposed to be formed from the
Latin/mfr, to strike. Under the eastern empire the fe¬
rula was the emperor’s sceptre, as is seen on different me¬
dals. R consists of a long stem or staff, having a flat
square head. The use of the ferula is very ancient among
the Greeks, who used to call their princes vap^oxopoi, or
ferula-bearers.
In the ancient eastern church, ferula or narthex signified
a place separated from the church, in which the penitents
or the catechumens of the second order, called auscultantes,
“woa/xc/.r/xo/, were kept, as not being allowed to enter the
c urc“» and as the persons therein were under penance or
vol. IX.
FES
521
Festus.
discipline, hence the name of the place. Sub ferula erant Fescennia
ecclesicE. n
FESCENNIA, a city of Etruria, near Falerii, supposed
to have occupied the site of the modern Galese, and be-
ongmg originally to the Siceli, who were dispossessed by
the Pelasgi. Dionysius (i. 21) states that some customs of
this latter nation were still observed in his time (29 b. c.).
It is chiefly remarkable as having given birth to a species
of veise called by the Romans Versus Fescennini, and
sometimes also Saturnii, in reference to the remote anti¬
quity of its origin. As all specimens of this species of
poetry have disappeared, we must rest satisfied with the
account given of it by Horace. According to him, it was
employed at the solemn festivals of their gods, sung in al¬
ternate verses by the performers, and was of a gay and
cheerful character. The wit was of the rudest kind, and
the satire was often so severe, that the laws of the Twelve
Tables found it necessary to guard against its abuse. The
irregular metre in which these songs, as well as all the poe¬
tical attempts of the early Romans, were written, received
the name of Saturnian verse. (Hor. Fp. ii. 1. 139 ; Liv.
vii. 2; Casaubon Be Sat. Grcec. et Rom. Poes. p. 178;
Palmstrbm Be Satir. Orig. p. 63.)
FESCENNINE "V erses, Versus Fescennini, see the pre¬
ceding article. The word, according to Macrobius, is form¬
ed from fascinum, a charm, because the people conceived
such songs calculated to drive away witches, or prevent the
effect of their witchcraft; but its more probable origin is
from Fescenni, a city of Etruria, where these verses origi¬
nated, as above explained.
FESTI Dies, in Roman antiquity, certain days in the
year devoted to the honour of the gods. Numa, when he
distributed the year into twelve months, divided the same
into the dies festi, the dies profesti, and the dies intercisi.
The dies festi were again divided into days of sacrifices,
banquets, games, and feriae. The dies profesti were those
days allowed to men for the administration of their affairs,
whether of a public or private nature; and they were di¬
vided into fasti, comitiales, See. The dies intercisi were
days common both to gods and men, some parts of which
were allotted to the service of the one, and some to that
of the other.
FESTINO, in Logic, the third mood of the second
figure of the syllogism, the first proposition of which is an
universal negative, the second a particular affirmative, and
the third a particular negative ; as in the following exam¬
ple :
FES No bad man can be happy ;
TI Some rich men are bad men ;
NO Therefore, Some rich men are not happy.
FESTOON, in Architecture and Sculpture, an ornament
in the form of a garland of flowers, fruits, and leaves, in¬
termixed or twisted together. Festoons are now chiefly
used in friezes and other vacant places which require to
be filled up and adorned, and are in imitation of the long
clusters of flowers, which the ancients placed on the doors
of their temples and houses, executed upon festival occa¬
sions.
FESTUS, Pompeius Sextus, a celebrated grammarian
and philologist, who probably flourished towards the close
of the fifth century of our era, and who was at all events
posterior to Martial, whom he cites under the word Vespa.
Festus abridged the great work of Verrius Flaccus, a learn¬
ed grammarian, Be Verborum Signijicatione, omitting ob¬
solete expressions, which were to be treated of in a sepa¬
rate work. This abridgment, which is still extant, is di¬
vided into twenty books, in which each word is alphabeti¬
cally arranged and explained; and it has justly been re¬
garded as one of the most valuable works respecting the
Roman language and antiquities which have come down to
i
522
Fetlock
II
Feudal
Law.
FEU
our times. Indeed, of all the grammarians, Festus is the
one who, in the opinion of Julius Scaliger, has rendered
the greatest service to the Latin language. The abridg¬
ment of Paulus Diaconus is a complete mutilation of the
work of Festus. The latter was printed for the first time
at Milan, 1471, in small folio, and about the middle of the
sixteenth century successively published by Aldus Mauri¬
tius, Maffei, and, lastly, by the learned Augustin, with
notes, Venice, 1560. The Venice edition, which contains
the abbreviation of the work of Festus by Paulus Diaco¬
nus, and also fragments of Verrius, was reprinted at Paris,
1575, in 8vo, under the superintendence of Joseph Scaliger.
About the same time, Fulvio Orsini published the Frag-
ments of Festus, as Rallus and Pomponius Laetus had trans¬
mitted them to Politian and to J. 13. Pius, Pome, 1581,
in 8vo ; and they were afterwards inserted by Denis Gode-
froi in the collection of the Auctores Latina Lingua, pub¬
lished at Geneva, 1602, in 4to. Lastly, the excellent edi¬
tion of Dacier, in usum Delphini, appeared at Paris in
1681, 4to, and was reprinted in the same form at Amster¬
dam in 1699, with the notes of Antony Augustin, Fulvio
Orsini, and Joseph Scaliger.
FETLOCK, in the manege, a tuft of hair growing be¬
hind the pastern joint of many horses ; but those of a low
size have scarcely any such tuft.
FEUCHTWANG, a bailiwick of the circle of the Re-
zat, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending over 115 square
miles, and comprehending one city, one town, 101 villages,
and 13,000 inhabitants. The chief place is the city of the
same name, situated on the river Sulz. It has three churches,
226 houses, and 2150 inhabitants, who find occupation in
making muslins, damask table-linen, hats, and leather.
FEUD, in our ancient customs, is used to signify a capi¬
tal quarrel or enmity, not to be satisfied but with blood;
and hence it is usually denominated deadly feud. Feud,
called also feida, and faida, in the original German signi¬
fies guerran or war. Lambert writes it feeth, and says that
it signifies capitalis inimicitia, or implacable hatred.
FEUDAL LAW is that system of Gothic jurisprudence
which reached its full maturity during the middle ages, and
which long continued to regulate the tenure of real proper¬
ty in the principal countries of Europe. The relations of
lord and vassal have undergone very essential changes, the
knight no longer holds his estate on the condition of mili¬
tary ser vice, and most of the feudal incidents have been
gradually superseded as unsuitable to the spirit of modern
times; but this law has left many deep traces behind it,
and is so closely interwoven with our national institutions,
that it could not without great difficulty be entirely disen¬
tangled. Where the substance has almost totally vanish¬
ed, the form is in some instances not very advantageously
retained.
Of the word feudal many different etymologies have been
proposed. According to Somner, who treads in the steps
of Selden and Spelman, feud is a German compound, which
consists of feh, feo, or feoh, signifying a salary, stipend, or
wages, and of hade, head, or hode, signifying quality, kind,
or nature; so that, in its primary acceptation, feudum, or
land held in fee, was such as was held in fee-hode, by con¬
traction feud or feod,; that is, in a stipendary way, with the
acknowledgment of a superior, and a condition of return¬
ing some service for it, on the withdrawing of which, the
F E U
land was revertible to the superior.1 Sir Martin Wright Feiq
has remarked that “ this etymon not only suggests the Ls
most probable account of the word, but gives us the clear- ^ ^
est description of the thing itself.”2
The origin of the feudal system is a question which has
been long and much agitated, and different authors have
arrived at very different conclusions. “ It has puzzled the
learned,” says Dr Stuart, “ to discover the nation of the
barbarians which first gave a beginning to fiefs. No in¬
quiry could be more frivolous. In all of them they must
have appeared about the same period; and they prevailed
in all of them in consequence of the similarity of their situ¬
ation on their conquests, and in consequence of their being
governed by the same customs. It is not therefore to the
principle of imitation that their universality is to be as¬
cribed.”3 But the most comprehensive and the most de¬
cided opinion is that of Mr Pinkerton, who avers that “ the
feudal system, about which so much noise is made, is the
natural fruit of conquest, and is as old in the world as con¬
quest. A territory is acquired, and the state, or the gene¬
ral, bestows it on the leaders and soldiers, on condition of
military service, and of tokens acknowledging gratitude to
the donors. It was known in the Greek heroic ages. It
was known to Lycurgus, for all the lands of Sparta were
held on military tenure. It was known to Romulus, when
he regulated Rome. It was known to Augustus, when he
gave lands to his veterans, on condition that their sons
should, at fifteen years of age, do military service. The
reason it did not preponderate and corrupt in Greece and
Rome was, that it was stifled by the necessary effects of
cities, as above mentioned. In Persia, where there were
no cities of any power or privilege, it preponderated and
corrupted at an early period. The feudal system, whether
in its original democracy, or corrupted into aristocracy,
must limit the power of kings; for men who hold their
possessions on military service, must of course have arms
in their hands : and even in absolute governments the sol¬
diers are free, witness the praetorian bands and armies ol
imperial Rome, and the Turkish janisaries. By the feudal
system every man held arms and freedom in his hands.
Montesquieu has begun his account of the feudal system
with that of the ancient Germans, given by Tacitus,4 and
prides himself in leaving off where others began. A writer
more profound would leave off where Montesquieu begins.J
This last sentence may be considered as a modest attempt
at impressing the reader with an opinion that Pinkerton is
a writer more profound than Montesquieu; but, without
acquiescing in all his notions, we may at least admit that
of the feudal system many authors have taken a view much
too narrow and limited. The peculiar relation of lord and
vassal, of territorial grants and the tenure of military ser¬
vice, is doubtless to be traced in very remote ages and
countries. All the feudal incidents it may often be diffi¬
cult to detect; but wherever wre find portions of land grant¬
ed to military vassals under the condition, express or im¬
plied, of following the standard of their lord, we there hnd
the most essential characters of the feudal system. 1 e
order of chivalry may not be found completely engraftei .
there may be no denomination equivalent to that of kmg t,
and such incidents as those of relief, aids, and wardships, may
be wanting; but instead of a faint analogy, there may sti e
a very close resemblance between one system and anot er.
1 Somner’s Treatise of Gavelkind, p. 106. Lond. 1660, 4to. 2 Wright’s Introduction to the Law of Tenures, p-
3 Stuart’s View of Society in Europe, p. 218. Edinb. 1778, 4to. • « In the
4 Montesquieu de 1’Esprit des Lois, liv. xxx. chap. ii. seq Dr Stuart commences his researches from the same point.
manners of the ancient Germans,” he remarks, “ I have found the source and spirit of the feudal law.” See likewise the _ a.gjg_
work of Meyer, Esprit, Origine et Trogres des Institutions Judiciaires des principaux Pays de 1’Europe, tom. i. p- 4. Have,
23. 6 tom. 8vo.
Pinkerton’s Dissertation on the Origin and Progress of the Scythians or Goths, p. 139. Lond. 1787, 8vo.
l
feudal law.
“ It has been very common,” says Mr Hallam, “ to seek
for the origin of feuds, or at least for analogies to them, in
the history of various countries. But, though it is of great
importance to trace the similarity of customs in different
parts of the world, because it guides us to the discovery of
general theorems as to human society, yet we should be on
our guard against seeming analogies, which vanish away
when they are closely observed. It is easy to find partial
resemblances to the feudal system. The relation of patron
and client in the Roman republic is not unlike that of lord
and vassal, in respect of mutual fidelity; but it was not
founded on the tenure of land nor military service. The
veteran soldiers, and, in later times, some barbarian allies
of the emperors, received lands upon condition of public
defence; but they were bound not to an'individual lord,
but to the state. Such a resemblance to fiefs may be
found in the zemindaries of Hindostan, and the timariots
of Turkey. The clans of the Highlanders1 and Irish fol¬
lowed their chieftan into the field ; but their tie was that
of imagined kindred and respect for birth, not the sponta¬
neous compact of vassalage. Much less can we extend the
name of feud, though it is sometimes strangely misapplied,
to the polity of Poland and Russia.2 All the Polish no¬
bles were equal in rights, and independent of each other;
all who were less than noble, were in servitude. No go¬
vernment can be more opposite to the long gradations and
mutual duties of the feudal system.”3
Macieiowski, a learned civilian of our own age, discovers
manifest vestiges of the feudal system among the ancient
inhabitants of Tuscany.4 To the ancient relation of patron
and client, the origin of feudal tenures was traced by Bu-
daeus, one of the first lawyers in modern times who applied
a very ample store of classical erudition to the illustration
of Roman jurisprudence.5 The same opinion was adopted
by Zasius, but it has deservedly been rejected by most of
the subsequent commentators; nor is it easy to acquiesce
in the speculation of Connanus, who deduces the principles
of this law from the fraternities of Soldurii among the an¬
cient Gauls.6 The assignment of lands by the Roman em¬
perors makes a nearer approach to the proper point. After
Augustus had supplanted his rivals, he parcelled certain
lands in Italy among his veteran soldiers; and to the clas¬
sical reader it is well known that, upon this occasion, Virgil
was deprived of his little patrimony. The example was
followed by other emperors. Alexander Severus allotted
523
to officers and soldiers various lands which had been ac- Feudal
quired on the frontiers, and which were to descend to their Taw.
ieirs on the condition of performing military service. This
was a plan for securing a permanent guard in the out¬
posts of the empire; and, as Taurellus and Gothofredus
have remarked, it bears some resemblance to the feudal
system ;7 but Hotman has very clearly pointed out the dis¬
tinction between these military retainers and the feudal
vassals.8
Sir T homas Craig has not overlooked the strong resem¬
blance between the feudal tenures and the Turkish timars.9
“ The Spahyes,” says Dr Thomas Smith, “ are another
great support of the Turkish empire; soldiers who are
obliged to serve on horseback by the tenure of the lands
(timars) and estates they are possest of; these being not
only the reward of their sweat and blood, but ties and obli¬
gations to further service in the field upon the first sum¬
mons ; each bringing so many horses with him according
to the value of what he holds, which is the reason they do
not receive an asper of pay out of the Grand Signior’s ex¬
chequer, and are therefore known by the name of Timar-
Spahyes, or Feudatory, to distinguish then from other Spa¬
hyes who live in the cities, and have not obtained a piece
of land.”10 A more recent author represents this military
establishment as still unchanged. “ These,” says Dr Walsh,
“ are a kind of feudal cavalry, possessing hereditary lands,
on the tenure of appearing in the field when called on. If
they have no male children, the lands devolve to the com¬
mander, who assigns them to others on the same terms, and
so the corps is kept up. It consists of sixteen legions; who
are perhaps the best mountain horsemen in the world.”11
Major Denham discovered traces of the same system at
Bornou in the interior of Africa. “ The feudal law,” as he
informs us, “ exists here in full force ; and a man unwilling
to serve, provides one or more substitutes, according to his
means.”12 Here however we have but an inadequate repre¬
sentation of the feudal system. In the centre of India, this
system is to be found in a more complicated and perfect
form. Of its present character and condition in Rajasthan,
some very curious and interesting details have been fur¬
nished by Lieut. Col. Tod, who supposes Asia to have been
the cradle of feudalism. “ The perfection of the system
in England,” he remarks, “ is due to the Normans, who
brought it from Scandinavia, whither it was probably con¬
veyed by Odin and the Sacasenae, or by anterior migrations,
“ They are at present,” says Dr Smollett, “ as free and independent of their chiefs as the law can make them ; but the original
attachment still remains, and is founded on something prior to the feudal system, about which the writers of this age have made
such a pother, as if it was a new discovery, like the Copernican system. Every peculiarity of policy, custom, and even temperament,
is affectedly traced to this origin, as if the feudal constitution had not been common to almost all the nations of Europe. For my
part, I expect to see the use of trunk-hose and buttered ale ascribed to the influence of the feudal system.” (Miscellaneous Works,
v°l. vi. p. 275.)
2 With respect to the state of vassalage in those two countries, consult Mr Coxe’s Travels into Poland, Russia, Sweden, and Den¬
mark, vol. i. p. 118. 137. vol. ii. p. 93. 110. Lond. 1784, 2 vols. 4to.
a Hallam’s View of the State of Europe during the Middle Ages, vol. i. p. 200. sec. edit. Lond. 1819, 3 vols. 8vo.
4 Macieiowski Historia Juris Romani, p. 36. edit. sec. Yarsavise, 1825, 8vo. “ Antiquitus non videntur pertinuisse ad populum
msi patricii, moribus Etruscorum id ita serentibus; apud quos minime totus populus libertate gavisus est, sed jus, quod dicitur feu-
dale, ibi valuit.”
* Budaei Annqtationes in Pandectas, p. 359. edit. Paris. 1535, fol.
* Connani Commentariorum Juris Civilis tom. i. f. 119. Paris. 1553, 2 tom. fol.—See Caesar de Bello Gallico, lib. iii. cap. xxii.
andGebaveri Vestigia Juris Germanici antiquissima in C. Cornelii Taciti Germania obvia, p. 148. Gettings:, 1766, 8vo.
« r\r^aurelb de Militiis ex casu, ad Ant. Augustinum Epistola, p. 83. Gothofredus ad Cod. Theodos. lib. vii. tit. xv. p. 305.
Quae pleraque ad feudorum naturam proximo accedunt,” says this most able commentator. Haloander supposes feuds to be men¬
tioned in the Novels under the name of militice. “ Animus erat in finem adjicere Feudorum Consuetudines, quas veteres appellare
solebant jura militiarum, et Imp. nominat arpnrtia;.’’' See his dedication prefixed to NoveUarum Constitutionum Dn. Justiniani Prm-
upis, qua: erstant, et ut exstant, Volumen." Norembergse, 1531, fol. This opinion has however been refuted by different writers.
' Militiae enim,” says Contius, “ fuerunt officia certa ministris magistratuum assignata, quae pecunia yendi poterant, et ideo in com-
mercio erant, ut fuit officium apparitorum. Apparet ergo multum differre militiam a feudo. Nam militia est jits personae; feudum
ln rebus immobilibus et quasi in possessione consistit.” (Fornerii et Contii Tractatus de Feudis, p. 84. Leovardiae, 1694, 8vo.)
i Hotomani Disputatio de Feudis, p. 10. Lugduni, 1573, fol. 9 Cragii Jus Feudale, p. 27. ediL Bailhe. Ldmb. 1/32, fol.
,j South's Remarks upon the Manners, Religion, and Government of the Turks, p. 133. Lond. 1678, 8vo.
Walsh’s Narrative of a Journey from Constantinople to England, p. 186. Lond. 1828, 8vo.
Denham’s Narrative of Travels and Discoveries in Northern and Central Africa, p* 150. Lond. 1826, 4to.
524
Feudal
Law.
FEUDAL LAW.
from Asia; which would coincide with Richardson’s hypo¬
thesis, who contends that it was introduced from Tartary.
Although speculative reasoning forms no part of my plan,
yet when I observe analogy on the subject in the customs
of the ancient German tribes, the Franks, or Gothic races,
I shall venture to note them. Of one thing there is no
doubt—knowledge must have accompanied the tide of mi¬
gration from the east: and from higher Asia emerged the
Asi, the Catti, and the Cimbric Lombard, who spread the
system in Scandinavia, Friesland, and Italy.”1 Nor was
this system confined to the continental part of Asia: Mo¬
lina informs us that it prevailed to a great extent in the
island of Japan.2 That the germ of the feudal system fust
appeared in Asia, is at least highly probable. Its eailiest
traces have been discovered among the Gothic tribes of
Europe. Successive swarms of Goths moved towards the
north-western parts of the old world; and when they had
subdued many different nations, it may be presumed that
they settled the conquered provinces according to some ge¬
neral plan which they had learned in the east. Of the Asia¬
tic tribes it is one great characteristic to adhere, from one
century to another, to the customs of their ancestors. This
remark is signally verified in the history of the Chinese and
Hindus; and it seems applicable to all the other tribes of
men who inhabit that quarter of the globe.
Of the early progress of the feudal system, so able a de¬
lineation has been given by Dr Stuart, that we are here
tempted to introduce a long extract from his work. Hav¬
ing quoted a passage from Tacitus,3 4 he proceeds with the
subsequent commentary. “ This passage abounds in in¬
struction the most important. It informs us that the Ger¬
man had no private property in land, and that it was his
tribe which allowed him annually for his support a propor¬
tion of territory ; that the property of the land was invest¬
ed in the tribe, and that the lands dealt out to individuals
returned to the public, after they had reaped the fruits of
them; that, to be entitled to a partition of land from his
nation was the distinction of a citizen ; and that, in conse¬
quence of this partition, he became bound to attend to its
defence, and to its glory. With these ideas, and with this
practice, the Germans made conquests. In conformity
therefore with their ancient manners, when a settlement
was made in a province of the empire, the property of the
land belonged to the victorious nation, and the brave laid
claim to their possessions. A tract of ground was marked
out for the sovereign; and, to the inferior orders of men,
divisions corresponding to their importance were allotted.
But while, in their original seats, such partitions were an- Fe. j
nual, it was expedient that they should now be invested in L
the possessor. A more enlarged idea of property had been *
gradually unfolding itself; and though it was convenient
to, and suited the views of a narrow community, to take
back its land, the measure was not practicable in an exten¬
sive society. Nations were no longer to shift their habi¬
tations. The boundaries of particular states were to be
respected. The tribe ceasing to wander, the individual was
also to be stationary. The lot or partition now received
by him, was to continue in his possession, and to be an ob¬
ject of his industry. He was to take root, if I may so
speak, in a particular spot. He was to bestow on it his af¬
fection ; it was to feed and to enrich him with its produce.
His family was to feel an interest in his estate; his sons
were to succeed him. Heirs were to fail in the blood of
the proprietor. It affected him, that the crown or a stranger
should possess the subject of his toils and attentions. The
powers of sale and donation came to be understood. The
right of holding a landed territory with no limitation, and
of disposing of it at pleasure, was known and prevailed....
When we mount up to the origin of customs, we are to be
struck with their simplicity. The lot or partition to the
sovereign was to constitute his domains. It was to sup¬
port his splendour, to defray the expenses ot government,
and to maintain his household. The lot or partition to the
individual was to give rise to allodiality. It was the land
which was free, in contradistinction to tenure; and, being
still the mark of a citizen, it subjected him as in Germany,
to the general obligation of taking arms in defence of the
community.4 But the domains of the sovereign, and the
lands of lot or partition to the people, could not exhaust all
the territory of a conquest. They were principal and na¬
tural objects of attention; yet, after their appointment,
there were much extensive property, and many fair pos¬
sessions. The ancient maxims of the people did not allow
them to seize these by a precarious occupation. Men who
had connected the property of land with the tribe, and not
with the individual, could not conceive any title in conse¬
quence of which they might arrogate possessions to hu¬
mour their fancy, or to flatter their pride. Their ancient
notions continued their operation : the community was con¬
cerned with what no man could claim. T he lands accord¬
ingly which were assigned neither to the sovereign nor to
the people, which formed not the domains of the former,
nor the partitions of the latter, were the lands of the state
or the fisc.”5
1 Tod’s Annals and Antiquities of Rajast’han, or the Central and Western Rajpoot States of India, vol. i. p. 132. Lond. 1829-32,
2 vols. 4to. . . . ■nsllia
2 “ Illud obiter dixerim, apud Japonenses nil videri esse trequentius quam feuda. Cum enim bellis perpetuo in ea ingenti insu
principes inter se contendant, antique inter eos more, quae unusquisque hello obtinet, continue dividit inter suos duces, et a ios quos
diligit, cum onere sibi serviendi in hello, et alia onera praestandi; mutatque dominos de uno loco in alium, auferendo ab
possidebant, et alia eis largiendo. Majores autem dinastse sub supremo aliquo principe ita constitute divisa habent loca, qmbus domi-
nantur, in alios sibi inferiores, cum eisdem oneribus sibi inserviendi in hello et praestandi alia realia onera, et illi in auos, quousqu
devenitur ad infimos tonos, quos ipsi vocant, qui similiter dominantur unusquisque in sue oppido, et simili fere lcge> U1 vassa i P
sum comitentur in bellum, et servitia alia realia praestent. Mores tamen et usus feudorum non iidem, sed diversi in anqui uss
apud ipsos ab iis qui in Germania, Gallia, et Italia vigent.” (Molina de Justitia et Jure, tom. ii. col. 1062. edit. Mogunt. !
tom. fol.)
8 Tacitus de Moribus Germanorum, cap xxvi. -
4 “ The allodial lands,” as Dr Stuart remarks, “ were enjoyed in full property, and are therefore opposed to feudal or "e"e. c
possessions, which were received with limitations, and under the burden of military service to the grantors.” ihe word al-o is s p
posed to be equivalent to all-hood, and therefore to indicate completeness of possession. It is synonymous with udal, which is enip oy
ed to denote the right of such lands in Orkney and Zetland; “ whereby,” as Lord Stair has stated, “ without any infeumen , ^
vestiture, or other right or writ, they enjoy lands and hereditaments.” (Institutions of the Law of Scotland, b. ii. tit. ii- § 1 d
likewise Lord Bankton’s Institute of the Laws of Scotland, vol. i. p. 541. This word is evidently borrowed from the ancient. ^ ^
gian language. In the Islandic language, od'.il signities all. dial property, but it also signifies ret derellcta. (Haldorsonii Lexicon ^
landicum, vol ii. p. 121) It is not therefore improbable that the term was originally applied to lands which, having been oun
serted, were occupied without form or ceremony. 1
‘ Stuart’s View of Society in Europe, p. 24—It is not the object of this article to attempt a developement of the feudal sy. »
but merely a faint outline of the history of the feudal law. Besides the different works which we here have occasion to quo e, P ^
cularly those of Stuart and Hallam, we may refer the English reader to Dr Robertson’s View of Society in Europe, prenxe
History of Charles V.
FE UD A
L
j Du Moulin has traced the origin of the feudal law to the
Franks, by whom he supposes it to have been introduced
into Gaul.1 Grotius and other writers have, with greater
probability, represented it as having been widely diffused
at an early period.2 Lombardy has frequently been regard¬
ed as the place of its origin, because to that country we are
indebted for the ancient digest of this consuetudinary law.3
The Feudorum Consuetudines are said to have been com¬
piled by Gerardus Niger, who is likewise called Capagistus,
and by Obertus de Orto or Horto, who were both lawyers
and consuls of Milan.4 They lived in the reign of Fre¬
derick the First, surnamed Barbarossa, which commenced
in 1152, and terminated in 1190. Whatever share they
might have in preparing the materials, it may perhaps be
suspected that they did not digest the work in its present
form. Their opinions are on some occasions placed in op¬
position to each other, and are quoted as if from distinct
works. Thus in lib. ii. tit. li. § 3. “ Similiter si quis in-
vestitus fuerit de feudo, ita ut ad foeminas transiret, et duas
filias tantum reliquerit, quarum una filium habeat, et altera
filiam; utrum post mortem illarum masculus tantum feu-
dum habere debeat ? Secundum Gerardum, masculus tan¬
tum : Obertus contra.” And in § 6 of the same title:
“ Similiter feudum lege commissoria datum non valet, id
est, si ad certum tempus pecunia non solvatur creditori, ut
habeat in feudum. Gerardus. Et secundum Obertum,
valet.” On other occasions, both names are subjoined:
“ Gerardus et Obertus.” It might indeed be conjectured
that the work was arranged by their joint labour ; and that
when any difference of opinion occurred, they took care to
state it in this formal manner. Du Moulin supposes Ober¬
tus to have been the sole compiler. We are assured by
Odofredus, a commentator on the Code, who lived about
the year 1250, that Hugolinus, otherwise called Hugo a
Porta Ravennate, who died in the year 1168, added the
feudal law to the ninth collation of the Novels, and that it
was received as a tenth collation.5 Some writers consider
the statement as a mere device, intended to enhance the
authority of this branch of jurisprudence. The feudal law
is commonly subjoined to the Corpus Juris Civilis, of
which many of the older civilians regarded it as a compo¬
nent part. “ The last tome of the civile law,” says Sir Tho¬
mas Ridley, “ is the Feudes, that is, the books of customes
and services that the subject or vassall doth to his prince
or lord, for such lands or fees as he holdeth of him.”6 In
the common editions, the Feudorum Consuetudines are di-
'ided into two books; but the edition of Cujacius, Coloniae,
L LAW.
fiv! i i ’ eSlb i a ?ew arrangement, with a series of
\ebooks. The first book he ascribes to Gerardus, the
second and third to Obertus; the fourth is taken from se¬
veral ancient authors, and the fifth consists of imperial con¬
stitutions relative to matters of feudal cognizance. To the
common Editions in two books, are likewise appended con¬
stitutions of several emperors ; and two of them, issued by
Henry the beventh, are described by the term Extrava-
gantes ; a term which is also used in the canon law, to de¬
note documents which wander beyond the limits of a par¬
ticular collection.7 The work itself is partly composed of
such constitutions; and the entire collection closes with an
instrument relative to the peace of Constance, De Pace
ConstanticB, concluded, on the one part, between the em¬
peror Frederick the First, his son Henry king of the Ro¬
mans, and certain nobles of Germany, and, on the Other,
various cities ol Lombardy, the march of Ancona, and Ro¬
magna.
Ihese books of the feudal law are evidently written by
individuals familiar with the doctrines and the phraseology
ot the civil law ; and the new system of jurisprudence may
be considered as a scion from the old. The composition
necessarily partakes of the general barbarism of the age to
which it belongs, nor are the materials reduced to a syste¬
matic or lucid form.8 Some of the more classical civilians
have therefore treated this law of Lombardy with the ut¬
most contempt.9 As to the authority which properly be¬
longs to it, the feudalists have entered into much discus¬
sion, and have maintained various opinions. Some of the
early writers represent it as having been sanctioned by dif¬
ferent emperors, particularly by the first three Fredericks,
but others consider this sanction as more than doubtful.
Craig is induced to suppose that the feudal law must have
derived its authority from some imperial rescripts, although
they have not descended to our time ; for he cannot con¬
ceive that the emperors would otherwise have permitted it
to be taught in the schools, and observed in the judicato¬
ries. Du Moulin, on the other hand, considers the private
part of the compilation as unwritten law, “ jus non scrip-
turn,” adopted at Milan, and the remainder, the constitu¬
tions interspersed, as written law, “ jus scriptum,” retain¬
ing its force within the limits of the empire.10 This ap¬
pears to be a very sound opinion ; nor do we think it ne¬
cessary to mention the various suggestions and specula¬
tions of other writers. In many different countries, this
compilation has been received and partly adopted as con¬
suetudinary law, and in all those countries has been modi-
. ohnsei Commentarii in Parisienses Consuetudines, p. 10. edit. Genev. 1G13, fol.—The same opinion is adopted by many
o ^er writers, and, among the rest, by Herve in his Theorie des Matieres Feodales et Censuelles, tom. i. p. 2.*
rotius de Jure Belli ac Pacis, lib. ii. cap. vii. § 21. See the same illustrious writer’s Historia Gotthoruin, Vandalorum, et
nangobardorum, prol. p. 04. Anjst. 1055, 8vo.
® Panciroli Thesaurus variarum Lectionum utriusque Juris, p. 130. Venetiis, 1011, fol. Giphanii Antinomiie Juris Feudalis,
j). 9. r rancofurti, 1000, 4to. “ Manet igitur verum,” says Giphanius, “ feuda, quoad originem, ad clientelas liomanorum, vel ad
onunes llomanorum referre posse. Deinde, feuda sunt ex jure Longobardorum, non si specternus originem, sed si respiciamus ad
rerurn distinetiones, ordinationes, constitutiones, statuta, quae ex moribus et quotidiana observatione Longobardorum fluxerunt.”
Block’s Literargeschichte des Longobardischen Lehenrechts. Halle, 1028, 8vo. Laspeyres ueber die Entstehung und iilteste
5T>eitUng der Libri Feudorum. Berlin, 1030, 8vo.
B. G. Struvii Historia Juris, p. 7^L Jenae, 1718, 4to.
® Ridley’s View of the Civile and Ecclesiasticall Law, p. 08. sec. edit. Oxford, 1034, 4to.
s ?'■ Wiener’s Geschichte der Novellen Justinian’s, S. 277- Berlin, 1824, 8vo.
. Stilus forensis est, qualis jurisconsultorum ejus temporis esse potuit: scripti enim sunt seculo inerudito, neque fieri potuit
qum ahquod ejus seculi vitium contraxerint. Verba ipsa Latina, nisi si quae sint fori propria. Phrasis, sive, ut grammatici loquun-
’ cl)n8tructio Longobardica est., ut facile quivis sine interprete sensum percipere potest. Tumultuarie sane sunt conscripti, ex ad-
ersams sive schedis Gerardi et Oberti reiictis, ab alio puto quam ipsis collectis. Obertus enim et Gerardus, prout quaeque facti
penes occurrerat, consulti quid de eo sentirent, scripto declararunt. Haec eorum adversaria,-post eorum excessum, aliquis juris
.U 0111,11 studiosus in libros redegit, sine delectu, sine melhodo, quod non est negandum : ita tamen eorum responsa celebrata sunt,
C ^ 010 habita, ut pro jure certissimo a posteris adhuc sint usurpata.” (Cragii Jus Feudale, p. 36.)
1 yeuda postremo,” says Taurellus, “ quae non minus barbaro quam inepto, et sibi parum eonstanti, ac vix meo judiciolegidigno
„ H\o*ne contlnentur.” (be Militiis ex casu, ad Ant. Augustinum Epistola, p. 81.) See likewise Gravinae Origines Juris Civilis,
b 1W- edit. Mascovii.
Bit Commentarii in Parisienses Consuetudines, p. 24—See likewise Duck de Usu et Authoritate Juris Civilis, f. 35. b.
sciui Commentarius in Consuetudiiies Feudorum, p. 14. G. A. Struvii Syntagma Juris Feudalis, p. 30.
525
Feudal
Law.
li
526
FEUDAL LAW.
Feudal
Law.
fied by tacit usage, or by express enactments, nor has it
any other authority except such as it has thus obtained.
The Lombardic body of law is described as “ Feudorum
Consuetudines,” and “ Jus Feudale communethe first
title denoting that it is consuetudinary or unwritten law,
and the second, that it has obtained more or less authority
wherever the feudal law has been adopted. .
The substance of these books was digested into a new form
by Antonins Minuccius a Prato Yeteri, a professor in the
university of Bologna, who was born about the year 1380;
and his labours are said to have received the sanction of
the emperor Sigismund, as they certainly did that of Fre¬
derick the Third.2 Haloander had originally intended to sub¬
join it to his edition of the Novels ; but it was not till after
a long interval that the work was first published by Schilter.
Another digest of the same materials was afterwards under¬
taken bv Bartholomaeus Baraterius or de Baratems, who
was a native of Piacenza, and was successively a professor
at Pavia and Ferrara. Having completed his work in 144~,
he dedicated it to the duke of Milan. It was first printed
at Paris in the year 1612.3 Neither of these works seems
to have obtained any permanent footing, even in the uni¬
versities of Italy. The books of the feudal law were exhi¬
bited in a German dress by Dr Lorenz Weidmann, who
likewise introduced some changes of arrangement. His
work, Die Lehenreeht verdeutscht, was printed by Schoifier
of Mainz in the year 1530.
The principles of the feudal law had soon begun to be
taught in the universities. The text was illustrated by
many glosses and commentaries; and many summaries
and treatises have from time to time been added. The
principal feudalists who preceded his own time, are thus
enumerated by Dr Duck : “ Horum librorum authoritatem
augent egregii illi jurisconsult! qui ad eos glossas, corn-
men tarios, et tractatus scripserint. Glossas in Feuda scrip-
serunt Bulgarus, Pyleus, Ugolinus, Vicentius, Jac. Gof-
fredus, aliique ; sed Jac. Columbinus eorum ultimus omnes
superavit, et post eum, ait Jason, nemo glossas in Feuda
scribere tentavit.4 Alii summas et tractatus de Feudis com-
posuerunt, Odofredus, Jac. de Arena, Hostiensis, Jac. Aidi-
zoni, Zasius, Rebuffus, Hannetonius, Henr. Rosenthal!,
aliique, qui omnem Feudorum scientiam amplissime tradi-
derunt. Commentarios in Feuda scripserunt Jac. de Bel-
visio, Andr. de Iserma, Baldus, Jac. Alvarottus, Math, de
Afflictis, Fr. Curtius, Jac. Cujacius, aliique, in quibus emi-
net Cujacii elegantia et literarum splendor, authoritas et
judicium Jac. de Belvisio et Baldi, quorum ille octies se le-
gisse libros Feudorum Papirn testatur, Baldus vero com-
mentarios suos scripsit postquam jus civile per quadraginta
septem annos professus insignem famam acquisiverat. Et
inter hos omnes e glossographis Jacobo Columbino, e sum-
mistis Jacobo Ardizoni, e commentariis Jacobo de Belvisio
primus locus ab omnibus conceditur.”5 To this enumera¬
tion some names ought perhaps to have been added, par¬
ticularly those of Hotman and Vulteius. Of the more re¬
cent commentaries on the text, the most copious is that of
Caspar Bitsch, professor of law in the university of Stras-
burg.6 Among the systematic treatises which have ap¬
peared since the publication of Duck’s very useful work, it
may be proper to mention the elder Struve’s Syntagma
Juris Feudulis, which contains much information in a form
not very elegant or attractive.7 Many elementary works,
such as those of Schilter, Stryk, and G. L. Bohmer, and
an immense number of detached dissertations, have from
time to time been published in Germany, where every pro¬
vince of jurisprudence is most laboriously cultivated. Of
separate tracts on the feudal law, an ample collection was
published in Jenichen.8 Various writers treat of this law
as it has been adopted and modified in different countries.
Thus the feudal law, as applied in Scotland, has been illus¬
trated with much learning and ability by Sir Thomas Craig,
one of the greatest lawyers whom his country has produ¬
ced. One of the earliest books on the law of England is
Thomas Littleton’s treatise on tenures ; and the feudal law
of that country was afterwards discussed by Sir Henry
Spelman, Sir Martin Wright, Sir Jeffrey Gilbert, and vari¬
ous other writers.
In France the feudal law was embodied in the loicoutumier
of different provinces; and many curious reliques of jurispru¬
dence have thus been preserved. The most interesting of
these are perhaps the Coustumes de Beauvoisis, digested by
Philippes de Beaumanoir.9 Montesquieu has described it as
an admirable work,10 and has quoted it upon many different
occasions. “ This treatise of Beaumanoir,” says Mr Barring¬
ton, “ is so systematical and complete, and throws so much
light upon our ancient common law, that it cannot be too
much recommended to the perusal of the English antiquary,
historian, or lawyer. He kept the courts of the Comte de
Clermont, and gives an account of the customary laws of
Beauvoisis (which is a district about forty miles to the north¬
ward of Paris) as they prevailed in the year 1283. He is con¬
sequently a more ancient wrriter than Littleton, and, to speak
with all due reverence of this father of our law, perhaps a
better writer. It need hardly be said that the customs of
Feil
I .
w-^
1 Pancirolus de Claris Legum Interpretibus, p. 198. Savigny’s Geschichte des Romischen Rechts, Bd. V1'f;.
Dissertazioni varie sopra il Diritto Feudale, concernenti ITstoria e le Opimoni dr Antonio da Pratovecchio, celebre Gmrecons^
Secolo xv. e Riformatore dei Libri de’ Feudi. Livorno, 1764, 4to. This elaborate volume, which appeared without the na
the author, was written by Migliorotto Maccioni, a professor in the university of Pisa. .. „ Tu- a Workof
* Laspevres iiber die Entstehung und alteste Bearbeitung der Libri Feudorum, S. 126. Berlin, 1830, 8v0-
much critical research, and the author, who is now a professor in the university of Halle, belongs to the school of »avigny. ^
3 The works of Minuccius and Raraterius are subjoined to Schilter’s Codex Juris Feudahs Alemanmei. Argentorati, if ,
* See Savigny’s Geschichte des Romischen Rechts im Mittelalter, Bd. v. S. 82. Heidelberg, 1815-31, 6 Bde. 8vo.
* Duck de Usu et Authoritate Juris Civilis, f. 38. edit. Lond. 1653, 8vo. A similar account is given by Pancirolus,
Variarum Lectionum utriusque Juris, p. 131. Venetiis, 1611, fol. See likewise Rittershush Partitiones Juris eu ,P
Argentorat. 1659, 8vo.
B Caspar! Bitschii Commentarius in Consuetudines Feudorum. Argentorati, 1673, 4to. i
’ Geo. Ad. Struvii Syntagma Juris Feudalis. Francofurti ad Moenum, 1703, 4to. This is the eighth edition. Moen.
8 Thesaurus Juris Feudaiis, continens optuir.a atque selectissima Opuscula, quibus Jus leudale exphcatur. Franco.
1750-4, 3 tom. 4to. . . . . Usages
9 'Coustumes de Beauvoisis, par Messire Philippes de Beaumanoir, Bailly de Clermont en Beauvoisis, Assises anciennes
du Royaume de Jerusalem, par Messire Jean dTbelin, Comte de Japhe et d’Ascalon, S. de Rames etde Baruth, et au r ng aU_
Coutumes; le tout tire des manuscrits, avec des notes et observations, et un glossaire pour Pintelligence des termes ue no
theurs, par Gaspard Thaumas de la Thaumassiere, Ecuyer, S. de Fuy-ferrand, Bailly du Marquisat de ( hateau-neu -
a    4- T>  rvf* Fl,~ to nnwr onH r»r»rvtwilofu* orlitinru in three volumes QUaTLUj
to maritime law, may be found in Pardessus, Collection de Lois Maritimes i
10 Montesquieu de 1’Esprit des Lois, liv. xxvi. chap. xv.
L
FEUDAL LAW.
J the two countries were at this time very similar, especially
of the more northern parts of France : if we wanted other
proof, the commentators on the oldest French law books
cite Littleton as illustrating their customs.”1 Of the cus¬
tomary laws of France the other collections are very nume¬
rous.2 Nor must we here neglect to particularize a very
curious relique of early jurisprudence, the Assises de Jeru¬
salem, which are decidedly of a French origin. After the
conquest of the holy city in the year 1099, the barons who
led the crusade elected Godefroy de Bouillon king of Je¬
rusalem ; and it was one of the new sovereign’s first cares to
form a body of laws for the government of his subjects.
By the counsel of the patriarch, and of his princes and ba¬
rons, “ et des plus sages homes qu’il pooit avoir,” he ap¬
pointed wise men to make enquiry at persons from different
countries as to the particular usages of those countries.
Having received the desired information in writing, he
again assembled his principal adherents ; and having laid
this document before them, and caused it to be read, he
afterwards, with their counsel and concurrence, selected
what to him seemed good, “ et en fit assises et usages que
Fon deust tenir e^ maintenir, et user au royaume de Jeru¬
salem, par lesquels il, ses gens, et son peuble, et toutes
autres manieres des gens alans, et venans, et demorans,
fussent governes et menes a droit et a raison el dit royaume.”
They were called Assises from the circumstance of their
having thus been confirmed in an assembly of the chief
persons of the state. They were afterwards modified and
enlarged by this king and his successors; and about the
year T250 were arranged by Jean dTbelin, Comte de Japhe
et a Ascalon, Seigneur de Rames et de Baruth. Having
been adopted in the kingdom of Cyprus, they were revised
in the year 1369 by sixteen individuals nominated in an as¬
sembly of the estates of that kingdom. They had been
translated into Greek for the benefit of those subjects who
did not understand the original language ; and of this ver¬
sion some portions have been preserved in the Royal Lib-
lary at Paris. After Cyprus had fallen under the dominion
of the Venetians,3 the book was translated into the Italian
language.4 It is generally admitted that the laws thus
I adopted in the kingdoms of Jerusalem and Cyprus, were in
a great measure derived from the customs and usages of
the kingdom of France.
The feudal system seems to have arrived at maturity
uring the reign and in the dominions of Charlemagne and
his immediate successors. The reliques of their legislation
me to be found in the Capitularia Regum Francorum,
o which we have g1Ven a separate account. As the em-
pne of Charlemagne not only included France and Ger-
many but likewise a great portion of Italy, and some por¬
tion of Spain, a certain uniformity of laws and usages was
natura ly promoted by this political union. “ Feudal te¬
nures, it is stated by Mr Hallam, “were so general in the
kingdom of Aragon, that I reckon it among the monarchies
which were founded upon that basis. Charlemagne’s em-
pire, it must be remembered, extended as far as the Ebro.
But in Gastille and Portugal they were very rare, and cer¬
tainly could produce no political effect. Benefices for life
were sometimes granted in the kingdoms of Denmark5 and
Bohemia. Neither of these, however, nor Sweden,11 nor
Hungary, comes under the description of countries influ¬
enced by the feudal system. That system, however, after
all these limitations, was so extensively diffused, that it
might produce confusion, as well as prolixity, to pursue the
collateral blanches of its history in all the countries where
it prevailed.”7 The prevalence of the feudal law in Lom¬
bardy has already been mentioned ; and it sooner or later
extended its influence to almost every corner of Italy, in¬
cluding the islands as well as the continental states.8 In
England and Scotland it struck a very deep and vigorous
root. Its progress in the former country seems to be cor¬
rectly stated by Blackstone. “ This feodal polity,” he re¬
marks, “ which was thus by degrees established over all
the continent of Europe, seems not to have been received in
this part of our island, at least not universally, and as a
part of the national constitution, till the reign of William
the Norman. Not but that it is reasonable to believe, from
abundant traces in our history and laws, that even in the
times of the Saxons, who were a swarm from what Sir Wil¬
liam Temple calls the same northern hive, something similar
to this was in use; yet not so exclusively, nor attended with
all the rigour that was afterwards imported by the Normans.
For the Saxons were firmly settled in this island, at least
as early as the year 600; and it was not till two centuries
after, that feuds arrived to their full vigour and maturity,
even on the continent of Europe.”9 Craig supposes the
feudal law to have been established in Scotland before it
was established in England ;10 but this is an opinion which
apparently must continue to rest on conjecture, and not on
historical evidence. (x.)
527
Feudal
Law.
‘ ®arrington’s Observations on the more ancient Statutes, p. 439.
s ^ee t lL^n 8 e(^on Camus’s Lettres sur la Profession d’Avocat, tom. ii. p. 190.
< Tee' .ann Baul Reinhards vollstandige Geschichte des Kdnigreichs Cypern. Erlangen und Leipzig, 1766-8, 2 Bde. 4to.
“ A 1 e^i Tf k°ne Vsanze del Reame de Hyervsalem. Venetia, 1535, fol. The volume concludes with the following colophon :
t au e & honor del Omnipotente Iddio, finisce il presente libro, qual e de le Assise & bone Vsanze del Reame de Hierusalem,
mpa oin Venetia, regnante Tinclito Meser Andrea Gritti, Doxe di Venetia, nelli anni de la Natiuita del Signor nostro MDXXXV.
(,(.m.esel"1 Marzo, in la stamparia di Aurelio Pincio Venetiano.” The name of the translator is Florio Bustron. This translation
i. a!"s noth the laws which relate to L'alta Corte and those which relate to La Carte de U Borgesi. Both parts may be found in the
L A10n of Canciani, Barbarorum Leges antiques, vol. ii. p. 479. vol. v. p. 107. Venetiis. 1781-92, 5 tom. fol.
t v60 u—k B'Okns Ret af Peder Kofod Ancher. Kiobenhavn, 1777, 8vo.
7 de Jure Sueonum et Gothorum vetusto, p. 276. Holmise, 1682, 4to.
« i.,a . .s.Vlew of the Middle Ages, vol. i. p. 201.
, , . Sicilians, says Mr Brydone, “ still boast that they retain more of the feudal government than any nation in Europe. The
» ^ m(lee(l remains, but the substance is gone long ago.” (Tour through Sicily and Malta, vol. ii. p. 225. Lond. 1773, 2 vols. 8vo.)
rial T ac*st<ine,s Commentaries on the Laws of England, vol. ii. p. 48. See likewise Dr Sullivan’s Historical Treatise on the Feu-
io a!^ ^ie Constitution and Laws of England, p. 18. Lond. 1772, 4to.
ins' tli p^ki^US B'eudale, p. 47. Brussii Principia Juris Feudalis, p. 5. Edinb. 1713, 8vo. See Dr Stuart’s Observations concern-
re’t 6 * ^ ^'aw an^ tBe Constitutional History of Scotland, p. 7- Edinb. 1779, 8vo. Lord Karnes, whose speculations often
p , uPon a very insecure foundation, is pleased to express himself in the following terms : “ I entertain some doubts whether the
cioi a‘ a'Vvas introduced into Scotland so early as in the reign of Malcolm II. What to me brought this thing first under suspi-
tl ’18 a} 4act can ke made extremely evident. When one dives into the antiquities of Scotland and England, it will appear
tun/--rr?Wed 0Ur ^aws anci custorns from the English. No sooner is a statute enacted in England, but, upon the first oppor-
jja,,1/’ 18 introduced into Scotland; so that our oldest statutes are mere copies of theirs. Let the Magna Charta be put into the
latioi^ ° ^°t.sman, without giving its history, and he will have no doubt that he is reading a collection of Scots statutes or regu-
the CS ^°W ^ a P0int settled among the best English antiquaries, that the feudal law was introduced into England by William
Joini 0n<tiler°r’ ^ need not spend time upon this topick, after what is said by the accurate Spelman, and by our countryman Craig,
all the P i,e tW° things together, a strong presumption arises, that the feudal law made its progress from England to this country, as
e .nghsh statutes, making improvements and alterations upon it, certainly did. But this presumption receives additional force,
i
F E V
FEZ
FEVERSHAM, a town of the county of Kent, in the
hundred of that name, w ithin the lathe of Scray, and forty -
eight miles from London. It is a very ancient town, and
from several of our early monarchs obtained various charters
and privileges, especially as regards the judgment and
punishment of offences committed within its own jurisdic¬
tion. Although it sends no members to parliament, it lies,
besides a mayor, jurats, and commoners, a steward, two re¬
corders, and a chamberlain, and the corporation are trustees
for various charitable institutions. Feversham is of com¬
paratively less importance than forfnerly, as may be seen by
its curious church, its town-hall, and some other buildings
of great antiquity. It is now chiefly of consideration from
the great manufactory of gunpowder carried on by the go¬
vernment, which gives occupation to many families ; whilst
others are employed in the fishery for oysters for the sup¬
ply of London. Near to it the river Swale enters the sea,
and the quarantine rendezvous of Sandgate Creek is so
near as to form a communication with the ships under de¬
tention. There are good markets on \\ ednesdays and Sa¬
turdays. The great road from London to Canterbury
avoids the town, though it passes within less than a mile of
it. The population in 1801 amounted to 3488, in 1811 to
3872, in 1821 to 4208, and in 1831 to 4429.
FEVRE, Tannegui Le, in Latin Tanaquillus Faber,
one of the most able scholars of his age, was born at Caen,
in Normandy, in the year 1615. His father (who, accord¬
ing to Segrais, wras the son of a grave-digger in the parish
of St Jean de Caen), having dissipated his means, an
uncle of the young Lefevre, a learned ecclesiastic, took
charge of his education, and finding that he had a good
ear and a fine voice, taught him music, by which means
he was ere long in a condition to execute the most diffi¬
cult pieces with the book open before him. He was
twelve years of age when he commenced Latin, and his
progress was extremely rapid. But the severity of his
uncle discouraged him, and his father could only induce
him to continue his studies by giving- him another pre¬
ceptor. The latter, however, did not understand Gx-eek;
but Lefevre learned it alone, without any other assistance
than a grammar, and some books which he read before he
w'as in a condition fully to comprehend their meaning. He
was then sent to study humanity and philosophy at the
college of La Fleche, one of the most celebrated which
the Jesuits possessed in France. His masters made use¬
less efforts to detain him amongst them ; and his father and
uncle equally failed in persuading him to take orders. After
remaining several years in Normandy, he proceeded to
Paris, where he soon made himself known, and gained the
friendship of several persons of distinction. M. Desnoyers,
one of these friends, presented him to Cardinal Richelieu,
who appointed him inspector of the press of the Louvre,
with a salary of two thousand livres. But, after the car¬
dinal’s death, the pension of Lefevre became ill paid, and
he was even obliged to sell his library, in order to procure
the means of subsistence. Some time afterwards, the
Marquis of Francieres carried Lefevre with him to Langres;
but having in that city acquired a taste for the reformed doc¬
trines, the latter took leave of his noble friend, and retired
to Preuilly in Touraine, where he publicly made profession
of Calvinism. He was immediately offered a chair in the
academy of Saumur, which he accepted in preference to the
professorship of Greek at Nimeguen, to which he was about
the same time appointed. But he had afterwards some dis¬
putes with the consistory of Saumur, in consequence of hav¬
ing unguardedly attempted to excuse the libertinism of ij.
Sappho ; and as the annoyance which this misunderstanding V ^
occasioned had determined him to quit Touraine, he waspre¬
paring to set out for Heidelberg, where the elector palatine
had offered him considerable advantages, when he died of
a fever produced by excess of labour, on the 12th of Sep¬
tember 1672. By his marriage with Marie Olivier, Lefevre
left three children ; a son, named Tannegui after his father,
who, after having for thirty years discharged the pastoral
functions in Holland and in England, returned into the
bosom of the Catholic church, and died at Saumur in 1717;
and two daughters, one married to Paul Bauldry, and the
other the celebrated Madame Dacier. Lefevre wrote bet¬
ter in Latin than in French ; but if his productions are de¬
ficient in elegance, they have at least the merit of fidelity,
and are accompanied with very learned notes. His produc¬
tions consist of, 1. Editions of several works of Lucian, with
a Latin version and notes ; Longinus’s Treatise on the Su¬
blime, with the Latin and notes, Saumur, 1663; the Fables
of Phsedrus; Lucretius ; the Histories of /Elian; Eutropius,
Justin, Terence, and Horace ; the Library of Apollodorus;
Virgil; the Panegyric of Trajan by Pliny the younger;
Dionysius of Alexandria, Anacreon, and Sappho: 2. French
Translations of the Festinus of Xenophon, the First Alci-
biades of Plato, the Treatise on Superstition by Plutarch,
and the Life of Aristippus by Diogenes Laertius: 3. The
translation into Latin verse ot the Fables of Lockman,
Saumur, 1673, in 12mo, a translation which was executed
during his last illness: 4. Diatribe FI. Josephi de Jesu
Christo testimonium suppositum esse, Saumur, 1655, in8vo;
5. Epistolarum partes ii. ibid. 1659, 1665, in two vols.
4to : 6. Les Vies des Poetes Grecs, 1665, in 12mo, to which
is subjoined Le Mariage de Belfegor, translated from the
Italian of Machiavelli, and the Life of Theseus, translated
from the Greek of Plutarch : 7. Methods pour commencer
les Humanites Grecques et Latines, in the Memoires de Lit-
terature of Sallengre, tom. ii. pt. 2, p. 62: 8. Notes on the
Scaligeriania Prima. (See Memoires pour servir d la Vie
de Tannegui Lefevre, by Fr. Graverol, 1686; and the Me¬
moires de Nicer on.)
FEZ, an extensive country of Africa, and at one tune
the most flourishing kingdom in the northern part of that
continent. It now, however, forms one of the four provin¬
ces or kingdoms into which the empire of Morocco is di¬
vided. It is bounded on the north by the Straits of Gib¬
raltar and the Mediterranean Sea, on the east by Algiers,
on the south by Morocco, and on the west by the Atlantic
Ocean. Besides being bordered in one part by the chain
of the Greater Atlas, a smaller one called the Lesser At as
runs across it, extending from the Great Atlas to the sea
near Tetuan, a considerable city situated on the Straits o
Gibraltar. It is likewise traversed in various directions y
other ranges of mountains, some of which are lofty, ru»
ged, and barren, whilst others are adapted for pasture. 6
intervening plains and valleys, howrever, which are e
quently many miles in extent, being finely watered, are i
the highest degree fertile, and capable of producing a
luxuries of the eastern and western worlds. Ihe ®01
the interior is a rich black loam, which, although u v
slightly cultivated, is remarkably prolific. The moun ain
parts also might, by suitable cultivation, be made o p
duce abundantly those fruits which thrive best in e
regions of warm climates; but they are for the mos l’
utterly neglected. The Moors know little of agncu >
and, besides, they only cultivate in proportion to ei
when it is considered, that if we had the feudal law before it came into England, it must have been taken from some othe
than the Normans, with whom we had no commerce.” (Essays upon several Subjects concerning Eritish Antiqui les, p-
17 <7, 8vo.) Of such random assertions as these, it would be superfluous to attempt a formal refutation.
Tetuan, Tangier, Arzilla.
Sallee, Rabat.
Dar el Beyda.
Fez, Mekerines.
FEZ
mediate wants; so that a considerable portion of the coun¬
try is allowed to lie untilled. The principal rivers are the
Mulluwia or Mulvia, which separates Fez from Algiers ;
the Morbeya or Ommirabee, which separates Fez from the
province of Tedla ; and the Seboo, which waters the inte¬
rior of the country. Fez is estimated to contain about 89,000
square miles in superficial extent, and its territorial divi¬
sions are as follows:
Districts. Chief Towns.
Erreef or El Rif.
El Gharb.
Beni Hassan.
Temsena.
Shawiya or Shavoya.
District of Fez or Fas.
Tedla.
The government, statistics, and commerce of this region
in every respect resemble those of Morocco, of which it is
indeed a part, and they will accordingly be described un¬
der that article.
Fez, or Fas, the capital of the above kingdom, was built
in 786, by a prince of the name of Edris, and having soon
risen to be a city of the first magnitude, became the capital
of the western Mahommedan states. In the twelfth century
it is said to have contained seven hundred temples and
mosques, a number of which were erected upon a magni¬
ficent scale, and adorned with a profusion of marble pillars.
It was at one time held in the highest veneration; and
when the road to Mecca was shut up, in the fourth century
of the Hegira, pilgrimages to Fez were performed by the
western Moslemins, who considered it as a place nearly
equally sacred with that where the Prophet had been born.
It was also distinguished for its learning, at a time when
the Saracens may be said 'to have enjoyed a monopoly of
all the knowledge which then existed. Its schools of phi¬
losophy, physic, and astronomy, were famous throughout
the Mahommedan kingdoms of Spain and Africa, and were
not only resorted to by the youth of these countries, but like¬
wise by Christians. When the Moors were driven out of
Spain, Fez became the resort of numerous refugees, who,
being superior in knowledge and civilization to their ori¬
ginal countrymen, introduced several of the arts, the prac¬
tice of which for a time retrieved the decaying fortunes of
the city. But it gradually sunk with the declension of arts
and wealth in Northern Africa; and when the Idngdom of
which it was the capital became incorporated with the em¬
pire of Morocco, it ceased to possess almost any political im¬
portance.
Fez is situated upon the slope of several hills, which sur¬
round it on every side except the north and north-east. As
the town is built on inclined planes, and the ground is un¬
paved, the streets are very dirty, especially in rainy wea¬
ther. They are, besides, so narrow, that two horsemen can¬
not ride together abreast in them ; and the gloom thus pro¬
duced is deepened by the houses (which are very high)
having a projection on the first floor. The light is also in¬
tercepted by a sort of galleries or passages which connect
the upper parts of the houses, and by the high walls which
are raised at certain distances from one side of the street
to the other, as if to support the buildings. These walls
have arched passages, which are shut at night, and all com-
niunication between one part of the city and another is by
this means cut off. The houses have a mean and ruinous
appearance; they are either altogether destitute of win-
°ws, or possess but a few which are seldom larger than a
common sheet of paper, and being placed very high, are
generally covered with blinds. Behind the high walls there
are some buildings which in the inside present something
'he comfort; but it is the general taste of the country to
ave a mansion composed of a court-yard, surrounded with
vol. ix.
FEZ 529
a colonnade, which forms a kind of gallery both above atid Fez.
below. By these galleries the adjoining rooms are reached,
and these commonly receive their light only from the door,
which, on this account, is necessarily large. The rooms
are long and narrow; the ceiling, composed of planks, is
lofty, and sometimes ornamented ; and the floors are paved
with bricks, Dutch tiles, or marble, according to the w^ealth
of the occupant. The roofs are covered with stamped
earth, about one foot thick; and this singular casing, on
account of its weight, bulges the walls outwards, and rends
them into fissures, whilst it does not protect the houses from
rain.
Fez properly consists of two distinct towns, Fas el Bake,
or Old Fez, and Fas el Jedid, or New Fez. The latter,
which was founded in the thirteenth century, stands on an
eminence commanding the old city, and is surrounded with
gardens, which abound in all sorts of delicious fruits and
odoriferous flowers. This portion of Fez is principally in¬
habited by Jews. At the bottom of the valley, which is
formed by the surrounding hills into a sort of funnel, runs
the river Wed el Juhor, the river of pearls, so called on
account of its value. Besides refreshing vegetation as it
passes along, and plentifully supplying the city w ith water,
it is made to turn several water-mills. Fez possesses a vast
number of mosques, the finest of which is called El Carou-
bin. It was built during the flourishing period of the city,
and is described by Leo Africanus as being a mile and a
half in circumference. It is constructed of bricks, stones,
and lime, but the architecture is said to be mean. It pos¬
sesses, however, a great number of gates and arches, and
two handsome fountains in the court. There are two other
celebrated mosques, one of which (namely, that dedicated
to Edris, the founder of the city), is the most frequented in
Fez. The palace of the sultan is composed of a great num¬
ber of court-yards, which serve as entrances to apartments.
These consist, besides those for domestic uses, of rooms in
which the business of government is transacted. The pa¬
lace is situated upon an elevation in New Fez. None of the
other buildings are in any respect remarkable. There are
a great number of shops, to which the inhabitants of the
surrounding country daily resort as to a fair, for the pur¬
chase of commodities, as they have neither shops nor work¬
ing-places amongst themselves. Provision-markets are nu¬
merous, and the city contains about two hundred caravanse¬
rais or inns. The various trades, and the different articles
sold, are divided into classes in separate streets, so that a
whole street is occupied by those pursuing one species of
traffic or art. Fez contains a vast number of public baths,
some of which are good, and consist of several rooms heat¬
ed to different degrees of temperature. There is an hos¬
pital richly endowed, but it is occupied solely by lunatics.
There are also a great number of schools, the most distin¬
guished of which are established at the mosques of Carou-
bin and of Muley Edris, in a small house or mosque called
Emdenrsa or academy. In these philosophy is taught, but
of course very imperfectly.
The manufactures of Fez consist of woollen hha'iks, sashes,
and silk handkerchiefs, slippers of good leather, which they
tan remarkably well, red felt caps, some coarse linen cloth,
fine carpets, a curious kind of earthenware, weapons of seve¬
ral kinds, saddlers’ ware, and copper utensils. There are a
few goldsmiths; but the adorning of the person with gold
and silver being considered as a sin, this branch of industry
is not much patronized. The arts here find little encou¬
ragement, and are indeed far inferior to those of Europe,
except in the preparation of leather, and in the fabrication
of carpets and of hhaiks, which the manufacturers know how
to weave as fine and as transparent as gauze. They are
also expert in wax-works, weapons, and harness. The heat
during the summer is very great; but in other seasons of
3 x
ii
530
Fezzan.
FEZ
FEZ
the year, particularly winter, the climate is agreeable. With
regard to the number of inhabitants, much difference of
opinion prevails amongst travellers. Mr Jackson estimates
the population of the old and new city at 380,000 souls,
which is certainly an exaggeration; whilst other authori¬
ties reduce the number as low as 60,000 and even 30,000
individuals, which is probably below the mark. The tra¬
veller who assumed the fictitious name of Ali Bey was told,
whilst he remained there, that Fez contained 100,000 souls,
and that before the last plague the inhabitants were double
that number. Of this population about 2000 are Jews,
who live in the most abject state, on account of the sove¬
reign contempt with which they are treated by the Moors.
They are almost all either artisans or merchants, and they
have several synagogues, and a market-place, which is well
provided. According to Ali Bey, the city is situated in
long. 4. 58. 15. W. lat. 34. 6. 3. N. It is 160 miles south
of Gibraltar, and 200 north-north-east of Morocco.
FEZZAN, a country of considerable extent in Northern
Africa, and situated to the south of Barbary. Its northern
boundary is the well of Bonjem, which is situated in lat.
30. 35. 32. N. South of this point it extends, according
to Captain Lyon, six degrees and a half of latitude, or about
450 miles, and is bounded in that quarter by what are
called the Wells of Meshroo. To the south and south-east
is the country of the Tibboos, to the south-west that of
the nomadic Tuaricks, and to the north-west the border¬
ers are Arabs. Of this tract of country it is calculated that
about 300 miles, stretching from north to south, are culti¬
vated. The greatest breadth is estimated at 200 miles ; but
the Black Haratch to the east, and other deserts to the
south and west, are, according to Horneman, included in its
territory. Fezzan may be said to consist of a chain of ver¬
dant islands embosomed in an ocean of sand. Fine yellow
sand, and a species of gravel, cover the whole surface of the
plains, except where the Soudah and Haratch extend. It
is only in the immediate neighbourhood of towns that the
palm is cultivated, and that corn and esculent plants, of
which a little is raised with great difficulty and labour, are
produced. The plains of the desert consist of red sand and
sand-stone, containing gypsum and rock-salt, associated with
beds of dolomite and carbonate of lime. Soda, alum, salt¬
petre, and sulphur, are also found in this country.
In order to convey as clear and intelligible a view of Fez¬
zan as possible, we shall follow the route generally pursued
by travellers in proceeding from Tripoli to Mourzouk, the
capital, and thence to the other parts of the country which
have been described. About half a mile beyond the walls
of Bonjem, which is the northern frontier, stands a Ro¬
man castle, situated amongst some high sand hills. It is
of an oblong form, having in the centre of each of the walls
a large arched gateway, between two strong towers. After
leaving this interesting ruin, the traveller proceeds over a
barren desert called Klia, the soil of which, where clear of
sand, consists of gypsum intermixed with numerous shells.
Twenty-two miles from Bonjem the road leads through a de¬
file called Hormut Emhalla, or the Pass of the Army. After
crossing a range of table-mountains called Elood, running
north-east and south-west, it passes through a stony and very
uneven plain, encircled with mountains, to the pass of Hor¬
mut Tazzet, which appears to be situated about sixty miles
from Bonjem. After clearing this pass, the road opens upon
a plain called El Grarat Arab Hoon. The journey now be¬
comes harassing, on account of the scarcity of vegetation and
water, and the frequency of sand-winds. The first place
of importance that is met with on this route is Sockna, near
which are a plantation of palms and two wells of fresh water.
Sockna, which is about half way between Tripoli and
Mourzouk, is situated on an immense plain of gravel. It is
bounded to the south by the Soudah Mountains, at the dis¬
tance of about fifteen miles; to the eastward by the moun- Fez
tains of Wadan, at the distance of about thirty miles; to the W
westward by a distant range of hills ; and to the northward
by the country above described. The town, which is about a
mile in circumference, is walled, and contains, according to
Major Denham, considerably more than 3000 persons. The
streets are very narrow, and the houses are built of mud
mixed with small stones. The water is almost all brackish
or bitter. In the immediate neighbourhood there are seve¬
ral hundred thousand date trees, which pay duty to the go¬
vernment. Sockna pays of duty annually about 2000 dol¬
lars, exclusively of a tax of one dollar on every 200 date trees.
The Tripoli money is the currency of Sockna; and this
occasions a considerable loss to the traders, who are obliged
to pay their taxes in Spanish dollars, which they purchase
at exorbitant prices. The dates grow in a belt of sand, at
the distance of two or three miles from the towns; and their
quality is far superior to any produced in the north of Afri¬
ca, in consequence of which they bring a very high price in
Tripoli. In the gardens situated about three miles from
Sockna, barley, maize, a small quantity of onions, and a few
other garden-stuffs, are cultivated. But there is little or no
other kind of vegetation, so that all the animals are fed on
dates. This place is infested with an immense quantity of
flies, attracted probably by the dates, which are preserved in
storehouses. The men have in general a clean and neat
appearance, whilst the women are pretty and handsome,
but remarkable, it seems, for their love of intrigue. The
latitude of Sockna is 29. 5. 36. N.
Ten miles east by south from Sockna stands the town of
Hoon. It is smaller than the former, but is built and walled
in the same manner. Palm groves and gardens approach
close to the walls of the town, and completely conceal it.
The soil is sand, but it is fertilized and refreshed by little
streams from wells of brackish water. Twelve miles east
by north of Hoon stands the town of Wadan. Its external
aspect is pleasing, being built upon a conical hill, on the top
of which are some enclosed houses called the castle; but in¬
ternally it is inferior to the two other towns in point of neat¬
ness, comfort, and convenience. There is here a well of
great depth, cut through the solid rock. The bulk of the
inhabitants of Wadan are schereefs, that is, pretended des¬
cendants of the Prophet, and Arabs who act as shepherds.
A few miles eastward of the town there is a chain of moun¬
tains, which, with the town itself, derives its name from a
species of buffalo called wadan, which is found here in im¬
mense numbers. There is also a great abundance of ostriches
amongst these mountains, by hunting which many of the
natives obtain a subsistence. At all the three towns, Sock¬
na, Hoon, and Wadan, it is the practice to keep tame os¬
triches in a stable, and in two years to take three cuttings
of the feathers.
The whole way to Mourzouk is now an almost unm er
rupted succession of stony plains and gloomy wadys, witi
no water but that of wells, generally muddy, brackis , or
bitter, and placed at widely extended intervals. Sand win s
also prevail, and their visitations are at all times harassing,
and not urifrequently destructive. Several towns or vi
lages are situated in this long and dreary waste, an ey
are usually encircled with groves of palm. Sebha, w ic ^
stands in latitude 27. 3. 8. N., is a mud-walled tow”’
turesquely situated on a rising ground, and surroun e y
a palm grove. Two marches farther on lies ^r0° ’
a small and miserable collection of mud huts. ^ m
here, which are the property of the sultan, exten
ten to fifteen miles east and west. The leading ,
of the above remarkable tract of country may be s
described. The basaltic chain known by the name o
Soudah, or Jebel Assoud, that is, Black Mountains, co
mences near Sockna, and extends from north to sout
i.
j
FEZ
an. days’ journey, but in so tortuous a direction as not, ac-
-*J cording to Major Denham, to exceed thirty-five miles in
a straight line. Captain Lyon, however, is of opinion that
they stretch nearly a hundred miles from north to south
between the parallels of 28. 40. and 27. 30. To the west¬
ward they extend as far as the well of Assela, on the road to
Shiati, a district to the westward of Sebha, where the red
clay hills continue unbroken, and unite with those of Be-
nioleed in Tripoli. To the east they extend three days to
a wady called Temelleen, which lies on the way to Zella or
Zala near Barca. They form, indeed, a branch or conti¬
nuation of the mountainous desert called Haratch el As-
souat, which was traversed by Horneman in his route from
Cairo to Mourzouk. That traveller gives a fearful de¬
scription of this wild region, so much dreaded by those
who have had to traverse it. The mountain presents the
appearance of an imperfect cone, and the rock, upon frac¬
ture, seemed to Horneman to consist of ferruginous basalt.
Range upon range of black and dreary mountains, inter¬
sected by narrow and dismal ravines rather than valleys,
rose before his view. Here and there, however, the eye
was relieved by the sight of patches of vegetation, ap¬
proaching even to luxuriance, from the rains which fall
in this hilly region. Contiguous to the Black lies the
White Haratch, a chain of mountains composed of friable
limestone, and abounding in petrifactions. To the south
of Sockna, the description of the Jebel Assoud, as given
by Major Denham, exactly corresponds to that of the Black
Haratch. Dr Oudney describes the hills as from 400 to 600
feet in height, the tops being in general tabular, but a few
are irregular, and two or three terminate in conical peaks.
The sides of all of them are covered with a considerable
quantity of debris. Captain Lyon says the chain rises to
an elevation of 1500 feet. The lower stratum of these
hills is limestone mixed with a reddish clay, superimposed
upon which are large masses of tabular basalt and irregu¬
lar precipices, so common to this formation; whilst the
sides occasionally present the usual steplike appearance,
and in many instances are overhung by pillars, curved,
inclined, and perpendicular. The whole exhibits a scene
of barrenness which, according to Major Denham, cannot be
perfectly described, either by poet or painter. After these
dreary wastes have been passed, the hills of Zeghren com¬
mence. They run nearly east and west, are low, long,
oval, and truncated at the top, and altogether different
from any others which Denham and Oudney had seen.
The town of Zeghren, according to the former traveller,
is better built than any other in Fezzan.
Mourzouk, the capital of Fezzan, which stands in lati¬
tude 25. 54. N. and longitude 15. 52. E., is a walled town,
containing about 2500 inhabitants, who are blacks, and who
do not, like the Arabs, change their residence. The walls
are built of mud, but sufficiently thick and high to guard
the place from attack. As a substitute for stones, which
are not to be found, the people use baked clay, a substance
■which is found sufficiently durable, as rain is here unknown.
The houses are generally of one story ; the doors are low
and without hinges, but made to move upon a pivot. The •
streets are small and narrow, but there are numerous open
spaces, destitute of buildings, and covered with sand, on
which the camels of the traders remain. Many palms
grow in the town, and a few red peppers and onions are
cultivated. The street of entrance is a place about a
hundred yards broad, leading to the walls which surround
me castle, and is extremely elegant. The castle itself
ls an immense mud edifice, about ninety feet in height,
and furnished with small battlements immensely broad at
base, but gradually tapering to about four feet in
t ickness at the top. Like all the rest of the buildings,
1 e castle has no pretensions to regularity. It is the re-
Z A N. 53]
sidence of the sultan, whose apartments are of the best Fezzan.
quality, although, on account of the enormous mass of wall,
all the rooms are of very small dimensions. The more
spacious houses in Mourzouk are constructed in the man¬
ner which we shall now endeavour to describe. A large
door, sufficiently high to admit a camel, opens into a broad
passage, in which there is a stable, and near it a room for
slaves. Opposite the stable is a large square apartment,
the roof of which is supported by palm trees. In the
centie of the roof is an open space, through which the
apartment is lighted, for all the houses are destitute of
windows. There is generally a divan or seat of mud about
eighteen inches high and twelve feet long. From the
sides of the large room, doors open into the smaller ones,
and a passage leads into a yard which has small houses
attached to it, and a well. There are sixteen mosques in
Mourzouk, which are covered in, but some of these are
very small. The principal one is a low building, destitute
of elegance. The burying places are outside the walls,
and of considerable extent. Owing to the want of wood,
no coffins are used; the bodies are merely wrapped in a
mat or linen cloth, and covered with palm branches, over
which the earth is thrown. The men of the lower orders
of Mourzouk wear a large shirt of white or blue cotton,
with long loose sleeves, trousers of the same, and sandals
of camel s hide ; but the shirt being in general long, many
have no other covering. Those of the better sort, how¬
ever, attire themselves more gaily; and their dress near¬
ly resembles that of the people of Tripoli. The men have
little beard, which they likewise keep closely clipped.
The dress of the women here differs materially from
that generally worn by Moorish females, and their appear¬
ance is by no means prepossessing. They plait their hair
in thick bobbins, which hang over the forehead, and anoint
it so profusely with oil, that this liquid drips down over the
face and clothes. From the back hair, however, ornaments
of silver or coral are suspended. Other parts of the face
and head, such as the ears, are profusely adorned. A wool¬
len handkerchief is fastened to the back of the head, and
falling over, is tied by a leather strap under the chin. A
blue shirt is generally worn ; and a jereed and red slippers
complete their equipment. Some of the better class of wo¬
men wear trousers, and all adorn their persons according to
their rank and importance. Both men and women have a
singular custom of stuffing their nostrils with a twisted leaf
of onions or clover, which has a very disgusting appearance.
The natives have a variety of dances, two or three of which
are peculiar to the country. In Mourzouk the luxuries of
life are very limited, the people subsisting principally on
dates. Many of them do not taste corn for months toge¬
ther ; but when obtained, it is made into cakes, which are
baked in ovens formed of clay in holes in the earth, and
heated by burning wood. Tobacco is very generally
chewed by the women, as well as by the men ; but smoking
is the amusement of a great man only.
The revenues of the sultan of Fezzan arise from slaves,
merchandise, and dates. For every slave that enters his
dominions he receives two Spanish dollars (in some years
the number of slaves amounts to 4000) ; for a camel’s load
of oil or butter, seven dollars ; for a load of beads, copper, or
hardware, four dollars ; and for one of clothing, three dollars.
All Arabs who buy dates pay a dollar of duty on each load
before they are allowed to remove it; an impost which, at
times, is equal to the market price of the article. Above 3000
loads are sold to them annually. Date trees, excepting those
of the kadi and Mamelukes, are taxed at the rate of one
dollar for every 200. By this duty, in the neighbourhood
of Mourzouk, or, more properly, in the few neighbouring
villages, the sultan receives yearly about 10,000 dollars.
Of all sheep or goats he is entitled to a fifth. On the sale
532
F E Z Z A N.
Fezzan.
of every slave he has, in addition to the head money, a
dollar and a half, which, at the rate of 4000 slaves annually,
gives 6000 dollars. The captured slaves are sold by auction,
at which the sultan’s brokers attend, bidding high only for
the finest. The trees which are his private property pro¬
duce about 6000 camel-loads of dates, each of 400lbs.
weight, which may be estimated at about 18,000 dollars.
Every garden pays a tenth part of the corn produced. The
gardens are very small, and are watered with great labour
from brackish wells, as rain is unknown, and dews never
fall. Pomegranate trees and fig trees are sometimes planted
in the water channels. Presents of slaves are frequently
made, and fines levied. Each town pays a certain sum,
which is small; but as the towns are numerous, the ave¬
rage amount may be estimated at 4000 dollars. Add to
this the annual excursions for slaves, sometimes bringing
1000 or 1500, of which one fourth are the sultan’s pro¬
perty, as well as the same proportion of camels. He alone
can sell horses, which he buys for five or six dollars, when
half starved, from the Arabs, who come to trade, and can¬
not maintain them, and makes a great profit by obtaining
slaves in exchange for them. All his people are fed by
the public, and he has no money to pay, excepting to the
pasha, which was formerly 15,000 dollars per annum. There
are various other modes by which he extorts money. If a
man dies childless, the sultan inherits the greater part of his
property; and if he thinks it necessary to kill a man, he
becomes his sole heir.
In Mourzouk about a tenth part of the population are
in a state of slavery. There are some white families, who
are denominated Mamlukes, being descended from rene¬
gades, whom the pasha had presented to the former sultan.
These families and their descendants are considered as
noble, and, however poor and humble their situation may
be, they are not a little vain of their title.
The general appearance of the men of Fezzan is plain,
and their complexion is black ; the wTomen are of the same
colour, and ugly in the extreme. Neither sex are remark¬
able for figure, height, strength, vigour, or activity ; and
they have a very peculiar cast of countenance, wdiich dis¬
tinguishes them from other blacks. But they are a cheer¬
ful people, fond of dancing and music, and obliging to each
other. The men almost all read and write a little; but in
every thing else they are very dull and heavy, their affec¬
tions being cold and selfish, and a kind of general indiffer¬
ence to the common incidents of life marking all their ac¬
tions. In Mourzouk the men drink a quantity of lackbi,
as also a liquor called busa, which is prepared from dates.
The Arabs generally practise hospitality ; but amongst the
Fezzanese that virtue does not exist. They are, however,
very attentive and obsequious to those in whose power they
are, or who can repay them tenfold for their pretended dis¬
interestedness. Their religion enjoins that, should a stran¬
ger enter whilst they are at their meals, he must be invited
to partake; but they generally contrive to evade this in¬
junction by eating with closed doors. The lower classes
are, from necessity, very industrious; but amongst people
of rank industry is not a characteristic virtue. In regard
to morals, they are much upon a level with the people of
Tripoli, being both dishonest and insincere. Falsehood is
not looked upon as odious unless it be detected.
The lowTer classes work neatly in leather; they weave a
few coarse barracans, and work iron in a solid although
clumsy manner. A few likewise wrork in gold and silver
with tolerable skill; and every man is capable of acting as a
carpenter or mason. The wood being that of the date tree,
and the houses built of mud, very little elegance or skill is
required in their construction.
From the constant communication with Bornou and with
Soudan, the languages of both these countries are gene¬
rally spoken, and many of their words are introduced into Fe
the Arabic; but the pronunciation is very different from v—
that of the east. Their writing is in the Mogrebyn cha¬
racters ; but they have no idea of arithmetic, and reckon
every thing by dots on the sand, ten in a line. Though
very fond of poetry, they are incapable of composing it.
The Arabs, however, compose a few little songs, which the
natives have much pleasure in learning. The women are
kept in a state of abject subordination, as is indeed com¬
mon in all Mahommedan nations. The authority of pa¬
rents over their children is very great, in fact, unnecessarily
despotic. There are no written records of events among the
Fezzanese, and their traditions are so disfigured, and so
strangely mingled with religious and superstitious false¬
hoods, that no confidence whatever can be placed in them.
Several scriptural passages are selected and believed. The
Psalms of David, the Pentateuch, the books of Solomon,
and many extracts from the inspired writers, are universal¬
ly known, and most reverentially considered.
The only towns of any consideration in Fezzan, besides
those already described, are Zuela, towards the eastern
frontier, on the road to Egypt; Germa, to the west; and
Garione, on the road to Bornou. In 1822, Dr Oudney and
Captain Clapperton visited Germa, which lies towards the
western frontier. It is a walled towm, and surrounded by a
ditch. At a little distance from it stands the remains of an¬
cient Germa, which appears to have occupied more space
than the modern town. It was formerly the capital of Fez¬
zan, and once gave its name to the nation of the Garaman-
tes ; at least, unless there are two places of the same name,
this must be the ancient Garama, which is described by Pliny
as a fine city, the capital of Fazania. The inhabitants of the
modern town are very poor, and many of the houses are in
ruins. The aspect of the country between this place and
Mourzouk is similar to that of the other portions of Fez¬
zan which we have already described. The hills, which
stand about a hundred yards apart, are composed of sand¬
stone, finely interstratified with beds of blue and white pipe¬
clay and alum slate. There is a valley of considerable di¬
mensions, and also several villages. The number of date
trees in the eastern and western divisions of this valley is
very great. There is here a town called Khraik, situated
amidst some fine groves of palm trees, and possessing cul¬
tivated patches of ground and wells of good water.
The eastern and southern portions of Fezzan were visited
by Captain Lyon. In latitude 25. 55. stands the town ot
Traghan, which was formerly a place as considerable as
Mourzouk. It is situated in a flat desert plain, with its gar¬
dens and date groves at a short distance, and contains four
mosques ; but most of the houses, which are large, are in
ruins, and the population is very trifling. Major Denham
says that carpets are manufactured here equal to those oi
Constantinople. The route to Zuela lies entirely through sa t
plains and stony deserts, with here and there a small village.
Zuela, or Zuila, is situated in latitude 26.11.48. It was for¬
merly a considerable place, but is now only about a nu e in
circumference. It contains three mosques and three ga es,
but there are few good houses in it. The inhabitants are
nearly all white ; and Captain Lyon observes, that t ey
are certainly the most respectable, hospitable, and quie
people in Fezzan; and their whole appearance, for t ey
are handsome, and very neatly dressed, bespeaks somo
thing superior to the other whites.” At a short distance ro
Zuela are some very interesting ruins, one of them a cas >
which must have been a place of great strength, on a
count of the immense thickness of the walls. 4 hese rui
ed fabrics have been much commented upon, bu
is nothing to prove that they were of Roman origin,
next town of any importance is Gatrone, which stan s
latitude 24. 47. 57. The country between Zuela and
ta,
V
F I B
place is a perfect desert, which in one place consists of a
singular mixture of sand and salt. Gatrone is rather plea-
Fil santly situated. It is surrounded with sand hills and mounds
^ J of earth, covered with a small tree called athali. On leav¬
ing this place, Captain Lyon proceeded to Tegerhy, the
southernmost town in Fezzan, and situated in lat. 24. 4. N.
Here the cultivation of the date and palm ceases, and the
Arabic gives place to the Bornouese language. The desert
comes close to the walls of the town, which is situated to
the southward of its palms. The dates are here very fine
and plentiful. Tegerhy is commanded by a fort, containing
wells of water within the walls. A range of low hills ex¬
tends to the eastward ; and near the town are some salt
pools, which are frequented by snipes, wild ducks, and
geese. The natives are black, and little superior to savages.
The kingdom of Fezzan is computed to contain about a
hundred towns and villages, but the population is thought
not to exceed 80,000. It is governed by a sultan, who, al¬
though in fact only a viceroy, dependent upon the pasha
of Tripoli, possesses absolute sway. In regard to climate, Fez¬
zan cannot be considered as fortunate. In summer the heat
is intense, and the south wind, which is very dry, and im¬
pregnated with fiery particles, is scarcely supportable even
by the natives. The winter, on the other hand, is accompa¬
nied with a bleak and penetrating wind blowing from the
north, the cold of which is painfully felt even by the natives
of a northern climate. Rain falls seldom, and in small quan¬
tities ; thunder is also rare, but tempests of wind frequently
occur. With regard to the soil, we have already spoken
at sufficient length. The revenue, as derived from sources
already mentioned, is devoted solely to the maintenance of
the sultan, his army, and court. The cadi and other officers
of justice, the ministers of religion, and even the great
officers of state, are maintained from grounds set apart for
this purpose, and which are covered usually with gardens,
or woods of date trees. The office of cadi or chief judge,
to which is also attached that of first minister of religion, is
hereditary in a certain family. There is no regular army;
but in time of war all who are able to carry arms may be
called out.
This country was well known to the ancients under the
title of the Phazania Regio, and the country of the Gara-
mantes, whose ancient capital has been recognized by
Major Rennell in the modern Germa, as already noticed.
The name of Fasan or Fezzan seems to have been imposed
by the Saracens, when they overran Northern Africa, and
established the Mahommedan faith, and ever since it has
continued to prevail.
FIAT, in Law, a short order or warrant signed by a
judge, for making out and allowing certain processes.
FIBRARLE, a term anciently applied to minerals of a
fibrous structure.
FIBRE, in Anatomy, a perfectly simple body, or at least
as simple as any thing in the human structure, being fine
and slender like a thread, and serving to knit together or
connect other parts.
Fibre is also used to denote one of the slender filaments
*hich compose bodies, whether animal, vegetable, or mi¬
neral, but more especially a capillary root of plants.
FIBROSE, or Fibrous, something consisting of fibres;
ns, for instance, the roots of plants.
rIBULA, in Anatomy, is the outer and smaller of the
bones of the leg. See Anatomy.
r ibula, in Antiquity, a sort of button, buckle, or clasp,
fnade use of by the Greeks and Romans for keeping close
or lastening together certain parts of their clothes. The
■A u^Ci were of various forms, and often adorned with pre¬
vious stones. Both men and women wore them in their
nir and on their shoes. Players and musicians, by way of
preserving the voices of children placed under their care
F I C
fp°!C?r th®ir a1r,t’1USed t0 compress the prepuce with a fibula, p
lest they slmuld have commerce with women.
... ’ John Fheophilus, an eminent German me-
SrEia e ™as h?™ at Rammenau, a village of Lusatia, on
the 19th of May 1762. His father was a ribbon manufac¬
turer, and carried on a small trade in haberdashery. A
wealthy person in the neighbourhood having been struck
with the extraordinary genius which young Fichte displayed,
put him to school, in order to give him an opportunity of
cultivating his talents ; but the boy becoming impatient of
restraint, ran off, and was found sitting on the banks of the
haale, w ith a map, on which he was endeavouring to trace
the way to America. From this period he seems to have
prosecuted his studies in an extremely desultory manner ;
occasionally attending the lectures of the professors of Wit-
temberg and Leipsic, without devoting his attention ex¬
clusively to any particular science. Theology, however,
appears to have been his favourite study ; and this predi¬
lection is conspicuous in many of his subsequent writings,
which are distinguished by a singular mixture of philoso¬
phical and religious mysticism. When he left the univer-
sity, his situation wTas by no means enviable. He possess¬
ed no fortune to enable him to indulge in the luxury of
philosophical speculation ; and, in spite of his decided aver¬
sion to every kind of constraint, he was compelled, by the
necessity of his circumstances, to accept the situation of
tutor in the family of a Prussian gentleman. But his resi¬
dence in Prussia enabled him to cultivate the acquaintance
of the celebrated philosopher of Kdnigsberg, to whose judg¬
ment he submitted his first work, the Critical Review of all
Revelations, which was published anonymously in 1792.
In the literary journals, this production, which had attracted
considerable attention, was ascribed to the pen of Kant, until
the real author made himself known.
Having received fifty ducats from a Polish nobleman, in
whose family he had been tutor, Fichte set out on a course
of travels through Germany and Switzerland, and after¬
wards married a niece of Klopstock’s at Zurich. In 1793,
he published the first part of his Contributions towards rec¬
tifying the Opinions of the Public respecting the French
Revolution. This book, which is written with consider¬
able force and originality, created a great sensation in Ger¬
many, and was violently attacked, in consequence of a newr
and apparently dangerous theory which the author advan¬
ced relative to the social contract. The book, however, was
perused with great avidity; but the attacks to which we
have alluded probably prevented him from publishing the
continuation.
The reputation of Fichte was now so well established,
that he soon afterwards obtained an appointment to the
philosophical chair at Jena, as successor to Reinhold, who
had been called to the university of Kiel. Here he com¬
menced his lectures by a programme, in which he endea¬
voured to give an idea of the Doctrine of Science ( Wissen-
schaftslehre), the name by which he distinguished the prin¬
ciples of that system of transcendental idealism, which he
afterwards more fully developed. In 1794, besides the or¬
dinary duties of his professorship, he every Sunday gave a
regular course of lectures, in the form of sermons, On the
Literary Calling, which was numerously attended. Hav¬
ing established the principles of his doctrine of science, he
endeavoured to extend their application to the several de¬
partments of philosophy ; and with this view he published
in 1796 his Fundamental Principles of the Law of Nature,
and two years afterwards his System of Morals. In con¬
junction with Niethammer, he also published a philosophi¬
cal journal, in which some articles were inserted, containing
certain philosophical views of religion, which were consider¬
ed by many as tending directly to atheism. Amongst a
number of objectionable propositions, it was maintained
533
Fichte.
534
FICHTE.
Fichte.
that God was nothing else than the moral order of the
universe ; and that, to worship God as a being who could
only be represented as existing in time and space, was a
species of idolatry. One of Fichte’s colleagues called the
attention of the Saxon minister Burgsdorf to these heretical
propositions; and the consequence was, the rigorous con¬
fiscation of the work throughout the whole of Saxony.
Fichte and his friend Forberg wrote an Appeal to the pub¬
lic, and several Apologies, in order to exculpate themselves
from the imputation of atheism. The government of Wei¬
mar behaved on this occasion with prudence and modera¬
tion ; but the celebrated Herder, vice-president of the
consistory, took part against Fichte. Eberhard, on t e
other hand, although hostile to the metaphysical system
of Fichte, undertook his defence. The controversy was
carried on with great violence, and excited considerable
ferment throughout the whole of Germany.
In the mean time Fichte resigned his professorship at
Jena, and repaired to Berlin, where he met with a very
flattering reception. Here his time was occupied in giv¬
ing private lectures, and in composing his various writings.
In 1800 he published a short treatise, entitled The Exclu¬
sive Commercial State, containing one of those philosophi¬
cal systems of political economy from which the praise ot
cal systems of political economy trom w m u I colouring over the darkest and most abstruse me-
S—U taphysical problems. Those who were charmed with his
„ r r . 1_ _  Tin 11C Hint if P.fmld 06“
IIIOSL uuiauiy vr* — r 1
founded must be sufficient to convince us that it could ne
ver be advantageously reduced to practice.
About this period Fichte met with a formidable rival in
Schelling, who had formerly been a warm partisan of the
Doctrine of Science, but who now separated from his mas¬
ter, and propounded a new metaphysical theory of his own,
which soon acquired a large share of popularity at the Ger¬
man universities, especially at Jena. Fichte indeed en¬
deavoured to modify his theory of the Doctrine of Science,
and to present it to the world in a new and more attractive
form; but he never again recovered the sway which he
had formerly exercised over the public mind. Meanwhile,
his ardent wish to be again placed in an academical chair
was at length gratified by M. de Hardenberg, who in
eloquence were easily convinced by his reasoning, and be¬
came willing converts to his doctrines. His wiitings, espe¬
cially those works in which his peculiar doctrines are pro¬
pounded in a systematic form, are by no means so attrac¬
tive as his lectures appear to have been. On the contrary,
notwithstanding a constant affectation of strict and simple
reasoning, his propositions are enveloped in such a degree
of transcendental obscurity, as renders it extremely difficult
to comprehend either the basis or the scope of that system
of doctrines which he laboured to establish.
Hence it is far from being an easy matter to give an in¬
telligible abstract of the principles of the Doctrine of sci¬
ence, especially as we must necessarily presuppose some
acquaintance, on the part of our readers, with the previous
1805 nrSed foThta the appointment of ordinary pro- metaphysical labours of Kant. F.chte commenced ha
fessor of philosophy in the university of Erlangen. This philosophical career precisely at that period when the w
appointment was*accompanied with the especial favour of ings of Kant had nearly obtained a paramount nflucn e
bemgpermitted to pass the winter at Berlin, in order to the German sehools, and when men eve„ of supeno «
continue his lectures there. But this state of amphibious lents thought it no mean gtory f“ asPc()nfa.
professorship, as his friends used to call it in jest, did not and illustrate his clocti in's. cv ' *■ with in ana-
Lt Ion-. During the summer of 1805 he delivered at Er- sedly idealistic. Its celebrated author set out u it
langen his celebrated lectures On the Essence of the Liter- lysis of the cognitive facuity, and endea^ured to d ^
arg Character (uber das Wesen des Gelehrten). The fol- its various functions, as well as to ascertain th p ^
lowing winter he delivered to a numerous audience the limits ot its legitimate exercise. ^ 1 to
course which he afterwards published under the title of cording to thc\cntical t:lulf ^ ’^ in them-
Guide to a Happy Life. This was one of those pubhea- possible experience. Of external obJec;ts^OT1t^ . fo-
tions in which he attempted to present his metaphysical
doctrines to the public in all their sublimity, and, at the
same time, with such clearness, as should render them in¬
telligible to common readers.
The disasters which assailed the Prussian monarchy in
1806 were attended with serious consequences to Fichte.
Erlangen having ceased to be a Prussian university, he did
not await the entry of the French into Berlin, but fled to
Konigsberg, and thence proceeded to Riga. In the sum¬
mer of 1807 he delivered a course of philosophical lectures
possible experience, ur exiernai oujccls, “**“&“* ,
selves (noumena), we can have no absolute knowledge; io
we can know nothing but what is perceived by the sens >
and cognized (if we may be allowed the expression) y
intellectual faculties, according to the laws peculiar to o
constitution. These intellectual laws, or subjective forms,
tend to combine our knowledge, and to render the ne
experience a comprehensible whole. As we can ha
knowledge of objects in themselves, but only fir^ue.
nomena, neither can we have any knowledge o t mg
yond the sphere of our experience, because these can
His health, however, had suffered considerably from the F
shocks he had for some time experienced, and he found it’ >j
necessary to have recourse to the waters of Bohemia, from
which he derived great benefit. But his wife was attack¬
ed with a nervous fever, in consequence of her attendance
on the deserted sick ; and although she recovered, Fichte,
whose affection would not allow him to leave her for a mo¬
ment, caught the infection, and died on the 29th of Janu¬
ary 1814.
Fichte was small in stature, but stout and well formed;
his countenance was expressive of thoughtfulness and de¬
termination. In his intellectual character, genius was com¬
bined with inflexible firmness ; and these qualities enabled
him to surmount difficulties which would have overwhelm¬
ed a man of less vigorous temperament. In other respects
his dispositions were amiable and his morals correct. It was
in the academical chair that the genius of Fichte was ma¬
nifested in its greatest splendour. It was said of him that
he was born a professor ; and there was indeed a charm in
his manner of lecturing which had a powerful influence on
the minds of his pupils, several of whom we have heard
talk of him with enthusiasm. His fervid and brilliant elo¬
quence, the clearness of his reasoning, and the simplicity
and correctness of his language, seemed to diffuse a magic
elivered a course ot philosophical lectures yona tne spnere oi oui expci -- - laffS
at Konigsberg. The peace which ensued enabled him to ther be perceived by our senses nor su jec e
return to Berlin, where he pronounced his famous Orations of the understanding. All reasoning, there or , ence
to the German Nation, which were enthusiastically read and ideas must necessarily be futile, because i as .ence<
applauded throughout all Germany. When the university to any corresponding object within the hmi so E , :ects
of Berlin was founded, he obtained, through the interest of And although we can have no absolute know e g "sseS
M. de Humboldt, the situation of rector, which secured to as they really exist, yet our knowledge o ^ ^
him an honourable revenue, whilst his rank, as first pro- a subjective reality (that is, a reality with re ^
fessor of philosophy, gave him great academical influence, thinking subject), and may be said to correspo
i
'J
objects, because, from the nature of our intellectual consti¬
tution, we are incapable of receiving any other impression
from them.
Iteinhold was one of the earliest partisans of Kant, and
one of the most ingenious and most popular commentators
on the critical philosophy. But his talents were better
adapted for explaining and illustrating the doctrines of
others, than for discovering new truths, or inventing any
original system of his own ; and although an indefatigable
student of philosophy, he seems to have never arrived at
any settled conviction in metaphysical matters, but to have
alternately adopted and abandoned every new theory which
was successively presented to his view. After having been
for some time enthusiastically devoted to the doctrines pro¬
mulgated in the Critical Review of Pure Reason, which
he esteemed the greatest masterpiece of philosophical ge¬
nius, he at length discovered that Kant had neglected to
secure the foundations of the edifice he had raised, and
this defect he attempted to supply by his own Theory of
the Faculty of Perception {Theorie des Vorstellungsver-
mgens). The main proposition laid down and illustrated
in this work is nothing more nor less than this : We are
compelled by consciousness to admit that every perception
presupposes a percipient subject and an object perceived,
both of which must be distinguished from the perception
to which they relate ; thus referring all our knowledge to
consciousness as its ultimate principle. In the enunciation
of this proposition there is nothing very new or original;
but the illustration of this elementary doctrine, which, as
a late reviewer of the German metaphysical theories ob¬
serves, might have formed an excellent subject for a short
philosophical dissertation of two or three sheets, is dilated
into a work nearly as large as that to which it was intend¬
ed to serve as a mere introduction ; nor is the unnecessary
length of the treatise in any measure compensated by the
importance of the truths developed, or the ingenuity dis¬
played in the research.
With greater talents and consistency, Fichte, who an¬
nounced himself as a strict Kantian, attempted to resolve
t e same problem, and to develope a system which, by
deducing all our knowledge from one simple principle,
should give unity and stability to the critical theory. In
f Doctrine of Science (Wissenschaftslehre), accordingly,
le erives all our knowledge from the original act of the
thinking subject in reflecting upon itself. "lam / (which
;e exFesses by the formula A = A), or the absolute posi-
i?11/*.. * e ^ bY the I, is in itself the certain principle of
p i osophy and of all our knowledge. But the creative
energy of the b bi the course of this reflective process,
«°/S r/ .arther. By its own act, also, the I places the
^ (0P]ects) as opposed to itself. In reflecting upon it-
sen, as the absolutely active principle, it finds itself either
ermined by or determining the not-L In the former
T’,1/t,apPears ^ the intelligent I; in the latter, as the
the Uc y Vractical I. Hence the distinction betw een
neoreuca! d practical phiIosophy- The idea? then>
or h Pu-Vfdes the.whole theory of Fichte is this : The I,
wliiph 1 lln“ng subject, is the absolutely active principle,
exists C^iStructs ^e consciousness, and produces all that
FICHTE.
535
CXKtc K • • aim piuuucco dll tilclt
"hole ^p0Sltl0.n’contraPoshion, and juxtaposition. The
ing subj^erse’ in short> is the product of the I, or think-
°f £Uli ^ th,U.S en^eavoured to give a very concise sketch
of a Hi , . iu give a very concise sxetcn
its vflr,e°r^ w ,ch we shall not think of pursuing through
it intplP^uf3111^03^0118’ as we sh°uld despair of making
Fichfp I'f if 0U1; rea(iers by any length of exposition,
and onn as been praised by his countrymen for his logical
theory nrS reas?n’nS > hut to us it appears that his
ine unrm °Cee i- fntirely upon arbitrary assumptions, rest-
P no solid foundation. That he displays consider-
devel»rm“‘»f Ws ideas we are will- Fichte,
merit r. Yl, T® T' q,1,lte at a loss t0 perceive the
“evLm „ hr yl'e l;as a‘va"eed, when considered as
a system of philosophical truths. The parade of scientific
deduction which his reasoning exhibitsPmay impose upon
dnnhS1 S- ef1; bf1 a careful examination will un¬
doubtedly convince him that the whole is a mere tissue of
ci>k2 n0tl°nS’ denved from arbitrary and assumed prin-
In attempting to apply the principles of his doctrine of
science to the theory of morals and the law of nature,
b ichte exhibited many original and paradoxical opinions,
along with some very just and ingenious philosophical ob¬
servations. In his later writings he considerably modified
his original theory of the doctrine of science, and produced
system of philosophical and religious mysticism, which
appears to have given birth to the transcendental idealism
ot bchelhng, an author who seems to have carried the ex-
travagance of speculative reasoning to its utmost limits,
the following is a fist of the works of Fichte.
1. Veisuch einer Kritik oiler OJfenbarung. (Critical
Keview of nh Revelation.) Konigsberg, 1792, 1793, 8vo.
2. Ueber den Peg riff der Wissenschaftslehre. (On the
notion of a Doctrine of Science.) Jena, 1794, 8vo.
3. Grundlage der gesammten Wissenschaftslehre. (Foun¬
dation of the whole Doctrine of Science.) Ibid. 1794, 8vo.
4. Grundriss des eigenthumlichen der Wissenschaftslehre.
(Sketch of the peculiarity of the Doctrine of Science.)
Weimar, 1794.
5. Vorlesungen ueber die Bestimmung des Gelehrten.
(Lectures on the Literary Calling.) Jena, 1794.
6. System der Sittenlehre. (System of the Doctrine of
Morals.) Jena and Leipsic, 1795.
7. Beytrdge zur Berichtigung der Urtheile des Publi-
cums ueber die Franzdsische Revolution. (Materials for
Rectifying the Opinions of the Public respecting the
French Revolution.)
8. Grundlage des Naturrechts. (Foundation of the
Law of Nature.) Jena, 1796, 1797. 2 vols. 8vo.
9. Appellation an das Publicum ueber die ihm beygem-
essenen atheistischen Aeusserungen. (Appeal to the Public
respecting the atheistical expressions imputed to him.)
Jena and Leipsic, 1799.
10. Ueber die Bestimmung des Menschen. (On the Des¬
tiny of Man.)
11. Der geschlossene Handlesstaat. (The exclusive
Commercial State.)
12. Sonnenklarer Bericht an das grdssere Publicum
ueber das eigentliche Wesen der neuesten Philosophic. (Lu¬
minous Report to the greater public on the peculiar Cha¬
racter of the modern Philosophy.) Berlin, 1801.
13. Wissenschaftslehre. (Doctrine of Science.)
bingen, 1802, 8vo.
14. Vorlesungen ueber das Wesen der Gelehrten.
tures on the Literary Character.) Berlin, 1806.
15. Die Grundzuge des gegenwdrtigen Zeitalters.
Characteristics of the present age.) Ibid. 1806.
16. Anweisung zum seligen Leben. (Guide to a Happy
Life.) Ibid. 1806.
17. Reden an die Deutsche Nation. (Discourses to the
German nation.) Ibid. 1806.
18. Die Wissenschaftslehre in ihrem allgemeinsten Um-
risse dargestellt. (The Doctrine of Science exhibited in
its most general outline.) Ibid. 1810.
19. Freidrich Nicolai's Leben und Sonderbare Meinun-
gen, herausgegeben von Schlegel. (Life and singular opi¬
nions of Frederic Nicolai, edited by Schlegel.) Tubin¬
gen, 1801.
20. Antwortschrieben an K. L. Reinhold, auf dessen
Beytrdge zur leichtern Uebersicht des Zastandes der Philo-
Tu-
(Lec-
(The
F I C
sophie, &c. (Answer to K. L. Reinhold, on his Materials
for acquiring a more easy View of the State of I hilosophy,
&c.) Tubingen, 1801. , . ,
21. Ueher die einzig mdgliche Storung der academischen
Freyheit. (On the only possible disturbance of Acade¬
mical Freedom.) Berlin, 1812. • -d
22. Ueher den Begriff des wahrhaften Knegs, in Bezug
nuf den Krkg in jahre, 1813. (On the nofon of real
war, with reference to the war in 1813.) Tubingen, 181o.
Fichte is also the author of several essays in penochca
publications, and particularly in a philosophical journal
edited by himself, with the assistance of Niethammer.
Those who are desirous of obtaining more minute infor¬
mation respecting Fichte’s philosophic^ t eory, may
suit the following works: Tennemann s Grimdnssder Ges
chichte der Philosophie ; Degerando, H™tol™2Zlehre
0.r w X. Krug, Briefe ueher die Wissenschapslefire.
F. W. J.' Schelling, Darlegung des wahren Verhdltmsses
der Naturphilo&ophie zu der verbessertm
J Fries, Reinhold, Fichte und Schelling. C. F. Bachman ,
Ueber die Philosophic meiner Zeit. Ancilbn, Essai sur le
premier prohleme de la philosophic ; and Essai sur l exist¬
ence et sur les derniers systemes de metaphysique qui ont pm-u
m rTCINUS, Marsilius, a celebrated Italian, was born
at Florence in 1433, and educated at the f PenS(: ^
renzo de’ Medicis. He attained a perfect knowledge of
the Greek and Latin tongues, and became an emment phi¬
losopher, physician, and divine. He was in the hie e
favour with Lorenzo and Cosmo de’ Medicis who appoint¬
ed him a canon of the cathedral church of Florence. He
applied himself intensely to the study of philosophy; and
whilst others were striving who should be most deeply rea
in Aristotle, then the only philosopher in fashion, he de¬
voted himself wholly to the study of Plato He was in¬
deed the first who restored the Platonic philosophy in tl e
west; and for this purpose he translated into Latin the
whole works of Plato. He next translated Plotinus ; and
afterwards the works, or at least part of them, of Proclus
Jamblicus, Porphyrius, and other celebrated Platonists.
In his younger days Ficmus lived like a philosopher, to(
much so indeed, if it be true, as is said, that he did so to
the neglect of piety. However, on the arrival of Savona¬
rola at Florence, Ficinus went, with all the world, to hear
his sermons ; and whilst he attended them for the sake ot
the preacher’s eloquence, he imbibed a strong sense ot re-
lio-ion, and henceforward devoted himself more especially
to its duties. He died at Correggio in 1499 ; and, as Ba¬
ronins assures us, upon the testimony of authors whom he
thinks credible, appeared immediately after his death to
his friend Michael Mercatus, to whom, it seems, he had
promised to manifest himself, in order to confirm what he
had taught concerning the immortality of the soul, tlis
writings, sacred and profane, which are very numerous,
were collected and printed at Venice in 1516, at Basil in
1561 and 1576, and at Paris in 1641, in two vols. toho.
Twelve books of his epistles, amongst which are many
treatises, were printed separately in folio at Venice in 1495,
and at Nuremberg in 1497, in 4to.
FICUS, the Fig Tree. The ficus religiosa, or banian
tree, is a native of several parts of the East Indies. It has
a woody stem, branching to a great height and vast ex¬
tent, with heart-shaped entire leaves terminating in acute
points. Some of these trees are of amazing size and ex¬
tent, as they are continually increasing, and, contrary to
most other things in animal and vegetable life, seem to be
exempted from decay. Every branch from the main body
throws out its own roots, at first in small tender fibres,
several yards from the ground ; but these continually grow
thicker until they reach the surface, and then striking in,
FID
increase to large trunks, and become parent trees, shooting | [
out new branches from the top, which again in time sus¬
pend their roots, and these, swelling into trunks, produce F!j »•
other branches ; thus continuing in a state of progression ^ V
as long as the earth, the parent of them all, contributes her
sustenance. The Hindus are particularly fond of the ba¬
nian tree, which, from its long duration, its outstretching
arms, and overshadowing beneficence, they look upon as an
emblem of the Deity. Near these trees the most esteem¬
ed pagodas are generally erected ; under their shade the
Brahmins spend their lives in religious solitude ; and the
natives of all castes and tribes are fond of recreating in the
cool recesses, beautiful walks, and lovely vistas of this um¬
brageous canopy, impervious even to the direct rays of a
tropical sun.
FIDD, an iron pin used at sea to splice or fasten ropes
together, and made tapering and sharp at one end. There
are also fidds of wood, which are much larger than those
°f yZ-Hammer is used to signify a hammer, the handle
of which is a fidd, or made tapering in that form.
FIDDES, Richard, a laborious English writer, was born
at Hunmanby, near Scarborough, in the year 1671. Having
received his grammatical education at a private school in
the neighbourhood, he was admitted first of Corpus Christi,
and then of University College, Oxford ; but, after taking
the degree of bachelor of arts, in 1693, he returned to his
relations, and married the same year a lady of good family
and fortune. In 1694 he was ordained priest, and not long
afterwards presented to the rectory of Halsham; but this
place, situated in a marsh, having proved insalubrious both
to himself and his family, his residence on his benefice was
dispensed with by his diocesan, upon which he removed to
Wickham, where he continued for some time. Being thus
unable to display his talents as a preacher, and having a
numerous family to support, he resolved to devote himse
to literature, and with this view proceeded to London in
1712, where, by the favour of Swift, he was introduced to
the Earl of Oxford, who made him one of his chaplains,
and procured for him a similar appointment from the que®.
But the change of ministry in 1714 overturned all Hddes
hopes of preferment, and forced him to apply to witing
with greater assiduity than ever. Yet he continued to en-
iov the esteem of contemporary writers, particular y
of his own party, and was honoured with the friendstup ot
some of the most eminent men of the time. By tne i
position of Dr Radcliffe, the degree of bachelor of divmity
was conferred upon him by diploma, m the begi g
1713; and, in 1718, he was honoured with thatot doctor
by the university of Oxford. In 1725 he died in
of a friend at Putney, leaving a wife and six children,
of whom, his eldest daughter, married Mr Barcro ,
rate of St George’s, Hanover Square, who abridged 1 7
lor’s Ductor Dubitantium. Dr Fiddes was the auth ^
1. A Prefatory Epistle concerning some Remarfo
published on Homer’s Iliad, occasioned by the p oF^
of Mr Pope towards a new English version of tha p
1714, in 12mo ; 2. Theologica Speculativa, or ^ ^
of a body of Divinity under that title, wherein .
ed the principles of Natural and Revealed Rel^ ’ c
folio; 3. Fifty-two Practical Discourses on several ^ec- ^
4. The Life of Cardinal Wolsey, 1724, foho; 5. A ^
Britannicus, compiler of the London Journa , ’ . 0f
a defence of the Life of Wolsey; 6. A
Morality, formed upon the principles of mtu
only, 1724, in 8vo; 7. A Preparative to the R
per ; and, 8. A Letter in answer to one from a F t Dr
occasioned by the Duke of Buckinghams Epitap^_he
Fiddes was an ingenious but not very lea!" f the nl0st
possessed a retentive memory, and was capaoi
L
FIE
pi intense application ; but his style as a writer is tedious and
ju! prolix, and, though commonly judicious, he almost never
rises above mediocrity. His misfortunes, towards the close
Fiel 0f his life, were chiefly owing to his connection with that
^ ^ party in the state to which, through Swift, he had been led
to attach himself upon his arrival in London. (a.)
FIDDLE. See Violin.
FIDE-JUSSOR, in the Civil Law, is a surety, or one
who obliges himself in the same contract with a principal,
for the greater security of the creditor or stipulator.
FIDEI-COMMISSUM, in the Civil Law, an estate
left in trust with any person, for the use of another.
FIDES, Faith, or Fidelity, one of the virtues deified
by the Pagans. She had a temple near the capitol, founded
by Numa Pompilius ; but no animals were immolated, nor
was any blood spilt, in her sacrifices. During the perform¬
ance of her rites, her priests appeared in white vestments,
with their heads and hands covered with linen, to show
that fidelity ought to be sacred.
FIDIUS, in Pagan worship, a god who presided over
alliances and promises. This deity, which the Romans
borrowed from the Sabines, was also called Sanctus, Semon,
and Semi-Pater.
FIELD, in Heraldry, is the whole surface of the shield
or the continent, so called because it contains those achieve¬
ments anciently acquired in the field of battle. It is the
ground on which the colours, bearing, metals, furs, charges,
and the like, are represented.
FiEiD-Book, in Surveying, a book in which the angles,
stations, distances, &c. are set down.
Field- Colours, or Camp- Colours, in war, are small flags
of about a foot and a half square, which are carried along
with the quartermaster-general, to mark out the ground for
the squadrons and battalions.
FiELD-Pieces, cannons of small calibre, from three to
twelve pounders, which are carried along with an army in
the field.
Field-Works, in Fortification. See Fortification.
FIELDING, Henry, the prince of English novellists,
was born at Sharpham-Park, Somersetshire, on the 22d of
April 1707. His father, General Edmund Fielding, who
had served under John duke of Marlborough, was the third
son of Dr John Fielding, canon of Salisbury, who was the
fifth son of George earl of Desmond, and brother of Wil¬
liam the third earl of Denbigh ; and his mother, the ge-
' neral’s first wife, was a daughter of Judge Gould. He
was also connected with the noble family of Kingston,
which, in the celebrated Lady Mary Wortley Montague,
boasted a brighter ornament than rank or title could be¬
stow. Henry Fielding was the only son of the first mar-
nage; but he had four sisters of the full blood, one of
whom, Sarah, was distinguished as an authoress by the
history of David Simple, and other literary attempts. Ge¬
neral Fielding, after the death of his first wife, married a
second time, and had a numerous family of sons, one of
wbom is still remembered as a judge of police by the title
of Sir John Fielding. The expense attending so large a
j ^mily, together with a natural thoughtlessness of disposi¬
tion on the part of his father, of whose habits economy form-
edno part, were probably the occasion of Henry being early
involved in those embarrassments with which, excepting
at brief intervals, he continued to struggle through life.
R iu" acflu*ring the rudiments of education under the
ev. Mr Oliver, who is supposed to have furnished him with
e outline of Parson Trulliber’s character, young Fielding
Has removed to Eton, where he made great progress in the
® ndy of the Greek and Roman authors, and imbibed that
eep Jove of classical literature which may be traced
iroughout all his works. As his father destined him for
^ ar, he was, at the age of eighteen, sent from Eton to
fie
Leyden, where he remained about two years, and is said
Tn PVGn S6,1?081 earnest attention to the study of
h in i H?d leibeen Permitted t0 the pur-
bablv hn pCh he r thllS en'"aSed’ the courts would pro-
wnnlfl L f T ^ “Plish^ lawyer, and the world
oftl efShpr 0] / man ,0f Serjlus 5 ^t the circumstances
of the father determined the chance in favour of posterity,
though against the interests and perhaps the welfare of the
son. Remittances, in short, failed, and the young civilian
was compelled to return, at the age of twenty, to plunge
into the dissipation of London, without a monitor to warn
or a friend to support him. His father had indeed pro¬
mised him an allowance of two hundred pounds a year;
but this, as Fielding himself used to observe, any one might
pay who would. Possessed of a strong constitution, a live¬
ly imagination, and a keen relish of pleasure, with the
capacity of enjoying the present and trusting to chance for
the futuie, Fielding thus found himself his own master in
a place where the temptations to every expensive indul¬
gence aie numerous, and the means of gratification easily
attainable ; and, with reckless improvidence, he squandered
in pursuit of pleasure the scanty means which, with strict
economy, might have enabled him to begin the world, at
the same time entailing upon himself those distresses and
misfortunes in which he was ever afterwards involved.
But as disagreeable impressions never remained long upon
his mind, and as it was his disposition to look at the bright¬
er side of things, or rather to enliven the gloomiest pro¬
spect with the colours which his own fancy cast upon it, he
flattered himself that he would find resources in his own
wit and genius, and that the difficulties in which he was
involved would be overcome by the exertions which he
conceived himself capable of making to surmount them.
1 o a man of pleasure, in fact, some resources were indis¬
pensably necessary, and Fielding found them in his pen,
having no alternative, as he himself used to say, but to
become a hackney writer or a hackney coachman. He at
first employed himself in writing for the stage, then in high
reputation, from having recently engaged the talents of
Wycherley, Congreve, Vanburgh, and Farquhar; his co¬
medies and farces were brought out in hasty succession ;
between the years 1727 and 1736, play succeeded play, to
the number of eighteen, which were struck off as his ne¬
cessities impelled, and sank oftener than swam in the the¬
atrical sea upon which he cast them. Of these, the only
pieces now known or read are the mock-tragedy of Tom
Thumb, the translated play of The Miser, and the farces of
The Mock-Doctor and Intriguing Chambermaid ; and yet,
as Sir Walter Scott justly observes, they are all the pro¬
duction of an author unrivalled for his conception and illus¬
tration of character in the kindred department of imaginary
narrative. Whilst Fielding was thus living as a man of
wit and pleasure about town, seeking and finding amuse¬
ment in scenes of gaiety and dissipation, and endeavouring
to discharge the expense incidental to such a life by the
precarious resources afforded by the stage, which, as may
easily be supposed, were inadequate for the purpose, he
attempted to improve his circumstances by becoming him¬
self the manager of a company ; and having, in 1735, as¬
sembled a number of discarded comedians, he proposed
that they should perform his own plays, at the little theatre
of the Haymarket, under the whimsical title of the Great
Mogul’s company of comedians. But the project, as might
have been expected, did not succeed; and the company,
which seemed to have dropped from the clouds, were under
the necessity of disbanding. The whole scheme, in fact, has
more the air of a mad frolic than of a serious undertaking.
During his theatrical career, which, we have just seen, was
by no means brilliant, Fielding, like most authors of the
time, found it impossible to interest the public sufficiently
3 Y
537
Fielding.
FIELDING.
538
Fielding, in the various attempts which he made to gain their favour,
without condescending to flatter their political animosities.
In two of his dramatic pieces, Pasquin and the Historical
Register, he displays great acrimony against Sir Robert
Walpole, whom, in the year 1730, he had in vain attempt¬
ed to propitiate by some courtly verses. The keenness of
the satire made it felt, and its freedom is supposed to have
operated considerably in producing a measure which was
then thought necessary to restrain the licentiousness of the
stage, and to check that proneness to personal and political
satire which had been fostered by the success of the Peg-
gars' Opera. But this measure, which consisted in vesting
a discretionary power in the Lord Chamberlain to refuse a
license to any piece which he should disapprove, was very
unpopular at the time, and, like all petty legislation, has
done mischief which was not intended by it, and failed to
accomplish the object for which it was designed.1
About the year 1736, Fielding having, it seems, formed
the resolution of settling in life, espoused a young lady of
Salisbury, named Craddock, possessed of considerable beau¬
ty, and of a fortune of L.1500 ; and, about the same time, he
succeeded, in right of his mother, to a small estate of L.200
per annum, situated at Stower in Derbyshire. With this
fortune, which, managed with prudence and economy, might
have afforded a decent competence, he retired from London
to his seat in the country, resolved to bid adieu to the fol¬
lies and irregularities of a town life, and to cultivate habits
of domestic enjoyment. But having unfortunately carried
with him the same improvident disposition to enjoy the
present at the expense of the future, which marked his
whole life, he soon forgot all his resolutions of amendment;
established an equipage with showy liveries ; threw open
his gates to unbounded hospitality; and suffered his whole
substance to be devoured by horses, hounds, retinue, and
entertainments. Thus, in less than three years, Fielding
found himself landless, homeless, penniless, without any
other resource than his abilities, and having brought no¬
thing from the country except that experience of rural life
and its pleasures which afterwards enabled him to deline¬
ate with such inimitable truth and force the character of
Squire Western. Not discouraged, however, he entered
himself as a student of law at the Temple, and, after the
customary term of manducation, was called to the bar.
Fielding had now a profession, and, as he had vigorously
applied his powerful mind to the study of the law, it might
have been expected that his success would have been in
proportion to his assiduity. But various causes conspired
to obstruct his rise in the legal profession. In the first
place, those persons who have it in their power to advance
or retard the practice of a young lawyer, seem to have mis¬
trusted the capacity of a man of wit and pleasure for steady
application to business ; and Fielding’s own conduct was
in all probability such as to justify this want of confidence
in his regularity. In the next place, disease, the conse¬
quence of a free life, came to the aid of dissipation of mind,
and interrupted the course of his practice by severe attacks
of the gout, which gradually undermined his naturally ro¬
bust constitution. But amidst all this difficulty and suf¬
fering, he pursued his researches with great though irre¬
gular vigour ; and, as a proof of the eminence to which, in Fit „„
happier circumstances, he might have risen at the bar, he V. ^
left two manuscript volumes in folio on the Crown Law; a
branch to which he had most assiduously applied himself.
The exigencies of a family, to which he was tenderly at¬
tached, forced him however to have recourse again to the
stage, where he attempted to produce a continuation of his
own piece, The Virgin Unmasked ; but as one of the cha¬
racters was supposed to have been written in ridicule of a
man of quality, the Lord Chamberlain refused his license.
Political pamphlets, fugitive tracts, newspaper essays, and
sometimes farces, were the next means he had recourse to
for subsistence ; and as his ready pen supplied such produc¬
tions upon every emergency, he contrived out of the scanty
profits to support himself and family. But amidst the anxi¬
ety and labour of this precarious mode of life, he had the
misfortune to lose his wife ; a domestic calamity which so
deeply affected him that his reason was for a time endanger¬
ed by the excess of his grief. All violent emotions, however,
are happily transient; Fielding recovered from the blow
which had stunned him, though his regret was lasting; and
the necessity of procuring subsistence compelled him to
resume his literary labours. At length, in the year 1741
or 1742, circumstances led him to engage in a species of
composition which he rescued from the degraded state in
which he found it, and rendered a classical department in
English literature.
The novel of Pamela, published in 1740, having raised
the fame of Richardson to the highest pitch, Fielding,
whether tired of hearing it overpraised,2 or whether, as a
writer for subsistence, disposed to catch at whatever inte¬
rested the public for the time, or whether, finally, seduced
by that malicious spirit of wit which delights to turn into ri¬
dicule the idol of the day, resolved to caricature the style, the
principles, and the personages of this favourite performance.
As Gay’s desire to satirize Philips produced The Shepherd's
Week, so Fielding’s purpose to ridicule Pamela suggested
The History of Joseph Andrews ; but, in both cases, more
especially the latter, a work was executed of infinitely
greater merit than could have been expected to arise out
of such a design ; and the reader received a higher gratifi¬
cation than the author himself appears to have proposed or
contemplated. In Fielding’s novel there is indeed a fine
vein of irony, as will appear from comparing it with the
pages of Pamela ; but the production against which the
ridicule was directed is now almost forgotten; whilst Jo¬
seph Andrews continues to be read for its admirable pic¬
tures of manners, and, above all, for the inimitable charac¬
ter of Parson Adams, which alone is sufficient to decide
the superiority of Fielding over all novel writers. “ His
learning, his simplicity, his evangelical purity of mind,
says Sir Walter Scott, “ are so admirably mingled with
pedantry, absence of mind, and the habit of athletic and
gymnastic exercises, then acquired at the universities by
students of all descriptions, that he may be safely termed
one of the richest productions of the muse of fiction. Like
Don Quixote, Parson Adams is beaten a little too much
and too often; but the cudgel lights upon his shoulders,
as on those of the honoured knight of La Mancha, without
1 “ The regulation,” says Sir Walter Scott, “ was the cause of much clamour at the time ; but licentious satire has since foun ^
many convenient modes of access to the public, that its exclusion from the stage is no longer a matter of interest or regret; nor is^
now deemed a violent aggression on liberty that contending political parties cannot be brought into collision within the walls o
theatres, intended, as they are, for places of amusement, not for scenes of party struggle.” {Memoir of Fielding.) inis i
doubt true ; but has not the theatre suffered in consequence of the regulation by which all political allusions are excluded fr<j™ ee
stage, whilst neither the amount of licentious satire, nor its facilities of gaining access to the public, have been, in the slightest eg >
diminished ? ... .. u3
* This production, many passages of which would now be thought highly indelicate, and condemned as suggestive ot In^n
ideas, was in those days recommended even from the pulpit. Modern refinement, though it may not have succeeded m ^anl^ s
immodesty from the heart, has at least had the effect of purifying literary compositions of that grossness which, more or less, e
almost all those of the last age.
ng. the slightest stain to his reputation ; and he is bastinadoed
without being degraded.”1 Joseph Andrews was eminent¬
ly successful; and poor Richardson, whose greediness of
praise was only equalled by his extreme sensitiveness to
ridicule, felt proportionally offended ; whilst his admirers,
male and female, took care to echo back his resentment,
and to heap Fielding with reproach. The animosity of the
idol and his worshippers, in fact, survived the gifted man
who had rendered them all ridiculous; and in Richard¬
son’s correspondence we find the most ungenerous, not to
say malignant, reproaches cast on his memory.2 But Field¬
ing does not appear to have retorted any of the ill-will in
which Richardson and his coterie indulged. If he gave the
first offence without provocation, he was also the first to
retreat from the contest, and to leave his exasperated an¬
tagonists in undisputed possession of the field. Nor was
Fielding slow' in conceding to Richardson that praise to
which his genius entitled him from the liberality of his
contemporaries. In the fifth number of the Jacobite Jour¬
nal, he warmly commends Clarissa Harlowe, by far the
best and most powerful of Richardson’s novels, and which,
with those scenes in Sir Charles 'Grandison relating to
the history of Clementina, contains the passages of deep
pathos on which his fame as a writer must finally rest.
“ Perhaps this is one of the cases,” says Sir Walter Scott,
“in which one would rather have sympathized with the
thoughtless offender, than with the illiberal and ungene¬
rous mind which so long retained its resentment.”
After the publication of Joseph Andrews, Fielding had
again recourse to the stage, and brought out The Wedding-
Day, which, though upon the whole unsuccessful, produced
him some little profit. This was the last of his theatrical
efforts which appeared during his life-time. The comedy
of The Fathers, in manuscript, was lost by Sir Charles Han-
bury Williams, and, when recovered, was performed after
the author’s death, for the benefit of his family.3 Besides
a variety of fugitive pieces, Fielding published, in 1743, a
volume of miscellanies, containing, amongst other things,
The Journey from this World to the next; a tract of which
it is difficult to perceive the scope or aim, although it dis-
plays a good deal of Fielding’s characteristic humour. His
next production was The History of Jonathan Wild the
Great; a picture of desperate vice, unrelieved by a single
indication of human feeling, or even by an accidental devia¬
tion into virtue. What object Fielding could have propos-
fielding.
539
ed to himself by so revolting a delineation, it is not easy to Fielding.
, , i b!sides the disgust produced by the con-'
templation of wickedness naked and unredeemed, every one
must feel, that ascribing a train of fictitious adventures to
a real character, has in it something clumsy and inartifi¬
cial ; whilst, on the other hand, it subjects the author to
a suspicion of having used as the title of his book the name
of an infamous depredator, in the hope of connecting the
one with the popular renown of the other. At the same
time, there are not many passages in Fielding’s works more
strongly marked with his peculiar genius, than the scene
between Jonathan Wild and the Ordinary, in Newgate.
Besides these more permanent proofs of his application to
literature, Fielding employed his ready pen in most of the
political and literary controversies of the times. He con¬
ducted one paper, called The Jacobite Journal, the object
of which wras to eradicate those feelings and sentiments
which had already been so effectually crushed on the field
of Culloden; and he either entirely composed or had a
principal share in The True Patriot and The Champion,
periodicals of the same class. Being attached to the prin¬
ciples of the Revolution, and to the settlement of the suc¬
cession in the family of Brunswick, he steadily advocated
what was then called the Whig cause; but whilst far infe¬
rior writers were enriched out of the secret-service money
with unexampled prodigality, his zeal and ability remain¬
ed long unnoticed, and never met with any suitable re¬
compense.
As it was impossible, however, that such a man could be
altogether overlooked, Fielding, in 1749, received a small
pension, together with an appointment as a justice of peace
for Westminster ; an office then considered as disreputable,
and of which he was at liberty to make the most he could
by the worst means he chose. At this period the magistrates
of W estminster, being paid by fees for their services to the
public, were thence termed trading justices ; and in gene¬
ral they appear to have deserved this opprobrious appella¬
tion ; for the mean and wretched system on which they
were remunerated making it their interest to inflame pet¬
ty disputes, to wring out of thieves and pickpockets a por¬
tion of their unhallowed gains, and thus to traffic, as it
w ere, in guilt and misery, seemed equally w ell calculated to
encourage crime, and to degrade those whose ostensible
duty it was to repress it. The habits of Fielding, who was
never very select in his society, cannot be supposed to have
The style of this piece is said in the preface to be an imitation of Cervantes; but it bears more resemblance to that of the Roman
cmi ftl ,rro”’ fron? wllom Fielding appears to have copied the mock-heroic style, which narrates ludicrous events in the lan-
K ge ot the classical epic ; a vein of pleasantry, however, which is soon wrought out, and which, if frequently employed, is apt to
degenerate into pedantry. x j ■> v
being well acquainted with Fielding’s sisters, took occasion to complain to them, not of their brother’s usage ofhim-
• \ . woji, have fi.een natural and honest), but of his unfortunate predilection for what w'as mean and low in character and de-
np ion. 1 he following passage is remarkable, first for the unexampled presumption of the writer, who thus constitutes himself the
of1 ^e.Pa,ra™ount Fielding’s qualities ; and, secondly, for the malignant indelicacy which could obtrude such observations on the sister
a rival: “ Poor Fielding! I could not help telling his sister that I was equally surprised at and concerned for his continued lowness.
w:sh 'V'yr {)rot^er’ sa‘(f R been born in a stable, or been a runner at a spunging-house, one should have thought him a genius, and
of h Hr ^ ^ie ac*vantage °f a liberal education, and of being admitted into good company !” The man who could be guilty
cn deliberate brutality as is here complacently chronicled, would not have scrupled to employ more criminal means to gratify his
^ mosity, if he had not been restrained either by innate cowardice or a salutary fear of the laws. After this, however, we cannot
nLS,|r^riSe^ t0 ^ln<l Richardson alleging that Fielding was destitute of invention and talents; that the run of his best works was
l av^r > atl(l that, as an author, he would soon be forgotten !
dram ..e 10;|0wlnS anecdote, which is given by former biographers, shows the carelessness of Fielding respecting his reputation as a
and ! U 01!e ^ie ^a-vs °i' it3 rehearsal (that is, the rehearsal of The Wedding-Day), Garrick, who performed a principal part,
l)art'W 1° "aS ^6n 3 ^avom'ite wiih the public, told Fielding he was apprehensive that the audience would make free with him in a
omitt<PvrSa^e’ an<^ ^marked that, as a repulse might disconcert him during the remainder of the night, the passage should be
w;th ^ * i4^0’. ^—n ’eiri»” replied he; “ if the scene is not a good one, let them find that out.” Accordingly the play was brought out
into'th a ,:e^atl0rl, an(k as fiaJ been foreseen, marks of disapprobation appeared. Garrick, alarmed at the hisses he met with, retired
and \ g,:een-r.oom’ " here the author was solacing himself with a bottle of champagne. He had by this time drank pretty freely ;
they e^e at t^ie actor, while clouds of tobacco issued from his mouth, cried out, “ What’s the matter, Garrick ? what are
so fr'tdu8111” n°W ^ Why, the scene that I begged you to retrench,” replied the actor; “ I knew it would not do; and they have
a lo ,ene^ me that I shall not be able to collect myself again the whole night.” “ Oh, d—n ’em,” rejoined he, with great coolness,
mey have found it out, have they ?”
1
540
fielding.
Fielding, been improved by the position into which he was now
thrown; and from a humiliating anecdote told by Ho¬
race Walpole,1 in his usual lively but unfeeling manner, it
would appear, even after allowance is made for the aristo-
cratical exaggeration of the narrator, that his mind had sunk
to the level of his situation. Yet, though the circumstances
attending his official situation tended to foster the careless
and disreputable habits which he was unfortunately but too
prone to indulge, it is consoling to observe that Fielding s
principles remained unshaken, and that there is no founda¬
tion whatever for the imputation of venality which, from
the popular discredit attaching to his office, and his own
thoughtless extravagance, the ill-natured world were at one
time but too ready to cast upon him. His own account of
his conduct respecting the dues of the office on which he
depended for subsistence has been confirmed by MrJVfur-
phy, and never doubted or denied. “ I will confess, says
lie, “ that my private affairs at the beginning of winter had
but a gloomv aspect; for I had not plundered the public,
or the poor, of those sums which men, who are always rea¬
dy to plunder both as much as they can, have been pleased
to suspect me of taking; on the contrary, by composing
instead of inflaming the quarrels of porters and beggars
(which, I blush when I say, hath not been universally prac¬
tised), and by refusing to take a shilling from a man who
most undoubtedly would not have had another left, I had
reduced an income of L.500 a year, of the dirtiest money
upon earth, to little more than L.300, a considerable por¬
tion of which remained with my clerk.” Nor was this all.
Whilst Fielding thus evinced his disinterestedness as a ma¬
gistrate, he endeavoured, by various suggestions, to check
the growth of crime and depravity. His Inquiry into the In¬
crease of Thieves and Robbers contains several valuable hints
which succeeding statesmen have adopted, and some which
have not yet received the attention they deserve. He was
the first to expose the injurious effects of the frequency of
pardons, rendered necessary by the reckless multiplication
of capital punishments ; and he had the merit of directing
public attention to that swelling imposthume of the state,
pauperism, with the consequences to be apprehended from
the state of the poor laws and the mode in which they were
administered. He afterwards published a scheme for the
provision of the poor, which showed that he was fully sen¬
sible of the evil, without being able to suggest an effectual
or practical remedy ; but although his project for restrict¬
ing them to their parishes, and providing for them in work-
houses, was not approved of, it has never been disputed
that his treatise exhibits both the knowledge of the magis¬
trate and the picturesque expression of the novel writer.
He also published a Charge to the Grand Jury of Middle- Fie
sex, and some Tracts concerning Law Trials, which are W-
considered as valuable.
Before publishing his scheme for the provision of the
poor, however, Fielding made himself immortal by the pro¬
duction of Tom Jones, or the History of a Foundling; a
work composed under all the disadvantages incident to an
author alternately harassed by his disagreeable magisterial
duties, and pressed by the necessity of hurrying out some
ephemeral essay or pamphlet to meet the demands of the
passing day.2 In these painful and precarious circum¬
stances was the first of English novels given to the public,
who nad not hitherto seen any works founded upon the
plan of painting from nature, and who, consequently, were
quite unprepared for a work constructed on such a princi¬
ple. Even Richardson’s novels are but a step removed
from the domain of the old romance ; and, though approach¬
ing more nearly to the ordinary course of events, still re¬
semble it by dealing in improbable incidents, exaggerated
delineations, and characters swelled out beyond the ordi¬
nary proportions of humanity. I out Jones, on the other
hand, is truth and human nature itself, and therein consists
the incalculable advantage which it possesses over all pre¬
vious fictions of this particular kind. Fielding is the Ho¬
garth of novelists ; and he painted manners with the hand
of a master. The History of a Foundling was received
with unanimous acclamation by the public, and proved so
productive to Millar, the publisher, that he handsomely
added L.100 to the L.600 for which he had purchased the
work from the author.
“ The general merits of this popular and delightful
work,” says Sir Walter Scott, “ have been so often dwelt
upon, and its imperfections so frequently censured, that
we can do little more than hastily run over ground which
has been so repeatedly occupied. The felicitous contriv¬
ance and happy extrication of the story, where every inci¬
dent tells upon and advances the catastrophe, while at the
same time it illustrates the characters of those interested
in its approach, cannot too often be mentioned with the
highest approbation. The attention of the reader is never
diverted or puzzled by unnecessary digressions, or recalled
to the main story by abrupt and startling recurrences; he
glides down the narrative like a boat on the surface of
some broad navigable stream, which only winds enough to
gratify the voyager with the varied beauty of its banks.
One exception to this praise, otherwise so well merited,
occurs in the story of the Old Man of the Hill; an epi¬
sode which, in compliance with a custom introduced by
Cervantes, and followed by Le Sage, Fielding has thrust
1 “ Rigby gave me a strong picture of nature. He and Peter Bathurst, t’other night, carried a servant of the latter s, who a
attempted to shoot him, before Fielding, who, to all his other vocations, has, by the grace of Mr Lyttleton, added that of Mid esex
justice. He sent them word he was at supper; they must come next morning. They did not understand that freedom, an ra
up, where they found him banquetting with a blind man, a wh—, and three Irishmen, on some cold mutton, and a boneot ham, o
in one dish, and the dirtiest cloth. He never stirred or asked them to sit. Rigby, who had seen him come so often to beg a Suin
of Sir C. Williams, and Bathurst, at whose father’s he had lived for victuals, understood that dignity as little, and pulled 111611182 .
chairs, on which he civilized.” {Letters from the Hon. Horace Walpole to George Montague, Esq. p. 58, London, 1818.) It ought o
added, however, that Walpole, though he has here stigmatized the lowness of Fielding’s society and habits, has elsewhere done ju
tice to his talents. In The Parish Register of Twickenham, or poetical account of that place, Fielding’s residence in the neighbour io
is not forgotten ; that residence,
Where Fielding met his hunter muse,
And as they quaff’d the fiery juice,
Droll nature stamp’d each lucky hit
With unimaginable wit. . ,. asgjst.
- Tom Jones is inscribed to the Hon. Mr, afterwards Lord Lyttleton, in a dedication where he intimates that, without Ins ^
ance, and that of the Duke of Bedford, the work would never have been composed, inasmuch as the author had been inde ^ ^
them for the means of subsistence whilst engaged in composing it. Ralph Allen, the friend of Pope, is also alluded to as °ne nt
benefactors, but, by his own desire, not named. This modest and munificent patron of merit is said to have made Fielding a P
of L.200 at one time, and that before he was personally acquainted with the object of hisTiounly; an act of rare generosi y, '
from the manner in which it was performed, fully confirming the truth of Pope’s beautiful couplet:—
, Let modest Allen, with ingenuous shame.
Do good by stealth, and blush to find it fame.
F I E L
w. into the midst of his narrative, as he had formerly intro-
duced the History of Leonora, equally unnecessarily and
inartificially, into that of Joseph Andrews. It has also
been wondered why Fielding should have chosen to leave
the stain of illegitimacy on the birth of his hero; and it
has been surmised that he did so in allusion to his own
first wife, who was also a natural child. A better reason
may be discovered in the story itself; for had Miss Bridget
been privately married to the father of Tom Jones, there
could have been no adequate motive assigned for keeping
his birth secret from a man so reasonable and compassion¬
ate as All worthy.
“ But even the high praise due to the construction and
arrangement of the story is inferior to that claimed by the
truth, force, and spirit of the characters, from Tom Jones
himself down to Black George the game-keeper and his
family. Amongst these, Squire Western stands alone ;
imitated from no prototype, and in himself an inimitable
picture of ignorance, prejudice, irascibility, and rusticity,
united with natural shrewdness, constitutional good hu¬
mour, and an instinctive, affection for his daughter,—all
which qualities, good and bad, are grounded upon that basis
of thorough selfishness, natural to one bred up from infan¬
cy where no one dared to contradict his arguments or to
control his conduct. In one incident alone we think
Fielding has departed from this admirable sketch. As an
English squire, Western ought not to have taken a beating
so unresistingly from the friend of Lord Fellamar. We
half suspect that the passage is an interpolation. It is in¬
consistent with the squire’s readiness to engage in rustic
affrays. We grant a pistol or sword might have appalled
him; but Squire Western should have yielded to no one
in the use of the English horsewhip; and as, with all his
brutalities, we have a sneaking interest in the honest jolly
country gentleman, we would willingly hope there is some
mistake in this matter.
“ The character of Jones, otherwise a model of gene¬
rosity, openness, manly spirit, mingled with thoughtless
dissipation, is, in like manner, unnecessarily degraded by
the nature of his intercourse with Lady Bellaston; and
this is one of the circumstances which incline us to be¬
lieve that Fielding’s ideas of what was gentleman-like and
honourable had sustained some depreciation, in conse¬
quence of the unhappy circumstances of his life, and of
the society to which they condemned him.
“A more sweeping and general objection was made
against the History of a Foundling by the admirers of
Richardson, and has been often repeated since. It is al-
leged, that the ultimate moral of Tom Jones, which con¬
ducts to happiness, and holds up to our sympathy and es¬
teem a youth who gives way to licentious habits, is de¬
trimental to society, and tends to encourage the youth¬
ful reader in the practice of those follies to which his na¬
tural passions and the usual course of the world but too
much direct him. French delicacy, which on so many
occasions has strained at a gnat and swallowed a camel,
saw this fatal tendency in the work, and by an arret dis¬
charged the circulation of a bungled abridgment by De
la Place, entitled a translation. To this charge Fielding
himself might probably have replied, that the vices into
which Jones suffers himself to fall are made the direct
cause of placing him in the distressful situation which he
occupies during the greater part of the narrative; whilst
his generosity, his charity, and his amiable qualities, be¬
come the means of saving him from the consequences of
his folly. But we suspect with Dr Johnson, that there is
something of cant both in the objection and in the an¬
swer to it. ‘ Men,’ says that moralist, ‘ will not become
^ghwaymen because Macheath is acquitted on the stage;’
and we add, they will not become swindlers and thieves
ding.
541
because they sympathize with the fortunes of the witty Fielding,
picaroon Gil Bias, or licentious debauchees because they
read Tom Jones. The professed moral of a piece is usually
what the reader is least interested in; it is like the men¬
dicant, who cripples after some splendid and gay proces¬
sion, ana in vain solicits the attention of those who have
been gazing upon it. Excluding from consideration those
infamous works, which address themselves directly to
awakening the grosser passions of our nature, we are in¬
clined to think, the worst evil to be apprehended from the
perusal of novels is, that the habit is apt to generate an
indisposition to real history and useful literature; and
that the best which can be hoped is, that they may some¬
times instruct the youthful mind by real pictures of life,
and sometimes awaken their better feelings and sympa¬
thies by strains of generous sentiment and tales of ficti¬
tious wo. Beyond this point they are a mere elegance,
a luxury contrived for the amusement of polished life, and
the gratification of that half love of literature, which per¬
vades all ranks in an advanced stage of society, and are
read much more for amusement than with the least hope
of deriving instruction from them. The vices and follies
of Tom Jones are those which the world soon teaches to
all who enter on the career of life, and to which society
is unhappily but too indulgent; nor do we believe, that in
any one instance the perusal of Fielding’s novel has add¬
ed one libertine to the large list, who would not have been
such had it never crossed the press. And it is with con¬
cern we add our sincere belief, that the fine picture of
frankness and generosity exhibited in that fictitious cha¬
racter has had as few imitators as the career of his follies. .
Let it not be supposed that we are indifferent to morality,
because we treat with scorn that affectation which, while
in common life it connives at the open practice of liber¬
tinism, pretends to detest the memory of an author who
painted life as it was, with all its shades, and more than
all the lights which it occasionally exhibits, to relieve
them. For particular passages of the work, the author
can only be defended under the custom of his age, which
permitted, in certain cases, much stronger language than
ours. He has himself said, that there is nothing which
can offend the chastest eye in the perusal; and he spoke
probably according to the ideas of his time. But in mo¬
dern estimation, there are several passages at which deli¬
cacy may justly take offence; and we can only say, that
they may be termed rather jocularly coarse than seduc¬
tive ; and that they are atoned for by the admirable mix¬
ture of wit and argument by which, in others, the cause
of true religion and virtue is supported and advanced.
“ Fielding considered his works as an experiment in
British literature; and therefore he chose to prefix a pre¬
liminary chapter to each book, explanatory of his own
views, and of the rules attached to this mode of composi¬
tion. Those critical introductions, which rather interrupt
the course of the story, and the flow of the interest at
the first perusal, are found, on a second or third, the most
entertaining chapters of the whole work.”
The publication of Tom Jones placed Fielding at the
head of English novellists, but it seems to have been at¬
tended with little or no advantage to his fortune beyond
the temporary relief afforded by the copy-money. His last
work of importance was Amelia, which may be considered
as a continuation of Tom Jones; but we have not the same
sympathy for the ungrateful and dissolute conduct of
Booth, as for the youthful, and on that account somewhat
excusable, follies of Jones. The character of Amelia is
said to have been drawn for Fielding’s second wife; and
if, as has been alleged, he put her forbearance to tests of
the same kind, it must also be confessed that he has in
gome degree repaid her by the picture which he has drawn
542
FIE
Fielding, of her purity, delicacy, and tenderness. Amelia was pub-
lished in 1751 by Millar, who paid a thousand pounds for
the copyright, and contrived to reimburse himself by an
ingenious stratagem which he practised on the trade. In
1752, Fielding, unmoved by former failures, commenced
a literary newspaper and review, to be published twice
a week, which he entitled the Covent-Garden Journal;
but although his ready pen, sharp wit, and classical at¬
tainments, highly fitted him for conducting a work of this
kind, it was his failing to embroil himself in the party
squabbles or literary feuds of the day; and on this occa¬
sion it was not long ere he involved himself in a quarrel
with Dr Hill and other periodical writers, amongst whom
we regret to mention Smollett, a man possessed of kindred
genius, and second only to Fielding in that department of
literature where both so eminently excelled. Ihe warfare
was of short duration, and neither party would derive ho¬
nour from an inquiry into the cause or the conduct of hos¬
tilities.
Meanwhile Fielding’s strength was fast decaying ; a
complication of disorders having terminated in a dropsical
habit, which totally undermined his naturally robust con¬
stitution. But as the Duke of Newcastle, then prime mi¬
nister, was desirous of receiving assistance from him in
the formation of a plan for the prevention of secret rob¬
beries, and for improving the police of the metropolis,
Fielding undertook, for the small consideration of L.600,
to be paid by government, to extirpate several gangs of
daring ruffians, who then infested London and its vicini¬
ty; and, though his health was thus impaired, he continu¬
ed to superintend the conduct of his agents, to take evi¬
dence, and to make out commitments, until this great ob¬
ject was accomplished. The exertions which were thus
rendered necessary, however, proved fatal to his exhaust¬
ed frame, which was now suffering under dropsy, jaun¬
dice, and asthma. The Bath waters were tried, but in vain ;
and various modes of cure or alleviation were resorted to,
though with little effect. As a last resource, therefore,
his medical advisers recommended him to try the effect of
a milder climate; and with this view he undertook a voy¬
age to Lisbon, of which he has left a record, written with a
hand trembling almost in its latest hour.1 * Fielding, how¬
ever, reached that city alive, and remained there two
months; but he was unable to continue his proposed lite¬
rary labours. The hand of death was upon him; and in
the beginning of October 1754 he terminated his earthly
career, in the forty-eighth year of his age, leaving behind
him a widow and four children. “ Thus lived, and thus
died,” says Sir Walter Scott, “ at a period of life when
the world might have expected continued delight from
his matured powers, the celebrated Henry Fielding, father
of the English novel, and in his powers of strong and na¬
tional humour, and forcible yet national expression of cha-
F I F
racter, unapproached as yet even by his successful fol- ft
lowers.” (See Murphy’s Life and Genius of Fielding; F 8
Chalmers’ Biog. Diet. art. Fielding; and, above all, Sir
Walter Scott’s Prefatory Memoir, in Ballantyne’s Novel- ^ r|
ist's Library f) ’ > (A>)
FIERI Facias, in Law, a writ that lies where a person
has recovered judgment for debt or damages in the king’s
court, by which the sheriff is commanded to levy the debt
and damages on the defendant’s goods and chattels.
FIESOLE, a city of the grand duchy of Tuscany, in
Italy, in the province of Florence. It occupies an elevated
situation, is the see of a bishop, and has a cathedral, seve¬
ral churches, and but few inhabitants. It is a place of great
antiquity, having been in remote ages one of the twelve
eminent cities of Etruria. It has now several country-seats
of the Florentine nobles.
FIFESHIRE is situated between 56° 3' and 56° 25' north
latitude, and bounded by the River and Frith of Tay on
the north, by the German Ocean on the east, by the Frith
of Forth on the south, and by parts of Kinross, Perth, and
Clackmannan on the west. Its greatest length is about
fifty miles, and its greatest breadth about twenty miles;
but its medium length from east to west is only about thir¬
ty-six miles, and its breadth from north to south about
fourteen miles. Its area, therefore, contains about 504
square miles, or 322,560 English acres.
The most prominent features in Fifeshire, when viewed
at a distance from the south, are the two Lomond Hills, in
the middle of the county, the westmost of which rises 1721
feet above the level of the sea; Largo Law, farther east,
952 feet; and Kelly Law, 810 feet. Besides these, there are
numerous other elevations scattered throughout the county;
and indeed it is everywhere found to present a pleasant
variety of hill and valley, stretching in general from west
to east, parallel to the Tay and the Forth. Ihe principal
valley is that through which the river Eden flows, and is
called the Howe of Fife. It lies to the north of the Lo¬
mond range of hills, and divides the county into the north¬
ern and southern portions. The valleys of the Leven and
the Ore, and the valleys connected with, or as it were open¬
ing into, the Howe of Fife, are of much smaller extent and
appearance. The hills and country on the north of the
Howe of Fife seem to be a continuation of the Ochil
Hills, and have been considered by geologists as belong¬
ing to the old red sandstone formation. The prevailing
rocks found there are red and white sandstone, amygdaloid,
compact felspar, claystone, clinkstone, greenstone, basalt,
traptuff, and wacke. Limestone is also found near New¬
burgh, and shell marl in abundance at Rossie and Lords
Carnie.
The mineral structure of the Howe of Fife, and ol some
of the other valleys, has never yet been minutely explored.
Sandstone quarries, however, have been opened at different
1 Of his departure for Lisbon he has himself left the following melancholy record, in which his situation is painted a thousa
times better than could have been done by any pen but his own : “ On this day, Wednesday, June 26, 1754, the most melanc o y
sun I had ever beheld arose, and found me awake at my house at Fordhook. By the light of this sun, I was, in my own op -
uion, last to behold and take leave of some creatures on whom I doated with a mother-like fondness, guided by nature and Passl®, ’
and uncured and unhardened by all the doctrine of that philosophical school, where I had learned to bear pains, and to despise ea •
In this situation, as 1 could not conquer nature, I submitted entirely to her, and she made as great a fool of me as she had ever o ^
of any woman whatsoever ; under pretence of giving me leave to enjoy, she drew me in to suffer, the company of my little ones
ing eight hours; and I doubt not whether, in that time, I did not undergo more than in all my distemper. At twelve precise y 7
coach was at the door, which was no sooner told me, than I kissed my children, and went into it with some little resolution. - /
wife, who behaved more like a heroine and philosopher, though at the same time the tenderest mother in the world, and my e
daughter, followed me. Some friends went with us, others here took their leave; and I heard my behaviour applauded, ^ j111
murmurs and praises to which I well knew I had no title.” (Voyage to Lisbon, p. 1.) This affecting passage remains a singular^
ample of Fielding’s natural strength of mind ; and, indeed, the whole of the Journey to Lisbon shows that, whilst struggling a
with the depression and the irritability of disease, he could still exhibit a few flashes of that bright wit which used to set the w ^
in a roar. u His perception of character, and power of describing it,” says Sir Walter Scott, “ had not forsaken him m 1103 .
moments; for the master of the ship in which he sailed, the scolding landlady of the Isle of Wight, the military coxcomb who
their vessel, are all portraits marked with the master-hand which traced Parson Adams and Squire Western.”
ire.
W
places, and here and there are to be seen eminences of
gravel regularly stratified. The rocks of the southern di¬
vision of Fifeshire chiefly belong to the coal formation of
geologists, and form a portion of the great coal field of the
Forth. Here glance coal, or blind coal as it is sometimes
called, is met with occasionally; and slate coal, pitch coal
and cannel coal, are occasionally found together in the same
bed, and sometimes in separate strata in the same pit.
From a charter dated in March 1291, it would appear
that coal has been worked in this county for more than five
centuries. William de Oberville there grants liberty to
the convent of Dunfermline to open a coal-pit in his lands
of Pityncreiff. But it has been alleged that this is not the
first instance of a Scottish charter containing a right to
work coal; for one dated 1284-85 is said to exist,^ from
which it may be inferred that coal was worked in the lands
of Tranent before that period. The principal coal works
in the county at present are those in the parishes of Dun¬
fermline, Dysart, Wemyss, and Markinch ; but coal is also
worked at present, or has been so formerly, in the parishes
of Torryburn, Inverkeithing, Dalgety, Burntisland, Abbots-
hall, Auchterderran, Scoonie, Largo, and Fittenweem.
In the southern division of Fifeshire limestone is aiso
abundant. The lime works at Charleston, belonging to
the Earl of Elgin, are perhaps the greatest in Scotland.
Upwards of 100,000 tons are said to be raised annually in
his lordship’s quarries ; which quantity is either shipped or
sold in its native state, or after being calcined. The Car-
ron Company also work out extensively the lime on their
estate of Newbigging, in the parish of Burntisland, and ship
it at the harbour of Starleyburn, on the Forth, for their
works at Carron, where it is used for smelting iron. The
great iron w ork on the Devon is also supplied for a similar
purpose with limestone from Whinnyhall, in the parish of
Burntisland. The limestone in the interior of the county
is likewise transported across the Howe of Fife, and by
the way of Newburgh, to the Carse of Gowrie, and For-
larshire and Perthshire.
Sandstone abounds in the southern division of the county;
and, in many places, it is of a fine grain and durable na¬
ture. 1 he principal quarry in the county is at Cullello,
in the parish of Aberdour. The stone obtained from it, in
consequence of its superior quality, has been used for some
ot the finest buildings in Edinburgh, as well as carried over
land to great distances. Ironstone also abounds in the coal
held, and was once worked extensively at Balgonie, where
it was smelted. But it is now chiefly worked at Dysart,
and sold to the Carron Company. The other rocks found
in this coal field are bituminous shale, slate clay, flinty
^ate, wacke, traptuff, amygdaloid, greenstone, and basalt.
. one* somewhat resembling the precious garnet are some-
imes found imbedded in the traptuff at Ely, and are known
^, e ”ame °f the Ely rubies. Copper and zinc are also
said to have been met with in different places, and lead has
een woiked in the Lomond Hills. Marl is also often
oun m the marshes and in the lakes, and sometimes in
rJ seasons it is carried away for agricultural purposes.
fre none mineral springs in the county so
markable as to be at present frequented as watering places,
lose which arise in the coal fields are frequently chaly-
F I F E S H I R E.
543
beat r\— 1,1 “‘c neius are frequently chaly-
i ,e’ ^ne °f the two mineral springs at Dysart yields a
of FT .wate^ considerable strength. In the Howe
said fC 1Sprin£5 issuing from the sandstone or gravel are
con u frequently saline. But in the portions of the
vir/1 ^ j ere ^le trap-rocks abound, the springs, whatever
ues t ley are supposed to possess, seldom yield any thing
to ^ter' I,rom the Inkcraig of Carnock, adjoining
from i ?’ fr,ere is said to issue a spring of petroleum,
w nch there constantly drops a liquid resembling ink.
e only streams of any note in the county are the
“s ".i—ssiza
and the Orr, falls into the kth of Forth It Ap c
Leven. From the declivity of its channel, it is well fitted
for impelling machinery; and accordingL a grelt manv
ills and other works have been erected on its banks An
act of parliament was lately obtained, the chief object of
w hich was the erection of works and the construction of me¬
chanism, to regulate the rise or fall of the water in the lakl
and to restrain or increase the flow of the river for the be¬
nefit of the bleachfields and other manufactories erected
upon its banks ; and these objects have been accomplished
at a sum considerably exceeding L.30,000. The Leven
abounds in salmon and sea trout, and where it falls into
the sea there is a salmon fishery. The Eden is formed by
the confluence of several small streams in the parish of
btrathmiglo on the west, near the boundary of Fife with
Kinross-shire, and winding slowly through the level valley,
and sometimes overflowing its banks, passes the town of
Cupar, and loses itself in the German Ocean about eighteen
miles from its source. It contains trout, pike, and eels, and
nas also a salmon fishery where it discharges itself into the
sea. Hie Guard Bridge over this river, consisting of six
arches, was built in the beginning of the fifteenth century.
1 here are a number of lakes in the county, none of them
very large, but some of them very beautiful, such as those at
Cindores, kdconquhar, Kinghorn, Lochgellie, Camilla, Loch-
httie, and Otterston. Most of these lakes abound in pike,
perch, and eels, and are frequented by ducks, coots, and
other water fowl. The county once contained many more
lakes, which have been drained at great expense. Amongst
these, the most considerable are the lakes of Ilossie and
Lochore. Their beds are now used in raising valuable crops.
Fi om the extensive drainage of the lakes, and the gene¬
ral improvement of the county, its climate within the last
forty years has been considerably ameliorated, and is more
free than formerly from the injurious fogs which used to
arise from the lochs and damp lands. At present the cli¬
mate may be described as mild. The harvests are early,
and snow seldom lies long. As the direction of the hills
in the county is from east to west, it is much exposed to
the easterly winds, which often check vegetation in the
spring months ; and hoar frosts are not unfrequent so late
as the middle of June. The heaviest rains are from the
south-west, the south-east, and the north-east, and the
winds from the two last points bring the heaviest falls of
snow. The driest and most steady weather comes from
the north-west and east.
Four fifths of the county at least are considered at pre¬
sent as arable, and the remainder consists of hills, marshes,
moors, lands covered with drifted sand and chiefly bear¬
ing bent, extensive plantations, and high roads. Along
the banks of the Forth, above the trap-rocks, and the tract
of country on the north of the Howe of Fife, the soil is for
the most part of excellent quality, being rich loam, good
clay, and gravel mixed with loamy earth. The soil from
St Andrews to the western parts of the county, where the
strata underneath consist of freestone, coal, or slate, is in
general greatly inferior. The Howe of Fife contains a
considerable proportion of moor and moss, besides a tract
of loam partly deep and moist, and partly light and dry.
Within the last forty years extensive woods have been
planted in the county. For instance, there is a forest of
Scotch firs in the Howe of Fife, stretching for many miles
in length, on the Leven, Crawfurd, and other estates. Fo¬
rests of all kinds of trees have also been planted on the
Raith estate, by Mr Ferguson, the proprietor; and a
princely ride along the Cullello Hills, of considerable length,
544
FIF E SHIRE.
Fifesliire. was formed and adorned with plantation several years ago
by Mr Stuart of Dunearn. Indeed there is hardly a pro¬
prietor in Fifeshire of the least consequence who has not
contributed extensively to the creation of forests and plea¬
sure grounds on his estate. The oldest woods in Fite are
round Leslie House, the seat of the Earl of Rothes.
There are a great number of splendid mansions in the
county belonging to the nobility and gentry, and situated
upon their estates. There are some of these estates pretty
large, and a greater number above L.500 Scotch ^ valua¬
tion than in any other county in Scotland. But of the 638
estates which it contained in 1811, 491 were below that
amount. The annual value of the real property, as assessed
in April 1815, amounted to LAOS,770 sterling.
In the year 1811, the number of freeholders entitled to
vote for a county member of parliament was only 307. In
1832 the roll of these voters last made up under the old law
contained 234 names, and of this number sixty-three were
considered as paper voters; that is, two or three were appa¬
rent heirs of owners who were on the roll, and the remain¬
der of the sixty-three were merely nominal owners ot the
estates from which they derived their privilege. l ie
number of voters for the county member at present on the
roll, under the act 2 and 3 William IV. cap. 65, is 2228.
The average size of the farms in Fife used to be about
150 acres ; few of them were what might be called large,
the greater number were small. Ot late years, however,
the tendency has been to join several together under one
tenant. Many of the farmers are now men of capital and
enterprise ; and under their direction, supported by the
liberality of the proprietors, the recent extensive agricul¬
tural improvements, which are visible throughout every part
of the county, have been undertaken. The most improved
implements of husbandry are everywhere in use. Thrash¬
ing-mills are to be found on most Firms, some ot them
moved by horses, a few by wind-mills, others by water¬
wheels, and of late a number by steam-engines, a power
which seems to be in progress of superseding all others.
The farm-steadings, and the dwellings of the peasantry,
have in a great measure been renewed within the last thirty
years, and much improved and enlarged; and the greater
part of the fields in the county are well enclosed either
with stone dikes or hedges. _
All the farm crops common in the south of ocotland are
cultivated here upon a large scale, and almost always ac¬
cording to the most approved system. Flax is now sel¬
dom raised. The crops commonly cultivated are, different
kinds of oats, barley, wheat, rye, beans, peas, and tares ;
clover and ryegrass, potatoes, and turnips ; and mangel
worzel has in some places been recently introduced.
Farm-yard dung, the cleanings of the streets of the many
towns and villages, and the sea-weed cast ashore and cut
upon the rocks, are the principal manures. Lime is uni¬
versally used, and marl in a few places. Bone dust has
also been tried within the last few years, and, upon the
whole, very successfully.
Cattle of the Fife breed have long been in high repute
both as fattening and dairy stock. The prevailing colour
is black; limbs short and body round ; horns small, white,
and turned up at the points; bone small in proportion to
the carcass; and weighing, when fat, and from three to
four years old, from forty to sixty stone. The cows,
when well fed, yield from ten to fourteen Scotch pints of
milk daily during the best of the grass season, and con¬
tinue long in milk; yet, except in the neighbourhood of
the considerable towns, the dairy is considered as a se¬
condary object. The oxen were formerly much employ¬
ed in labour, but they are now seldom to be seen at work.
Flocks of sheep are not very numerous. The horses are
much the same as in all the lowlands of Scotland. A
great many pigs have of late years been reared in the Fife .e,
county, and many of them are killed and shipped in *
fresh state for the London market. Pigeons are very nu¬
merous, the pigeon-houses being lately estimated ait no less
than 300. Rabbits are in some places protected; and
hares, pheasants, and partridges are plentiful. There are
few grouse or black-cock ; and faUow deer have been fre-
quently seen at Lochfittie, lorbain, and other places.
1 Grain is sold in stock and sample at various weekly
markets in Fife, of which the most considerable are at An-
struther, Auchtermuchty,Kirkaldy, Largo, andNewburgh.
There are also weekly markets at Dunfermline, Cupar, and
other places, for the same purpose ; and every town of any
consequence has one or two yearly fairs for the sale of
cattle, &c. although it must be admitted that the number
of the yearly fairs in Fife has been much diminished.
The staple manufacture of this county is linen. Dun¬
fermline has long been famous for its extensive and almost
exclusive manufacture of damasks and diapers. Of late
years, by the introduction of French improvements in the
machinery, and the ingenuity of the workmen, the quality
of the fabrics has been much improved, and the trade
greatly enlarged. Ticks, checks, sail-cloth, dowlas, and
other plain linens and sheetings of every, quality, are
made in several towns in the county, but the great seat
of the manufacture is Kirkaldy. In 1812, no less than
4 500 000 yards of linen cloth were made by the manu¬
facturers, and stamped of the value of L.280,000; and in
1800 about 600,000 yards of plain linen were supposed to
have been made by private families for their own use, which
were not stamped. The number ot hands employed in al
the branches of this manufacture in 1800 was computed
at 23 192 • but the number of hands now employed is
greatly increased. No part of the work of weaving in this
countv is at present, however, carried on with the aid ot
steam power. There was one steam-loom factory lately in
Kirkaldy, but it has been converted into a spinning mill.
Flax has seldom or never been spun by the hand since
the introduction of spinning mills. These now amount to
forty-five in number, and include in all upwards ot 29,UUU
spindles. Of these, Mr Fergus of Strathore employs a
present, in his great work at Prinlaws, 2684 spindles; and
erections have been made at the same work for receiving
about 3000 more. Messrs C. Arthur and Sons at King-
horn run upwards of 2000; Nelson and Co. at K,rk^d
1800; Mr John Rutherford, Dunfermline, 13/6, ner\ y
Balfour and Co. Leven, 1240; Arthur Aitken and Co.
Dunfermline, 1066; W. & J. Yule, Ceres, 1048; Mr Swan,
Kinghorn, 1026; Mr George Moon, Russel Mill,
but the various other mills have less than 1000 spindles
each at work. Supposing each spindle to spin half a SPJ ,
die daily, making suitable allo^ncesnfor - St?Pp0a0S0eSspvn.
holidays, the various mills in Fife will spin 13,000 pj
dies daily, 78,000 per week, or 3,900,000 per mil -sp
ner’s year of fifty weeks; producing yam to the value
L.438,750, and consuming 6500 tons ot flax. The p
employed at these mills consist of hecklers, maean
male preparers, spinners, reelers, &c.; and al 0 8 ioy.
individual for each twelve spindles, there will be emp ^
ed at the spinning mills in Fife, of all ages an a d
departments, about 2240 people. Messrs Nelson aa_
Company, at the Kirkland works, manufacture a la g P
portion of their yarns into sail-cloth and other tabncs,
and Mr Rutherford, Dunfermline, converts the g
part of his yarns into threads of all colours. y
at the other mills are generally sold as they are P •
Besides the trades and manufactures of the cou y 1
be mentioned ship-building, which is carried on atcq
where there is a wet dock, and a Morton s shp ^ |
the vessels out of the water for repair; and at Burn
V.
F I F
. where there is a good harbour and dry dock; as also at
Kirkaldy, Anstruther, and Scotscraig. There are, be¬
sides, in the county, forty-eight brewers of ale and beer,
the greater part of whom also make malt; fifty-six other
maltsters, six extensive distilleries, 1140 retailers of ale
and spirits, about 200 retailers of foreign wines, twenty-
two dealers in vinegar, 900 dealers in tea, ten manufac¬
turers of tobacco, and about 800 dealers in that article;
one soap work and eighteen tallow chandlers; two paper-
mills on the water of Leven, and nine bleachfields on the
same stream, four in the neighbourhood of Kirkaldy, and
six in other parts of the county ; ten brick and tile manu¬
factories, and two potteries; four iron founderies, nume¬
rous smiths and wrights, ten works for tanning leather,
about as many curriers, two skinners, and two glue manu¬
facturers.
The shipping of the county is pretty extensive, and the
vessels belonging to it are of such burden as to trade to
all parts of the world ; a number of them being engaged
in the whale fisheries, and others in the Baltic, American,
and Australian trade. The exports are the manufactures
already mentioned, and the produce of the whale fisheries,
coal, limestone, lime, potatoes, and grain of all sorts; and
the imports from foreign parts are timber, bark, hides, tal¬
low, flax, hemp, tar, iron, &c.; and coastwise, pavement
and slates, groceries, and other articles required for home
consumption. For the state of the harbours and the ex¬
tent of their trade, see the articles Forth and Tay.
The banking business of the county is extensive. It is
managed by branches of the Bank of Scotland at Dunferm¬
line, Kirkaldy, and St Andrews; of the Commercial Bank
of Scotland at Cupar, Colinsburgh, Dunfermline, and Kirk¬
aldy; of the National Bank of Scotland and of the Glas¬
gow Bank at Kirkaldy; and of the British Linen Company
at Cupar.
Fifeshire contains thirteen royal burghs with parliamen¬
tary privileges. St Andrews, Cupar, Anstruther Easter,
Pittenweem, Crail, Kilrenny, and Anstruther Wester, with
a constituency at present of 635, send one member to par¬
liament; Kirkaldy, Dysart, Burntisland, and Kinghorn, with
: a constituency of 415, send another; and Dunfermline,
having a constituency of 500, and Inverkeithing of thirty-
eight, join with Stirling, Queensferry, and Culross in elect¬
ing a member to represent them. The voters in these
thirteen Fife burghs have now increased their constitu-
, ency to 1588, instead of the 304 individuals who formerly
composed their corporations.
The courts in the county for the trial of crime and civil
suits consist, Is#, of the burgh courts, the magistrates of
which have jurisdiction within their respective royalties or
burgh territory only ; 'Zdly, of the sheriff courts, for similar
purposes, which are held at Dunfermline for the parishes in
that presbytery, and at Cupar for the other parts of the
county, at each of which towns the cases are tried either
by the sheriff in person, or by substitutes, of whom he has
for the purpose one constantly resident at Cupar, and ano¬
ther at Dunfermline, he himself being usually resident in
Edinburgh ; ‘idly, of the justice of peace courts, which are
periodically at Cupar, Auchtermuchty, Anstruther,
Colinsburgh, Kirkaldy, and Dunfermline, for trying actions
°f debt under rive pounds, and petty criminal matters.
The principal jails in the county are at Dunfermline,
Kirkaldy, Cupar, and St Andrews. There is also a small
jail attached to the town-hall of almost every burgh in the
county, but many of these are seldom used for the recep-
k^n of prisoners. With the exception of the jails of Cupar,
Kirkaldy, and Kinghorn, which are the best in the county,
laving been erected within the last twenty-five years, none
o them have airing ground attached to them for the use of
1 !c prisoners, or are well fitted as places of confinement.
vol. u.
F I G
545
, e Sreat tnrnpike-roads of the county, which are madfe Figeac
and maintained by the revenue of the toll-bars, and the ||
bye-roads, which are maintained by a tax on householders, Figure.
on carnages, and on each plough-gate of land, are under   
the charge of parliamentary trustees, consisting chiefly of
the justices of the peace, and commissioners of supply for
t le county. Each of the four presbyteries forms a district
tor managing its own roads. The accounts of the turnpike
trustees are printed and published annually. The accounts
or the bye-road trusts have however not yet been pub¬
lished. The turnpike-roads and many of the bye-roads
are in excellent order, great attention being paid to the in¬
troduction of the most recent improvements in road-making.
1 rivate railways of wood or iron have been used for many
years in transporting for several miles the produce of the coal
and lime quairies to the harbours where they are shipped.
The most extensive of these railroads is that belonging
to the Earl of Elgin. It proceeds from near Dunfermline
to Charleston harbour, and has been lately opened to the
public for the use of rail coaches carrying passengers.
Fifeshire is divided into sixty-one parishes, belonging to
the four presbyteries of St Andrews, Cupar, Kirkaldy, and
Dunfermline, which compose the synod of Fife; but there
are four parishes besides in the presbytery of Dunfermline,
and one in the presbytery of Kirkaldy, which are not situ¬
ated in this county.
The population of Fifeshire in 1801 was 93,743; in 1811,
101,272, an increase of eight per cent.; in 1821, 114,550,
an increase of thirteen per cent.; and in 1831, 128,800,
an increase above the preceding census of twelve per cent.
FIG, or Fig-tree. See Ficus.
FIGEAC, an arrondissement of the department of the
Lot, in France, extending over 672 square miles. It is
divided into eight cantons and 168 communes, containing
80,178 inhabitants. The capital is a city of the same name,
situated on the river Celle, where there is some trade in
corn and in wine. There are in it 1300 houses and 6452
inhabitants. Long. 1. 55. E. Lat. 44. 40. N.
FIGUERAS, a town and fortress of Spain, in the pro¬
vince of Catalonia, and one of the most important of its
defences on the eastern frontiers of France. It is strongly
fortified, and situated in the fruitful district of Ampurdan,
abounding in fruits and grain, being watered by the river
Fluvia, which, though usually fordable, becomes an exten¬
sive river when swollen with rain, or with the melting of
the snow on the mountain whence it springs. It is in
north latitude 43. 16. 1. and east longitude 3. 29. 15. from
London. The fortress is capable of containing a garrison
of from 12,000 to 16,000 men. The inhabitants of the
town are reckoned at 4640.
FIGURAL, Figurate, or Figurative, a term applied
to whatever is expressed by obscure resemblances.
FIGURE, in Physics, expresses the surface or terminat¬
ing extremities of any body. Figures, in Arithmetic, are
certain characters by which we denote any number which
may be expressed by any combination of the nine digits.
Figure, amongst divines, is used to signify the mysteries
represented under certain types. Figure, in Dancing,
denotes the several steps which the dancer makes as mark¬
ing certain figures on the floor. Figure, in Painting and
Designing, denotes the lines and colours which form the
representation of any animal, but more particularly of the
human form. Figure, in Logic, denotes a certain order and
disposition of the middle term in any syllogism. (See Logic.)
Figure of Speech is defined the using a word in a sense
different from what is proper to it; and the .new or un¬
common sense of the word is termed the figurative sense.
Figure, in Theology, is used for the mysteries represent¬
ed or delivered obscurely to us under certain types or ac¬
tions, in the Old Testament.
3 z
546
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Figure of
the Earth.
SECTION I.
INTRODUCTION.
The determination of the figure and dimensions of the
earth is a problem of very great importance in astronomy,
inasmuch as it is in reference to the earth’s diameter that
the distances of the planets from the sun and from each
other are estimated. It is also a problem of very great
interest and curiosity; and has accordingly attracted the
attention of mankind since the earliest dawn of ctviliza-
There are two points of view under which this great
question may be considered. The figure of the earth may
be regarded as a fact to be determined by investigation
and experience, like any other phenomenon or law of na¬
ture; in which case it is necessary to find, by the actual
measurement and comparison of different portions of the
terrestrial surface, the nature of its curvature, and the
magnitude of its diameters. Under the second point of
view, the question is one of pure theory. The earth may
be regarded as a congeries of material particles, attract¬
ing each other with forces reciprocally proportional to their
mutual distances, and endowed with a rotatory motion
about a fixed axis; and the problem is to determine the
form the whole mass would assume in virtue of the at¬
tractive and centrifugal forces by which the particles are
impelled. Viewed in this light, the actual figure of the
earth becomes one of the series of consequences resulting
from the universal gravitation of matter, and depending
on the same laws which regulate its motion in its orbit
about the sun.
It would be a waste of time to inquire what were the
notions of the figure of the earth which were or might
have been entertained by its earliest and most ignorant
inhabitants. A very slight attention to the most common
phenomena renders the fact of its general roundness al¬
most palpable to the senses. The uniform level appear¬
ance of the sensible horizon in every situation in which a
spectator can be placed,—the depression of the circum¬
polar stars as he advances toward the south, and their
elevation as he proceeds in a contrary direction,—the dis¬
appearance of a ship standing out to sea,—the projection of
the earth as seen in a lunar eclipse,—and a number of other
familiar appearances,—put the globular figure of our planet
beyond all manner of doubt. Reasoning from such ap¬
pearances, the earliest astronomers universally regarded
the earth as a sphere; and their attention was solely di¬
rected, in their various measurements and computations,
to ascertain its dimensions. Modern science has disco¬
vered that its figure deviates slightly from that of a sphere,
being compressed or flattened at the extremities of its
axis of rotation ; and the object of the astronomer, at the
present time, is to determine not only its dimensions, but
also the exact amount of its compression.
Attempts to estimate the magnitude of the earth were
made at a very early date; for Aristotle relates that the
mathematicians prior to his time had found the circum¬
ference to be 400,000 stadia. But Eratosthenes appears
to have been the first who entertained an accurate idea of
the principles on which the determination of the figure
of the earth really depends, and attempted to reduce these
principles to practice. His results, in consequence of the
imperfect data from which they were deduced, were very
inaccurate; but his method is the same as that which is
followed at the present day, depending, in fact, on the FigJf
comparison of a line actually measured on the surface of the
the earth with the corresponding celestial arc. He had >
remarked, or been informed, that at Syene in Upper Egypt,
on the day of the summer solstice, at noon, objects cast no
shadows; whence he concluded that the sun was exactly
in the zenith at mid-day. On the same day at Alexan¬
dria he observed the sun’s meridional distance from the
zenith to be 7° 12', or a fiftieth part of the circumference.
Then, assuming Syene to be exactly under the meridian
of Alexandria (the error in this assumption was about 3°),
and the distance between the two places, measured in
a straight line, to be 5000 stadia, he had 5000 X 50
= 250,000 stadia for the whole circumference of the
earth. It is easy to see how very imperfect this opera¬
tion must have been. Without mentioning smaller errors,
the neglect of the solar diameter would alone occasion an
uncertainty as to the sun s declination, and consequently
as to the length ot the celestial arc, amounting to half a
degree on the observation at Syene; and there is no rea¬
son to suppose that that at Alexandria was more exact.
The terrestrial distance between the two places was as¬
sumed on equally, or probably still more loose and inaccu¬
rate determinations.
The next attempt to ascertain the dimensions of the
earth was made by Posidonius. This astronomer adopted
a method which differed from that of Eratosthenes only
in determining the celestial arc by means of the altitude
of a star, instead of the sun’s zenith distance. At Rhodes
the bright star Canopus, when on the meridian, barely
appears above the horizon. At Alexandria the same star
was observed to have a meridional altitude of a quarter of
a sign, or seven and a half degrees, which, therefore, was
the celestial arc intercepted between the zenith of Alex¬
andria and Rhodes. The terrestrial distance between the
two places was estimated, like that between Alexandria
and Syene, at 5000 stadia, and they were both supposed
to be under the same meridian. Hence, since seven and
a half degrees is the forty-eighth of the circumference,
we have 5000 X 48 = 240,000 stadia, for the whole cir¬
cumference of the globe. . . , ,
It is impossible to form any correct opinion ot the de¬
gree of approximation attained in these ancient measures,
as the length of the stadium is not known with any cer¬
tainty. That it varied in different places, and at different
times, is sufficiently obvious from the statement of no-
lemy, who, in his work on geography, assigns the lengW
of the degree at 500 stadia, and consequently the whole
circumference at 180,000, differing from the deterrmna
tion of Posidonius in the proportion of three to four, a
still more from that of Eratosthenes. Ptolemy remar
that it was not necessary" that the line measure s o
lie exactly in the meridian: it was sufficient to know
inclination to the meridian, or the azimuthal angle, tog'
ther with the latitudes of its extreme points, in orae
compare it with the meridional arc. . uie
of the azimuth is, however, an op^a11011.,0^ „c°nslTlPtho(i
difficulty; and Ptolemy has given no details of the me
by which he proposed to estimate it. He has been *1 ,
ly silent in respect of the means by which the mea” ^
of a degree was ascertained to be 500 stadia, so
result which he has recorded is still less satisfac o y
those of the two more ancient astronomers. „vprted
The active curiosity of the Arabians, which was
so successfully in promoting practical astronomy,
Fig
the
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
of overlook the measure of the earth. The Caliph Alma-
•th.moun, who began his reign in the year 814, ordered a
company of astronomers to measure a degree on the level
plain of Mesopotamia. Dividing themselves into two par¬
ties, the one proceeded northward, and the other south¬
ward, in the direction of the meridian, through a degree
of latitude, and measured with rods the itinerary distance
as they proceeded. The perfect agreement of their con¬
clusion with that of Ptolemy throws it open to great sus¬
picion ; and when it is considered that their operation was
repeated at a different place, with exactly the same re¬
sult, there can be no doubt that they blindly adopted the
statement of the Greek astronomer, either from inability
to execute the task assigned to them, or because they had
no confidence in their own determination. ~
From the time of Almamoun, the problem of determining
the dimensions of the earth was neglected, till the revival
of astronomy with general learning in Europe. The first
attempt to solve it was made by Fernel, who, about the
middle of the sixteenth century, measured the distance
from Paris to Amiens along the high road, by observing
the number of revolutions made by his coach-wheel in the
journey between these two cities. Supposing them to be
under the same meridian, which is nearly true, and having
ascertained the difference of their latitudes, Fernel found
by this means the length of the degree to be 57,070 French
toises, or about 364,960 English feet. A degree wras mea¬
sured long afterwards at the same place by Lacaille, in a
far more adequate and scientific manner, and he found it
to be 57,074 toises. This agreement is rendered less ex¬
traordinary by the circumstance that the toise of Fernel
was not exactly of the same length as that of Lacaille.
After all, it must be allowed that Fernel made a fortunate
guess. (Delambre, Astronomic, tom. iii. chap, xxxv.)
But the first who had the merit of attempting to exe¬
cute the geodetic operations that are indispensably neces¬
sary to effect the accurate measurement of a long line on
the surface of the earth, was Willebrord Snell, a native
of Holland, and a teacher of mathematics. Having esta¬
blished a chain of triangles between Alkmaer and Ber-
gen-op-Zoom, and observed the angles of each triangle by
means of a quadrant of five and a half feet radius, he
measured a base on the frozen surface of the meadows
between Leyden and the village of Soeterwoud, and de¬
termined the distance between the two places by trigono¬
metrical computation. The length of the degree which he
found was 28,500 Rynland feet, or about 55,020 toises,
which is about 2050 toises too small. This result was
published by Muschenbroek, who in fact revised or calcu¬
lated the observations from the original papers a century
after the death of Snell.
Norwood in the year 1635 attempted to measure a de¬
gree in England nearly in the same manner as Fernel.
He measured the distance between London and York
along the public road, taking the bearings and reducing
the direction to the meridian in a rough way. The dif¬
ference of latitudes he found by observations of the sol¬
stice to be 2° 28', and thence concluded the length of the
degree to be 367,176 English feet. Like the measure¬
ment of Fernel, this has been found to be a much nearer
approximation than the method employed would have led
us to expect.
The application of the telescope to circular instruments
gave a far higher degree of precision to geodetic opera¬
tions. Picard, to whom practical astronomy is indebted
for this capital improvement, was the first who measured
an arc of the meridian with such precautions and care as
the delicate nature of the operation requires. With a
standard scale he measured a base of about six English
umes in length; and observed the angles of his triangles
547
with a quadrant, having a telescope adapted to it with Figure of
cross wires in its focus. He even calculated the error the Earth,
produced by the instrument being placed out of the centre
ot the station, and determined the zenith distance of a star
in the constellation Cassiopeia with a sector, for the pur¬
pose of obtaining the differences of latitude. The distance
between Amiens and Malvoisine was found to be 78,850
toises, and the difference of latitude 1° 22' 55", whence
the result gave for the degree at Amiens 57,060 toises;
but as the aberration and nutation were unknown at that
time, and the refraction was not taken into account, 
causes of error to which it is indispensably necessary to
have regard,—a determination which agrees so nearly with
the results of recent measures could only have arisen from
a fortunate compensation of errors. In fact, his toise was
somewhat shorter than that which has since been adopted
as the standard; and the error occasioned by this circum¬
stance nearly compensated that which was committed in
determining the celestial arc, so that in recalculating all
the observations, the degree is found to be very nearly
the same as was found by Picard.
Hitherto geodetic operations had been confined to the
determination of the magnitude of the earth ; but a disco¬
very made by Richer turned the attention of mathema¬
ticians to its deviation from the spherical form. This
astronomer having been sent, by the Academy of Sciences
of Paris, to the island of Cayenne in South America, for
the purpose of determining the amount of terrestrial re¬
fraction, and other astronomical objects, observed that his
clock, which had been regulated at Paris to beat seconds,
lost about two minutes and a half daily at Cayenne, and
that, in order to bring it to measure mean solar time, it
was necessary to shorten the pendulum by more than a
line. This fact, which appeared exceedingly curious, and
was scarcely credited till it had been confirmed by the
subsequent observations of Varin and Deshayes, was first
explained in the third book of the Principia, by Newton,
who showed that it could only be referred to a diminu¬
tion of gravity arising from one of two causes—a protu¬
berance of the equatorial parts of the earth, and conse¬
quent increase of the distance from the centre, or from
the counteracting effect of the centrifugal force, occa¬
sioned by the rotation of the earth. The former could
not, on any reasonable supposition regarding the figure of
the earth, be regarded as adequate to produce the effect;
but the latter, which would produce a retardation of the
pendulum at Cayenne in the ratio of the square of the
sine of 6° to that of 49° (the respective latitudes of Cay¬
enne and Paris), might amount to P46 seconds. This
was the first direct proof that had been obtained of the
diurnal rotation of the earth.
From this time the exact determination of the figure of
the earth began to assume a degree of importancewhich had
not formerly attached to it. The centrifugal force arising
from the diurnal rotation completely set aside the idea
of perfect sphericity. Newton, assuming that the earth
had been originally fluid, and supposing its density to be
the same throughout the whole mass, and supposing more¬
over that its constituent molecules attract one another in
proportion to the inverse square of the distance, demon¬
strated that it would assume, in consequence of the rota¬
tion, the form of a spheroid flattened at the poles; and
that the proportion of its equatorial to its polar axis would
be 230 to 231. But the supposition of the equal density
of the earth is obviously very improbable, and consequent¬
ly the ratio of the equatorial and polar diameters must be
different from that now mentioned. Newton erroneously
concluded that if the density is greater in the interior
of the earth than at the centre, the compression would
be greater than in the case ot a spheroid ot equal den-
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
548
Figure of sity. This mistake was pointed out by Huygens, who, m
the Earth. order to determine the amount of the compression from
theory, reasoned in this way. Suppose two tubes to be
united at the centre of the earth, forming a right angle
with each other at that point, and extending to the sur¬
face, one in the plane of the equator, and the other along
the polar axis, and filled with a homogeneous fluid. Now'
the fluid contained in the polar branch exerts a pressure
on the centre equal to the whole of its weight, while the
pressure of that in the other tube will be diminished by
the centrifugal force. The second column, therefore, if
of the same length, will be less heavy than the first; and
in order to restore the equilibrium, it is necessary that
the equatorial tube shall have gained as much in length
as it has lost in weight through the effect of rotation.
Hence the sea in the equatorial regions must be higher,
or at a greater distance from the centre, than the polar
sea, and consequently the earth must have a flattened
form. Calculating from the supposition that the density
increases regularly from the surface to the centre, where
it is infinite, Huygens found the ratio of the diameters to
be that of 578 to 579. This investigation is given in his
work Be Causa Gravitatis, published in 1690.
The theoretical determinations of the form of the earth
by Newton and Huygens were at variance with the results
of geodetic operations that had been carried on in France
under the superintendence of the first Cassini, from 1680
till 1716, for the purpose of making a geometrical survey
of that country. Cassini found the degree of the meri¬
dian to the south of Paris to be 57,092 toises, while on
the north of that city it was only 56,960 toises. This re¬
sult led to the conclusion that the earth is a protracted
spheroid, or elongated at the poles; a conclusion entirely
inconsistent with the principles of hydrostatic equilibrium,
and the deductions of Newton and Huygens. The ques¬
tion, however, was of too great importance to astronomy to
be allowed to remain undecided. Accordingly, the Aca¬
demy of Sciences of Paris determined to apply a decisive
test, by the measurement of arcs at a great distance from
each other. For this purpose some of the most distin¬
guished members of their body undertook the measure¬
ment of two meridional arcs, one in the neighbourhood of
the equator, and the other in a high latitude. In 1735
Godin, Bouguer, and La Condamine, proceeded to Peru,
where they were joined by two Spanish officers, Don
Georges Juan and Antonio d’Ulloa, and, after ten years of
laborious exertion, they measured an arc of above three
degrees, between the parallels of 2' north and 3° 4' 32"
south latitude. The other party, consisting of Maupertuis,
Clairaut, Camus, Lemonnier, Outhier, and Celsius, were in
some respects more fortunate, inasmuch as they completed
the measurement of an arc near the polar circle, of 57 mi¬
nutes, and returned to Europe within sixteen months from
the period of their departure.
The measurement of Bouguer was executed with great
care ; and, on account of the locality (the extremities being
on different sides of the equator), as well as the excellent
manner in which all the details were conducted, it has
always been regarded as a most valuable determination.
The original base was measured twice, and the difference
between the two measures was scarcely twro and a half
inches. A second base of 5259 toises was measured w ith
the most scrupulous attention by Bouguer, Condamine,
and Ulloa, near the southern extremity of the arc, and the
result differed less than a toise from the length calculated
from the triangles. The latitudes at the two extremities
of the arc were determined by simultaneous observations
of the same, star with zenith sectors. In fact, as the nuta¬
tion of the earth’s axis was then unknown, and as a con¬
siderable time necessarily elapsed before a large instru¬
ment could be transported from one extremity of the arc Figi. 0f
to the other, the results of successive observations with athe^ th.
single instrument presented little accordance. By the ^
simultaneous observations, the greatest deviation from the
mean did not exceed three or four seconds.
In consequence of a misunderstanding that unhappily
sprung up among the principal persons engaged in this
memorable expedition, their operations were conducted
separately, and w'e have accordingly three independent
results, but all agreeing very nearly with each other. The
first is that of Bouguer, who found, after the various re¬
ductions, the length of the degree of the meridian at the
equator, and reduced to the level of the sea, to be 56,753
toises. Condamine found 56,749 toises, and the Spanish
officers 56,768 toises.
The party of Maupertuis, though their labours were
sooner completed, had also to contend with very great
difficulties. At their departure from France they had
hoped to find a sufficient number of stations among the
small islands situated in the Gulf of Bothnia; but on their
arrival it was found impracticable to carry on a triangula¬
tion among the islands, consequently they were obliged
to penetrate into the forests of Lapland. They com¬
menced their operations at Tornea, a city situated on the
mainland near the extremity of the gulf, and which formed
the southern extremity of their arc. From this place they
carried a chain of triangles northward to the mountain of
Kittis, lat. 65° 51'. Here they commenced the observa¬
tions of latitude by observing the distance of their zenith
from the star d Draconis; and having obtained a suffi¬
cient number of observations, they returned to Tornea, to
determine the latitude of their station there in the same
manner. At Tornea they observed not only the star 3
Draconis, but also a Draconis; and some doubt having
arisen respecting the accuracy of the determination at
Kittis, they again repaired to that station, to observe the
last star there also. The amplitude of the celestial arc was
found, by taking the mean of the observations, to be 57'
29"-6. I
It now remained only to measure a base, and thereby
determine the terrestrial distance between lornea and
Kittis. This was accomplished on the frozen surface ot
the river, by two parties who measured separately, and
the difference between their results amounted only to
about four inches. From this it resulted that the terres¬
trial arc between Tornea and Kittis was 55,023 toises,
giving 57,437 toises to the degree, and consequently ex¬
ceeding the degree measured by Picard in France by 337
toises.
As all these determinations concurred in proving that
the degrees of the meridian increase very sensibly in length
from the equator to the high latitudes, no doubt could any
longer be entertained that the earth is compressed at the
poles. The operations of the two Cassinis in France alone
gave results leading to an opposite conclusion; and it there¬
fore became desirable to ascertain the cause of the ano¬
maly. For this purpose Maupertuis and his former asso¬
ciates undertook the verification of Picards operations,
and it resulted from the remeasurement of the arc between
Paris and Amiens that the degree was equal to 57,
toises. But a more extensive series of operations was un
dertaken some time after by Cassini de I bury (the t n-
of that name) and Lacaille. With a view to determine
more accurately the variation of the degree along
French meridian, they divided the whole arc between nn
kirk and Collioure into four partial arcs, embracing a o
2° each, by observing the latitudes at five ^.ereni-Sc0.
tions. While engaged in this measurement, they _
vered that the toise which had been used by Picar
shorter by about a thousandth part of the whole than
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
fiffui
the £
' which formed their standard, and that his final results were
!• accordingly too great by about a thousandth part. They
v' also found the mean length of a degree between Paris
and Bourges to be 57,071 toises; between Bourges and
Rhodez only 57,040 toises ; and between Ilhodez and
Perpignan 57,048 toises ; thus showing on the whole a
very sensible diminution as we proceed towards the
south. The last portion which they examined was that
between Paris and Dunkirk; and after a very careful
determination of the latitudes, and the measurement of
a base of verification near Dunkirk, they found the de¬
gree to be 57,074 toises, greater than any of the former,
as ought to be the case on the hypothesis of a polar com¬
pression.
Another important operation was likewise undertaken by
Cassini and Lacaille, namely, the measurement of a de¬
gree of a parallel of latitude. The place they selected w as
near the mouths of the Rhone, under the forty-third pa¬
rallel. One of the observers took his station on the moun¬
tain Sainte Victoire, near Aix, and the other on Saint Clair,
near Cette. On the tower of the church of Sainte Marie,
a village situated between the two stations, a signal was
made by firing a quantity of loose gunpowder; and the
instant of the flash was noted by each of the observers.
The difference of sidereal time thus determined was 7
minutes 33-25 seconds, corresponding to a difference of
meridians of 1° 53' 197. The distance between the two
stations, which was ascertained by triangulation, being
reduced to the distance on the parallel intercepted be¬
tween the two meridians (at the latitude of 43°), was
found to be 78,663 toises, whence the length of the de¬
gree was computed to be 41,651 toises. This exceeded
by about 250 toises the length of a degree of the same pa¬
rallel computed on the hypothesis of the earth’s being a
perfect sphere. The details of all these operations are
given in the Meridienne de Paris Verifiee.
About the middle of the last century several arcs of
meridian were measured in various countries, which,
though of inferior importance in comparison of the more
extensive surveys which have since been undertaken, are
I nevertheless deserving of enumeration. In 1751 Lacaille
measured an arc at the Cape of Good Hope, whither he
had gone for the purpose of determining the lunar paral¬
lax, and making other astronomical observations. At the
latitude of 38° 18^' he found the degree of the meridian
to be 57,037 toises. This result was nearly the same as
had been obtained in France, 10° farther from the equator;
and clearly proved either the existence of great local
irregularities in the form of the earth, or the dissimilarity
of the two terrestrial hemispheres. Considerable dispo¬
sition has been manifested by later observers to question
the accuracy of this result; fortunately the details of the
operations have been preserved, and, on a careful investi¬
gation ol them by Delambre, no error of any importance
was found either in the methods or the calculations. If
there is any considerable inaccuracy, it must have pro¬
ceeded from the use of inadequate instruments. But,
niter making all reasonable allowance for this cause of er¬
ror, the Cape degree still continues to appear anomalous;
nod it would be desirable to have the whole of Lacaille’s
nrc re-measured.
In 1751 the measurement of a terrestrial arc was un¬
dertaken in the Roman states by the Jesuits Maire and
oscovich. It extended nearly two degrees, between
owe and Rimini, and it was found that the degree of
j meridian between these parallels, namely, 42° and 44°,
contained 56,973 toises. The details are given at length
y Boscovich, in a work of great elegance, and entitled
Litter aria Expeditions per Pontijiciarn ditionem, &c.
lesgamg, a Jesuit, in 1762 also executed two measures
o a meridional degree, one in Hungary and the other in
ie Austrian states; but it has been shown by Baron
Zach, in his Correspondence Astronomique, vol. vii. that the
results merit no confidence, and, in fact, would lead to
certain error if employed as elements in determining the
figure of the earth.
About the same time, in 1764, an arc of meridian was
measured in North America, on the peninsula between the
Chesapeake and Delaware bays, by two Englishmen, Charles
Mason and Jeremiah Dixon. They employed no trian¬
gulation, but measured the line with deal rods along the
whole extent of the arc, the mean latitude of which was
39° 12'. Their rods were afterwards compared writh the
five-feet brass rods made by Bird. The latitudes were
determined with a zenith sector. The length of the de¬
gree, after the necessary corrections and reductions were
made, was found to be 60,625 English fathoms, or 56,888
toises. There is no doubt that great care was bestowed
on this operation ; it is, however, easy to see that the
measurement of so long a line by means of rods is liable
to many causes of error from which the method of trian¬
gulation is exempt.
In 1777 Beccaria undertook to measure a degree in the
plains of Piedmont. He found the degree of the meri¬
dian at the latitude of 44° 44' to contain 57,024 toises,-
but great uncertainty remained respecting the correctness
of the latitudes, the extreme points of the arc being in
the near neighbourhood of immense ranges of mountains,
wTiich could not fail to produce a very considerable de¬
viation of the plumb line. It was supposed that as both
ends of the arc were terminated by mountain ranges,
whereas Boscovich’s arc had been carried across the Appen-
nines and terminated at the sea coast, the errors of the
two measures occasioned by the local attraction, being of
opposite kinds, would neutralize each other, and give a
correct mean result.
Amidst the rapid advances of mathematical science to¬
wards the end of last century, the determination of the
figure of the earth was not overlooked. In the year
1785 a memorial was presented to the British govern¬
ment by Cassini de Thury, stating the important advanta¬
ges that would result to astronomy and navigation, from
having the difference of longitude of the Greenwich and
Paris observatories determined by ageodetic measurement.
Fortunately this proposal was agreed to. The English ope¬
rations wrere placed under the superintendence of General
Roy, who to active and indefatigable zeal united great
skill and experience in practical astronomy and surveying.
In the summer of 1784 a base of rather more than five
miles was measured on Hounslow Heath. In the measure¬
ment of this base, deal rods were at first employed; but as
these were found to warp, and be affected with the variations
of the hygrometrical state of the atmosphere, glass tubes
were substituted; and in 1791 the same base was mea¬
sured with a steel chain carefully made by Ramsden, yet
the difference from the former measure was found to be
only three inches. The mean result was 27,404-2 feet
reduced to the level of the sea, and the scale being taken
at the temperature of 62° of Fahrenheit. A chain of 32
triangles, in connection with this base, extended over the
country to Dover and Hastings; and two more, stretching
across the channel, connected them with the French sig¬
nals on the opposite side. The instruments employed in
this survey were of the most excellent description, and
far superior to any that had ever been employed in simi¬
lar operations. The angles of each triangle were measur¬
ed by a large theodolite constructed by Ramsden; and
it was this splendid instrument that first exhibited the
spherical excess, or the minute quantity by which, on ac-
549
Figure of
the Earth.
550
Figure of
the Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
count of the sphericity of the earth, the sum of the three
angles of a triangle on the earth’s surface exceeds 180°.
The French part of this great operation was conducted
with equal ability by Cassini (the fourth of that name),
Mechain, and Delambre. The angles were measured
with the repeating circle of Borda; an instrument of a
very different description from the theodolite, but which
in geodetic operations may fairly be allowed to give, if
not equally, at least sufficiently correct results, while in
practice it is much more commodious. The result of the
combined measures showed the meridian of Paris to be 2
19' 51" east of Greenwich, or 9" less than had been deter¬
mined by Dr Maskelyne.
Soon after this time a series of geodetic measurements
was commenced both in France and England, which, in
point of extent, as well as minute accuracy, far surpassed
all the operations which had yet been undertaken^with a
view to determine the figure of the earth. In 1/91 the
National Convention of France having agreed to remodel
the system of weights and measures, determined to adopt
a standard taken from nature, which might be universally
applicable in all countries, and capable of being restored
in any future age, if by accident it should happen to be
lost. Two such standards were proposed,—namely, the
length of the pendulum, which makes a given number of
vibrations in a given latitude; and the quadrant of the
terrestrial meridian. Of these the pendulum is by far the
most easy to be determined; but it was objected, that as
the length of the pendulum varies at different latitudes,
and also depends in some degree on the geological charac¬
ter of the country where it is measured, its length, if it
should happen to be lost, could not be recovered, without
knowing the precise place at which it had formerly been
determined. The length of the quadrant of the meridian
is, however, invariable, and, if the earth is a regular sphe¬
roid of revolution, must be the same at all places. Ac¬
cordingly, the Convention chose the ten millionth part of
the meridian from the equator to the pole as the unit of
their new scale; and in order that this unit might be de¬
termined with the greatest possible precision, it was re¬
solved to remeasure the arc of the meridian of Paris, and
to extend it from Dunkirk to Barcelona, a distance com¬
prehending altogether an arc of about nine degrees. The
practical execution of this undertaking was confided to
two astronomers of distinguished ability, Delambre and
Mechain, by whom the requisite operations were carried
on during the years 1792, 1793, and 1794, amidst all the
dangers and difficulties arising from the disorganized state
of the country, with a resolution and courage of which the
annals of science afford few examples. The triangles
amounted to 115 in number. Each of the three angles
of every triangle was separately observed with the repeat¬
ing circle. The different observations, with the original
registers and remarks of the observers, were compared
by commissioners, among whom were some of the ablest
men in France. A form was drawn up, after which all the
calculations were made. The calculations of the trian¬
gles, as well as of the azimuths, were examined by Tralles,
Van Swinden, Legendre, and Delambre himself. The tri¬
angles were connected in the neighbourhood of Paris with
a base of upwards of seven miles in length, being 6075*9
toises, at the temperature of 16^ centigrade, or 61j of
Fahrenheit. A base of verification of 6006*25 toises was
measured by Mechain, near Perpignan, at the southern ex¬
tremity of the arc; and the measured length was found to
differ by less than a foot from the length deduced by cal¬
culation from the first base, though the distance was more
than 436 miles. A line of this length, measured with ex¬
treme precision, is obviously quite sufficient to enable us
to infer, with all the requisite exactness, the length of the
quadrantal arc; but the French astronomers resolved to Fi»
T.. I  e»;il fartlmr A Vr U,® ”
extend the triangulation still farther. Accordingly, : 4
chain repaired again to Spain, and in the year 1805 con-
tinued the chain of triangles from Barcelona to Tortosa,
on the coast of the Mediterranean. At this place his la¬
bours were prematurely terminated by an epidemic fever.
The prolongation of the arc was, however, committed to
two philosophers of distinguished reputation, Biot and
Arago. An immense triangle, one of the sides of which
exceeded 100 miles, connected the coast of Valentia with
the small island of Formentera, the most southerly of the
Balearic group, and distant no less than 12° 22' 13"*39
from Dunkirk, the northern extremity of the arc. The
result of the whole gave a value of the quadrantal arc,
differing somewhat from that determined by Delambre
and Mechain, but so little that the length of the toise
would be scarcely affected by four times the millionth part
of itself. The details of this magnificent operation are
given at length in the four volumes of the Base Metrique.
The English survey, which had been interrupted by the
death of General Roy in 1790, was resumed in 1793 under
the direction of Colonel Mudge. The original triangles
between Greenwich and Dover were extended along the
coast to Dunnose in the Isle of Wight, and thence through
Devonshire and Wiltshire, and connected with a base of
verification measured on Salisbury Plain. The length of
this base was found, after the proper reductions, to be
36574*4 feet, differing scarcely one inch from the length
deduced by calculation from the base on Hounslow Heath.
So near a coincidence, though probably owing in some de¬
gree to a compensation of errors, affords a convincing proof
of the extreme accuracy with which every part of the ope¬
ration had been conducted. In 1802 the triangulation
was carried into Yorkshire, and a meridian arc measured
from Dunnose to Clifton. The latitudes at the terminal
points were determined with Ramsden s zenith sector.
The arc was afterwards extended to Burleigh Moor, com¬
prehending nearly four degrees. It may be remarked,
that both the French and English arcs present this sin¬
gular anomaly, that when portions of them, at particular
places, are considered separately, the length of the de¬
gree appears to increase on going southward.
The survey has been continued, with occasional inter¬
ruptions, up to the present time, under the able direction
of Lieutenant-Colonel Colby; and the triangulation has
been carried to the remotest parts of Scotland, and over
a considerable part of Ireland. In the course of the ope¬
rations, several important improvements, both in respect
of the instruments employed, and in the method of con¬
ducting geodetic measurements in general, have been in¬
troduced into practice. A base of upwards of seven miles
has been measured near Londonderry; and it now on y
remains to determine the latitudes of some stations, to
give us the elements of a new and greatly prolonged arc.
In the years 1801, 1802, and 1803, Maupertuis Swe¬
dish arc was re-measured by Svanberg, and exten e
-nearly 40' to the south. The methods were the same as
had been employed by Delambre. The extre!SJtieSi;^
the new arc were at Mallbrn and Pahtawara. * e f
tance was found to be 92,778 toises, and the difference °i
the latitudes 1° 37' 20"*3; whence 1° = 57,196 toises.
This agrees much better than the result °f
(57,422 toises) with other measures; but the ditteren ,
which implies an error of 12" in the latitude of 1 1
determined by the French academicians, has not ee
tisfactorily accounted for; so that there is still some
about the length of the degree in that latitude.
Svanberg’s Exposition des Operationsfaites en Lapom ,
Stockholm, 1805.) norrsof
Since the beginning of the present century, tw
Figu
the ’
FIGURE OF
f meridian have been surveyed in India. The first was in
I ]a. the neighbourhood of Madras, and comprehended only
v 1° 35'. The second, however, is the longest which has
yet been measured. The first, and a large part of the
second, was accomplished under the direction of Colonel
Lambton; and the instruments and methods of observation
and calculation were exactly the same as those that had
been employed by Colonel Mudge in the English survey.
The southern extremity of the second arc was at Punnae,
near Cape Comorin, latitude 8° 9' 327-51; and the north¬
ern at Daumergidda, latitude 18° 3' 16"-07. The ampli¬
tude is consequently 9° 53' 43"*56, and the distance be¬
tween the extremities was found to be 598,029*98 fathoms
(about 680 miles), giving 60,495 fathoms, or 362,970 feet,
for the length of the degree. Several bases were mea¬
sured, and the whole of the operations appear to have been
conducted with great skill and accuracy. This arc has
since been extended by Captain Everest to Kulliampoor,
latitude 24° 7' IF-S; so that the whole length now includes
very nearly sixteen degrees. The details of Colonel
Lambton’s operations are given in the different volumes
of the Asiatic Researches (see vols. viii. x. xii.), and those
of Captain Everest, in his “ Accomit of the Measurement of
an Arc of the Meridian betiveen the Parallels of 18° 3' and
24° 7,” printed at the expense of the East India Company,
but not yet published.
Various geodetic operations on a less extensive scale
have been recently executed, which are better adapted,
perhaps, to give information respecting the local curvature
than the general form of the earth. Beccaria’s arc has
been remeasured by Plana and Carlini: the results clearly
demonstrate the existence of some errors in the original
measurement, but they are not yet altogether satisfactory,
and the country is very unfavourable. The distance be¬
tween Gottingen and Altona has been measured by Gauss;
and the amplitude of the corresponding celestial arc is
known with the utmost precision, from observations of the
latitude made at the respective observatories of the two
places. The amplitude, however, is only about two de¬
grees, and there is some doubt about the exact length of
the iron bars with which the base was measured. A
more extensive arc has been measured in Russia by Struve.
It extends at present to three and a half degrees, and it
j is understood that it is in contemplation to prolong it still
farther. Many new methods have been employed in this
measurement; and it acquires additional value from its
high latitude, and the acknowledged skill and accuracy of
the observer.
The above are the principal arcs of meridian, but some
arcs of parallel have also been measured. Theoretically
speaking, the figure of the earth may be determined from
the measurement of arcs of parallel, as readily as from me*
ndional arcs; and the geodetical operations in the one case
differ in no respect from those in the other. But the
great, and, we fear, insurmountable difficulty, is to deter¬
mine with sufficient precision the difference of astronomi¬
cal longitudes. In a subsequent part of this article we shall
wve again occasion to mention Cassini’s measurement of
an arc of parallel across the mouth of the Rhone ; of the
mghsh arc between Beachy Head and Dunnose; and that
lecently made from Marennes to Padua.
1 he problem of determining the earth’s figure from the
aws of hydrostatic equilibrium has not yet received the
complete solution which the present advanced state of
maytical science might lead us to expect. We have
' ready mentioned the results found by Newton and Huy-
,ens. Maclaurin first demonstrated that the ellipsoid
> revolution is a figure which satisfies the conditions of
ibnum in the case of a revolving homogeneous body,
10se Particles attract one another according to the law
the earth. 551
of the inverse square of the distance; and he moreover Fieure of
determined the amount of the attraction in a particle situ-the*Earth.
ated anywhere on the surface of such a body. This was '   '
an important step towards the solution of the problem. A
few years afterwards, Clairaut published his Theorie de la
figure de la Terre, which, among other results, demon¬
strated with uncommon elegance, contained a very remark¬
able theorem which establishes a relation between the ob¬
lateness of the earth and the variations of gravity at differ¬
ent points of its surface, and consequently gives the means
of determining the earth’s figure by means of observations
of the length of the seconds pendulum at different latitudes.
Maclaurin’s discovery gave the intensity of the gravitating
foice on the surface of the spheroid, or in its interior; but
it was necessary to assign the force with which an ex-
terior point is attracted. Ihis was partly accomplished
by D’Alembert, who proved that the attraction of any el¬
lipsoid whatever upon a point situated in the prolongation
of one of its axes, is to the attraction of a similar spheroid
haying the same centre, and passing through the attracted
point, as the mass of the first spheroid is to the mass of
the second. Legendre found an approximate expression
by means of series, for the attraction on a point placed
anywhere without a spheroid of revolution; and Laplace
extended the solution to ellipsoids in general. But the
complete solution was reserved for Mr Ivory, who obtained
in finite terms a very simple expression for the attractive
force of an ellipsoid on an exterior point, and thereby com¬
pleted the theory of Maclaurin. It may be stated in a
general way, that notwithstanding all the researches that
have been made respecting this very intricate subject, the
only positive results which theory has yet supplied are the
three following:—Is/, Maclaurin’s demonstration that a
homogeneous mass revolving about an axis will be in equi-
libriowith the figure of an ellipsoid of revolution; 2d, Clair-
aut’s theorem for determining the ellipticity by means of
pendulum observations; and, 3d, the expression for the
attraction of ellipsoids on exterior particles, found by Mr
Ivory. A complete theory would determine whether there
are or are not other figures besides the ellipsoid, under
which the equilibrium could subsist; but this has not yet
been accomplished. Indeed it has not even been proved
that the sphere is the only figure which could be assumed
by a body at perfect rest, and whose molecules are sub¬
jected to no other forces than their mutual attractions.
Our limits do not permit us to enter into details re¬
specting the numerous experiments that have been made
of late years to determine the figure of the earth by mea¬
suring the variations of gravity at different places by means
of the pendulum. The most valuable series of observa¬
tions of this kind we yet possess are those of Captain Foster,
reduced under the direction of Mr Baily, and published
in the Memoirs of the Royal Astronomical Society, vol. vii.
But a discovery recently made by Bessel proves that less
accuracy has been obtained by this method than was sup¬
posed. It has been found, that a pendulum, when vibrat¬
ing, drags along with it a portion of air, the precise effect
of which can be ascertained in no other way than by ac¬
tual experiment in vacuo with each individual pendulum.
The probable correction which it would be necessary to
apply to the results that have already been found, cannot
be satisfactorily determined.
The mean of the pendulum experiments gives rather a
higher value of the ellipticity than the results of geodetic
measures; but there are many elements, particularly the
irregular constitution of the exterior crust of the earth,
and the density of the strata surrounding the station,
which can scarcely be determined, and which yet affect
materially the results of the experiments. Ihis subject
will be resumed under the article Pendulum.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
»ure of Besides the methods which have now been alluded to,
^ Earth, physical astronomy furnishes other means of arriving at a
  ' knowledge of the figure of the earth. The precession of
the equinoxes, and nutation of the earth s axis, are phe¬
nomena depending on the compression of the earth ; and
as their amount is now ascertained, from astronomical
observations, with the utmost accuracy, we can recipro¬
cally deduce from them a knowledge of the compression.
They do not, however, give us an absolute value of the
amount of compression, but they make known the limits
within which it must necessarily be confined. 1 hese limits
are and 0*. But a more delicate measure of the same
element is furnished by some irregularities in the moon s
motion to which it gives rise; and as the lunar theory
has now attained a very high state of perfection, and as
the small irregularities which cause so much perplexity in
geodetical measures here entirely disappear, this is per¬
haps the most satisfactory method of all of determining
the ellipticity of the earth. The equations into which the
irregularity in question enters were discovered by Laplace ;
and the ellipticity necessary to produce the observed eltect
was found, on calculation, to be ^ ; confirming in a most
remarkable manner the deductions from the measurement
of arcs and the observations of the pendulum.
SECTION II.
OF THE MEASUREMENT OF TERRESTRIAL ARCS.
The determination of the figure of the earth, being
founded on the comparison of lines actually measured on
its surface with the corresponding arcs of the celestial
sphere, requires a combination of geodetical and astrono¬
mical operations, which it will be our object in the pre¬
sent section to explain. Theoretically considered, the
geodetical line to be measured may lie in any direction,
because it can always be reduced to the meridian or to
any other given direction ; but, for practical reasons, which
will be pointed out hereafter, it ought to be taken, as
nearly as the nature of the country in which the measure¬
ment is made will permit, either in the direction of the
meridian, or of a parallel of latitude. Differences of la¬
titude, however, can be determined with greater precision
than differences of longitude; the meridional arcs are
consequently the best adapted to the purpose. Satisfac¬
tory results can only be obtained from the measurement
of lines of very considerable length, for example, of several
degrees; and this circumstance renders the geodetical
operations both laborious and complicated. In no place
of the world, probably, and certainly in no populous coun-
' try, could it be possible to find a territory so free from
obstructions as to admit of the direct measurement of a
line of two or three hundred miles in the same direction.
Hence, when an operation of this nature is to be under¬
taken, the country in which the direction of the line to be
measured lies is divided into triangles; the angles of each
triangle are accurately observed with a theodolite, or
some other equivalent instrument; and the side of one of
them being actually measured, all the other sides are com¬
puted from it by the rules of trigonometry. In this man¬
ner the length of the whole line is ascertained, and on
comparing it with the celestial arc, the data are obtain¬
ed for deducing the dimensions and form of the earth.
It appears, then, that in order to determine the figure
of the earth by the measurement of degrees, four distinct
sets of operations are necessary: 1st, The measurement
of one side of a triangle, or of the base as it is called; 2d,
the observation of the angles of each triangle, together
with the height of the station, in order that the triangles
may be reduced, if necessary, to the horizontal plane, and % L
to the level of the sea; 3c?, the observation of the azi-theI-
ninths of the sides of the triangles, or the angles they
make with the meridional line ; \th, the latitudes of the
extreme points of the line. It is immaterial in what order
these operations are undertaken. We shall begin with the
measurement of the base.
The length of the base must be regulated in some de-
o-ree by the nature of the locality; but being the funda¬
mental element from which the sides of all the triartgles
are deduced, it should not be less than five or six miles.
A piece of ground must therefore be selected, as nearly
level as possible, and admitting a line of that length to
be described on it. The direction of the base is first
marked out by pickets ; and, in order to place these in the
same straight line, or rather in the same vertical plane,
a telescope, mounted in the manner of a transit instru¬
ment, is set up at one extremity, by means of which the
observer is enabled to direct an assistant, by signals, to
the exact position in which the picket is to be placed,
and also to bring their tops exactly into the same level.
As a farther guide, a rope may then be stretched between
the pickets; and, for greater security in the subsequent
operations, the whole extent may be approximately mea¬
sured by rods or chains, in the usual manner. Ihe extre¬
mities of the base ought to be permanently marked by
points. The centres of metal tubes, cannon for example,
let into the ground to a considerable depth, answ'er this
purpose very conveniently.
These preliminary operations being accomplished, the
next step is to proceed to the more delicate operation of
measuring the exact distance between the terminal points,
or extremities of the base.
Various methods have been practised for this purpose.
In the measurement of the first base of the trigonometri¬
cal survey on Hounslow Heath by General Roy, deal rods
were at first employed, as had been done by Lacaille,
Lemonnier, and others ; but though every precaution was
used in selecting the best seasoned timber, and every
means employed to secure the rods from flexure, it was
discovered, in the course of the operations, that they were
liable, from variations in the state of the atmosphere as
to moisture or dryness, to sudden and irregular changes
of such magnitude as to destroy all confidence m the re¬
sults. They were therefore laid aside; and glass rods,
consisting of straight tubes twenty feet in length, and
about an inch in diameter, and enclosed in wooden cases,
were substituted. The only alteration to which these
were subject arose from the expansion and contraction
from variations of temperature ; and as such a terations
follow constant and ascertainable laws, their effects cou
be easily computed, and a correction made lor tiem.
the apparatus ultimately adopted, both in the n,easu^
ment of this base, and the other bases subsequently mea
sured for the
purpose of verifying the operations in the
English survey, consisted of two steel chains, ma e wi
great care by Ramsden, of a hundred feet in eng >
composed each of forty links, joined in the manner
watch chain. The chains were supported by ea
fers, and after being placed in a straight line,
stretched with a weight of fifty-six pounds. r ii-
perature and inclination to the horizon were c
noted at the same time, and the proper correction
^ ThiJmethod has been objected to, on account
certainty of giving the chain always the same eg
tension, and of the rubbing and wear of the J®1” ^
the best proof of the accuracy of the results o
it consists in the fact, that the two meas^reine!1c„rnndiy
base on Hounslow Heath, first by glass rods, an
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
pip if by the steel chains, differed from each other, after all the
the F reductions were made, by less than three inches, although
^ J the whole length exceeded five miles. For an account of
the comparison of the chains with one another, and with
553
from us first position in the perpendicular BQ, so that Figure of
ie distance between P and Q remains sensibly the same. the Earth,
it is easy, however, to see that the dilatation of the bars
must be confined within narrow limits; for, as the leno-th
the standard brass yard made by Ramsden, we must refer of the tongue is invariable, P will not be fo’und exactly
to the Philosophical Transactions,yo\. i. the line AP after the expansion has taken place; it wiii
be on the same side of AP on which are the points a and
a, and its distance from AP will be accurately measured
by the quantity AP X (tan. APa — sin. APa); and as
the same thing takes place with regard to Q, the distance
The use of chains has been confined to the English and
Indian surveys. Bouguer, in the Peruvian measurement,
employed an iron rod of about a toise in length, which,
from the frequent comparisons that have since been made
of it with other standards, has been particularised by the
name of toise of Peru. For the determination of the me¬
ridian of Dunkirk, Borda employed rules of platina, exact¬
ly two toises in length, and furnished with a very inge¬
nious contrivance for ascertaining the expansion. Along
one side of the rule there was a slip of brass, firmly fixed
atone extremity, but at liberty to move along the rule at
the other end, according to the relative expansion of the
two metals. The relative expansion being read off by
means of a micrometer, gave a ready means of comput¬
ing, from tables previously constructed, the absolute ex¬
pansion of the platina rule. Four rules were made use
of, three of which were always placed on the ground at
once; and in order to prevent any derangement, they were
not brought into absolute contact. A small interval of a
few millimetres was left between them, which was measur¬
ed by means of a slider attached to the preceding end of
each rule, and which was pushed out till it came into con¬
tact with the following end of the preceding rule. See
Delambre, Astronomic, tome iii. p. 538, or Base du Systeme
Metrique.
Various other contrivances have been used for the mea¬
surement of the base line. MM. Plana and Carlini, in
the re-measurement of Beccaria’s arc, employed measur¬
ing rods of wood, twelve metres in length, of the form of
hollow parallelepipeds. For the Hanoverian base mea¬
sure, between Altona and Gottingen, Gauss employed
three rods of hammered iron, each twelve French feet in
length. But the most ingenious apparatus which has yet
been invented for this purpose, is that which was made
by our celebrated artist Trough ton for the Irish base. As
this instrument is probably destined to supersede all
others previously used, we shall briefly describe the prin¬
ciple on which it is constructed.
Let AB and DE (Plate CCXLIV. fig. 1) represent two
bars of different metals, firmly united to a transverse bar at
the middle C, but entirely free to move independently of
each other at the extremities, according to their different
expansions. AP and BQ are two tongues of steel attached
to the extremities of the two rods AD and BE, by double
conical joints, around which they are capable of making a
small angle with the lines perpendicular to AB or DE. At
a certain given temperature the bars are exactly of the
same length, when, consequently, AP and BQare parallel
to each other, and perpendicular to the bars. Let us now
conceive the bars to receive an increase of temperature,
and that the dilatation of AB is greater than that of DE.
In consequence of the increased temperature, both bars
wih be lengthened, but their lengths will no longer be
equal; consequently the two tongues AP and BQ will no
longer be parallel; for, suppose AB to become ab, and DE
to become de, then AB being by hypothesis a more expan¬
sive metal than DE, ab will be longer than de, and the
steel tongues will take the positions ax and by, inclined to
each other. But if the point P is taken at such a dis¬
tance from the bars that PA is to PD in the ratio of the
dilatation of AB to DE, then in the new position ax, the
point P will not sensibly deviate from the perpendicular
i > at least for moderate variations of temperature. In
the same manner, the point Q will not sensibly deviate
VOL. IX.
between P and Q will be increased by twice this quantity.
But as the angle APa must in all cases be extremely small,
the difference between its tangent and its sine is altoge¬
ther inappreciable. It is unnecessary to remark, that the
same consequences {mutatis mutandis) take place when
the temperature falls below the assumed standard.
In the instruments made use of in the measurement of
the Irish base, the bar AB was of brass, and DE of iron.
The length of each was ten feet, and the distance between
them two inches. The length of the tongue is hence easily
found from the relative dilatation of the two metals. Sup¬
pose the expansion of brass to be to that of iron in the
ratio of 83 to 53 for an increase of 1° of temperature, and
let PD = x inches, we shall have a:: # + 2 = 53 : 83 ;
53
whence a? =r — 31 inches very nearly. But the pre¬
cise position of the points P and Q must be determined by
actual experiment: for the expansion or contraction of no
two bars, even of the same metal, are ever found to be
exactly the same.
In practice, five or six sets of bars, constructed in the
manner now described, and placed in strong deal boxes
supported on trestles, are laid along the line to be mea¬
sured, and accurately levelled. They are placed at a small
distance from each other, and the distance between the
dots on the adjacent steel tongues of two succeeding bars
is accurately measured by an ingenious micrometrical ap¬
paratus constructed so as to form a compensating instru¬
ment of exactly the same nature as the measuring bars.
The conception of this elegant apparatus belongs to
Lieutenant-Colonel Colby; and the practical results it
gives correspond with its theoretical excellence. It is
computed that the greatest possible error of the base mea¬
sured on the eastern shore of Lough Foyle, in the county
of Londonderry, cannot exceed two inches, though the
length is very nearly eight miles.
The reduction to the level of the sea is made as fol¬
lows : Let r — radius of earth, x — height above the level
of the sea, a — measured length of the base, and a! = its
reduced length; then
Q' = a(r^)=“(^ =“ I1'? + (?)'-’*'•}
a series of which all the terms after the second may be
neglected, by reason of their smallness.
It is easy to see, that as the base is not, correctly speak¬
ing, a straight line, but an arc of a circle, or rather el¬
lipse, the sum of the lengths of all the rods or chains ho¬
rizontally applied to it is not precisely the length of the
arc, but of the circumscribing polygon. In order to de¬
termine how far this circumstance can affect the result,
let us suppose the length of the measuring rod to be ten
feet; when laid on the ground, exactly in the horizontal
plane, it forms two tangents to the surface, of five feet
each, and therefore each half length of the rod ought to
be diminished by the difference between the tangent whose
length is five feet, and the arc to which it belongs. Let
A be the arc, then (Algebra, Sect. XXV. H.
4 A
554
Figure of
the Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
A tan. A
tan. A3
+ &c.
whence tan. A
\ = i-
•X 3
tan. A3
r2
125
Sr2"
This must be multiplied by the number of times that the
half rod, or five feet, is contained in the whole base. Sup¬
posing the base to be five miles, or 5280 times the length,
of the half rod, and the radius of the earth to be 4000
miles, or 4000 X 5280 feet, we should have tan. A — A
-  I— feet; a quantity which is altogether
— 3X40002X5280 4
insensible. n x.- *
We come now to the triangulation. The first thing to
be done is to select proper stations for the vertices of the
triangles. The selection will necessarily depend on the
nature of the country through which the survey is made ;
but there are certain principles which ought to be ob¬
served, as nearly as the circumstances will permit, ihe
stations should be chosen, so that each angle of the prin¬
cipal triangles should approach as nearly as possible to
60°, because a small error in the estimation of a very
acute or obtuse angle will greatly affect the length of the
opposite side computed from it. Excepting in unavoida¬
ble cases, no angle ought to be less than 30°. The sides
cannot be too long, while the signal at one extremity is
visible from the other. The signals may be towers, spires,
or other conspicuous objects conveniently situated ; but
such signals can seldom be well bisected by the wire of
the telescope. Flag-staffs are better when the distances
are not too great. Delambre preferred signals erected
on purpose. They were generally constructed of wood,
and of the form of a truncated pyramid. One consider¬
able advantage arises from the use of signals constructed
in this manner, namely, that the instrument can be placed
exactly at the centre of the station. Frequently Bengal
lights, reverberating lamps, and white lights, are em¬
ployed ; but these of course can only be seen during the
night. The best signal of this sort was invented by Lieu¬
tenant Drummond. It is formed by directing a stream
of hydrogen gas on a small piece of ignited quicklime ; an
intense light is produced, which may be seen at very
great distances. Care should be taken to place the sig¬
nals, if they are to be observed by day, in such positions
that they may be projected on the sky ; if projected on
forests or mountains, they will seldom be distinctly visible.
Svanberg constructed his signals with openings, to permit
the light of the sky to be seen through them.
The triangles being marked out, and the signals pre¬
pared, the next object is to measure the angles. When
the theodolite is used for this purpose, no correction is
required on account of the different^ altitudes of the sig¬
nals, the reduction being effected by the instrument it¬
self ; but when a sextant or repeating circle is employed,
the observed angles must be reduced to the plane of the
horizon.
Let P, Q, and R (fig. 2), be the three stations, PQR
the observed angle oblique to the horizon ; produce PQ
and PR till they meet Q' R', a line parallel to the plane of
the horizon; through Q! R' let a plane be conceived to
pass parallel to the horizontal plane, meeting PZ, the ver¬
tical passing through P, in P'; then Q' P IP is the horizon¬
tal projection of QPR, and the angles ZPQ, ZPR are the
complements of the inclinations of the line PQand PR to
the horizon.
With P as a centre, and a radius = 1, let a sphere be
described, intersecting PZ, PQ, and PR in the points
A, B, and C respectively; the angle BAG is evidently
equal to the horizontal angle Q'P'R'. Now, in the spheri¬
cal triangle ABC, we have given by observation the side
AB = the zenith distance of Q, AC = the zenith distance Figv ^
of R, and BC the oblique angle at the centre of the sta-the ti
tion, from which we are to find the angle BAG = Q'PR'. ^
Let BC=a, AC=b, AB=:c, and BAC=A. By a well-
known formula of spherical trigonometry,
cos.a—cos.5cos.c . o • , , .
cos. A = ———7— ; but cos. A—1 — 2 sin.* l A,
sin. u sin. c
therefore 2 sin.2 ^A=l
and 2 sin/
1A_cos1(4
:os. a — cos. b cos. c
sin. b sin. c ’
-c) — cos. a
sin. b sin. c
Now, if p and q denote two arcs, we have (Algebra,
XXV. D),
cos. p — cos. q=—2 sin. £ (p + q) sin. (p — q),
therefore
cos.(6—e)—cos.a=—2 sin. (a-\-b—c) sin. 1(5
= 2 sin.i (a + 5 — c) sin. % (a—5 + c)>
and the equation becomes
—c) sin. %(a
■a)
A=:sin.
■b+e)
sin. b sin. c
then lia + b — c)=s
.5-f-c)=s — b; consequently
_/'sin. (s — c) sin, (s — b)
sin. b sin
Let ^(a + 5 + c)—s;
and
sm.
From this formula the value ot A is easily computed,
when the inclinations of the lines PQ and PR to the
horizon are not very small. In practice, however, it
frequently happens that these inclinations are very small,
or that the angles b and c differ very little from right
angles. When this is the case, the logarithmic calcula¬
tion of the formula becomes troublesome, particularly if
it is required to determine A with great exactness; and
it is better to adopt a different method of proceeding.
Instead of seeking to find the projected angle Q'PR',
we may find its difference from the observed angle QPR,
which difference will seldom amount to more than a few
seconds. Since the arcs b and c are supposed to differ
little from 90°, if we make 5=90°—ft c=:90° — y, the
angles /3 and y will be very small. Substituting these
values of b and c in the formula
cos. A—
it becomes
cos. A=
cos. a — cos, b cos, c
sin. b sin. c
cos. a — sin. /3 sin. y _
cos. /3 cos. y
but
sin. (3 — (3-
cos. 13 = !■
(33
. —+ &c., sin
o
ft
y3
y=y-jr+,&c-
^-+&c., cos. 7=1 —4r + > &c';
zl
2
therefore, on substituting, and rejecting all terms above
those of the second order, we have
cos. a—$y _
cos. A_I—jpr^-cos.
Let A — a + x. It is evident that when /3 and y both va¬
nish, x also vanishes, and we get A— a. Hence if P an‘
7 be both very small, x is also very small, and conse9Uj|11jg
ly we may suppose its cosines 1, and its sine = x. In
case cos. A r: cos. (a + x)
becomes
cos. Az=cos. a — x sin. a.
Equating this with the former value of cos. A, we get
x sin. a=l3y — f(ft + 72) c08, a>
«_/37+i(ft + 72) cos. «•
\ — cos. u cos. x—sin.«sin. ^
/
Fig«
the '
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
whence
:b.
 P7 — + y2) cos. a
sin. a
cot. la.
DP
sin. DAP= ~ sin. APB
DP • p
ADs,n-P-
555
Figure of
the Earth.
In order to adapt this fraction to logarithmic computa¬
tion, let both its numerator and denominator be multi¬
plied by 2; then, because cos. a — cos.2 Jsa — sin.2 ^a, and
2j3y=2(3y cos.2 £a + 2/3y sin.2 %a, we find, on multiplying
and reducing,
2(3y—032 + y2)cos. a=((3 + yy sin.2 —Q3—y)2cos.2 ±a;
but sin. a=2 sin. cos. ; therefore, by substitution,
Here the arcs x, y are expressed in parts-of the radius ;
but they are given by observation in minutes and seconds.
Now an arc of 1" may be considered as equal to its sine:
hence the arc in seconds is to the arc in parts of the ra¬
dius as 1" to sin. 1"; consequently the arc in feet is equal
to the arc in seconds X sin. 1". Multiplying, therefore,
by sin. 1", we get
*= { (^)!«an. ia- (^)'co, } sin. 1».
Another reduction is necessary. Unless the signals
are constructed on purpose, it will rarely happen that the
instrument can be placed exactly in the centre of the
station. In this case it must be placed at some other
point near the centre of the station, and the observed
angle reduced to the centre by calculation. Suppose, for
example, it were required to determine the angle ACB
(fig. 3), which the objects A and B subtend at C, and
that the instrument cannot be placed exactly at C. Let
P be the point, at a short distance from C, where the
instrument is actually placed, and APB be the observed
angle; then, since CP can be measured, and CA, CB
are supposed to be known, approximately at least, the
problem is, having given the angle APB, and the dis¬
tances CA, CB, and CP, it is required to determine the
angle ACB.
Let AC and BP intersect in E. Then, since AEB=
CBP=APB + CAP, we have
ACB — APB=C AP _ CBP.
CP
But sin. CAP= ^r^sin. CPA, and likewise sin. CBP=
CP .
sin. CPB; therefore, making AC=m, BC=rc, CP=rf,
ACB=C, APB=P, CPB=p, then CPA=P+i», and by
substitution,
d d
sin. CAP=— sin.(P+/>), and sin.CBP= - sin. p, whence,
dividing by sin. 1" to reduce the expression to seconds,
Cap=A siiAP+ri and CBp= rf sin^
m sin. I7 n sin. I7
therefore (since CAP — CBP = ACB — APB C — P),
^ p_ d sin. (P-\-p) d sin. p
m sin. 1" n sin. I"’
wjueh gives C, or the angle ACB, expressed in seconds
of a degree.
This expression is exact; but an approximation more
convenient for calculation, and sufficient in almost every
case that can occur in practice, was generally followed
y Belambre. Let a circle be described about the tri¬
angle ABC, intersecting BP in D, and let CD, DA, and
^_be joined. We have then ACB —APB=ADB —
AFB=DAP. Let the angle CDB (=CAB, which is
nown by observation) be denoted by A. In the tri¬
angle DPA,
and in the triangle DPC,
DP-PCSin‘ PCD —pc sin. (CDB —CPB)
^ T'T' sin. CDB ’
sin. CDB
or
DP=d — A-P) . therefor,
sm. A
tv An d sin. (A —») . _
sin. DAP=—  4——^ sin. P.
AD sm. A
But AD may be considered as equal to AC=m ; whence
tv a t> e? sin. (A—/>) sin. P
sin. DAP=  —;—La 
m sin. A
expressed in seconds,
,and consequently, when
DAP=C —P=
d sin. (A —p) sin. P
m sin. A sin. 1"
This expression vanishes when A—j»=0, or when the
points P and D coincide, that is, when the instrument is
placed on the circumference of the circle, circumscribing
the triangle ACB. And it may be so placed, unless ob¬
stacles intervene, by moving it along the line PB, till the
angle CDB is observed to be equal to BAG.
When the three observed angles of each triangle have
been reduced to the horizon, they represent the angles
of a spherical triangle, the sides of which are intercept¬
ed by the verticals of the three stations, and the sum of
the three angles of each triangle exceeds 180° by a quan¬
tity which is called the spherical excess. The sides ought
therefore to be calculated by the rules of spherical trigo¬
nometry ; but as the sides of the triangles are in all cases
very small in comparison of the radius of the earth, the
calculation made in this way (for which indeed the exist¬
ing tables are not well adapted) becomes exceedingly te¬
dious. Instead, therefore, of calculating directly the sphe¬
rical triangle, it is more convenient to compute its devia¬
tion, which is always very small, from a plane triangle.
The method employed by Delambre was the following.
In the first place, the spherical angle, or that which is
formed by tangents at the surface, must be reduced to
the corresponding plane angle formed by the chords.
This is easily accomplished by the help of the theorem
above given for reducing the observed angles to the hori¬
zon ; for the angle formed by the chord and the tangent
of an arc is equal to the angle at the centre subtended
by half the arc; consequently when the lengths of the two
sides of a spherical angle are known nearly, the angle
of depression of the chords is also known; and there¬
fore the preceding theorem for reducing angles to the
horizon can be immediately applied. For example, sup¬
pose the sides of a spherical angle to be respectively p and
q miles, and the circumference of the earth to be 25,000
miles, then
360° p 21,600"p 108 p .
Wi00’OrW00ir = T25 SeCOndS
25,000 : p : : 360°
of a degree, which is the angle subtended at the centre
by the whole arc; and consequently one half of it, or
is the depression of the chord. In the same man-
125
ner,
J is the depression of the chord of q; and by sub-
1
stituting these in the formula
a; = | tan. ^ a — cot-1a } sin‘1"’
we obtain the angles made by the chords, by means of
which the triangle may be computed in the same manner
as if it were a plane triangle.
To make this reduction, it is necessary to know, ap-
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
556
Figure of proximately at least, the diameter of the earth as well as
the Earth, the distances of the stations; but the result will be little
s—affected by a moderate error in either of these data. In
fact, it is only when the sides of the triangles are very
large that the effects of the earth’s curvature become at
all sensible. . f
But a more elegant manner of estimating the effects ot
the earth’s curvature, though not always of so easy ap¬
plication, was proposed by Legendre. This illustrious
geometer discovered the following very remarkable pro¬
perty of spherical triangles ; namely, that when the sides
are very small in comparison of the radius of the sphere,
if from each of the angles there be subtracted one third
part of the quantity by which the sum of the three angles
exceeds two right angles, or 180°, the angles thus dimi¬
nished may be regarded as the angles of a plane triangle,
the sides of which are equal in length to those of the pro¬
posed spherical triangle. The excess of the sum of the
three angles above two right angles is proved by trigono¬
metry to be equal to -^r, a being the area of the triangle,
and t the radius of the sphere; so that the theorem of
Legendre may be enumerated as follows:
“ If the angles of a spherical triangle whose surface is
small in comparison of the surface of the whole sphere, be
denoted by A, B, and C, and the opposites by a, b, and c,
the triangle may be calculated as a plane triangle, the
sides of which are a, b, and c, and the opposite angles A
  , i 1 • , V  ^
-HB
c — i S, £ being the excess of the sum of
the three angles of the proposed spherical triangle above
two right angles.”
In applying the above theorem, it is necessary first to
calculate i or A which can always be done a priori from
the known parts of the spherical triangle considered as rec¬
tilinear. This being done, we have only to deduct^ s from
each of the observed angles, and then compute the re¬
maining parts, as in the case of a plane triangle.
By this method, the distances between the several sig¬
nals may be computed ; and as the angles at all the stations
are given by observation, the inclinations of all the sides
of the triangles to any one of them are also known, so that
it is only necessary to determine very accurately the in¬
clination of one side of a triangle to the meridian, in
order to ascertain the inclinations of all the other sides,
and thence to compute the meridian itself.
The determination of the azimuth of a signal is accom¬
plished by means of astronomical observation, and may
be pei'formed in various ways, but all depending on the
same principle. It is necessary, however, in any case to
be provided with the means of determining the time with
very great precision. The azimuth of the sun, or a star,
at any given instant, can be determined with sufficient ac¬
curacy. Let the observer, therefore, take his station at
one of the signals, and observe the angle formed between
the other signal and the sun, or a star, when nearly in the
horizon, and let him note the instant of time at which the
observation was made. Knowing the error of his clock or
chronometer, he knows also the true time, and can conse¬
quently calculate the azimuth of the observed celestial
body. Taking the sum or difference, as the case may be,
of this and the observed angle, he obtains the azimuth of
the distant signal, or the angle which the straight line
joining the two signals makes with the meridian. The re¬
fraction will scarcely effect the result; but a small error
with respect to the time would lead to considerable errors.
If the sun is observed, the error of the clock must be de¬
termined by observations of his meridional transits; but
most frequently a circumpolar star, as Capella, is preferred.
Sometimes the observation is made on the pole star itself; Figu* f
but in this case it is necessary to know the latitude of the the Es,
station very accurately. Another method is frequently ^ ‘
resorted to. Having set up a mark very nearly in the me¬
ridian, adjust a transit instrument upon it, and then, by
means of the transits of stars at different polar distances, or
other means known in practical astronomy, determine the
deviation of the instrument from the meridian. This gives
the direction of the mark with respect to the meridian, and
consequently the angle to be added to or subtracted from
the angle between the mark and the signal. For greater
security, the azimuths may be observed at several signals.
They ought at least to be observed at each extremity of
the chain of triangles.
The triangles being calculated and reduced to the hori¬
zon, we are now in a condition to compute the length of
the arc between the parallels of the extreme stations. Let
ABCDEFG, &c. (fig. 4), be a chain of triangles lying
nearly in the direction of the meridian AZ, and traced on
a spheroidal surface, supposed to be formed by the conti¬
nuation of the ocean. Let L be the last station, and LX
the perpendicular passing through L and meeting AZ in
the point X; it is required to determine AX.
By means of the previous calculations, all the sides of
the triangles are supposed to have been computed, as well
as the azimuth of C, or the inclination of AC to the meri¬
dian. Let CD be produced to M. In the triangle ACM
there are given the side AC, and the two angles CAM,
ACM. To find the third angle AMC, first compute the
spherical excess <; from each of the angles CAM, ACM,
subtract \ i; take the sum of the two remainders from
180°, and there will be left the value of AMC. The angles
being thus given, and also the side AC, the other two^
sides AM and CM are computed in the same manner as if
the triangle were rectilinear.
In the quadrilateral MDFN there are given the two
opposite angles at M and F (the first from the previous
calculation, and the second by observation), together with
the two sides MD and DF. Draw the diagonal Mr;
then in the triangle DMF there are given the two sides
DM, DF, and the included angle D. From D deduct 5»,
the excess t being computed by an approximate value o
the area of the triangle, and compute, as in a plane triangle,
the side MF and the two angles DMF, DFM. To each
of these add ^ e, and the two sums being deducted from
the angles DMN and DFN, there will remain the two
angles FMN and MFN. Hence, since MF has been al¬
ready computed, we can find MN, FN, and the angle
MNF, in the usual manner. ,
Now, in the triangle NPH, NH is known (for FH an
FN have been calculated), and the adjacent angles
NHP are given by observation ; therefore we can com¬
pute NP, PH, and the remaining angle NPH.
To find PX we may produce IL to Z, and resolve
two triangles PIZ and ZLX. In the first of t ese,
side PI, and the two adjacent angles PIZ, IPZ, are alrea
known ; whence we find IZ, PZ, and the angle .T 7
have then in the right-angled triangle LXZ, the side ,
and the angle LZX to find ZX. From PZ subtract ZA,
and there remains PX, the quantity sought.
In proceeding by the method now indicated, e P
rical excess £ must be first computed for each of ne '
angles to be resolved ; then each observed spherical ang
must be diminished by 3«, in order to allow tie c
tions to be made by the rules of plane trigonome ry ,
when the result has been found, we must again atlc
angle the small quantity in order to have the ru P ^
rical angle. (See Delambre, Methodes Analytique p
Determination d'un Arc du Meridien.) tprmined
It is necessary to remark, that the point A, e
the K
' by drawing a perpendicular from the last station to the
• meridian, is not situated exactly on the same parallel of
latitude with L. Its latitude is a little greater than that
of L; and unless the distance of the station from the me¬
ridian is very small, the difference will be sensible, and re¬
quires to be calculated. Conceive another point, 1/ (fig.
5), on the same parallel of latitude with L, and at the
same distance from the meridian on the opposite side.
The point X is on the circumference of a great circle, per¬
pendicular to the meridian PE, and passing through L and
U; but the small circle, or parallel of latitude of L and
I/, intersects the meridian in a different point 1. Now let
PE (fig. 6) be the meridian, XC the intersection of its
plane with that of the great circle passing through the
points LL', and In the intersection of the plane of the me¬
ridian and the plane of the small circle or parallel of lati¬
tude passing through the «ame points LL', so that E/ is
the latitude of L, EX that of the point X, and /X the dis¬
tance between the perpendicular and the small circle pass¬
ing through L. Let In and XC intersect in m, then ZX
being a small arc, may be regarded as a straight line; con¬
sequently XZ = mX. tan. Xml. But Xml = XCE = lati¬
tude of L very nearly, consequently, taking X to denote the
latitude of L, we have XZ = mX tan. X. Now mX is the
versed sine of the arc whose chord is LX ; therefore, making
LX2
d = earth’s diameter, mX = and consequently XZ =
LX2
-j- tan. X, which is the quantity to be subtracted from
the calculated meridional arc.
Delambre employed a different method of computing
the distance between the parallels of the terminal points
of the measured arc. It requires, however, the dimensions
of the earth to be previously known with tolerable accura¬
cy. Let AB (fig. 7) be the arc measured on the surface of
the spheroid PAB; then, having observed the latitude of
the station A, and the azimuth of AB, that is the angle BAP,
we have sufficient data, supposing the dimensions of the
earth to be nearly known, to find not only the distance be¬
tween the parallels of A and B, but also the latitude and
longitude of B, and the azimuth of BA, as observed from
B. Through A and B draw the normals AM and BN, meet¬
ing the axis in M and N ; join BM, AN; and about M as
a centre, with an arbitrary radius, describe the circular
arcs bp, pa, ab, forming the spherical triangle pab. Now,
if we compare the triangle PAB on the spheroid with pab
on the sphere, we find pa zr PA in degrees, each being
the coiatitude of A ; pb-= PB, each being the colatitude
of B; the angle apb — APB being the difference of longi¬
tude of A and B, and also the angle pab — PAB, each
measuring the inclination of the planes PMA, AMB. But
the angle pba is in general not equal to PB A ; for as the
normals do not meet the axis in the same point, the planes
AMB and ANB do not coincide ; and pba is the measure
of the inclination of PMB and AMB, whereas PBA is
the measure of the inclination of PMB and ANB. Now,
m the triangle pba there are given the angles at p and a,
so that if the side ab can be determined in terms of AB,
the other parts of the triangle may be computed, and
thence the difference between pb and pa, or the distance
between the parallels, which being found in terms of BA,
Wlll be expressed in feet.
We have therefore to find an expression for ab, or the
angle AMB. Now, in the triangle ABM there are given
B (the measured arc), and AM the normal at A (the
"tensions of the earth being nearly known). But
B1VT — u xt Sln- MNB
^ ~~ ^ snPNMB’ anc* ^ we ma^e ^ = PNB the co-
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
557
latitude of B, and x — NBM, we shall have NMB = PNB Figure of
— x — M—l—.X; therefore sin. NMB = cos. (I + x) - the Earth,
we have also sin. MNB = sin. (90° — Z) = cos. Z; where-   
fore BM = BN cos" ^
BN
cos. (Z + a?)
 cos. Z
cos. Z cos. x — sin. Z sinTx
= BN
1
cos. x— tan. Z sin. x
— BN (1 + tan. Z sin. x + 2 sin.2| +, &c.
Now
z is a
very small angle; its sine is in fact expressed in terms of
the square of the eccentricity, so that terms multiplied
by it may be neglected without any sensible error. We
may' therefore assume BM — BN. In the triangle ABM
we have then given the three sides, whence the angles
may be computed, and consequently ab = AMB becomes
known.
Haying found ab, w^e have given in the triangle abp the
two sides ab, and the observed angle pab, from which
to compute the remaining parts of the triangle, viz. pb the
latitude of B, apb its longitude, and pba the azimuth of
A, as seen from B. Make pa' = pa, and Pfr to PB, then
ba’ z= pb —pa is the distance between the parallels, the
radius being unit; therefore, since 1 : MA \:a'b: AV, we
have AU == AM X a'b, that is, the distance between the
parallels of the extreme stations on the spheroid.
When the distance between the parallels of the ex¬
treme points of the arc has been ascertained, it only re¬
mains to determine the difference of their latitudes, or
the length of the corresponding celestial arc. This is the
most difficult part of the whole operation. The error of
a single second in the difference of the latitudes corre¬
sponds to about a hundred feet on the terrestrial meridian ;
and when it is considered that the latitudes of the best
determined spots on the earth, even of the Observatories
of Greenwich and Paris, are still uncertain to the amount
of at least half a second, it will be easily apprehended that
the errors of the latitudes are more to be feared than any
which can affect the measurement of the base, or the
angles, or the direction of the meridian. In the British
survey, that of India, and some on the Continent, the lati¬
tudes were observed with the zenith sector, an instrument
peculiarly adapted to this purpose. Ramsden’s zenith
sector, made expressly for the determination of the arc of
meridian between Dunnose and Clifton, carried a tele¬
scope of eight feet in length. With this superb instru¬
ment, for a description of which we must refer to the se¬
cond volume of the Trigonometrical Survey, the zenith
distances of several of the northern stars were observed
at both extremities of the arc; and the difference of two
zenith distances of the same star is evidently the same as
the difference of the latitudes of the two stations. It may
be remarked, that the result of this observation is indepen¬
dent of the declination of the star; and if the observation
is made at the second station within a short time after it
was made at the first, the result is also nearly independent
of the nutation.
For the determination of the French arc of meridian,
the latitudes were observed with the repeating circle.
This instrument, on account of its portability, is of the
greatest use in geodetic operations ; but it may be ques¬
tioned whether it can be safely relied on for the determin¬
ation of so very important an element as the latitude. Be¬
sides the want of power in the telescope, it is found to be
affected in some unaccountable way by a constant error,
which, however carefully its amount may have been deter¬
mined, leaves a degree of uncertainty with regard to the
results. Mechain mistook the latitude of Barcelona by
about S". It is to be regretted that the latitudes of Dun¬
kirk and Formentera, the extremities of the French arc,
558
Figure of
toe Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
have not been determined with the zenith sector. All
the other operations connected with the measurement of
that extensive arc have been executed in a style of such
decided superiority, that a more satisfactory, if not more
accurate, determination of the latitudes is alone wanting
to render it the most valuable application of science that
has ever been made with a view to ascertain the magni¬
tude and exact figure of our globe.
The measurement of an arc of parallel usually forms
part of the operations connected with the survey of a large
extent of country. It will frequently happen that the
sides of some of the great triangles lie in a direction near¬
ly perpendicular to the meridian, in which case the aic of
the terrestrial parallel may be easily computed from an
approximate knowledge of the earth s dimensions; and if
the difference of longitude of the two stations, or the an¬
gle which their respective meridians make with each other,
has been accurately determined, the comparison of the
corresponding celestial and terrestrial arcs will give the
length of the degree on the parallel. By comparing this
result with the length of a degree measured on a different
parallel, or on the meridian, we can easily deduce the el-
lipticity.
Perhaps the simplest way of conveying an accurate idea
of the nature of the operations necessary to be undertaken
in the measurement of an arc of parallel, will be to de¬
scribe the method that was actually followed in the Bri¬
tish trigonometrical survey, in determining the length of
an arc of parallel from the measured distance between
Beachv Head and Dunnose.
Let BW (fig. 8) be an arc of the great circle perpendi¬
cular to the meridian of Beachy Head at B, meeting that
of Dunnose in W; and let DR be an arc of the great cir¬
cle perpendicular to the meridian of Dunnose at D, meet¬
ing that of Beachy Head in II; and let BL and DE be
the parallels of latitude passing through B and D. It is
supposed that the latitudes of the two places have been
determined, together with the angles PBD and PDB,
which they reciprocally make with each other and the
pole ; and also that the distance between them on the arc
of the great circle has been measured: the question is
then to find the difference of their longitudes, or the angle
BPD, and the distance in feet between the meridians on
the arcs of the small circles BL and DE passing through
the places.
In the small spheroidal triangle WBD there were given
by observation the two angles WBD and W DB, which
being reduced to the angles made by the chords, gave the
two angles of the corresponding plane triangle. The side
BD w as found by triangulation = 339,397"6 feet; whence
the chord of the perpendicular arc BW was found
— 336,115*6 feet. In like manner the chord of DR was
found = 336,980 feet.
The terrestrial distances being thus found, it was next
necessary to find the difference of longitude, or the angle
P, and the lengths of the arcs of parallel BL and DE in
degrees. For this purpose there are given PB the co¬
latitude of B, PD the colatitude of D, the angle PBD, which
is the azimuth of D as seen from B, and PDB the azimuth
of B as seen from D.
The rigorous solution of this problem on the spheroid is
attended with considerable difficulty. An approximation
is however easily obtained from a property of spheroidal
triangles (for the demonstration of which we must refer
to the Phil. Trans, vol. Ixxx.), namely, that the sum of the
horizontal angles on a spheroid (or indeed on any surface
differing little from that of a sphere) is nearly the same
as the sum of those which would be observed on a sphere,
the latitudes and difference of longitudes being the same
on both figures. Assuming therefore the sum of the two
angles PDB and PBD to be the same as the sum of two Figur
spherical angles, we have, from Napier’s analogies (seetheL
Trigonometry),
cos. i (PD + PB) : cos. \ (PD — PB)
= cot. £ P : tan. \ (PDB +PBD),
whence
tan 1 P = cos-i(FD —PB) x cot. x (PDB + PBD)-
tan‘ 2 1 “ cos. X (PD + PB) 2 v
that is to say, the tangent of half the difference of longi¬
tudes is equal to the cotangent of half the sum of the
azimuthal angles multiplied into the ratio of the cosine of
half the difference of the colatitudes to the cosine of half
their sum. In the case under consideration the angle P
was found = 1° 26' 47"*93.
We have now given, in the right-angled triangle PBW,
which may be considered as spherical, the side PB and
the angle P, whence BW was found = 54/ 56"-21. And
from die triangle PDR, in which the side PD and the
angle P are given, DR was found — 55' 4/''74.
The chords of the two perpendicular arcs BW and DR,
whose radius is the radius of the earth, are found, from an
approximate knowledge of the earth’s diameter, to be three
feet and a half shorter than the arcs themselves, whence
the arc BW = 336,119-1 feet, and DR = 336,983-5 feet.
Hence the length of the degree of the great circle per¬
pendicular to the meridian, at the middle point between
W and B, is found by proportion = 367,096-8 feet, and in
the middle point between R and D = 367,090-8 feet.
Therefore the mean, or 367,093-8, is the length of a de¬
gree of the great circle perpendicular to the meridian in
latitude 50° 41', which is nearly that of the middle point
between Beachy Head and Dunnose.
Now, by reason of the short distance between the two
stations, and their small difference in latitude, the two
radii of curvature at B and D may be regarded as inter¬
secting each other on the axis at M (fig. 9). iherefore
DM is the radius of the great circle perpendicular to the
meridian, and DE is the radius of the parallel at D.
Therefore 1° of the great circle : 1° of the parallel as
DM : DE; and DM : DE = 1 : cos. latitude of D;
whence 1 : cos. 50° 44' 24" = 367,094 : 232,314 feet for
the degree of parallel at Beachy Head, and 1 : cos. 50
37' 7" = 367,094 : 232,914 feet for the degree of parallel at
Dunnose. (Trig. Survey, vol. i. p. 113.)
The length of the degree of the great circle perpendi¬
cular to the meridian, deduced in the manner now explain¬
ed, is about 1250 feet greater than on the spheroid which
corresponds with the measurements of the meridional arcs.
This discrepancy gave rise to a suspicion of errors m t ie
observation of the azimuthal angles ; and, in fact, the di -
ference of longitude, in order to agree with other deter
minations, ought to be about 18" greater than that w ici
was determined in the survey. With this correction t e
length of the degree of the perpendicular circle is f°UI\
= 365,838 feet. Assuming the dimensions of the eartn
deduced from the survey, the length of the degree per
pendicular to the meridian at the mean latitude isob ,
feet. Hence 1° parallel = 231,801 feet.
In the Philosophical Transactions for 1824 an accou
is given of some experiments performed by Dr liar s
determining the ditterence of longitude of Dover an
mouth. Twenty-four chronometers were transpor e '
sea, three several times, from the one place to t e o >
by which means the difference of the apparent times
determined. The difference of longitude was thus toui
to be 6° 22' 6"; and the length of the paraUe!, as to
from the survey, being 1,474,672 feet, we have t e e o
of a degree of parallel at latitude 50° 44' 24 — >
# « i. ueen
The most extensive arc of parallel which nab }
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Fieur ‘ measured is that between Marennes (near Bordeaux) and
the fo j Padua. The details of the operations, which were per-
W ■ formed in 1822 and 1823, are given in the Connaissance
de Terns for 1829. The terrestrial arc was determined
by triangulation in the usual manner, and the astronomic
cal amplitude by fire signals observed from station to sta¬
tion at five intermediate stations. There are consequent¬
ly six independent arcs; and the final result is affected
with the accumulated errors at all the stations. The ter¬
restrial distance was found to be 1,010,996 metres, or
3,316,976 English feet; and the difference of time deter¬
mined by chronometers 51 min. 56-24 sec., corresponding
to 12° 59' 3"-75 of longitude. The mean length of the
degree, found from the partial arc between Marennes and
Geneva, is 255,546 feet, and from the whole arc between
Marennes and Padua 255,470 feet, both of which results
are greater than the degree on the regular spheroid, which
is found to represent most nearly the meridional arcs un¬
der the same parallel of latitude, namely, 45° 43' 12". No
great reliance, however, can be placed on this determina¬
tion, on account of the uncertainty that exists respecting
some of the longitudes, the determination of which was
found to be attended with great difficulty. If the differ¬
ence of longitude of Marennes and Padua were found by
good astronomical observations, the discrepancies would
probably be diminished.
SECTION III.
DETERMINATION OF THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH FROM
GEODETIC MEASURES.
Assuming the figure of the earth to be that of an ellip¬
tic spheroid of revolution, the magnitude and ratio of its
equatorial and polar diameters may be determined from
the comparison of the lengths of lines measured between
determined points on its surface, with the corresponding
arcs of the celestial sphere, by means of theorems which
we shall now proceed to demonstrate.
1. To express the radius of curvature of a meridian in
terms of the latitude.
Let PDQ (fig. 10) be the meridian, CP half the polar
axis, CQ the radius of the equator, DM a perpendicular
to the tangent at D, meeting CP in M, and CQ in N;
and let
a = CP half the polar axis,
h — CQ the radius of the equator,
n — DN the normal at D,
r — radius of curvature at D.
Join CD; let CD' be the diameter conjugate to CD,
meeting DM in G; and through D draw DE and DF re¬
spectively perpendicular to CP and CQ. It is demon¬
strated in the article Conic Sections (Part IV. Sec. 2,
Prop. V. Cor. I.), that r X DG = CD'2; and (Prop. XVII.
Part II.) CD' X DG = CP X CQ =: ab; whence CD'2
a2 ^ -u- DG2; and consequently r X DG3 = a2 62.
Put (Prop. XXL Part II.) DN X DG = CP2; that is,
= a2; whence n3 X DG3 = a6, and therefore
DG3 = a6 -i- n3, consequently
b2 n3
r=^~ (1.)
a*
Again (Prop. XXL Part II.) DN : DM = a2 :bz; and
die triangles NCM, NFD being similar, DN : DM = NF:
CF, whence CF = NF. Now let the angle DNF or
a2
die latitude of D = / ,- then DF = n sin. /, NF = « cos. 4
559
and CF = cos. 1. But DF = CE = * and CFthfch!
= p ; substituting therefore n sin. I for .r, and ~ n cos. I
a2
for y in the equation of the ellipse, namely,
we find
whence
x* . y*-
— "4“ — i
a2 ^ bl A’
w2 sin.2 I y IP n2 cos.2 I
a2 ^ = 1’
a4
a2 sin.2 I + b~ cos.21'
Let b — a (1 + e) (e denoting the ellipticity or the
ratio of the difference of the semiaxes to the polar semi¬
axis, that is, e — — ; by substituting, we get
sin.2 Z + (l + e)2 cos.2 /’
but since the ellipticity e is very small, all terms multi¬
plied by the square or higher powers of e may be rejected
without sensible error. Hence (I + e)2 = 1 + 2 anti
therefore n2 ~ or«z= «(1 + 2ecos.21)~2-
whence, on developing and rejecting terms containing e2,
n — a (\ — e cos.2 V) (2.)
Now, from equation (1), r —
IP
?r —
1 + 2
n3; and
a*
from equation (2), n3 = a3 (1 — 3 e cos.2 1); therefore
r=.a{\ + 2e)(l — 3ecos.2Z) = a(l + 2e — 3ecos.2/);
or, finally,
r — a (^Y — e + 3e sin.2 /) (3.)
2. To express the radius of a circle parallel to the equa¬
tor in terms of the latitude.
Suppose the parallel to pass through D, then DE = y
is the radius required. But it was shown in the last Prop.
IP
that CF (= DE) zz — n cos. I; therefore, substituting
a2 (1 + 2 e) for b2, we have y — n cos. / (1 + 2 e).
Substituting in this the value oi' n given by equation (2),
we have y -= a cos. ^(1 + 2e)(I — e cos.2 1); whence
y — a cos. / (I + 2 e — e cos.2 t), or
y — a cos. / (1 + e + e sin.2 /) (4.)
3. To find an expression for the length of an arc of the
meridian, in terms of the latitudes of its extreme pointy
If the arc is small, it may be regarded as coinciding
with the osculating circle at its middle point. Let z =
the arc, and r — the radius of curvature at its middle
point; then {z being supposed small) we have z — r sin. z.
But z : sin. z — 1" : sin. 1"; therefore sin. z — z sin. 1",
and the length of the arc in feet —rz sin. 1". Now let l
and l be the latitudes at the extremities of the arc, then
J- (f + /') is the latitude of its middle point; and on sub¬
stituting for r its value found in equation (3), the expres¬
sion for the length of a meridional arc, in terms of its ex¬
treme latitudes l' and l, is
* = a |l—e + 3esin.2i(/+/') |(/' —Qsin. 1"...(5.)
But if the arc is of considerable extent, this expression
will not be sufficiently exact, and it becomes necessary to
find by integration the lengths of the arcs from the equa¬
tor to each extremity of the given arc : the difference of
these two will give z itself. At the latitude l, dzzz rdl;
therefore, from equation (3),
dz =. a (l — e) dl + 3 ae sin.2 I dl,
560
Figure of and integrating,
the Earth. z = al — ad +
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
2038
3 ae
But
/si.
/ sin.'
2 l dl.
ldl=\l — £ sin.
2 1; therefore
whence e =
3 X
1
346"
362932 X sin.2 (52° 35' 45")’
Figu:; f
the 11,
Wyi'
— (1 + %e)l-
| e sin. 2 l
}
.(6-)
because at the equator z and l
No constant is necessary,
vanish together.
Let z' be another arc reckoned from the equator to the
point whose latitude is l'; then, similarly,
z' = a j (1 + i —
and consequently
Having found the value of e, that of the polar semi-dia¬
meter, or a, is obtained as follows. At the equator, where
L vanishes, we have Z z= a (1—e) 3600 sin.", whence
Z _ Z X 346
a =
e sm.
2 Z'} ;
(1 _ e) 3600 sin. 1" 345 X 3600 sin."’
and substituting 362,932 for Z, we find
a = 20,855,000 feet nearly.
The method of deducing the ellipticity and dimensions
of the earth which has now been explained, may be con-
^ veniently employed when the measured arcs are small;
-l) — |e(sin. 2/'—sin.2/) V; but when the arcs are considerable (and it is necessary
t a. \ • /// A t^at they should extend over several degrees, in order to
2 cos. (I1 + l) sm. (/' i) ; gjve resubs deserving of confidence), we must employ the
more accurate expression of the arc found in equation (7);
f . i \/// i\ t nt 7\\ that is to say, we must employ the whole arc measured,
z?-z = a) (l + ^)(*-0-tecos.(Z'+0sin.(Z'-0J, instead of the resulting length of a single degree. Equa-
but sin. 2
therefore
z = a j(l + ie)(Z,-
V — sin. 2 1 —
tion (7), when reduced to numbers, takes the form
A z= am + aen   (10.)
V) sin. 1"—|ecos.(Z' + /)sin.(f—V) (7.) in which m, n, and the arc A, are numbers determined by
* observation. Another arc will give a similar equation,
A' = am! +
and by '•ombining the two equations we get
Am' — Mm An' — Mn .
e = — —; «=  (1L)
or, as l' — l is expressed in seconds, z' — z
4. To express the length of an arc of parallel in terms of
the radius.
Let y — the radius, D = the amplitude of the arc in
seconds, and V = its length in feet. Then, by what is
shown above, the length of the arc in feet is yD sin. 1".
Hence, from the value of y given in equation (4), the
length of the arc of parallel at latitude l is
V = a cos. Z (1 + e + e sin.2 V) D sin. 1" (8.)
5. From the measured length of two degrees of meridian
at different latitudes, to determine the axis and ellipticity of
the spheroid.
Let Z and Z' be the measured lengths of two degrees,
and the latitudes of their middle points be respectively L
and L'; then (since in this case V — / = 1° = 3600") we
have, by equation (5),
Z = a(l — e + 3e sin.2 L) 3600 sin. 1",
Z'z=«(l — e 3 e sin.2 L') 3600 sin. 1",
therefore
Z'_l — e + 3e sin.2 L'
Z — 1 — e + 3e sin.2 L
whence, performing the division, and neglecting terms
multiplied by e2,
l = ‘
+ 3 e (sin.2 L' — sin.5
from which we find the ellipticity
Z' —Z
L)>
3 Z (sin.2 L' — sin.2 L) 
The accuracy of this expression will depend on the
magnitude of the denominator, or the difference between
L' and L. If L is nearly equal to L', the denominator be¬
comes very small, and the value of e in consequence un¬
certain. The most favourable determination, therefore,
that can be obtained is, when one of the degrees, Z', for
example, is measured near the pole, and Z at the equator,
where L is zero. As an example of this method, we may
deduce the value of e from a comparison of the lengths of
a degree at the equator and in England. Bouguer found
the length of the degree at the equator to be 362,932
English feet; and from the British arc, between Dunnose
and Clifton, the length of the degree is 364,970 feet, at
the latitude of 52° 35' 45". We have therefore Z — 362,932,
Z'= 364,970, L = 0, L' = 52° 35' 45", by substituting
which in equation (9), there results
A'n — An1*/ mn! — rrin
If the terrestrial meridian were a regular ellipse, the
ellipticity deduced from two measured arcs would be the
same at every latitude. But it is found that no two dif¬
ferent measures that have yet been effected concur in
giving exactly the same figure to the meridian. Hence
it becomes necessary to seek the most probable mean
among the different results. Each new measure affords
a new equation of condition, of the form of equation (10);
and as the number of unknown quantities remains the
same, whatever may be the number of equations, recourse
must be had to the method of least squares, or some of
the other methods of combination employed by astrono¬
mers. In this way each individual measurement serves
to correct the results given by the former ones.
6. From the measured lengths of an arc of meridian, and
an arc of parallel, to determine the ellipticity of the sphe¬
roid.
Let z be the arc of meridian between the latitudes / and
/', V the length of the arc of parallel in feet at the lati¬
tude L, and D the difference of longitude in seconds be¬
tween its extreme points. From equation (5) we have
z = a f 1 — e+3e sin.2 ^ (/' + 0 j Q s'n’ ^
and from equation (8),
Y=:a(l+e + c sin.2 L) cos. L X D sin. 1",
wdience
V 2
— «e |
and, consequently,
cos. L X D sin. I"
2 + sin.2L-
(l’ _ /) sin. 1"
■ 3 sin.2 -| (£' + 0 | >
.(12-)
cos. L X D sin. 1" (/' — l) sin. 1"
a | 2 + sin.2 L — 3 sin.2 £ (f + /) }
When the two arcs have been measured at the same
jigu **•» * * \ • /'  \j.
the E k this fraction becomes a (2 — 2 sin.2 L) ~ 2 a cos.2 L
if latitude, that is, when L =r ^ (Z' + Z), the denominator of
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
561
^ ^ This combination may be considered as giving a correct
representation of the curvature at any particular place,
or of the dimensions and eccentricity of the osculating
spheroid at that place. But, speaking generally, the ex¬
act determination of the differences of longitude is attend¬
ed with so much uncertainty, that the results obtained
from the comparison of arcs of parallel, either with one
another or with arcs of meridian, cannot be relied on
with much confidence. It is consequently unnecessary
to point out the equations to be employed in deducing
the ellipticity from the comparison of two arcs of parallel.
We shall now proceed to apply the above formulas to
the results of the principal geodetic measurements that
have been executed in different countries. The following
able contains twenty arcs of meridian, between the Figure of
equator and 66° of north latitude; and as they have all the Earth,
been determined with the utmost attention to every cir-
cumstance which could be supposed to affect their accu¬
racy, they may be regarded as decidedly the best ele¬
ments we yet possess for the solution of the problem of
the figure of the earth. We have excluded all the ancient
arcs except that of Bouguer, and also some recent ones,
where the locality was unfavourable. They are all re¬
duced to the level of the sea. In reducing the foreign
measures, the metre has been assumed (according to
Captain Kater’s determination) — 3’280899 feet, ancf the
toise = 6-394596 feet, of Schuckburgh’s scale. The ori¬
ginal documents are given in the various works to which
reference has been made in the first section of this
article.
No.
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
vol. ix.
Extremities of Arc.
Peruvian Arc.
Tarqui 
Cotchesqui,
1st Indian Arc.
Trivandeporum.
Paudree 
2d Indian Arcs.
Punnae 
Putchapollium.
Namthabad 
Daumergidda..
Takal Khera...
Kulliampoor....
Modern French Arcs.
Formentera 
Montjouy.
Carcassone
Evaux 
Pantheon...
Dunkirk 
Gieenwich.
English Arcs.
Dunnose 
Arbury Hill 
Clifton.
Burleigh Moor.
Hanoverian Arc.
Gottingen.
Altona 
Russian Arcs.
Jacobstadt  
Dorpat.
Hochland.
Svanberg’s Swedish Arc.
Malldrn....
Pahtawara.
Latitude.
— 3°
+ 0
4' 30"-
2 32*
+ 11 44 52-59
13 19 49 -02
Amplitude.
7' 3''T
1 34 56 -4
+ 8
10
15
18
21
24
9
59
5
3
5
7
32 -51
43 -05
54 -33
16-07
51 -94
11-85
+ 38
41
43
46
48
51
51
39
21
12
10
50
2
28
56-11
46 -58
54 -31
42 -54
49 -37
8-50
40 -00
+ 50 37 8 -60
52 13 28 -59
53 27 31 -99
54 34 21 -70
+ 51 31 47-85
53 32 45-27
+ 56 30 4 -64
58 22 47 -41
60 5 9 -90
50 10 -5
6 11 -3
57 21 -7
2 35-9
1 19-9
41
51
57
40
11
26
50 -5
7-7
48 -2
6-8
19-1
31 -5
1 36 20 -0
1 14 3-4
1 6 49 -7
2 0 57 -4
+ 65 31 31 -06
67 8 51 -41
1 52 42 -8
1 42 22 -5
1 37 20 -3
Length in
English Feet.
1,131,057
574,369
1,029,171
1,489,198
1,073,409
1,105,499
1,097,320
982,247
674,623
1,079,706
973,853
798,971
161,412
586,319
450,018
406,516
736,426
686,022
623,719
593,278
4 B
562
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Figure of Substituting in equation (7) the values of 2/ — z, l, and
the Earth. ^ for each of the arcs in the above table, we obtain the
following equations of condition :
1. a X-0544111 — aeX *05426 = 1131057
2. a X-0276169 —oeX-02371= 574368
3. a X-0495037 —aeX-04536=1029171
4. a X-0716119 —aeX-06058=1489198
5. a X-0515924 —aeX-03891 = 1073409
6. a X-0531157 —aeX-03519 = 1105499
7. a X-0527472 —«eX-02933 = 1097320
8. a X-0470778 + aeX-01131= 982247
9. a X-0323260 + aeX-01159= 674623
10. a X-0517210 + ae X-02504=1079706
11. a X-0465751 +aeX-02940= 973853
12. a X-0381990 + aeX-02893= 798971
13. a X-0077158 + aeX-00636= 161412
14. «X-0280221 + aeX -02335= 586319
15. a X-0215422 + aeX-01900= 450018
16. a X-0194397 + «eX-01875= 406516
17. a X-0351849 + aeX-03132= 736426
18. a X-0327868 + aeX-03708= 686022
19. a X-0297797 + «eX-03618= 623719
20. a X-0283097 + «eX *04293= 593278
From any two of these equations we may deduce values
of a and e; but, as might be expected, the results are
found to be very different according as different arcs '
are selected for comparison. We may also add any
number of the equations together, for instance Nos. 3, 4,
5, 6, and 7, the sum of which forms the continuous arc
measured in India by Colonel Lambton and Captain Eve¬
rest: or Nos. 8, 9, 10, 11, and 12, which form the French
arc from Dunkirk to Formentera. But as it is impossible
to satisfy at once all the equations by any value whatever
that can be assigned to a and e, in order to exclude all
arbitrary hypotheses, it is necessary to suppose all the
observations to have been alike good, and deduce values
of a and e from a combination of the whole. The best
method of effecting the combination is that of minimum
squares, the principle of which is contained in the follow¬
ing rule : Multiply all the terms of each of the proposed
equations by the co-efficient of a in that equation, taken
with its proper sign, and make the sum of all the products
equal to zero. This will give an equation in which the sum
of the squares of the errors is a minimum in respect of a.
Multiply then each equation by the co-efficient of ae in
that equation, and make the sum of all the products = 0.
This w-ill give a second equation, in which the sum of the
squares of the errors is a minimum in respect of ae. From
the two equations thus obtained, the values of a and ae,
and consequently e, are found in the usual manner. The
operation is extremely laborious when the equations are
numerous, but it is attended with no difficulty.
By combining the above twenty equations in the man¬
ner now described, M. Schmidt obtained the following re¬
sults, which are given in No. 213 of Schumacher’s Astro-
nomische Nadirichten, p. 371 ; and they are unquestionably
entitled to be regarded as the best determination of the
magnitude and figure of the earth which has been found
from the operations that have been undertaken up to the Figis i
present time for the measurement of meridional arcs. the! h.
Radius of equator — b — 20921665 Eng. feet,
Radius of pole — a — 20852394
5   a 1
Ellipticity = e =  = = -0032555
a 301-02
Degree at equator  = 362732
Degree at latitude 45° = 364543-5
In order to discover how nearly the different measures
agree with a spheroid having the dimensions now given,
we shall compare the length of a degree, as given by each
of the above twenty arcs, with its length, computed from
these values of a and e at the same latitudes.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Latitude of
Middle Point.
- 1°
12
9
13
16
19
22
40
42
44
47
49
51
51
52
54
52
57
59
66
31'
32
34
2
34
34
36
0
17
41
30
56
15
25
50
0
32
26
13
20
0"
21
43
54
42
34
32
52
21
48
46
29
24
18
30
56
17
26
58
11
Measured
Length of
Degree.
362,809
362,988
362,863
362,873
363,125
363,257
363,084
364,152
364,239
364,347
364,962
365,052
365*116
365,208
364,625
365,002
365,301
365,203
365,551
365,697
Computed
Length of
Degree.
362,736
362,905
362,834
362,919
363,029
363,139
363,268
364,233
364,376
364,528
364,706
364,859
364,940
364,952
365,036
365,109
365,019
365,310
365,412
365,777
Error in
Measure.
+
+
+
+
+ 118
— 184
— 81
— 137
— 181
+ 256
+ 193
+ 176
+ 256
— 411
— 107
+ 282
— 107
+ 139
— 80
From this table w*e see that the degrees increase gra¬
dually from the equator to the pole ; but the increase is by
no means regular. It occurs in some instances that the de¬
grees appear to diminish on going northward; but these
anomalies must be ascribed either to errors in the observa¬
tions or to local irregularity of form or density. The most
probable source of error is in the latitudes, first, on account
of the difficulty of the observation to the requisite degree
of accuracy; and, secondly, on account of the irregularities
in the density of the exterior crust of the earth, which
cause a deflexion of the plumb-line from the true ze¬
nith. Hence the longest arcs are the best; for the pro¬
bable error in the determination of the difference of lati¬
tudes is the same whether the arcs are great or small. An
error of 1" in the latitude corresponds to about a hundre
feet on the ground.
If we compare the degree found by some of the mea
sures which have been rejected from the foregoing ta e,
with the degree computed for the same latitudes, we s a
find the errors or anomalies much greater.
Arcs.
Lacaille’s arc at Cape of Good Hope 
North American arc, by Mason and Dixon.
Roman arc, by Boscovich 
Piedmontese arc, by Plana and Carlini 
Maupertuis’ Swedish arc  
Lat. of Middle
Point.
Measured
Length of
Degree.
-33c
39
42
44
66
18' 30"
12 00
59 00
57 30
19 37
364,712
363,786
364,262
368,242
367,086
Computed
Length of
Degree.
363,826
364,181
364,418
364,543
365,774
Difference.
+ 886
— 395
_ 156
+ 3699
+ 1312
Figu
the E
Two of these differences are considerably greater than
any in the preceding table. Lacaille s arc corresponds to
one in the northern hemisphere at a higher latitude by
11°, whence it has been inferred that the two hemispheres
are not exactly similar. The measurement of Plana and
Carlini appears to have been excellent; but both extre¬
mities of the arc were in the immediate vicinity of lofty
mountain ranges, and the very great deviation from the
mean result of the other measures can only be accounted
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
for by the disturbing effects of local attraction. Mauper-
ZLT Wal ne/er r?cko1ed of much value, as it was evi¬
dent from the first that there was an error in the deter¬
mination of the latitudes.
Takmg the results of the four arcs of parallel mention-
e i before, and computing the corresponding degree from
the formula a cos. / (1 + e + e sin.2 /) 3600 sin. 1" fsup-
posmg a and e to have the same values as above), we
get the following table:
563
Figure of
the Earth.
Latitude.
43° 31' 50"
50 44 24
50 44 24
45 43 12
Measured
Degree.
266,345
232.331
231,579
255,480
Computed
Degree.
265,154
231,542
231,542
255,370
I Difference.
+ 1191
+ 789
+ 37
+ 110
Arcs of Parallel.
Lacaille’s arc across the mouth of the Rhone.
Roy’s arc from Beachy Head to Dunnose 
Arc from Dover to Falmouth 
Arc from Padua to Marennes 
It is remarkable that all these errors are affected with
the same sign; and the circumstance might seem to
strengthen a conclusion indicated by a comparison of the
errors of the meridional arcs, namely, that the meridional
curve is not exactly an ellipse, but protuberant between
the latitudes of 40° and 52° ; in consequence of which the
degrees of meridian are shorter, and the degrees of parallel
longer between those latitudes, than if the earth were a
regular ellipsoid. There is no reason to infer that the
meridians are not similar, or that the earth is not a solid
of revolution.
I he six partial arcs into which the whole arc from
Marennes to Padua was divided, give the following re¬
sults (Connaissance des Terns, 1829).
Arcs.
Marennes to St Preuil...
St Preuil to Sauvagnac.
Sauvagnac to Isson  
Isson to Geneva 
Geneva to Milan 
Milan to Padua 
Astronomical
Amplitudes.
sec.
48-99
23-09
51-39
57-82
9-57
10 45-38
Length in
Feet.
244,123
407,429
437,493
764,736
776,646
686,549
Length of
Degree.
255,865
255,248
255,228
255,686
255,486
255,308
The mean of these results, or the most probable value
of the degree of parallel at the latitude of the stations
(45 43' 12"), is 255,470 feet, exceeding the computed
length only by a hundred feet; and the ellipticity which
they indicate is "^gg-s” ’ i® considerably greater than
the ellipticity indicated by the measures of meridional
arcs, but agrees pretty nearly with that which we shall
see is given by the pendulum observations. The results,
however, though valuable as confirming the results ob¬
tained by other methods, are not by any means worthy
°‘ the same confidence as those deduced from the mea¬
surement of meridional arcs.
We shall conclude this section with a re-statement of
tie dimensions of the earth, resulting from the principal
measures of arcs of meridian.
_ Feet. Miles.
Equatorial diameter  = 41843330 = 7924-873
Fo^r diameter  - 41704788 = 7898-634
Ditterence of diameters, or)
polar compression j = 138o42 zz 26-239
Ratio of diameters  = 302-026 : 301-026
Ellipticity zz _ a _ 1
a 301-026
Length of degree at equator z= 362732 feet,
ength of degree at lat. 45° = 364543-5 feet.
SECTION IV.
THEORETICAL INVESTIGATION OF THE FIGURE OF THE
EARTH FROM THE LAWS OF HYDROSTATICS.
In attempting to deduce the figure of the earth from
the general laws of hydrostatic equilibrium, we suppose
the whole mass to have been originally fluid, or in such a
state, that all its molecules were at liberty to obey the
forces by which they are impelled. These forces are,
ls£, the attraction of the molecules on one another, ac¬
cording to the Newtonian law; and, 2dly, the centrifugal
force generated by the revolution of the whole mass
about a fixed axis; and the problem is, to determine the
form which such a body, under the influence of these
forces, would ultimately take. In order to obtain a solu¬
tion of the question thus generally enunciated, it is ne¬
cessary to know, a priori, the attractions of the different
parts of the fluid body on one another. But the attrac¬
tion of its different parts depends on their mutual ar¬
rangement; that is to say, on the internal constitution
of the body or the variations of its density, and also on
its form. Of the density in the interior of the earth
we know little ; and its form is the very element we are
seeking to determine. This mutual dependence of the
attraction of the mass on its form, and of its form on its
attraction, renders it necessary to have recourse to cer¬
tain arbitrary assumptions respecting the primitive figure
of the earth and its internal structure, in order to deter-
564
Figure of
the Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
mine the relation of the forces with which its different
parts attract each other, and thence assign its figure,
and the variations of gravity at the different points ot its
surface*
A fluid mass whose particles are impelled by no other
forces than those which result from their mutual attrac¬
tions, would assume (it is natural to suppose) a spherical
form. Such at least would be a figure of equilibrium ; tor
the surface of the sphere being every where at right angles
to the directions of the attracting forces, which in tins
case all pass through the centre of gravity, a particle
placed on its surface would have no tendency to move
along the surface in any direction. But if the mass is
made to revolve, the rotation gives rise to an extraneous
force, tending to cause every particle to recede from the
axis, and which acts with an energy on each particle di¬
rectly proportional to the distance of the particle from the
axis. Hence the attraction of the mass on each particle,
in the direction perpendicular to the axis ot rotation, is
diminished, and the diminution is greatest towards the
equatorial parts, where the distance from the axis is
greatest. In order, therefore, that the equilibrium may
be restored, an accumulation of matter must take place
about the equator, so that the mass will bulge out in that
quarter, and become flattened at the poles, where the
force of attraction is not counteracted. This considera¬
tion led Newton to suppose the figure of the earth to be
that of an oblate spheroid, or the figure that is generated
by the revolution of an ellipse about its shoi tei axis.
Before proceeding with the investigation, it will be pro¬
per to inquire what are the conditions necessary to ensure
the equilibrium of a mass of fluid matter, the particles of
which are acted on by their mutual attractions and the
centrifugal force of rotation. Conceive the particles of a
body A to be solicited by accelerating forces of any kind.
Suppose dm (which may be regarded as a rectangular
parallelepipedon, having its faces parallel to the planes of
the co-ordinates) to be one of the molecules of the mass,
and x, y, z, the co-ordinates of the solid angle nearest the
origin ; then, putting k zz the density of the mass, we
shall have dm - k . dx dy dz. Let X, Y, Z be the accele¬
rating forces acting on dm in the direction parallel to the
respective axes of the co-ordinates, then the motive forces
in the direction of the same axes will be respectively
Xr/m, Ydm, Zdm.
Now let p zz the pressure in the direction of the axis
of x, referred to the unit of surface ; then p . dydz is the
whole pressure on the face dydz of the element dm. But
p may be regarded as a function of x, y, z; therefore at
the point whose co-ordinates are x + dx, y, z, the pres-
dp
sure on the unit of surface is p + dx, and consequent¬
ly the whole pressure on the face of dm opposite to dxdy is
^p dx'j dydz. The particle dm is thus urged in the
direction of the axis of x by the two forces p . dydz and
^p Jf. ~ dx'j dydz, or by a force equal to their difference,
dp
namely, ^ dxdydz. In order, therefore, that dm may re¬
main at rest, this last force or pressure must be exactly
balanced by the motive force acting in the direction of
the same axis; that is to say, we must have dxdydz =
Xdm. In the same manner, we must have ~ dxdydz —
Ydm, and ^ dxdydz = Zdm; whence, since dm =thf J
dz
k . dxdy dz, we deduce
dx dy dz
kZ.
.(a).
Let the first of these equations be multiplied by dx, the
second by dy, and the third by dz, the sum of the pro¬
ducts gives
dp — k (Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) (6).
The first member of this equation being an exact diffe¬
rential, it is necessary, in order that the equilibrium be
possible, that the second member be an exact differential
likewise. This, therefore, is a condition which must be
satisfied.
At the surface of the mass the pressure p vanishes,
and equation (6) becomes
0 = ^ (Xdx + Ydy + Zdz),
which expresses that the resultant of the three forces
X, Y, Z, is perpendicular to the surface.
If the fluid is homogeneous, the density k is constant,
and may be represented by unit. In this case equation
(b) becomes
dp = Xdx + Ydy + Zdz,
and the equation of the surface is
Xdx + Ydy + Zdz) z= constant.
A
It will be remarked that this last equation does not be¬
long merely to the exterior surface or to the homogeneous
fluid: by giving a different value to the constant it will
form the equation of any surface in the interior of a mass
of heterogeneous fluid, at every point of which the pres¬
sure or the density is the same. For let the second mem¬
ber of equation (b) be a complete differential, and equal
to Mf. We have then dp zz kdf, whence k is necessarily
a function of jo and/. But on integrating the equation,/
will be given in a function of y?, consequently k must be a
function of p. When therefore k is constant, p must be
constant, or = 0; hence
J (Xdz
lx + Ydy + Zdz) = constant.
The different surfaces defined by this equation all possess
the common property of intersecting at every point the
resultant of the accelerating forces X, Y, Z at right angles;
hence they are denominated level surfaces.
It follows, therefore, that when the above equation is
satisfied, two conditions necessary to the equilibrium are
fulfilled; namely, that the resultant of all the forces urg¬
ing any particle in the interior of the mass is perpendi¬
cular to the level surface passing through that particle;
and that the force acting on any particle of the surface is
perpendicular to the surface. When the fluid is homoge¬
neous, or the density equal throughout the mass, the mst
of these conditions is always satisfied, and the second is
of itself sufficient. Writers on this subject have therefore
in general considered that all the conditions necessary
ensure the equilibrium of a fluid mass, whether omoge
neous or heterogeneous, revolving about a fixed axis, ar
comprehended in the single equation
/( Xdx + Xdy + Zdz) zz constant;
and this is the view which has been taken of the ques¬
tion by Clairaut, D’Alembert, Lagrange, Laplace, Lege
dre, and Poisson. It has, however,_ been demonstrate
by Mr Ivory, in an elaborate paper in the Philosop
Transactions for 1824, that when, as in the case ,
earth, a mutual attraction exists among ^ ,
molecules of the mass, another condition must be u >
and that the equilibrium will not necessarily take p »
unless the figure of the mass is such, that any in
body of the fluid, bounded by a level surface, be in I
Figuj :
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
brio with respect to the attraction of all the exterior mat¬
ter." Hence, in addition to the equation derived from
the principle of equal pressure in all directions, a second
equation must be satisfied, in virtue of which every level
stratum must possess such a figure as to attract all parti¬
cles in the inside with equal force in opposite directions.
Without having regard to this condition, the problem
cannot be completely solved. (See also Philosophical Ma¬
gazine for April 1825.)
Within the limits to which the present article must
necessarily be confined, it would be in vain to attempt to
give a general solution of this very intricate problem.
We shall therefore content ourselves with demonstrating
that all the conditions of equilibrium will be satisfied, if
the figure of the earth (assumed to be fluid) is that of a
spheroid of revolution of small ellipticity. We shall, first,
suppose the fluid to be homogeneous; and, secondly, that
its density is variable.
Prop. I.—A particle placed anywhere within a hollow
solid of homogeneous matter, generated by the annular
space comprised between two similar and similarly situ¬
ated concentric ellipses revolving about their common
axis, is attracted by the solid equally in all directions.
For let p (fig. 11) be such a particle, and ab any straight
line passing through meetingthe exterior surface in a and
5, and the interior in c and d; then if ab be bisected in e,
cd will also be bisected in e, because the figures are simi¬
lar and similarly situated. Therefore ac — db. Now con¬
ceive ab to be the axis of two opposite pyramids having
their vertices at p, and terminated by the surface at a and
b, and let mn be an infinitely thin slice of the pyramid ab,
formed by surfaces parallel to that of the given spheroid.
The attraction of mn on p is directly as the surface mn
and inversely as pm1; but the surface mn is proportional
to pm2; therefore the attraction of p on the pyramidal
slice mn is constant; hence the attraction of p on the
whole frustum between a and c is proportional to the num¬
ber of such slices, or to ac. In the same manner the at¬
traction of p on the frustum between d and b is propor¬
tional to db. But ac z= db ; therefore/) is attracted equally
in both directions. The same thing being true of all other
pyramids which have their vertices at p, it follows that
the particle p is attracted equally in all directions, or re¬
mains at rest.
This property, which is true also of the sphere, and
forms one of the necessary conditions of equilibrium, was
first demonstrated by Newton in the Principia.
Prop. II.—To find the ratio of the axes of a homoge¬
neous spheroid of revolution, when a fluid column from
the equator to the centre balances the column from the
pole to the centre, the spheroid being supposed to revolve
about its minor axis, and its particles to attract one ano¬
ther with forces varying in the inverse ratio of their mu¬
tual distances.
Let PQ (fig. 12) be a meridian of the spheroid, of which
the centre is C. Let us assume in the following pro¬
positions,
P = the attraction of the spheroid at the pole, or
gravity,
Q — the attraction at the equator,
<p = the centrifugal force at the equator,
Q'= Q — <f> the gravitation at the equator, or the
attraction of the spheroid there diminished by the
centrifugal force.
Let also
a = CP half the polar axis,
b — CQ the radius of the equator.
In CP take any point E, and make CE = x. It is demon¬
strated in the article Attraction (art. 8), that the force
565
at E _ P. . Now if we suppose the area of a section
with which a particle at E is attracted towards C, is to Figure of
that with which a particle at P is attracted in the samethe Earth-
direction as CE to CP, or x to a; therefore the force
x
a'
of the column perpendicular to the axis = 1, the mass of
the element of the column will be 1 X (fa — dx, and
its pressure will consequently be P ^ dx. Let this quan¬
tity be represented by du. On integrating, and ol)servincr
that while x increases u diminishes, we find
u — const. — P • —.
2a
At the surface u — Q and x — a; therefore
0 const. — P * —;
2a
whence, by subtraction, w = P
2a ’
and consequently at the centre, where *: = 0, m = P •
In like manner, if in CQ w'e take a point F, and make
CF = y, the force at F resulting from the attraction of
V
the spheroid will be Q.^. But the centrifugal force at F
is to that at Q as CF to CQ, or as ytob; therefore the cen-
trifugal force at F = p Hence the force with which a
particle at F is attracted towards the centre is (Q — p)^
= Q' p and the pressure of the element of the column
= QJ^dy. Putting this = du', and integrating as before,
we find, at the centre, u' = Q' |. But, by hypothesis, at
the centre v! —u; therefore P ^ Q'^, whence P: Q' =
b : a ; that is to say, the attraction at the pole is to the
gravitation at the equator as the radius of the equator to
the radius of the pole.
Prop. III.—If the radius of the equator is to the radius
of the pole as the attraction at the pole is to the gravita¬
tion at the equator, the resultant of all the forces which
urge a particle situated any where on the surface of the
spheroid is perpendicular to the surface.
Let D (fig. 10) be the particle, and PDQ the meridian
passing through it. As the plane of the meridian divides
the solid into two parts exactly alike in every respect, it
is obvious that the particle can have no tendency to move
out of that plane ; we shall therefore only consider the di¬
rection of the force urging it in the plane of the meridian.
Let DE be perpendicular to CP, and DF to CQ; and
make CE = x, CF = y. It is demonstrated in the article
Attraction (21 and 22), that the force which attracts
D in the direction DF, perpendicular to the plane of the
equator, is to the force at the pole as DF to CP, or as
x\a ; and that the force attracting D in the direction DE
perpendicular to the axis is to the attraction at Q as DE
to CQ, or as y : 6 ; but the centrifugal force at D, which
also acts in the direction DE, is to that at Q as DE to
CQ; therefore, taking X to represent the whole force at
D in the direction parallel to the axis, and Y that in the
direction perpendicular to the axis, we have
X : P = x : a, and Y : Q' = 3/ : 6,
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
whence X = P Y = Q' In QC take the point N such
that FN : FD = Y : X; then FN : FD = Q' | : P | or
FN * x : FD • y = Q'a : Yb, whence, since FD = x, and
FC = y, FN : FC = Q!a : Yb. But by hypothesis Q': P
— a : b, therefore FN : FC = «2 : b\ whence by the well-
known properties of the ellipse FN is the subnormal, and
DN the normal or perpendicular to the surface of the
spheroid at D. ,
Corollary. If the attraction at the pole is represented
by CP, then the force at any point D on the surface, m
the direction perpendicular to the surface, is proportional
to DN the normal passing through D. It is also propor¬
tional to DM (the normal produced till it meets the axis) ;
for, by conic sections, DM : DN — U2 :a2 •, that is, DM has
to DN a constant ratio. .
The proposition which has now been demonstrated is
sufficient for the equilibrium of a homogeneous fluid mass
revolving about an axis. It may, however, be shown di¬
rectly, that when the above condition is fulfilled, any par¬
ticle in the interior of the mass will be equally urged in
all directions, or will remain at rest. Thus:—
Prop. IV.—If the radius of the equator is to the radius
of the pole as the attracting force at the pole is to gra¬
vitation at the equator, the pressure which any point D
in the interior of the spheroid sustains from the fluid in
canals of any form, extending from that point to the sur¬
face, is the same for every canal.
Let DDk* (fig. 13) be a canal drawn from any point D
in the interior of the spheroid to D and d in the surface.
Let xf, ij, z> be the rectangular co-ordinates of D, and a/',
t/", z” those of D'. Take F and /, any two points in the
canal indefinitely near each other, and let x, y, z be the
co-ordinates of F; then x -p dx, y -p dy, and z dz are
those of/. Now X, Y, and Z being the resultants of the
forces acting on F in the directions of the co-oidinates,
the forces X, Y, Z will be reduced to the direction of the
canal at F by multiplying them respectively by the co¬
sines of the angles which that direction makes with the
axes, that is, by (« representing the canal).
Hence the accelerating force acting on F in the direction
of the canal is X ^ + Y ^ + Z ^; and supposing the
area of a section of the canal = 1, the pressure produced
by the action of this force on the fluid contained in the
(v dx dy ^ dz\
portion of the canal F/ is rfw (^X ^ + Y ^ + Z
But, by what has been demonstrated in the article At¬
traction (9), X = P^,Y=Q'|, Z=Q'£j therefore,
denoting the whole pressure of the canal on F by p, and
observing that p diminishes as F is nearer the surface, we
have
, , fT.x dx , dy . ~ z dz\
-d? = rf»(p-.s+Q'f.J+Q’?^).
and integrating,
p = const. — P — Q'
therefore, by subtraction,
„ x"-— id2 , / w y"2 —;/'2 + z"2 — z12
_ p —   -f- Ui —    -
1 2a tv
Now the equation of the surface of the spheroid gives
Or + z"2)},
x*_
2a
At the point D this becomes
af3
V2 + z2
2b
p — const. — P ^ — Ql
,yflJr Z,:
2b
and at D', where p — ®,
0 = const. — P 7r~ •
2a
-Q'
y^+z"
2b
%
the :
whence
2a 2
(a( y"2 -p z"2)
2^
and, by hypothesis, P : Q' — b : a, or Ya — Q'b ; therefore
P2a-P2 U 2b ’
and on substituting this in the above expression of the
value of p, we get, finally,
P 2 2a. 2b
This equation being independent of the form of the
canal, and of the situation of the point D', will necessari¬
ly be the same for every canal extending from D to the
surface of the spheroid; consequently the point D sus¬
tains the same pressure in all directions.
From what has now been demonstrated, it appears that
a fluid spheroid of uniform density, revolving about its
lesser axis, and whose particles attract one another with
forces varying in the inverse ratio of the distances, will
be in equilibria when the gravity at the pole is to the gra¬
vity at the equator diminished by the centrifugal force
there, as the equatorial axis to the polar axis. The equa¬
tion of equilibrium of such a spheroid is therefore YazzQlb;
and from this we shall now proceed to determine the ra¬
tio of the axes, or of a: b, corresponding to a given velo¬
city of rotation.
#2 ai
Lett be the eccentricity, that is, let t2 — ’ whence
fr2 r= a2 (1 -p t2). It is demonstrated in the article At¬
traction (23 and 24), that
1 -p s2
P = 4vra —(t — arc tan. t)
Q=(Q'+p) =2*6
1 + t2
t arc tan. t
t0 \ 1 -p s4
the density of the mass being 1, and * the semicir¬
cumference of a circle whose radius is unit. Now if t
denote the time of a revolution, we shall have, from the
theory of central forces, p = ^ 6; and making | = we
get <p = Aiebm, whence
Q' = 2*6 |
1 "P !
arc tan. s
—t—) _ 2m }■
1 + »/ )
Substituting these values of P and Q' in the equation
Pa zz Q'b, it becomes
2*6* |
4*a2
1 + d
■ arc tan. f) =
arc tan. s
v eJ \ 1 + *2
whence, putting a2 (l + t2) instead of b2, and neglecting
the common factors, we get
3s -p 2ms3
arc tan. e =
3 + s2
.(1>
In order to discover whether this equation,
transcendental, has a real root, or how many, we m y p
. 3s + 2»is3 , /o'),
f3= -3477 arc tan-   ( '
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Figu f and suppose the curve to be described, of which s is the
the E i-absciss, and (3 the ordinate. This curve will evidently
W ^ cut the axis at the origin of the co-ordinates; for when
{ = 0, we have also /3 = 0; but the root s == 0 has no con¬
cern with the question ; for the velocity, and consequently
t, is supposed to be a real quantity. By changing the sign
of e, the value of (3 undergoes no alteration, whence the
curve has two equal and similar branches on opposite sides
of the origin; we need therefore attend only to the posi¬
tive values oft. If then we suppose t to increase from
nothing to infinity, the value of /3 will begin and end with
being positive, whence between these two values of c the
curve will either not cut the axis at all, or cut it an even
number of times; or, which is the same thing, the equa¬
tion has either no roots, or an equal number.
To find the values of t corresponding to the greatest
and least values of /3, we must make J/3 = 0. Differen¬
tiating equation (2), we get, after arranging the terms,
d/3 __ 2e2{»2*4 + (10m — 2)i2 + 9m}
~de (1 + *2) (3 + s2)2 ;
whence, making d(3 = 0,
mf4 + (10m — 2)*2 + 9m — 0 (3),
the two roots of which are
Since these are the only roots of equation (3), it fol¬
lows that there can be only one maximum and one mini¬
mum value of the ordinate (3 on each side of the origin of
the abscissa. Hence we infer that the curve intersects
the positive abscissa only in two points exclusive of the
origin; so that there are two, and only two, real and po¬
sitive roots of the equation (1). Thus there are two
forms of the oblate spheroid, which, for a given velocity
of rotation, satisfy the condition of equilibrium ; a curious
result, which was first made known by Legendre.
The limits within which the roots of equation (1) are
possible will be obtained by determining the values of s
and m at the point where the curve touches the axis of
the abscissa without cutting it. At this point 13 — 0, and
dj3 — 0. When d(3 = 0, equation (3) gives
2s2 _ 2£2
s4 + Kh2 + 9 “ (1 + *2) (9 + *2) W 5
substituting this in (2), and making /3 = 0, we get, after
reduction,
arc tan. t =
7 i5 -f 30s3 + 27s
(3 + s2)(l -f s2) (9
or, dividing the terms by (3 + s2),
7s3 + 9s
+ O’
arc tan. s =
(1 + O (9 + *2) ’
an equation which can have only one positive root besides
{ =: 0. On solving it by approximation we easily find, on
a few trials,
* = 2-5292 ;
whence, from equation (4), the corresponding value of
m = 0-11234.
From this we conclude that, when the value of m is
smaller than 0-11234, the equation (1) has two unequal
positive roots; that when m is equal to this number, the
two roots become equal, or the two intersections of the
curve with the axis pass into a contact; and that when m
greater than 0-11234, equation (1) has no real roots, or
ie equilibrium is impossible.
hen the eccentricity s is a very small fraction, as in
^ c case of the earth, the values of the quantities denoted
y and Q may be developed in series proceeding ac¬
cording to the powers of s, and converging rapidly,
cause (see Algebra, sect. xxv. (H 2)
«3 e5
-, &C.
567
and because
arc tan. £ = g L .
3 ~ 5
Be- Figure of
the Earth.
1 +
+ s5 —, &c.
the preceding expression for P becomes
P = +> &c) .
whence, on multiplying, and rejecting all terms involving
higher powers of £ than the square,
p=4TO(! + -ilf!)=ir(1+f4
Making the same substitutions in the value of Q, we find
and multiplying as before,
q=^(I-u‘2)=4-?(i-14
Now, if instead of s we introduce the ellipticity e, and
, b — a
make e ——, we shall have b = a (1 + e). But we
have already assumed Z»2 = a2 (1 + g2); whence 1 + e
= V 1 + £2 ; and on rejecting the second and all the
higher powers of e (which may be done because e is sup¬
posed to be a very small fraction), we have 1 + 2e = 1 + r,
and consequently 2e =z t2. Substituting this in the above
formulas, and observing that b — a (1 e), we get
p = 1f‘(1+?)= « = "(' + ?)=
and since p = ^Tbm = ina (1 +«)»* — 4cram (for m and
e being both very small fractions, their product me may
be neglected), we have also
Q' = Q—= + |e—3»»j.
Substituting these values of P and Q'in the equation of
equilibrium, Pa = Q'b = Q'a (1 + e), there results
1 +|<! = Ci + o(i + |e-8»));
whence, rejecting terms multiplied by e2 and em, we find
15
=3m; hence* = 7 . ^ ; that
4 (J,
The ratio of the centrifugal force to gravitation at the
. © 3m „ , 5
equator is .7, or    
U l+|e_3m
5
is to say, the ellipticity of a homogeneous spheroid re¬
volving about an axis, and whose form does not differ
greatly from that of a sphere, is equal to the fraction
formed by dividing five times the centrifugal force at
the equator by four times the gravitation at the equa¬
tor. By comparing the length of the arc described by a
point on the earth’s surface in a second of time, with the
descent of falling bodies, Newton found this ratio in the
1 , _ 1 _ 1
case of the earth to be , whence m — 3 ^ 239 — 867’
= 231’ 80 that) SUP'
, 15 1
and consequently e = — X 3 ^
posing the earth to be homogeneous, the ratio of its polar
to its equatorial axis ought to be 230 to 231 very nearly.
1
568
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Figure of The ellipticity deduced from the actual measurements of
the Earth, degrees, as well as from the variations of gravity indicat-
ed by pendulum observations, is considerably less than
-1- ; consequently the earth is not homogeneous.
 it
In what precedes, we have supposed generally m
and found for the limit which m cannot exceed, m
— 0T1234. Let in' be what m becomes in the case of
the earth, and V be the time (expressed in parts of a mean
solar day) in which the earth makes one revolution about
its axis; t being the time in which a spheroid of the same
mean density as the earth would make a revolution when
m = 0-11234. We have then m! = whence rri : m
: £2 : tn, whence t
=*J--
m
But ^ = 23 h. 56 m. 4 sec.
— -99727 day ; and we have already found m' there-
fore t - -99727
y;
i
= 0-1009 day = 2
867 X 0-11234
hours 25 minutes 26 seconds. Hence a fluid mass of the
same density as the earth could not be in equilibrium with
the figure of an ellipsoid of revolution if its time of rota¬
tion were less than 2 h. 25 m. 26 sec. If the time of ro¬
tation is greater, there are two elliptic spheroids, and not
more, which, with the same velocity of rotation, give a
figure of equilibrium.
Hitherto we have considered only one of the roots of
equation (1), and seen that it gives 230 : 231 as the ra¬
tio of the polar to the equatorial axis. Let us now in¬
quire into the value of the other root.
As the value of g2 in the former case was very small, it
will now be large ; we may therefore proceed as follows :
The identical equation
1 „ 1
arc tan. s = — t — arc tan. —
2 £
therefore X = P
• and Y = Q t- But it has been already
: b
gives
1 1
arc tan. s = - — —r
2 £
“5? +’ &C'
whence equation (1) becomes
3e + 2/ne3 1
3s
2 ^
1 , 1
7+sF
■5? +>
Reverting this series, in order to find s in a series pro¬
ceeding by the powers of m, we get
shown, that when the elipticity is small,
p = T‘‘(1+Hq = T“(1+B
therefore
x = T*(1 + S£)iY = T5n1+ST
Introducing the density k, to which the attraction is
directly proportional, and observing that | = yq:—>tliese
expressions become
X = ^x(l+|C):Y = ^(1-1<!).
cr 8 . \2mf 64 \
£ = -785398 - — 2-546479—4-436656 m.
m
Relatively to the earth, it has been seen that m =
867
by substituting which in the above equation, it gives s = 680
nearly; so that Vl + s2, the ratio of the equatorial to the
polar axis, is 680 : 1. In this case the spheroid is extreme¬
ly flattened.
In the preceding propositions it has been demonstrated
that a fluid mass of uniform density revolving about a fixed
axis will be in equilibria, if its form is that of an oblate
spheroid, provided the velocity of rotation does not ex¬
ceed a certain limit, which has been ascertained. But it
has been remarked, that if the same relation exists be¬
tween the attraction and the centrifugal force as exists
Prop. VI.—To find the measure of the forces with which
an oblate spheroid, whose ellipticity is small, attracts a
particle situated any where without it, in the direct!
parallel to the axis, and in the direction perpendicular
the axis, the density being uniform.
Let PQ (fig. 14) be the given spheroid, of which tn
axes are a and b, D the given point without the spher »
and ^ y the co-ordinates of D. From the two assumed
equations l/1 — a* = & — a\ and ^ = F find fl'and
V, and conceive another spheroid FQ' to be desc^e,
whose polar and equatorial semidiameters are respe
a' and V, whose centre coincides with that ot tne g
spheroid, and which has its equator in the P
The surface of this spheroid, in consequence o
tion ^l+£.= 1, will necessarily pass through the poi»‘
D.
in the case of the earth, the ellipticity of such a spheroid Fig of
would be different from the actual ellipticity of the earth, the j n,,
as determined by observation. It follows that the terres- ^ *
trial spheroid must be heterogeneous, or of variable den¬
sity ; and this supposition is rendered more probable by
what is otherwise known of the nature of the earth. The
difficulties of the problem are however greatly increased
in the case of a heterogeneous fluid; indeed it is only
brought within the power of analysis by assuming that
the form of the revolving mass differs very little from that
of a sphere, and that it is regularly composed of concen¬
tric layers, increasing in density from the surface towards
the centre, according to a determinate law. Admitting
these assumptions, it may be demonstrated that the ob¬
late spheroid of revolution is in this case also a figure
of equilibrium.
The demonstration will be greatly simplified by means
of the two following propositions respecting the attraction
of homogeneous spheroids of small ellipticity, and which
are easily deduced from the properties demonstrated in
the article Attraction.
Prop. V.—To find the measure of the.attractive forces
that urge a particle situated any where within or in the
surface of a homogeneous oblate spheroid of revolution,
in the directions parallel and perpendicular to the axis,
the ellipticity being small.
Let D be the particle, x and y its rectangular co-ordi¬
nates {x being taken along the axis, and 3/ perpendicular
to the axis, in the meridional plane passing through D);
let also X and Y denote the attractive forces soliciting the
particle in those directions, and k — the density ot the
spheroid.
By Attraction (25), P : X = a: a:, and Q: Y — 0:y;
Make * = ^; then, by what it demonstrat-
Fig
the
if ed in Attraction (26), the point D*, whose co-ordinates
h are x andy, is in the surface of the given spheroid PQ-
J and the attraction of the spheroid PQ on a particle at D
is to the attraction of the spheroid P'Q' on the point D', as
6*: V1 in the direction perpendicular to the equator, and as
ab : M in the direction perpendicular to a plane passing
through the axis. If, therefore, we denote by X and Y
the attractions of the given spheroid PQ on D, and by X'
and Y' those of the spheroid PQ' on D', in the directions
of the co-ordinates x and y respectively, we shall have
X : X' = ^ : #2, and Y : Y' = : a'V,
consequently
X=pX,Y = ^Y'.
o1 a!U
But by the last proposition,
(e' being the ellipticity of the spheroid PQy) ; therefore
4ir ^ / 4 \ v _ 4?r oi 7 / 2 \
x- 3 1 ~TMkv~inyi
and, on substituting for x and y their values - ip and -
a!
we have
4<r ai2 / 4 \ v _ 4r 7/, 2\
X 3 aWk[1 + 5er; Y -~3aWh[1~5ey-
We must now eliminate from these equations the quan¬
tities a', fr, and e', by means of the three equations of con-
ditionJ + |i=1^2 a2, andb' = af(l+e').
In order to abridge, let r = CD, the distance of D from
the centre of the spheroid, and & = the angle DCP. We
have then x — r cos. 6, y — r*sin. 6, and the first of the
above equations becomes r2 (fr2 cos.2 6 + a'2 sin.2 6) —
«'*, b^, which, since = a' (1 -j- e'), and consequently^2
= e'2 (1 + 2e/), reduces to r2 (1 + 2 e' cos.2 6) = a12
(1 "t" 0° dividing by 1 + 2e', and neglecting terms
multiplied by e2, this gives a'2 = r2 (1 — 2e' sin.2 6), and
consequently a!2 d =. r" e'.
But /A = a'2 (1 + 2c'), therefore b'~ — a'2 2ane';
and in like manner, b° — a? =■ 2a?e ; whence, by reason
a'z — b* — a2, we have a'1 d — a" e; consequently
a-e =: r2 s', and d — e. Substituting this value of d in
die equation a!2 — r2 (Y — 2d sin.2 d), we get a'2 — r2 —
e sin.2 whence, neglecting terms in e2, a! — r —
ore sin.2 6
  . From the equation a'2 = r2 (l — 2d sin.2
we also get h* — a'2 = l/2 — r* (l — 2d sin.2 6); but l/°~
~ ^ — 2c'2 e' — 2a2 e ; therefore 2a2 e zr ft2 — r2 (1 —
M sin.2 6), and consequently #2 = r2 + 2c2 e cos.2 6.
From these values of c' and b'2 we find, on multijjlying
and neglecting terms involving the square and higher
powers of e, we get a'b'2 — r3 -h 2a2 re cos.2 6 — «2 re sin.2 6
=f + ra2e (2—3 sisi.2 6). But 62 = c2 (1 + 2c),
and ab2 — a3(l + 2c), therefore
of l/2 V1 + 5^ )~a’l/2 V1 + 5r27
3 c2
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
T ^ O/ ^ y^ I
«2 f Q„2
r2 j1 +2e—c—(4—5 sin.2 ^)|sin.d.
o , . 569
and^1 wr?rfntlleSe exP^essl0ns in the above values of X Figure of
and \, writing r cos. d for x', and r sin. 6 for y, we get the Earth.
v  4w , c3 r q„«
' ~~3k^ I1 + 2e—e5^(2-5sin.2^)}cos7,
y=t*
Thus the expression of the force with which a homo¬
geneous spheroid attracts a point placed without it has
hSs t°Un1 ln,fimit? terms; The lngeni°us process of ana-
lysis by which this result of very great importance in
the theory of the figures of the planets, has been obtain¬
ed, is one of the many discoveries for which mathemati¬
cal science is indebted to Mr Ivory.
Prop. VII.—To find the measure of the forces with
which an oblate spheroid whose ellipticity is small, attracts
a particle situated any where on its surface, in the direc¬
tion parallel to the axis, and in the direction perpendicu¬
lar to the axis, the density being variable.
In the solution of this problem we suppose the spheroid
to be composed of infinitely thin concentric layers, bound¬
ed by spheroidal surfaces of different ellipticities, and that
the density is uniform for a single layer, but variable from
one layer to another.
Let PQ' (fig. 15) be the given spheroid, «', 1/ its polar
and equatorial radii, and D the attracted point. Let D'
be any point within the spheroid PQ', and PQD' be a sphe¬
roidal surface at every point of which the density is the
same, a, b its polar and equatorial radii, and e its ellipti¬
city. Also let p, q be another spheroidal surface indefi¬
nitely near PQ, of which the polar radius Cp = a + da,
the equatorial z= 5 + db, and the ellipticity — e de.
Between the two surfaces PQ and pq the density k may be
supposed constant.
In order to find the attraction of the whole spheroid on
D, we must first find expressions in terms of a for the
forces with which D is attracted by the elementary layer
FQpq ; the integration of these expressions from a 0 to
a = a' will give the attractions of the spheroid.
Conceive for a moment the density of the spheroid
CPQ to be uniform and = k. The forces X and Y with
which this spheroid attracts D are given by the last pro¬
position, and the forces with which Cpq attracts D will
be found by substituting a + da for a, and e de for e
in the same expressions for X and Y. Now, as the ellip¬
ticity varies from C to P', e may be regarded as a func¬
tion of a; its variation is consequently included in the
variation of a, and the attractions of the spheroid Cpq
hence become
da,
da
Y+^da.
da
The difference between the attractions of the spheroids
Cpq and CPQ is the attraction of the layer PQ§p, which
is therefore ^ da, and ^ da. Hence, if we represent
the attractions of the whole heterogeneous spheroid CP'Q'
by X' and Y', we shall have
7X , ,r. rdY J
da.
and
a? ( S/,* v
|l + 2e—c —(2 —5sin.2^)J-
ab9
db2
VOL. lx.
(>-§') =
a3 (
-pj1 +2c
ab2
aW
•3«2/A A •
ewr(4 —5sin-
6)
x' =/^ Y' =f-,u,
which integrals must be taken from a = 0 to a = p', the
density k, which enters as a factor into X and Y, being re¬
garded as a function of a.
Let us first consider the force X'. By last proposition
we have
I X=^ * ^ { 1 + 2e-^(2 - 5 sin.2 «) } cos. I,
' 1 4c
570
Figure of
the Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
■ COS.0,
sin.0.
whence
|rf(T+2e.a3)—^2(2—5,sin.20Xa5e) jcos.6.
Integrating, and regarding k as variable, and a function of
a, and going through the same process with respect to Y,
we get for the attractions of the spheroid CP'Q'in the di¬
rections respectively parallel and perpendicular to the axis,
x'4{it}
} si.
Prop. VIII.—To find the measure of the forces with
which a heterogeneous layer, included between two level
surfaces, attracts a particle situated anywhere within it.
Let D' (fig. 15) be the given particle situated within
the spheroidal layer PQQ'P, and y the co-ordinates of
D', a = polar semiaxis, and e = eccentricity of the inner
surface PQ passing through D', a' = polar semiaxis of the
exterior surface P'Q', and k = density at the interior
Suppose the interior of the spheroid PQ to be filled
with matter of uniform density k, then by Proposition V.,
the attractions of that spheroid on D' are
X=TJ(1+i¥ y-irK1-|e)yi
or, changing sd into r cos. 0, and y into r sin.
X=-^V£(l + |e)cos. 6,Y=^rh(l — ^eyin. 0.
Now the attraction of another similar spheroid C/*?, whose
polar semiaxis is a-]-da, will be found by substituting
a + da for a and e-\-de for e in the above expressions ; and
the attraction of the elementary layer YQ.pq on D will
be the difference of these attractions. But
da— . 7 rhle cos. d,
da 3 5
dX , 4cr 2 , .
— da— tt '-e r,ide sin. <),
da 3 5
e being regarded as a function of a. The integral of these
expressions will give the attraction of the layer PQyp on
D'; but as this attraction diminishes while a increases,
if we take A to represent what Jkde becomes when a be¬
comes a', and denote by X" and V" the attractions of
the whole layer PQQ'P', we shall have
X"— —Jkdejcos. 0,
Y"= — ~ . |.r^A —JJidejsin. 6.
Prop. IX.—To find the attraction of a heterogeneous
spheroid on a point within it.
Let D' (fig. 14) be the given point, and CP'Q' the
given spheroid, r cos. 6 and r sin. 0 the co-ordinates of D',
</, and d, the polar semiaxis and ellipticity of the given
spheroid CP'Q', and a and e those of the spheroidal sur¬
face passing through D' and all the points of equal den-
sity.
The whole force urging D' may be conceived as made
up of two parts ; that arising from the spheroid CPQ, the
surface of which passes through D, and that of the sphe¬
roidal shell PQQ'P'. The first of these forces is given by
the expressions represented by X' and Y' in Prop. VII.
and the second by the expressions represented by X" and
Y" in Prop. VIII. Therefore, if we denote by X'" and Y'"
the attractions of the whole spheroid on the particle D', in
the direction parallel to the axis, and in the direction per¬
pendicular to the axis, we shall have
X"'=X'+X", Y"'=Y'+ Y"; _ Fip,,*
and if the spheroid revolves about its polaraxis, Y'" must the &
be diminished by the amount of the centrifugal force = Y
r sin. 6; therefore the attractions of the given sphe-
3
roid on the point D' are
X'^-X' + X",
Y'^-Y'+Y" —
4?r
Stt .
— r sm. 6.
v-
Prop. X To find the ratio of the ellipticity to the
density of any level surface, when the component of all
the forces urging any point on the surface is perpendicular
to the surface.
The forces urging the particle D' (fig. 14) being X"' and
Y'", in order that their resultant may be perpendicular to
the surface, we must have
X"/. Y'" = ME : ED (fig. 10).
* i2
But ME (the subnormal)=-^- (1 + 2e) a/, and ED=y;
therefore X'": Y'" = (1 + 2e)^ : y, whence, substituting
Y"' Y'"
r cos. tfforafand r sin. 5 for y, — -7^-^(l + 2s)=0.
Now, if we substitute for X'" in this equation the values
of X' and X" given by Propositions VII. and VIII., and
for Y'" the values of Y'and Y" multiplied by (l + 2e), and
neglect terms involving e2, we shall find, on changing the
signs and having regard to the centrifugal force,
|./m (T+S. <>*)- W - 7 (a
2=1 = 0.
i1
Dividing by 2r, and substituting a for r (which may be
done without sensible error, because all the terms of the
equation are small, and because r2 differs from a2 only by
a quantity depending on the ellipticity e), we shall fin
^fkdil+Ee.a*)-(a?e)- ? (a-/**)-
IS = 0-
2^
From this we infer that if h. and e have the relation to
each other indicated by this equation, and that e is very
small from a=0 to a=af, each of the level surfaces will
be intersected at every point by the resultant ot tnea-
tractive forces under an angle which will differ rom
right angle only by an infinitesimal of the second or er,
supposing the centrifugal force to be very small in com
parison of gravity. Hence, neglecting quantities o
second order, the elliptical spheroid (supposing t le eq
tion possible) is a figure of equilibrium. _ ,. , .
In order to discover whether the equation whic
now been obtained is possible, it must be difleren ia
twice in order to eliminate^kd (a5e) andJ*Me, both of
which contain the ellipticity e. Observing that as th
first term is multiplied by e, we may suppose, wR^ ou
sible error, ~^J'hd (1 + 2e . a3)—-^3tf kd(a?)=-^J'lia
and the first differentiation gives, on multiply!11? a ’
a3Jka?da — 3a2eJ ka-da -p ^J‘kd(a5e)—d.
Differentiating again, and considering da as constant,
shall find, after reduction,
<Pe , 2Aa2 de , ( 2ka 6\ (
:0.
da2
VJ'kadda da ^ \Jha2da
Figu
the i
FIGURE OF
>f This is the equation given by Clairaut {Figure de la
-h- Terre, p. 276). It can be integrated by the usual me-
^ thods when k is expressed in terms of a ; consequently
the equilibrium is always possible if the density is a func¬
tion of the distance from the centre. The integration
being performed, an equation will result between the den¬
sities and ellipticities of the different spheroidal layers,
by means of which, when one of these elements is sup¬
posed to be given, the other can be determined.
Prop. XI.—To find the whole force urging a particle
situated at any point on the surface of a heterogeneous
spheroid revolving about its shorter axis.
By Prop. VII. the force urging the particle in the di¬
rection of the axis is X', and in the direction perpendicu¬
lar to the axis Y'; but in consequence of the centrifugal
force, the latter becomes Y' — <p, therefore the whole
force urging D in the direction of the normal
^v/X^-KY'- cpf.
Neglecting the terms which involve e2 and e<p (p being
small as well as e), and putting:Jkd(l + 2e. a3) = M,and
J'kd (a5 e) = N, and substituting ^-r sin. d for <p, we get
xe=(§?)’ { m' mn“s-! >
(¥’~f)> = (!^)2 {MWtf-MN
6Mat3sin.2 5 )
? J 5
whence, putting X2 + (Y — p)2 = U2, there results
6 M-rr3 sin.2 6
IS ti
and extracting the square root,
M 3(2 — 3sin.2$)
THE EARTH.
therefore
571
’}•
u
_ 4r fiV
“3 \r
N-
3 err sin.2 Q
}•
r2 5 r4
But the equation of the ellipse gives
2 . r2 sin.2 6
rz cos.2 6 + 0 = a2;
1 + 2 e
whence we deduce r2 = a2 (1 + 2e sin 2 6) ; therefore, sub¬
stituting and dividing, and neglecting terms in Ne and e<p,
3 (2 —3) sin.2 4 N
0 = Tr{^(I-2esin-!!O-|-
3 tt2 a sin.2 b
^ J
Let the centrifugal force at the equator — m 'A gra¬
vity ; then, if m is a very small fraction (as in the case of
the earth, where m ~ 5 terms involving the product
»»emay be neglected, and the last equation, multiplied by
will become
-X- M —
whence
3
5a5
XT M TO
N 0
2a3 ’
Figure of
the Earth.
3 N M / rn\
5a4 a2 V 2j’
Substituting these values of and
t2 5a*
in the above
value of U, we get, after reduction,
At the equator sin. & = 1, and this equation becomes
Q - i^L M Jl 3 1
and at the pole, where sin. 0 = 0, it gives
n 4 w M f 1
~ 3 '~d2\l~2e ^ \ '
consequently the difference between the force of gravity
at the pole and that of gravitation at the equator is
4?r
~3
M /5m
a2 \ 2
— ej. Dividing this by the polar gravity P,
5 TO
TT 4-r M
U = T 'ar M ’’
but the centrifugal force at the equator = —a(l + e),
which does not differ sensibly froma; therefore-^- a
3 v Mto
~ ~3 a?~m> 0T := at the surface the
equation of equilibrium in Prop. X. becomes
-,m-JLn—= o,
we get for the quotient — e, which, therefore, ex¬
presses the ratio of the excess of the polar gravity above
the gravitation at the equator to the gravity at the pole.
Let this ratio = n, we have then
5
n =-m — e;
a very remarkable relation between the gravity and el-
lipticity, which was discovered by Clairaut, and is gene¬
rally called Clairaut’s theorem.
If we substitute 1 — cos.2 0 for sin.2 0 in the equation
u=t-^{i_2<,+”*-(Im-<!) s™-24’
we get
TT 4cr Mf, 3 , /5 \ 1
U='3 (1_e~2”i+
or, neglecting quantities of the order me,
U= 3~'a2^1~~e~2m^ { 1 + \2m~e) C0S‘ ^ ’
whence we have U = Q (I + « cos.2 6). Now in this equa¬
tion the angle 6 may be taken for the complement of the
latitude, from which indeed it differs only by a quantity
of the second order, and the equation then becomes
U — Q (1 + w sin.2 1); whence we infer that, on going
from the equator towards the pole, the increase of gravity
is proportional to the square of the sine of the latitude.
Letjobe the length of the seconds pendulum at the
equator, p' its length at any latitude l, and U the inten¬
sity of the gravitating force at the same latitude l. When
the time of oscillation is constant, the length of the pen¬
dulum is directly proportional to the intensity of gravity;
therefore p* :p = U :Q, and consequently
pf—p _ U — Q
p * Q. '
But U = Q (1 + w sin.2 1),
therefore,
P'—P _
P
n sin.2 I:
(5 to \ .
= br-eJsl
sin.21.
At the pole sin. / = I, and
p—P
5m
a3
5a5
2f*
. b — a d—p
since e — ,  -
a p
+
P
b — a
- — — —e; therefore,
5 TO
~2~'
572
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
Figure of Now it has been shown that in the case of a homoge*
the Earth. ,5m, , *.•
neous spheroid the ellipticity is ; hence we have this
theorem:
In the case of a heterogeneous spheroid, the excess of
the length of the pendulum at the pole above its length
at the equator divided by its length at the equator, and
the excess of the axis of the equator above the polar axis
divided by the polar axis, form two fractions, of which
the sum is constant, and equal to twice the ellipticity the
spheroid would have if homogeneous.
SECTION IV.
ON THE FIGURE OF THE EARTH AS DETERMINED BY
OBSERVATIONS OF THE PENDULUM.
As the various methods of determining the length of a
pendulum which makes a given number of vibrations in a
mean solar day, and the corrections that are required to
reduce the observations to the same circumstances in re¬
spect of altitude, temperature, barometric pressure, &c.
form the subject of a separate article, we shall here limit
ourselves to a brief abstract of the results of some of the
latest and best observations.
The ellipticity of the earth is deduced from the observ¬
ed number of vibrations made by an invariable pendulum
of a given length at different latitudes, by means of the
theorem of Clairaut. Let N = the number of oscillations
made by a pendulum at the equator in a mean solar day,
N' = the number of oscillations made by the same pendu¬
lum at the latitude l; then Q representing, as before, the
gravitation at the equator, and U the gravitation at lati¬
tude l, we have, by the last proposition in the preceding
section,
U = Q (1 + n sin.2 /).
But by the property of the invariable pendulum, the
square of the number of vibrations is directly proportion¬
ed to the force of gravitation ; therefore U : Q = N'2: N2,
whence N'2 = N2 (1 + « sin.2 /).
In this equation w = - m -
e; there-
~ 2 X 289
fore, as N'2 is given by observation at any station, we can,
by combining the results at two different latitudes, deter¬
mine N and n, and consequently e. The pendulum gives
no information respecting the magnitude of the earth.
Instead of N and N', we might substitute in the above
equation the lengths of the seconds pendulum at the equa¬
tor, and the latitude / (the length of the seconds pendu¬
lum being also directly proportional to the intensity of
gravity) ; but as the invariable pendulum is now almost
universally employed for the measurement of the va¬
riations of gravity, the formula under the above form is
more immediately applicable to the results of observation.
The absolute length of the pendulum (which is not very
easily determined) has no concern with the present ques¬
tion.
For the purpose of exhibiting the variations of gravity,
we shall confine our attention to the results that have
been found from observations with the invariable pendu¬
lum. The results given by pendulums of a different kind
are probably not less exact, but they are not directly com¬
parable, on account of the great uncertainty that remains
respecting the correction that ought to be applied for the
buoyancy of the atmosphere.
In the seventh volume of the Memoirs of the Royal
Astronomical Society, Mr Baily has given the results of
fourteen different sets of observations with invariable Figure
pendulums. They are as follows : the ^
1. The observations of Captain Kater at different sta-
tions in Great Britain. These are detailed in the Philo¬
sophical Transactions for the year 1819.
2. Those of Mr Goldingham at London and Madras,
and of Mr Lawrence and Mr Robinson with the same
pendulum at the small island of Pulo Guansah Lout, on
the western coast of Sumatra, and almost immediately
under the equator. (Phil. Trans. 1822.)
3. Those of Captain Hall at the Galapagos Islands,
San Bias, Rio Janeiro, and London. (Phil. Trans. 1823.)
4. Those of Sir Thomas Brisbane at London and Para¬
matta. (Phil. Trans. 1823.)
5. Those of Captain Sabine in various parts of the At¬
lantic Ocean and the North Sea, in the years 1822-4.
(Sabine’s Account of Experiments, &c. 1825.)
6. Those of Captain Foster at Greenwich, London, and
Port Bowen. {Phil. Trans. 1826.)
7. Those of Mr Fallows at the Cape of Good Hope.
The same pendulum was swung in London previous to its
departure.
8. 9, 10. Those of Captain Sabine for the purpose of
determining the difference in the number of oscillations
at London and Paris (Phil. Trans. 1828), London and
Greenwich (Phil. Trans. 1829), and at Greenwich, Lon¬
don, and Altona (Ibid. 1829 and 1830).
11. Those of Captain Freycinet, who commanded an
expedition fitted out by the French government in 1817,
for the purpose of making scientific observations in a voy¬
age round the world. The stations at which the experi¬
ments were made were the island of Rawak (near the
coast of Guinea), Guam (one of the Ladrones), the Isle of
France, Mowi (one of the Sandwich Islands),. Rio Janeiro,
Port Jackson, Cape of Good Hope, Paris, and the Falkland
Islands. ( Voyage autour du Monde, par M. Freycinet.)
12. Those of Captain Duperrey, who commanded ano¬
ther French expedition. The stations were, island of
Ascension, Isle of France, Port Jackson, Toulon, Paris,
and the Falkland Islands. (Connoissance des Terns for
1830.)
13. Those of Captain Leutke, a Russian officer, under
whose orders a ship of w^ar was dispatched to the South
Seas, for the purpose, among other things, of swinging the
pendulum at various places. The stations at which experi¬
ments were made were Ualan (one of the Caroline Isles),
Guam, St Helena, Bonin Island (off the south-east coast
of Japan), Valparaiso, Greenwich, Petropaulouski, Sitka
(off the north-west coast of America), and Petersburg.
(Mr Baily’s Report in the Memoirs of the Royal Astrono¬
mical Society, vol. vii.)
14. Those of Captain Foster, in his last voyage, which
commenced in 1828, and which form perhaps the most
valuable series of the whole. The observations were made
at fourteen different stations, principally in the southern
hemisphere, from the equator to the latitude of 63°. Cap¬
tain Foster carried out with him four pendulums, two of
brass, one of iron, and one of copper, and at seven of the
stations all four were swung. The details are published
at full length in the volume of the Astronomical Society s
Memoirs to which we have already referred, with an ex¬
cellent Report by Mr Baily. t .
The results of all these observations are contained in
the following table, in which the observed number of vi¬
brations at each station is corrected, for any deviation
from the standard temperature of 62°, or from the true
correction for the buoyancy of the atmosphere, and a -
terwards reduced to a comparison with Captain Foster s
mean pendulum, assumed as making 86,400 vibrations m
a mean solar day at London.
Figur i-
the K '•
^ 1
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
No.
Station.
Rawak 
Pulo Guansah Lout....
St Thomas 
Galapagos 
Para 
Maranham 
Ditto 
Fernando de Noronha.
Ualan 
Ascension 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Sierra Leone 
Porto Bello 
Trinidad 
Ditto 
Bahia  
Madras 
Guam  
Ditto  
St Helena 
Ditto  
Jamaica 
Isle of France 
Ditto 
Mowi 
St Bias 
Rio Janeiro 
Ditto 
Bonin Island 
Valparaiso 
Paramatta 
Port Jackson 
Ditto 
Cape of Good Hope 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Montevideo 
New York 
Toulon 
Paris 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Shanklin Farm 
Greenwich  
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
London  
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto 
Ditto  
Ditto 
Ditto  
Ditto  
Falkland Island.
Ditto 
Arbury Hill 
Petropaulouski..
Clifton 
Altona... 
Staten Island....
Cape Horn... ...
Leith Fort 
Sitka 
Portsoy 
Petersburg 
Unst 
South Shetland..
Drontheim 
Hammerfest 
Fort Bowen 
Greenland 
Spitzbergen 
Latitude.
0° V
0 1
0 24
0 32
1 27
2 31
2 31
49
21
53
55
55
8 29
- 9 32
10 38
10 38
12 59
13 4
13 28
13 27
15 54
15 58
17 56
20
20
20 52
21 32
22 55
22 55
27
33
33 48
33 51
33 51
33 54
33 55
33 55
34 54
40 42
43 7
48 50
48 50
48 50
50 37
51 28
51 28
51 28
51 28
51 28
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 31
51 35
52 12
53 0
53 27
53 32
54 46
55 51
55 58
57 2
57 40
59 56
60 45
62 56
63 25
70 40
73 13
74 32
79 49
34" S.
49 N.
41 _
19 —
0 S.
35 _
43 —
59 —
16 N.
23 S.
48 —
48 _
28 N.
30 _
55 _
58 —
21 S.
9 N.
21 —
51 —
59 S.
7 —
7 N.
23 S.
56 —
7 N.
24 —
13 S.
22 —
12 N.
30 S.
43 _
34 —
40 —
37 —
15 _
56 —
26 _
43 N.
20 —
14 —
14 —
14 —
24 —
40 —
40 —
40 —
40 —
40 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
8 —
17 —
44 S.
18 —
55 N.
53 —
43 —
45 —
23 S.
20 —
41 N.
58 —
59 —
31 —
28 —
11 S.
54 N.
5 —
39 —
19 —
58 —
Vibrations.
Observed.
86261-46
86266-64
86268-84
86264-56
86260-61
86258-74
86259-19
86271-20
86275-44
86272-26
86272-06
86272-56
86267-54
86272-01
86267-24
86266-78
86272-38
86272-36
86280-64
86282-98
86288-29
86288-29
86284-66
86297-60
86298-08
86297-52
86288-80
86293-48
86294-90
86322-06
86328-16
86331-48
86334-06
86332-94
86331-33
86331-58
86332-56
86334-36
86358-06
86367-16
86388-01
86388-30
86388-56
86396-40
86398-90
86399-24
86399-46
86400-67
86400-72
86399-76
86399-90
86399-72
86400-00
86400-00
86400-00
8640000
86400-00
86400-00
86400-00
86400-00
86399-84
86396-74
86403-68
86408-90
86407-48
86408-98
86415-22
86417-98
86418-02
86420-54
86424-70
86432-20
86435-40
86444-52
86438-64
86461-14
86470-48
86470-72
86483-28
Computed.
86264-86
86264-86
86264-87
86264-88
86265-00
86265-30
86265-30
86265-86
86266-78
86269-06
86269-08
86269-08
86269-70
86270-96
86272-42
86272-42
8627607
86276-19
86276-84
86276-90
86281-54
86281-54
86285-90
86291-20
86291-23
86293-00
86294-77
86298-52
86298-52
86310-81
86330-82
86333-55
86333-68
86333-68
86333-90
86333 95
86333-98
86337-48
86359-22
86368-48
86390-54
86390-54
89390-54
86397-32
86400-58
86400-58
86400-58
86400-58
86400-58
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-74
86400-75
86400-78
86400-99
86403-35
86406-34
86407-99
86408-28
86412-80
86416-72
86417-16
86420-96
86423-21
86430-94
86433-64
86440-65
86442-20
86462-23
86468-06
86470-75
86479-58
Difference.
— 3-40
+ 1-78
+ 397
— 0-32
— 4-39
— 6-56
— 6-11
+ 5-34
+ 8-66
+ 3-20
+ 2-98
+ 3-48
— 2-16
+ 1-05
— 5-18
— 5-64
— 3-69
— 3-83
+ 3-80
+ 6-08
+ 6-75
+ 6-75
— 1-24
+ 6-40
+ 6-85
+ 4-62
— 5-97
— 5-04
— 3-62
+ 11-25
— 2-66
— 2-07
+ 0-38
— 0-74
— 2-57
— 2-37
— 1-42
— 312
— 1-16
— 1-32
— 2-53
— 2-24
— 1-98
— 0-92
— 1-68
— 1-34
— 1-12
+ 0-09
+ 0-14
— 0-98
— 0-84
— 1-03
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-74
— 0-75
— 0-94
— 4-25
+ 0-33
+ 2-56
— 0-51
+ 0-70
+ 2-42
+ 1-26
+ 0-86
— 0-42
+ 1-49
+ 1-26
+ 1-76
+ 3-87
_ 3-56
— 1-09
+ 2-42
_ 0-03
+ 3-70
Observer.
Freycinet.
Goldingham.
Sabine.
Hall.
F oster.
Foster.
Sabine.
Foster.
Leutke.
Foster.
Duperrey.
Sabine.
Sabine.
F oster.
Foster.
Sabine.
Sabine.
Goldingham.
Leutke.
Freycinet.
Leutke.
F oster.
Sabine.
Duperrey.
Freycinet.
Frevcinet.
Hall.
Freycinet.
Hall.
Leutke.
Leutke.
Brisbane.
Freycinet.
Duperrey.
Foster.
Freycinet.
Fallows.
Foster.
Sabine.
Duperrey.
Freycinet.
Sabine.
Duperrey.
Kater.
Foster.
Leutke.
Foster.
Sabine.
Sabine.
Fallows.
Foster.
Sabine.
Kater.
Goldingham.
Hall.
Brisbane.
Sabine.
Sabine.
Sabine.
Foster.
Duperrey.
Freycinet.
Kater.
Leutke.
Kater.
Sabine.
Foster.
Foster.
Kater.
Leutke.
Kater.
Leutke.
Kater.
Foster.
Sabine.
Sabine.
Foster.
Sabine.
Sabine.
573
Figure of
the Earth.
FIGURE OF THE EARTH.
ure of Taking the mean results of the observed vibrations given
Earth, in col. 4 of the above table, and forming with each of them
  ' the equation of condition N'2 = N2 (1 + n sin.2 /), seven-
tv-nine equations are formed, from which, on deducing
the values of N2 and n by the method of least squares, Mr
Baily obtained the following results :
N2= 7441625711
n = -00514491
1
e ” 285-26'
Bv means of these values of N2 and n, the number of
vibrations made by a pendulum which beats seconds at
London, at any latitude l, supposing the earth to be a re¬
gular spheroid, is given by the foimula ^
N' = 86246-8 (1 + -00514491 sin.2 Z)fJ;
and from this the results given in col. 5 of the table have
been computed. . , , „ ,
Although the differences between the observed and
computed vibrations are in some instances considerable,
the observations are on the whole well represented by
supposing the ellipticity = 2sl-26' T° b6 satIsfied °f
this, it will be sufficient to remark, that as the differences
in the table present twenty-four alternations of sign, the
curve which represents all the observations intersects the
meridian having that ellipticity no less than twenty-four
times along an arc of 152° (from Spitzbergen to South
Shetland), or, on an average, once for every 6? degrees,
and (with the exception of the island of Lonm) the de¬
viations on the opposite sides are nearly equal.
If, instead of seeking an ellipticity by the fusion (if we
may so speak) and agglomeration of all the observations by
the method of least squares, we consider the results of Uie
different voyagers separately, we shall find marked diffe¬
rences among them. Taken by themselves, Captain Sa¬
bine’s observations give e = ggfcH ’ ^aPta^n ^osters>
^DuperreyV^hj i Freycinet’s,
"The singular agreement of the
“ 289
, 1
and Leutke s, e —
results of the foreign voyagers with each other, and their
difference from those of Captains Sabine and Foster,
which also agree well with each other, have not been sa¬
tisfactorily explained. , 7 c •
In one of the numbers of the Annales des Sciences
d Observation (tome i. No. 3), M. Saigey has computed
the ellipticity from fifty-one different observations, com¬
bined by the method of least squares. Captain Posters
observations are of course not included in the table ; but
it contains those of Biot, made with a variable pendulum
at different stations along the French and British arcs
of meridian, and more recently in Italy and the Lipari
1
Islands.
The result gives e — 2^5*
The differences between the observed and computed
values are, in many instances at least, too great to be as¬
cribed entirely to errors of observation. They must,
therefore, be occasioned by real differences in the intensi¬
ty of gravity, arising either from variations in the density Figt 0f
of the materials which compose the exterior crust of the11* i th,
earth, or from local deviations of its form from that of the ^ J
regular spheroid. On attending to the preceding table,
it will be perceived that the differences are generally in
excess where the station is on small islands, and espe¬
cially if situated at a great distance from the main land.
From this it may be inferred, that such islands are com¬
posed of denser materials than the general crust of the
earth ; but it is not improbable that part of this effect may
be occasioned by a difference of the level of the surface of
the ocean. On the shores of elevated continents, the
direction of gravity is altered by the action of the high
land; and the surface of the water, which is perpendicu¬
lar to gravity, deviates from the regular curvature, and
becomes elevated above the general level of the ocean.
Hence the apparent elevation is less than the real eleva¬
tion of the station, and the observed intensity of gravity
is consequently less than it was calculated to be. How
far the disturbing influence of this cause may affect the
results, will be better understood when we shall be fur¬
nished with numerous pendulum observations, made in
the interior of the large continents, and at a great dis¬
tance from the sea.
All the pendulum experiments agree in giving a great¬
er ellipticity to the earth than that which is deduced
from the comparison of arcs of meridian. To what cause
this discrepancy is to be assigned is by no means apparent.
The geological character of the country in the immediate
neighbourhood of the station probably exerts a consider-
able influence in accelerating or retarding the pendulum;
but the experiments have now been made at so many
points, that we might expect to find the effects of local ir¬
regularities almost entirely eliminated, and a much nearer
agreement between the results of the two methods of in¬
vestigation than actually exists. We can, however, have
no difficulty in giving the preference to the results of the
geodetic measures. _ .
It was mentioned in the first section of this article that
the ellipticity of the earth may be deduced from certain
inequalities in the motions of the moon, to which it gives
rise; but this part of the subject belongs to the theory of
the lunar perturbations. The ellipticity so deduced is
about yjW, which agrees well with that given by the me¬
ridional arcs; and the result has the advantage of being
entirely independent of local disturbance.
One conclusion cannot fail to be drawn from the re¬
sults of this enquiry. However irregular the surface 0
the earth may be in its details, its general form agrees so
nearly with the figure of hydrostatic equilibrium, thatttie
agreement cannot be regarded as fortuitous or acci en a.
The regular increase of gravity from the equator to tne
poles, indicated by the pendulum experiments, also proves
that it is symmetrically constituted, or that the materia
in its interior are disposed about the centre of gravi y 1
regular elliptical strata, and arranged according to the or¬
der of density. The earth must therefore have taken its
present form while its particles were at liberty to arra”?
themselves in obedience to the forces arising from
mutual attractions and from the rotation; in ot ter wo >
it must have existed at some period of time Jn a s (
fluidity. This inference, which so many gedogmaltac
tend to confirm, may be extended to all the other p
S¥ i
F I L
F I L
575
1 use^bthSame senfe^wfth fibre, aid signify in g'f ho sjfin^ proSon^fAe kw6" K h* frIehnds’1and entered on the Filan^ierL
the fleSh’ — skin^ plantsf roots, &c. jt= ^“8“~
are compubcu. knowledge soon obtained him
Vegetable Filaments form a substance of great use in ‘ ~ n
success
the arts and manufactures ; furnishing thread, cloth, cord¬
age, and the like. For these purposes the filamentous parts
of the Cannabis and Linum, or hemp and flax, are com¬
monly used amongst us. But different vegetables have been
employed in different countries for the same uses. Pu¬
trefaction destroys the pulpy or fleshy matter, and leaves
the tough filaments entire. By putrefying the leaf of a plant
in water, we obtain the fine flexible fibres which consti¬
tute the basis of the ribs and minute veins, and form as it
were a skeleton of the leaf. The Sieur de- Flacourt, in
his history of Madagascar, relates that different kinds of
cloth are prepared in that island from the filaments of the
 . , - .     , and, about this
period, a circumstance happened which greatly conduced
to Jus celebrity.. Enormous abuses prevailed in the admi-
nf ration of justice at Naples, arising from the uncertainty
ot the law, which occasioned constant misconceptions, and
almost always led to arbitrary judgments. By a wise ordi¬
nance of the king, passed in the year 1774, at the suggestion
of the minister 1 anucci, those abuses were reformed; the
law was restored to its proper authority; its judgments were
fieed fiom the control of precedents ; and the judges vrere
ordained in every case to publish the grounds of their deci¬
sions. Although this reform was generally applauded, it ex¬
cited the murmurs of the bar. Filapgieri now became the
advocate of the court, and published a defence of the royal
bark of certain trees boiled in a strong lye ; that some of decree, founded upon the most enlarged views of equity and
these cloths are very fine, and approach to the softness of reason. The extensive knowledge and matured judgment
silk, but in durability fall short of cotton; that others are
coarser and stronger, and last thrice as long as cotton ; and
that of these the sails and cordage of his vessel were made.
FILANDERS, in falconry, a disease in hawks, and some
other birds, consisting of filaments or strings of blood coa¬
gulated ; and occasioned by a violent rupture of a vein, by
which the blood extravasated hardens into these figures,
and incommodes the reins, hips, and other parts.
Filanders are also worms as small as thread, and about
an inch long, which lie wrapt up in a thin skin or net, near
the reins of a hawk, apart from either gut or gorge.
FILANGIERI, Gaetan, celebrated for his valuable
works on political economy and legislation, was born at
Naples on the 18th of August 1752. He was the third
son of Cesar prince of Araniello, by Marianne Montalto,
daughter of the Duke of Fragnito. His family was ancient,
and rose to distinction at the first establishment of the Nea¬
politan monarchy. Angerio,.its founder, was the son of
one of those brave Normans who landed in Italy about the
beginning of the eleventh century, and accompanying Count
Roger in all his military expeditions, received from him
ample domains as the reward of his exploits. His descend¬
ants were allowed to take the honourable title of FMi An-
gerii, and hence the name Filangieri. Gaetan from his
infancy was destined for the profession of arms ; when he
was seven years of age he was enrolled in one of the royal
regiments, and he commenced actual service at the age of
fourteen. His education was at first neglected, from a mis¬
conception of his character, which was supposed to be
averse to all literary or speculative pursuits. The inju¬
dicious methods adopted at that time in the teaching of
Latin had, it seems, disgusted him, and alienated his mind
from the study of this language ; and hence an impression
had been hastily taken up of his general unfitness for all
literary exercises. A lucky accident, however, not only
removed this apprehension, but showed that his former im¬
patience of the modes of tuition then in use arose from the
clearness and vigour of his judgment. It happened that his
brother’s preceptor had one day mistaken the solution of
some geometrical problem. Gaetan immediately perceiv¬
ed the source of this error, which he demonstrated to the
roaster. This incident, apparently trivial, determined his
future destiny. Encouraged by his success, he quitted the
rouitary service, and determined to follow his natural taste
or science and philosophy. So diligent was he in repair-
mg the defects of his education, that at twenty years of
displayed in this performance attracted the attention of the
ministers, and Filangieri was encouraged to pursue the
course in which he had already acquired so much distinction.
Through the influence of his uncle, the Archbishop of Pa¬
lermo, he was in 1777 placed in an honourable office at
court; and almost at the same time he was named officer of
tne royal corps of marine volunteers, who were more par¬
ticularly attached to the king’s person. But his abode at
court neither broke in upon his regular habits of life, nor
interrupted the course of his studies ; nor did he allow it to
interfere with the composition of the great work on legisla¬
tion and government in which he w as engaged, and to wffiich
for several years past he had devoted all his inquiries. About
the commencement of the eighteenth century a great school
of philosophy had been formed at Naples, in which the prin¬
ciples of the civil law, of the law of nations, and of legisla¬
tion, were established on the solid and comprehensive ba¬
sis of general utility. From this school numerous works of
celebrity have proceeded; amongst others, the great work of
Beccaria,- which, though confined to one branch of legisla¬
tion, contains principles which are of universal application.
There was still wanting, however, a general treatise on legis¬
lation, for the purpose of examining the science in all its
relations, and of laying dowm some common and universal
principles of equity and expediency as its only true basis;
and it was to this important undertaking that Filangieri’s
philosophical mind was now directed. His subject he pro¬
posed to divide into seven books. The first, in which he
demonstrates the general rules of legislation, and the second,
which treats on political laws, and on those laws also which
are connected with the general structure of society, appear¬
ed at Naples in 1780 ; and such was its popularity, that
not only in Italy, but throughout Europe at large, the author
was ranked among the most celebrated writers on public
law. According to his theory, the goodness of laws is
either absolute or relative. It is absolute when they are
agreeable to those great and universal principles of equity
and expediency which are obligatory on man under every
diversity of country, climate, government, or manners ; it
is relative, according as the laws agree with the nature
of the government, with the genius and character of the
people, with the climate, with the fertility or sterility of
the soil, with the physical circumstances of the country,.
w'ith the religion of the inhabitants, and with the degree of
civilization to which they have advanced. In his second
book, which treats of political laws, and of those lawrs also
age he had acquired a knowledge of Greek and Latin, of which are connected with the general economy ot society,
rodent and modern history, of the great principles both of he examines two points ; namely, the state o popu a ion
C1'ril and of public law, and was besides well initiated in and of wealth. With respect to the first point, t ie ^ica
mathematical science. Although his genius inclined him question which he considers is, whether Europe is as pu¬
rely to the study of legislation and policy, he sacrificed pulous as it might be ? This question he resolves in the
576
F I L
Filangieri. negative, and he proceeds to explain the causes of this
' deficient population. According to his hypothesis, the
state of agriculture affords in every country the surest
evidence as to the state of the population ; but the back¬
wardness of agriculture in most parts of Europe sum-
ciently indicates that the population is deficient; there¬
fore he infers the defective state of European legislation
on these two capital points. The great obstacles to the
improvement of agriculture, and, consequently, to the in¬
crease of population, he considers to be, 1^, the small
number of proprietors, and the great number ot non-pro¬
prietors ; 2%, too many large, and too few small pro¬
perties ; 3e%, the exorbitant and inalienable possessions
of the church in several states; kthly, the excess ot t le
public imposts, and the violent modes of levying them;
bthly, to these he adds other causes of less importance,
such as the state of most of the regular troops of the
European states ; also public corruption, and the dissolute¬
ness of private morals. The progress of agriculture, the
great source of wealth as well as of population, may also
be obstructed by a bad political administration, by bad
laws, or by those causes which occasion a great influx ot
inhabitants to the respective capitals of the different states.
It belongs to a pure system of legislation to remove some
of those'obstacles, and to counterbalance such others as are
inevitable, by suitable encouragements. Having discussed
those momentous questions, he next enters into a compre¬
hensive survey of the other sources of riches, namely, arts,
manufactures, and commerce, and points out how these may
be obstructed by a faulty legislation, and, at the same time,
the means by which such obstructious may be removed. In
order fully to comprehend the merits of these performances,
we must consider that all the faults which the author repre¬
hends were committed by his own government; a circum¬
stance which imposed on him the delicate task of stating
obnoxious truths with freedom and boldness, and, at the
same time, without giving unnecessary offence. So well,
however, did he appreciate the views.of those whom it was
his wish to enlighten, that he was immediately promoted by
the king to a commandery in the royal order of Constantine.
In 1783 he married a Hungarian lady of noble birth, who
was entrusted with the education of the second daughter of
the king, and who to outward attractions united the gift of
a sound judgment and an agreeable disposition. That he
might the more freely enjoy domestic happiness, and, at
the same time, have leisure for the composition of his work,
on which he became every day more intent, he lesigned,
with the consent of the king, all his military employments
and his office at court, and retired to a country-seat about
twenty miles from Naples. In the same year he published
his third book, relating entirely to the principles of cri¬
minal jurisprudence. In these discussions he maintains
the same tone of decision and independence as before.
Abuses are freely pointed out, and the defects of the penal
code, and the forms of criminal procedure, are fairly ex¬
posed. In thus pointing out those defects in the domestic ad¬
ministration of his government, Filangieri excited the hat¬
red of an interested and powerful class ; and a proposition
which he made in his third book, for the reformation of abuses
in the Roman Catholic church, drew down upon his work
the censure of some of the ecclesiastical tribunals. In 1785,
however, he published the fifth, sixth, and seventh volumes
of his work, which comprehended his fourth book. These
were devoted to the consideration of education, morals, and
public instruction ; and though on these important points
we may be occasionally disposed to question his views, we
must nevertheless admire his mild and philosophical spirit
still opposed to every excess, his extensive knowledge, and
his happy talent of arranging and combining it for the illus¬
tration of his argument; his animated, flowing, and per-
F I L
spicuous style ; and, above all, that rectitude and philan- Fi
thropy which are diffused over all his reasonings. His fifth |
book, which treated of the laws relative to religion, was soon Fil
afterwards published. But his health was now considerably ^ ;
impaired, owing to an excess of application, so that the
remainder of his work advanced but slowly; and other in¬
terruptions soon followed. In the year 1787 he was called
by the new king, Ferdinand IV., to the supreme council of
finance. He returned to Naples, and from that time was
wholly engrossed with the important business of this office.
His health, already injured, was soon completely broken by
severe and active application; and several domestic misfor¬
tunes operating upon a mind of deep sensibility, at last threw
him into a state of melancholy. He finally retired from all
business into the country, where he soon afterwards became
seriously ill, and on the 21st of July 1788 he expired. Be¬
fore his death he had finished the eighth volume of his work,
containing the first part of the fifth book, in which he treats
of the different systems of religion that preceded Chris¬
tianity. Of the second part of the same book he had only
made a rude sketch, in which were noted down the prin¬
cipal subjects of discussion ; namely, the advantages of
Christianity and the dangers of superstition; the incon¬
veniences of mixing spiritual with temporal concerns; the
excessive riches of the clergy, and the immense increase
of their power. He was also to examine the foundation
of ecclesiastical rights, and to present, in a new system of
legislation, a remedy for the abuses which he pointed out.
A°chapter on toleration would have terminated this book.
In his sixth book he proposed to treat of the laws relative
to property ; and in his seventh and last, of the nature of the
paternal power and the government of families. He had
also other important works in contemplation when his course
was terminated by death. This eminent person, besides
some of the rarest gifts of genius, wTas endowed by nature with
the additional advantage of a most imposing presence. His
manners were eminently graceful and dignified. His coun¬
tenance bore the traces of habitual reflection, and of deep
sensibility, mingled with an expression of soft melancholy.
In private life nothing could exceed the simplicity of his
character, except the animation and interest of his con¬
versation. See La Scienza della Legislazione, Livorno,
1807, 5 tomes 8vo. This is the last Italian edition of H-
langieri’s great work. There is a French translation in ‘
vols. 8vo, published at Paris in 1798, from the Neapolitan
edition of 1784. The first two books have been translat¬
ed into English, under the title of The Science of Legisla¬
tion, from the Italian of Filangieri, and published in ^ vols.
8vo, Lond. 1806. ,
FILE, among mechanics, a tool used in order to smootn,
polish, or cut metals. This instrument is of iron or for¬
ged steel, cut transversely in little furrows, with chiseis
and a mallet, and of a depth corresponding to the Sral” _
touch required. After cutting the file, it must be -
pered with a composition of chimney-soot, very bar
dry, diluted and wrought up with urine, vinegar, an >
and the whole reduced to the consistence of mustar •
Tempering files consists in rubbing them over witn
composition, and in covering them with loam ; alter
they are put in a charcoal fire, and taken out y
they have acquired a cherry colour, which is now
small rod of the same kind of steel put in along withm-n-
Being taken out of the fire, they are thrown int c ^
spring water, and subsequently cleaned with chare
rag ; after which they are kept dry and free from ru^
laying them up in wheat bran. Iron Llmgs reqm ^
heating than steel ones. Files are of din wfer.
sizes, cuts, and degrees of fineness, according to
ent uses and occasions for which they are ma e.
FILIAL, something belonging to the relation o
F I L
Fill
Piet
W
Filial Piety, the affectionate attachment of children to
their parents, including in it love, obedience, and assistance.
These are duties prompted equally by nature and by gra¬
titude, independently of the injunctions of religion; for
where shall we find the person who has received from any
one benefits so many or so great as children have from
their parents ? And it may be truly said, that if persons are
undutiful to their parents, they seldom prove respectable in
any other relation. Profane history furnishes many fine
examples of this amiable virtue.
The Roman dictator T. Manlius having exercised great
cruelty over the citizens, was cited at the expiration of his
office to answer for his conduct. Amongst a number of
things laid to his charge, he was accused of treating with
barbarity one of his own sons. Manlius, according to Livy,
had no other cause of complaint against this son than his
having an impediment in his speech; for which reason he
was banished from the city, his home, and the company of
those of his own age and fortune, and condemned to per¬
form servile wTorks. All were highly exasperated against
such inhuman conduct, excepting the son himself, who,
under the greatest concern lest he should furnish matter
of accusation against his father, resolved upon adopting a
most extraordinary method to relieve him. One morning,
without apprising any body of his design, he came to the
city armed with a dagger, and went directly to the house
of the tribune Pomponius, who had accused his father.
Pomponius was yet in bed. Young Manlius sent up his
name, and was immediately admitted by the tribune, who
did not doubt but he was come to discover to him some
new instances of his father’s severity. But Manlius, as soon
as he was left alone with the tribune, drew out his dagger,
and presented it to his breast, declaring he w ould stab him
to the heart on the instant, if he did not swear, in the form
he should dictate, never to hold the assembly of the peo¬
ple for accusing his father. Pomponius, who saw the dag¬
ger glittering at his breast, and found himself alone, with¬
out arms, and attacked by a robust young man, full of con¬
fidence in his own strength, took the oath demanded of
him, and afterwards confessed with a kind of complacency,
and a sincerity which sufficiently showed that he was not
sorry for what had happened, that it w as this violence which
obliged him to desist from his design.
Amongst the multitude of persons who were proscribed
at Rome under the second triumvirate, were Cicero and his
brother Quintus. But the latter found means to conceal
himself so effectually at home, that the soldiers could not
discover him. Enraged at their disappointment, they put
his son to the question, in order to make him disclose the
place of his father’s concealment; but filial affection re¬
mained proof against the most exquisite tortures. An in¬
voluntary sigh, and sometimes a deep groan, was all that
could be extorted from the youth. His agonies were in¬
creased, but with amazing fortitude he still persisted in his
resolution of not betraying his father. Quintus was not
jar off; and it may be imagined how his heart must have
been affected with the sighs and groans of a son expiring
m tortures to save his life. He could endure no longer ;
and quitting the place of his concealment, he presented
himself to the assassins, begging of them to put him to
death, and dismiss the innocent youth, whose generous be¬
haviour the triumvirs themselves, if informed of the fact,
would judge worthy of the highest approbation. But the
inhuman monsters, without being in the least affected with
the tears of either the father or the son, answered that
t ey must both die ; the father because he was proscribed,
and the son because he had concealed his father. Then a
<iontest tenderness arose who should die first; but
is the assassins soon decided, by beheading them both at
the same time.
vol. ix.
F I L
Cinna, who scrupled not to attempt any thing, however
undertook ii,“l «rve iS p^pote"
but hk^ ge, -P°n- Strabo murdered in his tent; ’
actioTof P^pev the Grea“nd ^ 6
hv oil • ^ 116 . eat* /me treacherous Cinna had,
confidant nf Promis®s» gamed oyer one Terentius, a
thp / P°fipey’ an? P^vaded on him to assassinate
the geneial, and seduce his troops. But young Pompey
being informed of this design a few hours before it was to
be put in execution, placed a faithful guard round the pne-
tonum, so that none of the conspirators could come near
it; then watched all the motions of the camp, and endea¬
voured, by acts of prudence worthy of the oldest com¬
manders, to appease the fury of the soldiers, who hated the
general his father. However, some of the mutineers hav¬
ing forced open one of the gates of the camp, in order to
desert to Cinna, the general’s son threw himself flat on his
back in their way, crying out that they should not break
their oath and desert their commander, without treading
his body to death. By this means he put a stop to their
desertion, and afterwards wrought so effectually upon them
by his affecting speeches and engaging demeanour, that he
reconciled them to his father.
Olympias, the mother of Alexander, was of such an un¬
happy disposition, that he never allowed her to have any
concern in the affairs of the government. She used fre¬
quently to make great complaints on this account; but he
always submitted to her ill humour with great mildness and
patience. Antipater, one of his friends, having one day
written a long letter against her to the king, then absent,
Alexander, after reading it, replied, “ Antipater does not
know that one single tear shed by a mother will obliterate
ten thousand such letters as this.” Behaviour like this,
and the answer here recorded, show that Alexander was
both an affectionate son and an able politician.
Epaminondas is universally acknowledged to have been
one of the greatest generals and best men whom Greece
ever produced. Before him the city of Thebes was not
distinguished by any memorable action, and after him it
was more famous for its misfortunes than its virtues, till it
sunk into its original obscurity ; so that its glory may be
said to have arisen and expired with this great man. The
victory which he obtained at Leuctra had drawn the eyes
of all the neighbouring states upon Epaminondas; they
looked upon him as the support of Thebes, the triumphant
conqueror of Sparta, and the deliverer of Greece; in a
word, as one of the greatest men and the most excellent
captains the world had ever produced. But, in the midst
of this universal applause, so capable of making the gene¬
ral of an army forget the man, Epaminondas, little sensible
of so affecting and so deserved a glory, observed, “ My
joy arises from my sense of that which the news of my vic¬
tory will give my father and my mother.”
Amongst an incredible number of illustrious persons
who were falsely accused and put to death by Nero, was
one Bareas Soranus, a man of singular vigilance and jus¬
tice in the discharge of his duty. During his confinement,
his daughter Servilia was apprehended, and, being brought
before the senate, was there arraigned. The crime laid to
her charge was, that she had converted into money all her
ornaments and jewels, and the most valuable part of her
dress, to defray the expense of consulting magicians. To
this the young Servilia, with tears, replied, that she had
indeed consulted magicians, but the whole of her inquiry
was to know whether the emperor and senate w ould afford
protection and safety to her beloved and indulgent parent
against his accusers. “ With this viewr,” said she, “ I pre¬
sented the diviners, men till now utterly unknown to me,
with my jewels, apparel, and the other ornaments peculiar
to my quality, as I would have presented my blood and
4 D
577
Filial
Piety.
578
F I L
Filicaia. my life, could my blood and life have procured my father s
' liberty. But whatever this my proceeding was, my unfor¬
tunate father was an utter stranger to it; and if it is a
crime, I alone am the delinquent.” Notwithstanding this
affecting appeal, she was condemned to die along with her
father, but in what manner history is silent.
Valerius Maximus likewise mentions a very singular cir¬
cumstance relating to this subject. A woman of illustrious
birth had been condemned to be strangled. The Roman
praetor delivered her up to the triumvir, who caused her
to be carried to prison, in order that she might be put
to death. But the jailor, who was ordered to execute her,
being struck with compassion, could not resolve to kill her,
and chose therefore to let her perish of hunger. Besides
this, he suffered her daughter to see her in prison, taking
care, however, that the former brought nothing in the shape
of sustenance. As this continued many days, he was sur¬
prised that the prisoner should live so long without eating ;
and suspecting the daughter, he discovered, on narrowly
watching her motions, that she nourished her mother with
her own milk. Amazed at so pious, and at the same time
so ingenious an invention, he mentioned the fact to the
triumvir, and the triumvir to the praetor, who believed the
thing deserved being mentioned in the assembly of the
people. The criminal was pardoned, and a decree was
passed that the mother and daughter should be subsisted
for the rest of their lives at the public expense.
The same author gives a similar instance of filial piety
in a young woman called Xantippe towards her aged fa¬
ther Cimonus, likewise confined in prison, and which is
commonly known by the name of the Roman charity.
Both these instances appeared so extraordinary to that
people, that they could only account for them by supposing
that the love of children to their parents was the first law
of nature. Putaret aliquis, says our author, hoc contra
naturam factum esse, nisi prima natural lex esset diligere pa-
rentes.
FILIBEG, or Philibeg. See Philibeg.
FILICAIA, Vincenzo da, a celebrated Italian poet,
descended of a noble family of blorence, was born in that
city on the 30th of December 1642. He commenced his
studies under the Jesuits at Florence, and completed them
in the university of Pisa. Grecian and Roman antiquity,
philosophy, theology, and jurisprudence, were successively
the objects of his study ; poesy served merely as a relaxa¬
tion from severer pursuits. Like most young devotees of
the muses, he began with amatory verses; but the lady
whom he loved and celebrated having died in the flower of
her age, he burned all the verses which he had inscribed
to her, and resolved henceforth to sing only heroic or sacred
themes, a resolution which he most religiously observed.
Having returned to Florence, after a residence of about
five years at Pisa, he was received into the academy Della
Crusca, and, in a short time, married a daughter of the
senator Scipio Caponi; but as this lady brought him little
fortune, and his own means were limited, he withdrew en¬
tirely from the world, on the death of his father, and esta¬
blished himself in the country, where he divided his time
between his studies, the education of his children, and the
contemplation of the wonders of nature and its author. He
every day composed verses either in Latin or Italian, which
he submitted to the judgment of his friends, and improved
according to the advice which they gave, without any de¬
sire for publication, or indeed any other object than that
of exercising his own powders. But a memorable occur¬
rence drew him from the voluntary obscurity in which he
had buried himself. Vienna, besieged by an army of
two hundred thousand Tm-ks, was delivered by John So-
bieski, king of Poland, and by the Duke of Lorraine, after¬
wards Charles V. This great event, which saved Chris-
F I L
tendom from the most imminent danger, excited the en- Fit
thusiasm of Filicaia, who, in a magnificent canzone or ode,v
celebrated the victory of the Christian armies ; he also ad¬
dressed a second to the Emperor Leopold L, a third to the
King of Poland, a fourth to the Duke of Lorraine, and a
fifth to the god of armies ; and the Ottomans, having been
entirely defeated in another battle, he celebrated this new
triumph in a sixth ode, which is perhaps the most beauti¬
ful of all. These six triumphal odes excited universal ad¬
miration. The grand duke, of his own accord, sent copies of
them to the princes whose exploits were commemorated,
and from the latter the author received the most flattering
acknowledgments. But as the copies of his odes became
daily deformed by new errors, in proportion as they were
multiplied, his friends at length obtained permission to print
them. They accordingly appeared at Horence, in 1684,
in 4to ; and Filicaia w as, almost in spite of himself, placed
in the first rank of Italian lyric poets. Another great ode,
which he addressed the same year to Uueen Christina of
Sweden, fully supported the reputation which he had gained
by his former productions. This princess, who then exhi¬
bited in private life the generosity of a sovereign, did not
confine herself to a mere expression of her satisfaction, or
corresponding with the author, or admitting him into the
academy, which she had formed at Rome, of men most dis¬
tinguished in poetry and letters; being informed of the
depressed state of his circumstances, she in some sort
adopted his two sons, undertook to defray the expense of
their education, and exacted from their father, as the only
expression of his gratitude, that he would maintain the
most profound silence, not chusing, as she said, to have to
blush before the public for having done so little to serve a
man who had so many claims to her esteem. But a severe
malady with wdnch he wras seized some years afterwards,
was followed by another subject of affliction, which he felt
much more sensibly ; he lost his eldest son, who had been
appointed page to the grand duke after the death of the
queen his benefactress. This bereavement, which he bore
with Christian fortitude, fixed on him the particular atten
tion of the prince, who, interested in his fortune, confer
red on him the dignity of senator, and soon afterwards ap
pointed him ducal commissary of Volterra, then commis
sary of Pisa, and, lastly, secretary au tirage to the magis
trates, an important office, which gave him immediate ac
cess to the prince, and initiated him in the secrets of the
government. Filicara, in all his employments, secured at
once the gratitude of the public, the attachment of those
under him, and the esteem of his sovereign. Neither the
multiplicity of his occupations, nor the progress of age,
however, prevented him from dedicating several hours each
day to the cultivation of letters and the exercise of his poe¬
tical talent; but as his piety, which had always been grea,
increased with his years, he at length confined his rea ui£.
to religious books, and treated only of sacred subjects, ne¬
vertheless, he had resolved to collect all his pieces, to re
vise and correct them of new, and to publish
complete edition of his lyrical composition ; but, whi s
cupied with this undertaking, in which he had tn e
siderable progress, he was seized with a violent aitec 1
the chest, which in a few days put a period to is ^
He died at Florence, on the 24th of September 1707, in
sixty-fifth year of his age, and was interred in e
vault in the church of St Peter, where his sonScipiO
ed a monument to his memory. The edition of his p __
eti a monument to ius memui y.    *, n
works in Italian, which he was preparing, and nau
begun to print at the time of his death, was a ^ P . j
published by the same son, who dedicated it to
Duke Cosmo III. under the title of Poesze Toscane de
cenzo da Filicaja, senatore Fiorentino et cmicfe
Crusca, Florence, 1707, in 4to. They were rep
F I L
ne. 1720, with a life of the author, by Thomas Bonaventuri, a
Florentine; which life had previously appeared in the
second volume of the Vite degli Arcadi lllustri. But a
more valuable though less beautiful edition, from which
all the subsequent editions have been taken, is that of Ve¬
nice, 1762, in two volumes 8vo; the first of which con¬
tains the Poesie Toscane, and the second, the Latin verses
of the same author, there for the first time collected from
the different publications in which they had been previously
scattered. There are subjoined some pieces in prose of in¬
ferior interest, if we except a literary correspondence of
Filicaiawkh Francesco Redi, Menzini, and Gori, who shared
with him the glory of having, in a cornfpt age, remained
faithful to the principles of good taste and sound literature.
The canzoni, to which we have above referred, are perhaps
the most remarkable compositions in this collection ; but
some of the other pieces are not inferior to these either
in the dignity of the subject or the majesty and force of
the style; and several of his Sonnets are worthy of these
beautiful odes. Is there an Italian heart that can be in¬
sensible to the deep patriotic feeling, expressed with such a
mournful and affecting sublimity, in the well-known sonnet
commencing
Italia, Italia, O tu cui feo la sorte
Donno infelice di Bellezza, etc ;
one of the most perfect compositions of the kind in exist¬
ence, and which, though it consists of only fourteen verses,
will sustain a comparison with the most celebrated lyrical
effusions, ancient or modern ?
FILIGRANE, Filigree, or Fillagree, Work, a kind
of enrichment on gold or silver, wrought delicately in the
manner of little threads or grains, or both intermixed. The
word is compounded of JU or Jilum, a thread, and granum,
a grain, and in Latin is called Jilatim elaboratum opus, ar¬
gentum, aurum.
There is no manufacture in any part of the world which
has been more admired and celebrated than the fine gold
and silver fillagree of Sumatra ; and what renders it a mat¬
ter of still greater curiosity, is the coarseness of the tools
employed in the workmanship, and which, in the hands
of an European, would not be thought sufficiently perfect
for the most ordinary purposes. They are rudely and in-
artificially formed by the goldsmith, from any piece of old
iron which he can pick up. When one of them is engaged
to execute a piece of work, his first request is usually for a
piece of iron hoop to make his wire-drawing instrument;
an old hammer head, stuck in a block, serves him for an
anvil; and his pair of compasses is often composed of two
old nails tied together at one end. The gold is melted in a
piece of preeoo or earthen rice-pot, or sometimes in a cru¬
cible of ordinary clay. In general no bellows are used,
but the fire is blown with the mouth, through a joint of
bamboo; and if the quantity of metal to be melted is con¬
siderable, three or four persons sit round the furnace, which
is an old broken quallee or iron pot, and blow together.
At Padang alone, where the manufacture is most consider¬
able, they have adopted the Chinese bellows. The method
of drawing the wire differs but little from that which is
used by European workmen. When drawn to a sufficient
fineness, it is flattened by beating it on the anvil ; and when
flattened, a twist is given to it like that in the whalebone
handle of a punch ladle, by rubbing it on a block of wood
with a flat stick. After twisting they again beat it upon the
anvil, and thus it becomes flattened wire with indented
edges. The end of the ware is folded down with a pair of
pincers, and thus is formed a leaf, or element of a flower in
their work, which is cut off. The end is again folded and
out off, till they have got a sufficient number of leaves,
which are laid on singly. Patterns of the flowers or foliage,
in which there is seldom much variety, are prepared on
F f L
579
paper of the size of the gold plate on which the fillagree Filippo
is o >e aid. According to these, they begin to dispose on I>’Argvro
the plate the larger compartments of the foliage, for which . H
they use plain flattened wire of a larger size, and fill it up , 1 ^otl'
with the leaves before mentioned. In order to fix the work, ' '
they employ a gelatinous substance, made of the red-hot
berry called boea sago, ground to a pulp on a rough stone,
wmicn pulp they place on a young cocoa nut about the size
of a walnut, the top and bottom being cut off. After the
leaves have been all placed in order, and stuck on bit by
bit, a solder is prepared of gold filings and borax mois¬
tened with water, which is strewed over the plate, when it
is put in the fire for a short time, and the whole becomes
united. This kind of work on a gold plate is called carrang
papan; but when the work is open, it is called carrang
trous'j. In executing the latter, the foliage is laid out upon
a card, or soft kind of wood, and stuck on, as before de¬
scribed, with the sago berry ; and the work, when finished,
being strewed over with the solder, is put into the fire,
when the card or soft wood burning away, the gold re¬
mains connected. If the piece be large it is soldered at
several times. In the manufacture of badjoo buttons, they
first make the lower part flat, and having a mould formed
of a piece of buffalo’s horn, indented to several sizes, each
like one half of a bullet mould, they lay their work over
one of these holes, and with a horn punch press it into the
form of a button ; after which they complete the upper part.
When the fillagree is finished they cleanse it by boiling it
in water with common salt and alum, or sometimes lime
juice ; and in order to give it that fine purple colour which
they call sapo, they boil it in water mixed with brimstone.
The manner of making the little balls with which their
works are sometimes ornamented, is simple. They take a
piece of charcoal, and having cut it flat and smooth, make
in it a small hole, which they fill with gold dust, and this
being melted in the fire, becomes a little ball. They are very
inexpert at finishing and polishing the plain parts, hinges,
screws, and the like, being in this as much excelled by the
European artists as the latter fall short of them in the fine¬
ness and minuteness of the foliage. The Chinese also make
fillagree mostly of silver, which looks elegant, but wants
the extraordinary delicacy of the Malay work. The price
of the workmanship depends upon the difficulty or uncom¬
monness of the pattern. In some articles of usual demand
it does not exceed one third of the value of the gold, but in
matters of fancy it is generally equal to that of the metal.
FILIPPO D’ARGYRO, a city of the province of Ca¬
tania, in the island of Sicily. It is situated on the summit
of a lofty insulated hill, abounds in churches and monas¬
teries, contains 6118 inhabitants, and produces near it much
saffron and good wine. It was the birth-place of the cele¬
brated historian Diodorus Siculus.
FILLET, or Filet. See Architecture, Index.
Fillet, in Heraldry, a kind of orle or bordure, contain¬
ing only a third or fourth part of the breadth of the com¬
mon bordure. It is supposed to be withdrawn inwards,
and is of a different colour from that of the field. It runs
quite round, near the edge, as a lace over a cloak.
Fillet is also used among painters, gilders, and others,
for a little rule or reglet of leaf gold, drawn over certain
mouldings, or on the edges of frames, pannels, and the
like, especially when painted white, by way of enrichment.
Fillets, in the Manege, are the loins of a horse, which
begin at the place where the hinder part of the saddle
usually rests. . .
FILM, a thin skin or pellicle. In plants it signifies
that thin woody skin which separates the seeds in the pods,
and keeps them apart. .
FILOTI, a town of the Turkish province Yanina, and
the capital of a district of the same name. It contains
1
580
F I L
Filter.
4000 inhabitants, who make excellent oil, and cultivate a
, considerable extent of tobacco.
FILTER, an instrument or apparatus contrived for
clearing liquids from any impurities mechanically combin¬
ed with them. Filters are of various kinds, according to
the nature of the liquor requiring to be clarified ; but they
all act on the same general principle, namely, straining the
liquor by passing it through earth or other porous material;
the process being thus exactly analogous to that of sifting,
as used for powder or other dry substances. The opera¬
tion of filtering is extensively used in chemistry and the
arts, and also in purifying water for domestic purposes, and
for the use of ships in long voyages ; and hence the con¬
struction of artificial filters on a large scale for the supply
of towns and cities with pure water becomes a very nice
and difficult operation, and now forms an important branch
of civil engineering. The pureness of spring water arises
entirely from a process of filtration. Such water generally
issues from a considerable depth beneath the surface of the
ground, as is evident from the force with which it is dis¬
charged, and the equable temperature which it preserves
throughout the year, being cool in summer, and in winter
never freezing. Flence, in its course from the surface
downwards, it must pass through a variety of soils, sub¬
soils, and porous rocky strata; and it is by the perfect
straining which it receives in percolating through such
vast masses of filtering materials as must occur in the
bowels of the earth, that it comes out at last with that ad¬
mirable purity and transparency which we observe. But
notwithstanding of this, spring water contracts, often among
the rocks and minerals with which it comes in contact, va¬
rious impurities, which become chemically dissolved in it,
and from which it cannot be freed by filtration or any other
mechanical process. It becomes often, therefore, unfit on
this account for domestic use or the purposes of the arts,
and is rarely equal, and never superior, to rain or river wa¬
ter properly filtered. The great importance of this opera¬
tion, therefore, is evident, more especially from the frequent
and serious failures which have taken place. But it may
be better to defer the consideration of this branch of the
subject till it can be resumed along with other hydraulic
operations. See Water-Works.
Water fil- On a smaller scale, for domestic use, water filters have
ters for do- different times been brought forward, and for many of
mestic use. ^pem patents taken out. But as they are all very similar
in principle, and none appears greatly distinguished above
the rest, it is unnecessary to enter into a minute descrip¬
tion of them. They are all liable to the objection of clog¬
ging up, and getting foul in the course of time. But if re¬
gularly cleaned, any of them will answer the purpose suffi¬
ciently well, the process of filtration being so simple and
so easily effected. Several ingenious plans have been pro¬
posed for self-cleaning filters; the water, for instance, be¬
ing made to ascend, or to pass alternately in opposite direc¬
tions, and thus carry off the impurities by the process it¬
self. But as none of these have succeeded completely, it
will be found most convenient in small filters to clean them
regularly ; and those are therefore to be preferred which
afford the means of doing this most conveniently.
Filtering In these filters the filtering material generally used is
materials, gravel, sand, porous stone, or unglazed earthenware. Char¬
coal is sometimes added, but this is more for its antiseptic
and purifying quality, and is only necessary in the case
of fetid or very impure water. Gravel, though the best of
all materials on a large scale, is rather coarse in itself for
small filters. But where it occurs in nature in very thick
beds, the large mass of material makes up for the coarse¬
ness of the grain , and many instances occur where springs
from this source are scarcely inferior in purity to distilled
water. But in small filters it requires a bed of sand above
f r l
it to detain the impurities. Sand is perhaps, after all, the Ht
best filtering material; it should, however, be clean sea or
river sand, with no tincture of iron ; this last is indicated
by its reddish colour, which, if deep, will communicate an
iron taint to the water, a circumstance harmless enough in
itself for most domestic uses, but very prejudicial for the
purposes of bleaching, paper-making, &c. in the arts.
In filters constructed with gravel or sand, all the appa- Sand
ratus that is necessary is a vessel to contain the filtering grave-I
material, with a space above for holding a quantity of theters
water to be filtered, and a vessel below for receiving the
filtered water. A simple and convenient apparatus of this
kind was contrived by Messrs Hearman and Beam, pot¬
ters, Redriff, described in Nicholson’s Journal, vol. viii., and
represented in Plate CCXLV. fig. 1, which exhibits the
whole apparatus, and shows, in fig. 2, a shaded section. A
is a vessel of stone-ware perforated with holes, m, at bot¬
tom, upon which coarse gravel, h, is laid, and on that again
a stratum of fine gravel, and, lastly, fine sand, g. Or,
otherwise, the bottom may be covered with a coarse cloth,
which will render the graduated fineness of the gravel and
sand less necessary. Upon the top of the sand is laid a
perforated and loaded board or plate of earthenware, to
prevent the sand from being disturbed when the water is
poured in. B is a lowrer vessel, into which the filtered wa¬
ter from A drops, together with any sand that may escape
from above. The clear water flows out through the neck
ac into the vessel d for use.
On this plan an excellent filtering apparatus may be con¬
structed at little expense, and in various ways, according to
the means or conveniencies most readily at hand; and the
sand and gravel possess a decided advantage over filtering
stones or other materials, from the great facility of cleaning,
the latter being liable, from long use and the impurities lodg¬
ing in their pores, to give the water an unpleasant taint.
A very simple arrangement in the above plan is to have
a cylindrical jar of earthenware, as at fig. 5, with two parti¬
tions or false bottoms, dividing the height into three equal
portions, the partitions resting each on a shoulder formed all
round on the jar, or otherwise supported; the middle divi¬
sion for the filtering material, the upper one for the water to
be filtered, and the lower one for containing the filtered
water, with a stop-cock for drawing it off' at pleasure, and a
vent or opening at the top for the admission and discharge
of air. The stop-cock must be placed three or four inches
from the bottom, to allow full space for any sand or other
material to deposit in the bottom; and the air vent must be
carried up by a small pipe to the top of the jar, to prevent
the water ever rising and overflowing by it. The partitions
are made of earthenware, with a number of small holes to
allow the water to descend. If sand only is used, itvul
be necessary to spread a layer or two of cloth under it, to
prevent the sand getting through the openings.^ But i
gravel can be had, it will be better to lay a bed of this, ot
tw7o inches or more in thickness, on the bottom, and t e
sand above it. After the sand is filled in to the height o
the upper partition, this is placed on as a cover, which lav¬
ing also a number of small openings in it, the water o\\»
from the upper division downwards. I he cover shou ^
press on the top of the sand, in order to prevent its beiUj,
disturbed by the entrance of the water, or a layer of grave
should be placed on the top of the sand. If. a layer or
two of cloth be laid over the partition, it will serve
detain some of the impurities ; and being frequently was
ed, it will make the filter continue longer clean. n or
der to clean this filter it is only necessary to remove
upper partition, take out the upper stratum of sand to
depth of two or three inches, wash it thoroughly, am
place it; or, if sand can be had readily, let the w o e ^
replaced with a fresh quantity, clean and pure. 11 ’
filter.
on the whole, a very simple, perfect, economical, and con¬
venient filter. It may be constructed of wood or other
convenient material, and is both very easily formed, and
easily kept clean and in order ; and by varying the thick¬
ness of the bed of sand, it can be adapted to the exact de¬
gree of filtration required. The vessel also admits of any
ornamental shape which taste may direct; and several ele¬
gant figures of tins kind, contrived by the manufacturers,
are shown at the bottom of the plate. If the lower di¬
vision also were left unglazed and porous, an evaporation
would go on from the outside, so that in summer it would
act as a cooler as w^ell as a filterer. Should much sedi¬
ment be found collecting in the lower vessel, perhaps it
would be better to place the whole apparatus upon a
second jar, so wide as to allow the first to -stand over it,
and having a pipe in the bottom rising nearly to the top of
the vessel, and open at the top. The filtered water would
flow over this, and descend into the lower vessel, which
being detached, could always be kept perfectly clean in
the bottom. The upper end of the pipe should be cover¬
ed with a fold or two of cloth. An ingenious plan, intro¬
duced by Mr Parkes, chemist, for drawing off the water in
the reservoir of a filtering or purifying apparatus, though
applied rather on a larger scale, might often be used with
advantage in smaller filters, such as those for bleachers,
paper-makers, and others. It is represented at fig. 6, and
consists in connecting the stop-cock for the discharge of
the w'ater with a pipe and flexible joint terminating in a
rose-head and floating ball, which keeps the head always
immersed a little under water, and thus discharges it from
near the surface, although the level of the water may vary
considerably. The water here is also let in, not directly
into the reservoir, but by an upright pipe having a funnel
at the top, and descending to near the bottom^ which
causes the water to enter below, where it must deposit any
impurity before this can rise to the surface.
In the sand and gravel filters here described, the water
descends during the whole of the process, and this causes
a slight tendency to carry minute particles of sand or
other impurities along with it. To remedy this defect,
various plans have been proposed for making the water,*
after descending, again ascend; and this plan certainly
possesses advantages, and is a decided improvement on
the other. A very neat contrivance of this kind is that
proposed by Professor Parrot of Paris, in Nicholson’s Jour-
nal, and is represented at fig. 3.
It consists simply of an inverted syphon, which could
be easily made of lead, having the bend filled with sand,
and being covered on the top with gravel in each branch.
I he water entering the longer branch from a reservoir,
passes through the sand, and rising up, is discharged at the
other end, which should be three inches below the level
of the first. When the section of the tube is four inches
by two, and eighteen inches the length of sand, it was cal¬
culated that six Paris pints of pure water would be pass¬
ed in an hour.
Another plpn, proposed by Sir Henry Englefield, in the
same work, is shown at fig. 4. It consists of a conical ves¬
sel placed within the one containing the sand, and allow¬
ing the water to descend on the inner vessel, and ascend
£ieain in the outer one.
but the simplest mode of effecting the ascent of the
"ater is merely to divide the jar or filtering vessel by a
vertical partition, open at the bottom. The water being
ien poured into the one side, descends to the bottom,
passes under the partition into the other side, and ascends
o the same level at which it entered, and can then be
rawn oft by a stop-cock or other means at pleasure. In
iat case a single vessel only is wanted, and contains in
Se the means of holding separately the filtering mate-
581
ml, the water to be filtered, and the water after Ultra- Filter.
tion Upon the whole, this appears by far the simplest, '  
most perfect, most economical, and most convenient filter
of this, or perhaps of any kind, that can be contrived. All
that is necessary is to have a pretty deep vessel of earth¬
enware, wood, or other material; a tub or barrel will an¬
swer perfectly. Put a vertical partition in the middle,
reaching nearly to the bottom, fill it half or three fourths
full of sand, with a layer of gravel on the top, and it is
ready for use. It may be found convenient, to prevent the
gravel being disturbed, to place a cover over it, with holes.
The water may either be drawn directly from the pure
side with jugs, or let off by a stop-cock. Instead of sand
and gravel, some have proposed to use charcoal, either by
itself or in combination with the others; and an appara¬
tus of this kind was contrived by Mr John Isaak Hawkins. Charcoal
It is only, however, when the water has an impure taint, filter by
which cannot be removed by sand, that the charcoal Mr Haw-
should be resorted to, as it is more expensive, and more^ns'
difficult to be cleaned. In long voyages, however, char¬
coal, as proposed by Hawkins, may, in conjunction with
sand, be found very useful.
Instead of the water descending and then ascending, se- Filtering
veral ingenious methods have been contrived where the by ascent
water only ascends through the filter, being let in below,aloiie-
and forced upwards by the pressure of an external head of
water. The advantage of this is, that the filter can be
cleaned by letting the water return and run out at the
place where it usually enters. These plans, however, on
a small scale, are hardly ever found to supersede cleaning.
On this principle was the patent granted in 1791 to Mr Pea- Mr Pea¬
cock, which he intended for small filters as well as those on cock,
a large scale. His apparatus consisted of a vessel of wood,
lead, or other materials, of any shape or dimensions re¬
quired, divided near the bottom by a horizontal grate or
partition, upon which the filtering medium was spread in
layers, beginning with the coarsest and ending with the
fine. The lower division had a communication with a more
elevated reservoir, from which the water flowed, and rose
through the filtering bed. This consisted of gravel, sand,
broken and pulverized glass or pottery, all well washed
and sifted with sieves. On a similar principle Mr Bra- Mr Bra¬
mah had a patent for various modes of conveying and mah.
drawing off beer and other liquors, in which he describes
a filtering apparatus which he proposed to place in the
pipes to conduct the liquor. This was a cylindrical ves¬
sel, made of copper tinned within, or of any other mate¬
rials ;• the upper end was closed by a lid screwed on by
a flaunch, and the lower end terminated in a cone ; a pipe
was inserted into the vessel near the lower part, to intro¬
duce the liquor; and from near the upper end a similar
pipe proceeded to convey it away. Between these two
was fixed the filtering floor, consisting of flannel, sand in
bags, sponges or other similar substances, which were
spread upon a horizontal plate pierced full of small holes,
and fixed in the cylinder above the filtering substance;
and another similar plate was fixed and screwed down to
confine it. The liquor was introduced by the lower pipe
by means of a pump or otherwise, and ascending through
the filtering floor, passed off in a clarified state; the impu¬
rities which are separated collect in the conical bottom of
the cylindrical vessel, whence they can be drawn by a cock.
This contrivance is adapted to give a slight filtration to a
great quantity of liquor, such as beer; and Mr Collier, in Mr Collier,
a patent for the purification of oils, claimed the principle of
filtering per ascensum combined with hydrostatic pressure.
Such are the different contrivances for filtering water, Filtering
where sand and gravel are the materials; but notwith-stones,
standing their simplicity, filters of porous stone are those
which have hitherto been most generally in use. ihe
582
Filter.
Filtering
upwards.
Anglesea
earthen¬
ware fil¬
ters.
FILTER.
stones are procured from beds of sandstone, and some¬
times a kind of limestone. They are found in Northamp¬
tonshire, Derbyshire, and other parts of England, and
are often imported from the island of Teneriffe. The
construction of the filter is extremely simple. A thick
bowl or basin is formed of the stone, and mounted in a
frame. The foul water, being poured into the basin,
passes slowly through the substance of the stone, and
drops into a receptacle below, in a perfectly transparent
state. When the water is foul, a small quantity ot mud
or slime is found to collect at the bottom of the basin, and
must occasionally be cleared out; but in the course of
time the more minute impurities will insinuate themselves
into the pores of the stone, and at last clog up the passage
of the water. This is remedied by chipping away the in¬
terior surface of the stone one half or three foiuths of an
inch, because the impurities do not penetrate deeper into
the stone. This will restore its action for a long time.
The basin shape used in these filters is obviously not
the most proper, as it leaves an unequal thickness in the
bottom for the water to penetrate, and also the pressure
of the fluid is unequal. The bottom should be flat and of
equal thickness, and in fact it would be much better not
to make the stone a reservoir at all; but to use a filtering
vessel such as above described, substituting for the sand
and gravel a plate of the filtering-stone, of such thickness
as maybe found best adapted for the nature of the water.
If a thin plate also were placed on the top of a thick one,
it might then be removed without any trouble when it got
foul, and replaced by another, without disturbing the lower
mass ; or several plates could be laid one above another
till the requisite thickness for filtering were obtained.
Instead of pouring the water into the basin and allovy-
ing it to filter downwards, the water may be contained in
a vessel in which the basin is nearly immersed; and in
this way the water will filter partly laterally, but chiefly
■per ascensum, and leave much of its deposit behind, so as
to enable the stone to continue longer clean. A filter on
this plan was contrived by Mr Moult, and is described
in the Transactions of the Society of Arts. The filtered
water runs in and fills the basin, from which it can be ta¬
ken out or let off by a pipe. This principle was also pro¬
posed by Mr Collier, and it possesses all the advantages
we have already described in filtering upwards with sand ;
and if it were used with plates of the stone instead of a
basin, it would be still more effectual.
The unglazed earthenware for filtering has been intro¬
duced as a substitute for the filtering stones. It is made
of different compositions of pottery. The original patent
was granted to Mrs Johanna Hempel, potter, Chelsea, in
the year 1790. The proportions were four out of nine of
tobacco-pipe clay, and five out of nine of coarse sea, river,
or pit sand. This was intended for basins not exceeding one
gallon. For larger capacities it is liable to fly or crack in the
fire. A second composition, therefore, consisted of equal
parts of tobacco-pipe clay and sea or river sand; or if
this was found insufficient to prevent the cracking, three
parts tobacco-pipe clay, one of Stourbridge clay, or clay
from the surface of the coal mines, one of Windsor loam,
or other loam of equal quality, and four of coarse river
or sea sand ; or four parts of tobacco-pipe clay, three of
sand, and one of the burnt ground clay of which crucibles
are made. The above ingredients are brought to the
proper basin or bowl shape on the wheel, and are then
hardened in the furnace like other pottery ware. The
same objection, however, applies here to the basin shape
as to the stones; in fact, it would be better to have this com¬
position formed into plates of different thickness, which
could then be used, one or more in number, in the filter¬
ing vessels, instead of sand or stone; one could be taken
out when foul, and another put in, with the utmost faci- p;;
lity ; and this would certainly be attaining the perfection ^■ j
of a filtering apparatus.
Another still simpler plan would be to have one filtering
vessel, with a vertical partition of the porous ware reaching
to the bottom. The one half of the vessel would then be
filled with the impure and the other with the pure water;
and if several of these plates were at hand, one partition
could be taken out when foul, and another inserted in its
place, or there might be two porous partitions, and a solid
one between them. The one would then ascend and run
over the top of the solid partition, and again descend and
pass through the second porous partition, which would
therefore hardly ever require renewal.
A filter by Mr Robins of London, and for which he has
taken out a patent, has been lately much recommended to
the public. The external appearance is varied according
to taste , and figs. 13, 14, 15, already referred to, represent
some of the neatest and most elegant patterns. We are not
acquainted with the interior construction, but understand
it consists of various strata of filtering material, such as we
have above described, arranged so as to act with peculiar
efficacy. At the top there is a sponge neatly inserted into
a recess above the upper partition, which is a very judicious
and useful mode of detaining any impurities, and prevent¬
ing them from getting into the filterer, the sponge being
easily taken out and washed from time to time. The pa¬
tentee, however, claims far higher powers for his inven¬
tion than that of mere filtration. He states that the inte¬
rior process involves a voltaic action, which decomposes
soluble substances, and renders the water equal in purity
to distilled water. We confess we have great doubts in
regard to this, and think it irreconcilable with any idea of
voltaic or chemical action with which we are acquainted.
Still we have no doubt, from the various testimonials brought
forward, that the filter is a good one. Fig. 14 is about three
feet high, and one and a half broad, and is calculated to filter
fifty gallons a day ; the others in proportion.
From the great success with which water has been pu¬
rified by filtration, attempts have been made to purify
oils in the same manner ; and an ingenious apparatus for
this purpose was contrived, and a patent taken out, by Mr
Joshua Collier, applicable also to water and other liquids,
and of which an account will be found in the Repertory
of Arts, vol. x. But in oils there is generally so many
impurities, chemically or otherwise united, that filtration
can do little for their purification. Charcoal is the sub¬
stance chiefly employed. A filtering machine contrive y
Mr Innes of Edinburgh is said to answer well for oils and
other fluids. By it the fluid is forced through the pores o
wood by the action of a forcing-pump. Such a degree o
pressure is unnecessary for water; but for oil, qmcksi ver,
and other valuable fluids, it appears certainly well adap e
Filtration is much used in chemical processes. AnefW"
materials employed are unsized paper, cloth, flanne, ow,in c
sponge, sand, pulverized glass, flints, porous stones, ear
enware, &c. In fig. 12 is represented a neat httfe h '
ing apparatus constructed by Mr Parkes; and the 0
ing remarks and directions are taken from ^!ara, ^
excellent work on Chemical Manipulation. “ Oft e a
substances, the first is almost exclusively in use a
laboratory, a few of the others now and then being res
ed to only on particular occasions.
“ Funnels are continually necessary to supportthe PJ\
through which filtration is to take place. The orc' j,s
funnels required in the laboratory for the passage o
answer the purpose very well, but they are of use o
porting filters, when, from their necks being ro
they are otherwise unserviceable. They may e g
of glass or good Wedgewood or other earthenware,
filter.
Fil of glass are to be preferred, because the progress of the
try' filtration and the state of the filter can be better ascer¬
tained in them. Metal funnels should not be allowed in
the laboratory.
“ The funnels containing filters may be frequently sup¬
ported by the glass or jar intended to receive the filtered
fluid, and at other times by the rings of retort stands. But
notwithstanding these facilities, so frequently is the ope¬
ration required, a laboratory should be supplied with at
least one filtering stand of considerable size. The end
of such a stand is represented in fig. 7. It should be fif¬
teen inches wide, three or four feet long, and have an in¬
terval between the bottom and top of twelve inches. The
top should have a number of round holes made in it at in¬
tervals of six inches, differing in diameter from one and
a half to three inches ; two or three small ones of half an
inch or an inch in diameter being intermixed. The whole
should be well made and firm, so as to support consider¬
able weights, the top having frequently to answer the pur¬
pose of a table, and to sustain jars full of solutions, as well
as to bear funnels and filters.
“ It is no easy matter for the chemist to obtain unobjec¬
tionable filtering paper, and yet it is of such importance
in reference to the duties it has to perform, that he should
not spare pains to procure the best possible. It should
be so porous as to admit the free and ready passage of
fluids; so close as to retain the finest solid particles; so
strong as to bear the weight of a considerable quantity of
fluid; and so pure as to give nothing to the solution, or if
heated with the substance retained upon it, to occasion no
mixture of ashes. Some chemists use plate paper, that is,
the paper of copperplate printers. It is very porous, and
yet there are few precipitates that will pass through it;
at the same time it is often tender, generally yields a con¬
siderable quantity of ashes when burnt, and is inapplica¬
ble for minute filters when very small quantities of fluid
only are to be worked upon, because of its thickness, and
consequent waste of the portion of solution imbibed by it.
“ It is amongst the thinner varieties of unsized paper, or
white blotting paper, kept by some of the stationers, that
the chemist will probably find the kind best suited to his
purpose. It should be so strong, that a single filter of it,
capacious enough to hold a pint of water, should not break
with that quantity, even though some degree of agitation
be given to the funnel containing it. Its porosity, that is
to say, its comparative freedom from size, for it is mostly
sized in a slight degree, may be judged of by holding it
to the tongue, and observing how it absorbs moisture;
and by a cautious pull its strength may be ascertained
whilst in such moistened state. The student who is un¬
used to the examination of papers will, however, better
judge of its capability of allowing fluid to pass, by actual
trial with water; a pint filter filled with clean water
should allow the fluid to run in a considerable stream.
“ Ihe best method of judging of the purity of paper is to
oufn it and examine its ashes : the fewer it yields the
better is it adapted for filters. A demy sheet should not
yield more than one and a half or two grains of ashes al¬
together. If it contains more, their solubility or insolu¬
bility should be observed, that the student may be aware
of the impurities that may probably be imparted to solu¬
tions in very delicate experiments. In minute cases of
investigation, sulphuric acid may frequently be traced to
t1^ sulphate of lime existing in the filtering paper.
“ Filtering paper should be cut ready for use into differ-
out sizes. A demy paper furnishes useful sizes for filters,
w ien the sheet is separated into four, or six, or nine parts ;
j Parcels of each of these sizes being prepared, they
S1°uld have a string passed through the corners, and be
preserved for use in a clean place. The previous cutting
583
of the paper in this way is very convenient, as readily Filter,
supp ying the sizes that will be wanted, and in prevent-
mg t.ie waste that would occur by carelessly tearing up a
sheet each time a filter is required.
“ °.n preparing a filter, the piece of paper should be first
examined, by looking through it against the light, to as¬
certain that it is free from holes. The simplest filter is
made by folding the paper twice in opposite directions,
so as to bring the four corners together, and by opening
one corner from the other three, so as to produce an irre¬
gular conical cavity, as in fig. 8. Such a filter being put
into a funnel, and then filled with liquid, will immediate¬
ly permit its passage; but from the similarity of form be¬
tween the filter and the funnel, and the close adhesion of
the former to the latter over by far the greater part of its
suiface, considerable obstruction is opposed to the passage
of the fluid, and the operation is retarded. For this reason
different contrivances have been recommended, to separate
the filter here and there from the funnel, and allow pass¬
ages for the fluid. Lavoisier recommended small glass
rods inclined along the funnel before the filter is put in.
Straws are used in a similar way, and they certainly open
channels in their immediate neighbourhood, by which the
fluid may flow down. By other chemists ribbed funnels
are recommended; but it is difficult to find a funnel so
deeply ribbed as to support the paper in such a manner
that it shall not touch the glass in every part, and if they
do not perform this they are of no use.
“ The best expedient by far is so to fold the filter that
ribs may exist in the paper itself; and this may be done
so as not only to allow numerous free passages for the
fluid between the filter and the glass, but also to allow of
ready transmission through its whole surface, and not of
one half only, and even that imperfectly, as in the former
case. For this purpose, the paper is first to be doubled,
and in this state is again to be folded in half, each half
folded into quarters, and each quarter into eighths, the
folds being all on the same side, and radiating at equal
distances from the middle of the folded edge to the other
edges. Fig. 9 represents the doubled paper thus divid¬
ed into eight parts. Each eighth is now to be divided
into half by folds in the opposite direction, but in lines
still originating at the same centre, which makes the
doubled piece resemble a child’s paper fan, both when
closed and when a little open: it is represented by fig.
10. Whilst in this state, the projecting corners should
be taken off by a knife; folding the whole up tight like
a closed fan, and making the section at about a. Being
now allowed to expand a little, the originally doubled
sides are to be separated from each other for the first
time, but without disturbing the angles or bending the
ridges or ribs which they form. Having opened it suf¬
ficiently to separate the cut edges from each other, it
will be found that the paper is equally divided into parts
forming alternate external and re-entering angles, except
at the two edges Z»6, where two external angles come to¬
gether. Here the intervening portion of paper between
the two contiguous external angles should be folded, by
bringing the latter together, and creasing the paper down,
so as to form a re-entering angle between them: this
should be done at both places. Then opening the paper
sufficiently to bring the bottom into proper shape, by
thrusting out the part which is convex within, so as to
make it project externally, the filter is completed, and
being put into a funnel, is ready for use. Its appearance,
when perfectly formed, is represented at fig. 11.
“ It is necessary, in making these filters, that the folds
be not continued to the point, but that they should stop
about half an inch short of it; for if completed to the
bottom, the frequent action of the fingers in folding will
584
F I L T E R.
F'iltpr. so fax* Ixroak down and destiny tlie textuie of tliat part,
—that a hole probably w ill appear before the filter is finish¬
ed ; or if not, it will be so weakened as to be unable to
bear a quantity of fluid without breaking. Hence that
part of the filter will, during the folding, assume a con¬
cave form; and the regularity of the folds, which by
practice may be easily attained, must be strictly attend¬
ed to in the upper part, but may be dispensed with at
the lower. When opened out, therefore, for the com¬
pletion of that part, before the filter is put into the fun¬
nel, all that will be required is to push that side of the
bottom outwards which is convex inwards, doing it so
carefully as to cause no injury. The folds of the filter
should be distinct and sharp, an effect which should be ob¬
tained by a single decisive pressure, and not by much fin¬
gering. No wrinkle or mark should appear in a wrell-made
filter, except the folds described, and the portion of paper
between the folds should be as stiff as when first taken up.
The filter should be handled lightly during the whole of
the operation, and never be opened out more than is re¬
presented in the last figure. It is best to keep the folds
as close, and the whole filter as compact, as possible,
dropping it loosely into the funnel, and permitting the
fluid poured in to do the office of opening it out. It should
be so regularly made, that when thus expanded by the
fluid, the external angles of the folds should touch the
glass at equal distances from each other, except, at two
opposite places where smaller divisions exist; and unless a
large quantity of fluid be present, the angles at the upper
part should remain nearly as sharp when the liquid is in¬
troduced as they were before. Belowthey gradually pass in¬
to the rounded surface, forming the centre or bottom of the
filter, which will be about the size of a sixpenqe or shil¬
ling, according to the dimension of the funnel in that
part. These filters leave such free space between them¬
selves and the glass, as to admit of the passage of a far
greater quantity of fluid than is necessary; and no ob¬
struction being placed against the external surface of the
paper, the whole acts in the filtration, and that in the
most favourable manner.
“ Of these two kinds of filters, which may be distinguish¬
ed as the 'plain and the folded, sometimes the one and
sometimes the other is preferable. When the object is to
cleanse and purify the fluid, that being the valuable part,
it is most rapidly and effectually attained by a folded
filter; but when the precipitate is the part required to
be taken care of, it is generally desirable not to spread it
over the irregular and extensive surface of such a filter,
but, by using a plain one, to retain it on a surface of only
half the extent. It is then likewise of such uniform thick¬
ness in every part, as best to admit of the operation of
washing by having successive portions of water passed
through it, and when the filter is opened out, the preci¬
pitate is delivered in one continuous portion, and not di¬
vided into many parts, as happens with the folded filter.
“ When a single filter is judged too wreak to hold the
mass of fluid it is required to sustain, a double one should
be used. If the filter is to be a folded one, then a double
thickness of paper is to be taken; but if plain filters are
used, the two should be made separately, and put one
into the other, in such a manner that the three thick¬
nesses of the one may come against the single thickness
of the other. Occasionally it is proper to strengthen the
bottom of the filter, which, not being supported by the
glass, has to support the greatest column of fluid ; but not
so as to obstruct the upper part, where a filtration as free
as possible is required. In such a case a smaller filter is
to be added to the exterior of the large one, so that it may
not interfere with the precipitate within, when it is neces¬
sary to remove it from the paper.
“ The filter and funnel being ready, and placed on the F „
stand in one of the holes before mentioned, over a glass ^
ready to receive the liquid, the mixture to be filtered is
to be poured in. It should not be poured from a great
height, nor upon the middle of the filter, but down the
side, the force of its descent being diminished as much as
possible by good management, lest it break a hole through
the paper: for the same reason it is better to pour it
down the rod. If the first portions of fluid which pass
be not clear, they should be returned into the filter, and
a second glass should be placed beneath. The solid mat¬
ter in the' liquid to be filtered will soon, by adhering to
the paper, cause clear filtration, except perhaps in one or
two particular cases, as with precipitated oxide of tin,
&c. on which occasions a double thickness of paper must
be used. On changing the vessels beneath the filter for
the removal of the clear solution, it should be done so
that no drop be lost. By inclining the empty vessel, its
edge may be brought under the funnel before the full one
is removed ; and in no case should a vessel he left under the
filter, rn which there is not sufficient room for the contents
of the latter if it should break. Such an accident ought
not to occur, but ought always to be provided against.
“ Sometimes hot filtrations are to be performed. Oils
filter better hot than cold : tallow and cocoa-nut oil may
be passed through paper when hot; and many solutions
must be filtered at high temperatures, because of the
greater solubility of the ingredients under those circum¬
stances. In these cases the fluids should be heated in a
flask or basin before they are poured into the filters, and
the filter funnels being placed in the glasses or jars, and,
after the fluid is poured in, covered over with a basin or
glass plate, the whole should be enveloped in a piece of
flannel or a dry cloth. If, from the length of the opera¬
tion, or other causes, the flannel or cloth be not sufficient,
it may be dispensed with; and the glass and filter being
placed on a warm part of the sand-bath, should be covered
with a box or vessel large enough to rest on the sand, and
thus form a hot air-chamber for the process. When the
operations are upon a small scale, a paper cone is sufficient
to cover the vessels on the sand-bath, and keep them hot.
“ When the object is hastily to filter a fluid tor the pur¬
pose of removing pieces of dirt, then a little loose tow at
the bottom of a funnel, or a piece of sponge slightly thrust
in, is often sufficient for the purpose. Upon some tew oc¬
casions filters for acids are required. These are general¬
ly recommended of powdered glass, being arranged some¬
what in the manner described for lixiviation. Pieces ot
glass are put into the neck of the funnel; upon these
smaller fragments, then again other layers ot particles di¬
minishing in size, until a moderately fine powder has been
used, the top being finished with a layer of small frag¬
ments, to prevent disturbance by pouring. The pieces
of glass should be well cleaned before pulverization, and,
when arranged, some water should be passed through tie
filter, to remove alkali or other matters that may be se
parable from the glass, which should be that of wine
bottles, and not flint glass. c i 4'
“ Another mode of separating a fluid from the fine y-m
vided solid matter it may contain, is to allow the latter
to deposit, and then to remove the former. This is ca
ed decantation, and is a process much superior ton tia 10
in many analytical experiments, and recommended in pi
ference both by Lavoisier and Berzelius.”
For further information on this subject see Zteper o y
of Arts ; Hempel, vol. ii. p. 230 ; Collier, vol. x. p- ’
Peacock, vol. xi. p. 221, vol. xiii. p. 140; Nic 5!s_0 .
Journal; Hearman and Dearn, vol. viii. p. 1^”’ ,
vol. ix. p. 40; Sir H. Englefield, vol. ix. p.
Phil Mag. vol. vi. p. 240; Mem. Acad. Par. 1743,
F I N
82; 1748, Hist. 121; Machines Approuvees, tom. vii. p.
280; Gilbert’s Journal der Physik, vol. xiii. p. 108. (c.)
FIN, in Natural History, a well-known part of fishes,
J consisting of a membrane supported by rays, or little bony
or cartilaginous ossicles.
FINAL, in general, whatever terminates or concludes
a thing; as/no^judgment,sentence, and the like.
Final Cause, is the end for which a thing is done.
The final cause is the first thing in the intention of an
agent, and the last in the execution.
Final Letters, among Hebrew grammarians, five letters
so called, because they have a different figure at the end
of words from that which they have in any other situation.
FINALE, a sea-port in the duchy of Genoa, and kino-,
dom of Sardinia. It is divided into two parts, one called
the Hill, the other the Marina. It is strongly fortified,
especially against maritime attacks. The "inhabitants
amount to 3974, who carry on a brisk trade in olives and in
oil, which the surrounding district copiously supplies.
FINANCES, in political economy, the revenues of a
king or state ; analogous to the treasury or exchequer of
the English, and thejiscus of the Romans. The word is de¬
rived from the German/foarcfe, scraping or usury; though
Du Cange chuses rather to deduce it from the barbarous
Latin financia, prestatio pecuniaria. See Taxation.
FINCH, Heneage, first Earl of Nottingham, and Lord
High Chancellor of England, was the son of Sir Heneage
Finch, recorder of London, and born in December 1621.
He received his education at Westminster school, and at
Christ Church College, Oxford, of which he was a gentle¬
man commoner; and he studied law in the Inner Temple,
where, by his talents and diligence, he became remark¬
able for great legal acquirements. On the restoration of
Charles II. he was made solicitor-general, and created a
baronet. He was also appointed reader of the Inner
Temple, and chose as his subject the statute of the 39th
Elizabeth, concerning the payment and recovery of debts
of the crown, which he treated with great force of rea¬
son and depth of legal erudition. As solicitor-general,
he took an active part in the trials of the regicides; and,
, in 1661, he was chosen member of parliament for the uni¬
versity of Oxford, by the recommendation of Lord Claren¬
don ; but, according to the author of Athence Oxonienses,
he did his constituents no good, when they wanted his
assistance for taking off the tax upon hearths. In 1665,
after the prorogation of the parliament which then sat at
Oxford, he was created doctor of civil law in full convo¬
cation ; but after the ceremony had terminated, the pub-
! he orator, being called upon to do his duty, stood up, and,
in allusion to the tax above mentioned, observed, “ that
the university wished they had more colleges to entertain
the parliament men, and more chambers, but by no means
more chimneysan expression of academical opinion
which, however undignified in itself, startled the new-
made doctor of laws, who changed colour, and seemed by no
means to relish the quaint remark of the orator. In 1667,
jvhen Lord Clarendon was impeached for certain alleged
mgh crimes and misdemeanours, Sir Heneage, mindful of
ns old friend, stoutly defended him against the charges
preferred by his enemies. In 1670 he was appointed at-
orney-general, and, some years afterwards, lord keeper,
ewas then raised to the peerage by the style and title
0 Iku-on Finch of Daventry, in the county of Northamp-
mi; and, in 1675, appointed lord high chancellor of Eng-
°®c*ated as high steward at the trial of Lord
a ord, who, in the madness, of that time, was found
guilty °fi high treason by his peers, on a charge of being
concerned in the Popish plot. In 1681 he was created
ar of Nottingham, and died, the following year, at his
°use in Queen Street, Lincoln’s-Inn-Fields, from the ex-
VOL. IX.
fin
haustmn produced by long-continued exertion. Lord Not-
and houphSl SrnS^-Shed f°r b°th Sagacit>r eloquence 5
and though he lived m times when it was difficult to pur-
snl !ady and consistent course, he conducted himself
m such a manner as to retain the favour of the court with¬
out forfeiting the approbation of the people. “ He was
a person, says Mr Justice Blackstone, “ of the m-eatest
abilities, and most mcorrupted integrity; a thorough mas¬
ter and zealous defender of the laws and constitution of
his country; and endued with a pervading genius that
enabled him to discover and pursue the true spirit of jus¬
tice, notwithstanding the embarrassments raised by the
narrow and technical notions which then prevailed in the
courts of law, and the imperfect ideas of redress which
had possessed the courts of equity. The reason and ne¬
cessities of mankind arising from the great change in pro¬
perty, by the extension of trade, and the abolition of mi¬
litary tenures, co-operated in establishing his plan, and
enabled him, in the course of nine years, to build a sys¬
tem of jurisprudence and jurisdiction upon wide and ra¬
tional foundations, which have also been extended and
improved by many great men who have since presided in
Chancery; and from that time to this, the power and bu¬
siness of the court have increased to an amazing degree.”
In the name of the Earl of Nottingham have been pub¬
lished, 1. Several Speeches and Discourses on the trials
of the Regicides ; 2. Speeches delivered in both Houses
of Parliament; 3. Speech at the Sentence of William Vis¬
count Stafford, 7th December 1680; 4. Answers to his
Majesty’s command upon several Addresses presented to
his Majesty at Hampton Court, 19th May 1681 ; 5. The
Arguments upon which he made the Decree in the cause
between the Honourable Charles Howard, plaintiff, Henry
Duke of Norfolk, Henry Lord Mowbray his son, Henry
Marquis of Dorchester, and Richard Marriot, Esq. defen¬
dants, folio; 6. An Argument on the claim of the Crown
to pardon on Impeachment, folio. He also left in manu¬
script, Chancery Reports, and notes on Coke’s Institute, (a.)
FINE, that which is pure and without mixture. The
term is particularly used in speaking of gold or silver.
Fine, in Law, has different applications. Sometimes
it is used for a formal conveyance of lands or tenements,
or of any thing inheritable, being in esse temporis jinis, in
order to cut off all controversies. Others define it a final
agreement between persons, concerning any lands, rents,
or other subjects, of which any suit or writ is depending
between them in any court.
FAne sometimes signifies a sum of money paid for en¬
tering lands or tenements let by lease ; and sometimes a
pecuniary mulct for an offence committed against the king
and his laws, or against the lord of the manor.
FiNE-Drawing, or Rentering, a dexterous sewing up or
rejoining the parts of any cloth, stuff, or the like, torn or
rent in the dressing, wearing, or otherwise.
FiNE-Stiller, in the distillery. That branch of the art
which is employed in distilling spirit from treacle or other
preparations or recrements of sugar, is called fine-stilling,
by way of distinction from malt-stilling; and the person
who exercises this part of the trade is called a fine-stiller.
FINERS of Gold and Silver are those who purify and
separate these metals from other coarser ones, or their
ores, by means of fire and acids. They are also called
parters in our old law books, and sometimes departers.
FINEERING. See Veneering.
FINGAL, king of Morven, in ancient Caledonia. See
Ossian.
FINKENWERDER, an island in the river Elbe, be¬
longing to the kingdom of Hanover, in the bailiwick of
Harburg, and between that city and Hamburg. It is fer¬
tile, and contains a small town of the same name, with 560
4 E
585
Fine
II
Finken-
werder.
586
FIN
Finisterre inhabitants, who furnish the market of both cities with
il fruits and vegetables.
Finland. FINISTERRE, a maritime department of France. It
is bounded by the sea on three sides, and on the east by
the departments of the Cote du Nord and of Morbi-
han. It is in the shape of a triangle, and extends over
2890 square miles, or, according to the Almanac-Royal,
693,384 hectares, of which 252,704 are under the plough,
106,281 are in fallow, 23,389 are pasturel and, 148,364
are woods, 35,868 are waste, 56,414 are covered with
lakes and estuaries, 22,267 are the beds of rivers and
harbours, and the remainder roads, and the sites of cities,
towns, and villages. The surface is very unequal, con¬
sisting of chains of hills running through the peninsula,
some reaching the height of 1000 feet, with valleys be¬
tween them of various extent.
The civil divisions are into five arrondissements, forty-
three cantons, and 287 communes, inhabited by 452,450
persons. The inhabitants are a distinct race from the
French, and mostly speak the old language of the Brey-
zards, the name by which they are distinguished. They
are obstinate in their adherence to old and antipathy to new
customs. Their clothing is little altered in the last thousand
years, which in form and colour varies in each place, thus
showing the dwelling of each person. There are whole
communes in which no individuals are to be found who
can read or write. They live either in scattered houses
or small hamlets, and moi'e than 25,000 houses are so
wretched in appearance when seen, that they resemble the
huts of savages. They are mostly hidden behind hedges
and banks, and only visible by the smoke which issues
from the doors, for they have neither chimneys nor win¬
dows. The cattle and the families live together in a state
of disgusting filth. The females, who are commonly very
ugly, are oppressed by their labour, and so contemptuously
treated that they are not even suffered to eat with the men.
With all this they are said to be hospitable, upright,
brave, and patriotic, and content with their barley bread,
milk, and (but of late years) potatoes. The agriculture is
in a backward state, and produces less corn than is re¬
quired for the consumption; and since the population has
increased, severe scarcity would be annually felt but for
the introduction of potatoes, which are now extensively
cultivated. The sheep, cows, and especially the horses,
are diminutive; but the swine are fine and numerous.
The inhabitants of the towns in general are more like
the other parts of the French nation. Those on the coast
pursue the fisheries with success, especially that for sar-
dinias. The only mines are those of lead, in which silver
is found mixed with that metal. In two mines, at Poul-
lalouen and Huelgoet, 900 workmen are employed, who
raise yearly 600 tons of lead, and from it extract 26,000
ounces of silver.
In some parts, especially at Morlaix, there are some
manufactories of linen, sail-cloth, twine, cordage, and
paper. At that port also the surplus productions of the
soil are exported to other portions of the kingdom, as well
as to foreign parts.
FINLAND, a province formerly of Sweden, but at pre¬
sent under the dominion of Russia, of which it is called a
stadtholdership. It extends from 19. 35. to 33. 1. east
longitude, and from 59. 50. to 69.55. north latitude; and,
including Lappmark, extends over the vast space of
140,844 square miles, although the inhabitants in the
year 1814 amounted to no more than 1,460,000. The
country is generally hilly rather than mountainous, as
none of the elevations exceed 3500 feet, and the highest
are only in the north and in the west parts. In the east
it is filled with sand hills, rocks, woods, marshes, lakes,
and rivers; but between the hills are some spots, either
FIR
cultivated, or affording natural pasture. On the sea shore, f
both in the Gulf of Bothnia and in that of Finland, the w
rocks and sands, and the small islands and shores, are so
numerous as to render the navigation highly dangerous.
The climate, though varying with the degrees of lati¬
tude, is unfavourable to a great population, from the ex¬
cessive cold of the long winter, and the excessive heat
and aridity of the short summer. Yet, when under the
Swedish government, Finland not only produced sufficient
corn, chiefly rye, for its own consumption, but supplied a
part of the demand of the metropolitan provinces. Of
late the culture of potatoes has been extended. Finland
produces hemp and flax; the former inferior in quality to
the latter. The chief articles of export are the produc¬
tions of the forest, which supply fuel to Stockholm, and
masts and ship-timber to other countries. Considerable
quantities of pot and pearl ashes, of pitch and tar, are also
exported, and some salted fishes; but salt is a scarce
commodity, and the want of it is felt by others as well
as by the fishermen. The inhabitants being of different
races, speak dialects of the Finnish, Lappish, and Swe¬
dish languages, whose origin being the same, are under¬
stood without much difficulty. The whole adhere to the
Lutheran confession, except in some of the southern
parts, where the Greek church has adherents among those
of the Russian nation.
Since Russia possessed the country, the administration
of that empire has been in part introduced, but with much
deference to the ancient customs and laws of the inhabi¬
tants. The province is now divided into twelve circles.
FIRE, Nature of. See the article Heat.
Wild Fire, or Greek-FiRE, a kind of artificial or factiti¬
ous fire, which burns even under water, and that with
greater violence than out ol it. It is composed of sulphur,
naphtha, pitch, gum, and bitumen ; and is only extm-
guishable by vinegar mixed with sand and urine, or by
means of raw hides.
The motion or tendency of this fire is said to be con¬
trary to that of natural fire, and always follows the direc¬
tion in which it is thrown, whether it be downwards, side-
wise, or otherwise. The French call it Greek fire, or feu
Grequois, because it was first used by the Greeks, about
the year 660; as is observed by Petavius, on the autho¬
rity of Nicetas, Iheophanes, Cedrenus, and others.
The inventor, according to the same authority, was an
engineer ot Heliopolis, in Syria, named Callinicus, vno
first applied it in the sea-fight in which Constantine Fo-
gonates commanded against the Saracens, near Cyzicus,
in the Hellespont; and with such effect, that he there¬
with burnt the whole fleet, in which were thirty thou¬
sand men. But others think it of much older date, ana
consider Marcus Gracchus as the inventor ; an opinion
which is supported by several passages both in the bree
and Roman writers, showing it to have been ancient y
used by both these nations in their wars. Constantines
successors used it on different occasions with equa a
vantage; and, what is remarkable, they were fortunate
enough to keep the secret of the composition to tnem-
selves, so that in the year 960 no other nation was
quainted with the composition. ,. f
Hugh, king of Burgundy, having demanded ships o
the Emperor Leo, for the siege of Fresne, desire i
that they should be provided with the Greek fire.
Father Daniel gives a good description of the breeK n ,
in his account of the siege of Damietta underta en y
Louis. Every body, says that author, was astonis
the Greek fire, which the Turks then prepare , an
secret of which is now lost. They threw it out o ^
of mortar; and sometimes shot it with an oc „
cross-bow, which was strongly bent by means o
FIR
• s. or winch, and of much greater force than the mere arm.
y That thrown with the mortar sometimes appeared in the
air of the size of a tun, with a long tail, and a noise like
that of thunder. The French by degrees discovered the
secret of extinguishing it, in which they several times
succeeded.
Balls of Fire, in Meteorology, are luminous bodies, which
appear at a considerable height above the earth, shining
occasionally with very great splendour, and sometimes
leaving a luminous track behind them after they have
disappeared. The larger ones in this hemisphere proceed
generally from north to south with great velocity, fre¬
quently exploding into globes of smaller size, and some¬
times vanishing with a report, sometimes without one.
They are not unfrequently attended with a discharge of
solid compounds of earthy and metallic matters, called
meteoric stones, the descent of which, though stubbornly
denied for a time, was finally established about the be¬
ginning of this century.
These luminous appearances no doubt constituted part
of the ancient prodigies, blazing stars or comets, which
last they sometimes resemble in being attended with a
train ; but they frequently appear with a round and well-
defined disk. The first of these of which we have any accu¬
rate account, was observed by Dr Halley and some other
philosophers at different places, in the year 1719. From the
slight observations they could take of its course, the per¬
pendicular height of this body was computed at about
seventy miles above the surface of the earth. The height
of others has also been computed, and found to vary from
thirty-three to a hundred miles. The velocity at which
they travel is estimated at from five to thirty-three miles in
a second. The most remarkable of these on record appear¬
ed on the 18th of August 1783, about nine o’clock in the
evening. It was seen to the northward of Zetland, and took
a southerly direction for an immense space, being observed
in the southern provinces of France, and, according to one
account, in the ecclesiastical capital of Italy. During its
course it frequently changed its shape ; sometimes ap¬
pearing in the form of one ball, sometimes of two or more,
sometimes with a train, sometimes without one. It passed
over Edinburgh nearly in its zenith, and had then the ap¬
pearance of a well-defined round body, extremely lumi¬
nous, and of a greenish colour, the light which it diffused
on the ground giving likewise a greenish cast to objects.
After passing the zenith it was attended by a train of
considerable length, which continually augmented, and
at last entirely obliterated the head, so that it looked like
a wedge, flying with the obtuse end foremost. The mo¬
tion was not apparently rapid, by reason of its great
height; though in reality it must have moved with great
velocity, on account of the immense space over which it
travelled in a short time. In other places its appear¬
ance was very different. At Greenwich we are told that
two bright balls parallel to each other led the way, the
diameter of which appeared to be about two feet; and
were followed by an expulsion of eight others, not ellipti¬
cal, seeming gradually to mutilate, for the last was small.
Between each two balls a luminous serrated body extend¬
ed, and at the last a blaze issued which terminated in a
point. Minute particles dilated from the whole. The
balls were tinted first by a pure bright light, then follow¬
ed a tender yellow, mixed with azure, red, and green ;
which, with a coalition of bolder tints, and a reflection
rom the other balls, gave the most beautiful rotundity
ajid variation of colours that the human eye could be
charmed with. The sudden illumination of the atmo¬
sphere, and the form and singular transition of this bright
aminary, tended much to make it awful; nevertheless,
t >e amazing vivid appearance of the different balls, and
F I R
587
p'avpr ;n1CV0,nneCti,Ve Parts not very easy to delineate, Fire-Bahs.
ga e an effect equal to the rainbow in the full zenith ofv—
its glory.
Dr Blagden, in a paper on the subject inserted in the
seventy-fourth volume of the Philosophical Transactions,
not only gave a particular account of this and other me-
teors ot the kind, but offered several conjectures as to the
probable causes of them. The first thing which occurred to
philosophers on this subject was, that the meteors in ques¬
tion were burning bodies rising from the surface of the
earth, and flying along the atmosphere with great rapidity.
But this hypothesis was soon abandoned, on considering
that there was no power known by which such bodies could
either be raised to a sufficient height, or projected with
the velocity of these meteors. The next hypothesis was,
that they did not consist of one single body, but of a train
of inflammable vapours, extending a vast way through the
atmosphere, which being kindled at one end, displayed
the luminous appearances in question by the fire running
fi om one end of the train to the other. To this hypothe¬
sis, which was invented by Dr Halley, Dr Blagden object¬
ed that no just explanation was given of the nature of the
vapours themselves, the manner in which they were raised
up, or their regular arrangement in straight lines of such
vast extent; or how they could be supposed to burn in such
rarefied air. “Indeed,” says he, “ it is very difficult to
conceive how vapours could be prevented, in those regions
where there is in a manner no pressure, from spreading out
on all sides in consequence of their natural elasticity, and
instantly losing that degree of density which seems neces-
sary for inflammation. Besides, it is to be expected, that
such trains would sometimes take fire in the middle, and
thus present the phenomenon of two meteors at the same
time, receding from one another in a direct line.”
For these and other reasons the hypothesis of Dr Hal¬
ley was abandoned, and another substituted in its place.
This was, that the meteors in question are permanent solid
bodies, not rising from the earth, but revolving round it in
very eccentric orbits, and thus in their perigeon moving
with inconceivable rapidity. But this hypothesis is like¬
wise objectionable. Another theory supposes that the
meteors in question are a kind of bodies which take fire
as soon as they come within the atmosphere of the earth.
Sir Humphry Davy’s discovery that the earths and alkalis
are metallic oxides, affords some plausibility to this theory,
especially in cases where the meteors are accompanied
with the descent of solid bodies to the earth. It has been
suggested that the bases of the earth may exist in the
meteor in a metallic state, and that when the body arrives
within the range of our atmosphere, the strong affinity
which it is well known these metallic bases have for oxy¬
gen, causes them to unite and produce violent combus¬
tion. The origin of fire-balls has also been ascribed to the
agency of electricity, and there seems little doubt that
this is really the true way of accounting for them.
Falling or shooting stars are the same phenomena upon
a smaller scale. They are to be seen at all seasons, but
most frequently during the prevalence of the northern
lights, and most commonly in the lower regions of the
atmosphere. The cause of these phenomena, as of those
of a more magnificent description, has been attributed to
electricity. This theory, however, was objected to by Sir
Humphry Davy; and his opinions on every subject are
entitled to the highest deference, and to deliberate con¬
sideration. ITe conceived them to be attributable to fall¬
ing stones. But the subject of meteoric stones, including
fire-balls and other meteors, will be treated ot under Me¬
teorology. It may also be mentioned, that Chladni, in
his work on Fiery Meteors (Vienna, 1819), considers them
as solid bodies, formed above the region of our atmosphere,
588
FIR
FIR
Fire-En¬
gine
Firman.
and classes them with aerolites or meteoric stones. See
Meteorology.
FiRE-Engine. See Steam-Engine.
Fire'Escapes. See Life-Preservers.
FiRE-Flies. See Elator, Lampyris, and Fulgora, in
the Index to Entomology.
Fire-Philosophers, or Philosophi per Ignem, a fanatical
sect of philosophers who appeared towards the close of the
sixteenth century, and made a figure in almost all the
countries of Europe. The distinguishing tenet from w hie i
they derived this appellation was, that the intimate essences
of natural things were only to be known by the trying ef¬
forts of fire, directed in a chemical process. They were
also called Theosophists, from their declaring against hu¬
man reason as a dangerous and deceitful guide, and repi e-
senting a divine and supernatural illumination as the only
means of arriving at truth; and Paracelsists, from Para¬
celsus, the eminent physician and chemist, who was the
chief ornament of this extraordinary sect. It was patro¬
nized in England by Robert Flood or Fludd, who endea¬
voured to illustrate the philosophy of Paracelsus in a great
number of treatises ; in France it was zealously propagated
by Rivier; in Denmark, by Severinus; in Germany, by
Kunrath, an eminent physician of Dresden ; and in other
countries by ardent votaries, who assumed an air of piety
and devotion, and proposed to themselves no other end
than the advancement of the divine glory, and the resto¬
ration of peace and concord in a divided church. One of
the most celebrated of these was Daniel Hoffman, profes¬
sor of divinity in the university of Helmstadt, who, avail¬
ing himself of some unguarded passages in the writings of
Luther, maintained that philosophy was the mortal enemy
of religion; that truth was divisible into two branches, the
philosophical and theological; and that what was true in
philosophy was false in theology. But Hoffman was after¬
wards obliged, by the interposition of Henry Julius, duke
of Brunswick, to retract his invectives against philosophy,
and to acknowledge in the most open manner the harmony
of sound philosophy with genuine theology.
FiRE-Place. See Furnace.
Fire-Ship, or Brulot, a vessel filled with combustible
materials, and fitted with grappling irons, to hook and set
fire to hostile ships.
FIRKIN, an English measure of capacity for liquids,
being the fourth part of the barrel, and containing eight
gallons of ale, soap, or hex-rings, and nine gallons of beer,
old measure. Imperial measure contains one sixtieth part
less in the gallon. See Weights and Measures.
FIRLOT, a dry measure used in Scotland. The wheat
firlot contains 211 pints of that country, or about 2214 cu¬
bic inches; and the barley firlot, 31 standard pints, or 3232
cubic inches. Hence the Scotch wheat firlot exceeds the
old English bushel by 33 cubic inches, and the imperial
bushel by 4 cubic inclxes.
FIRMAMENT, in the ancient astronomy, the eighth
heaven or sphere, in which the fixed stars were supposed to
be placed. It is called the eighth, with respect to the seven
heavens or spheres of the planets which it surrounds.
The firmament is supposed to have two motions ; a diur¬
nal motion, given to it by the primum mobile, from east to
west, about the poles of the ecliptic ; and another opposite
motion from west to east; which it completes, according to
Tycho, in 25,412 years ; according to Ptolemy, in 36,000 ;
and according to Copernicus, in 258,000 ; when the fixed
stars return to the same precise points in which they w ere
at the commencement of this grand revolution. This pe¬
riod is commonly called the Platonic or great year.
FIRMAN is a passport granted to travellers and others
in the dominions of Turkey, and usually bearing the signet
of the grand signior himself.
FIRMICUS, Maternus Julius, a Latin writer who Firmi, i
flourished under the successors of Constantine. About the J
year 345 he composed a work entitled De Erroribus Pro-
fanarum Peligionum, which he inscribed to Constantins <"
and Constans, the sons of Constantine, and which is happi¬
ly still extant, accompanied with the annotations of John
Wouver. To Firmicus are also attributed eight books on
astronomy, first printed by Aldus Manutius in 1501, and
reprinted several times since; but as this work contains
nothing relating to the true science of astronomy, and is
filled with astrological calculations, after the manner of the
Babylonians and Egyptians, Baronius doubts whether a
good and pious Christian, as Firmicus is represented to
have been, could have indulged in such profane and impi¬
ous speculations. Cave, however, supposes that he might
have written these books anterior to tlxe date of his conver¬
sion from Paganism ; a supposition not incompatible with
the opinion of Baronius. Of the treatise on the Errors of
the Profane Religions, the principal editions subsequent to
that of Aldus are, one printed at Strasburg in 1562, ano¬
ther at Heidelberg in 1599, and a third at Paris in 1610,
all in 8vo ; but afterwards it was conjoined with Minucius
Felix, and printed at Amsterdam in 1645, at Leyden in
1652, and again at Leyden by James Gronovius, in 1709,
8vo. It is likewise to be found in the Bibliotheca Patrum,
and at the end of Cyprian, printed at Paris in 1666. (Du-
pin ; Cave ; Moreri; Fabricius, Bibl. Lat. and Bibl. Lat.
Med.) v n (Al)
FIRST-Born. (See Primogeniture.) In Scripture
the term first-born is often used in a figurative sense, to
signify that which is first, most excellent, or most distin¬
guished in any thing. Thus it is said of Christ that he is
“ the first-born of every creature and in Revelation he is
called “ the first-begotten of the dead,” that is, according
to the commentators, begotten of the Father before any
creature was produced, and the first who rose from the
dead by his o^n power. “ The first-born of the poor ^sig¬
nifies the most miserable of all the poor; and in Job, “ the
first-born of death” means the most terrible of all deaths.
First Fruits (primitice), amongst the Hebrews, obla¬
tions to God of part of the fruits of the harvest, as an ac¬
knowledgment of his sovereign dominion. The first of these
fruits was offered in the name of the whole nation, being
either two loaves of bread, or a sheaf of barley which was
thrashed in the court of the temple. Every private person
was obliged to bring to the temple his first fruits, consisting
of wheat, barley, grapes, figs, apricots, olives, and dates.
There was another kind of first fruits offered to Coct.
When bread w-as kneaded in a family, a portion o it was
set apart and given to the priest or Levite who dwe i
the place; but if there was no priest or Levite were, i
wTas cast into the oven, and consumed by the fire,
offerings constituted a considerable part of the revenues
the Hebrew priesthood. . r, •
First Fruits are frequently mentioned by ancient ums-
tian writers as forming part of the church revenue,
of the councils of Carthage enjoins that they shou c
only of grapes and corn ; which shows that this was t ie p
tice of the African church.
First Fruits, in the Church of England, aie 16 P
of every spiritual benefice for the first year, accor mg
the valuation thereof entered in the king’s books.
FISC (Fiscus), in the Civil Law, the treasury
prince or state, or that into which all things ut ,
public fall to be paid or delivered. The word is
from the Greek a great basket, used when.tni:yTirince
to market. By the civil law, none but a sovereig P
has a right to have a fisc or public treasury.
under the emperors, the term ararium was u®e pmpire;
revenues destined to support the charges of
if-a
F I S
the Jiscus for those of the emperor’s own family. The
treasury, in fact, belonged to the people, and the Jiscus, to
the prince. Hence the goods of condemned persons, if ap-
' propriated to the use of the public, were said publicari ; if
to the support of the emperor or prince, conjiscari.
FISCAL, in the Civil Law, something relating to the
pecuniary interest of the prince or people. The officers ap¬
pointed for the management of the fisc were called procu-
ratores Jisci, and advocati Jisci ; and among the cases enu¬
merated in the constitutions of the empire, where it was
their business to plead, one is against those who have been
condemned to pay a fine to the fisc on account of their li¬
tigiousness, or frivolous appeals to the courts of law.
FISH. See Ichthyology.
Fishes, in Heraldry, are the emblems of silence and
watchfulness, and are borne upright, imbowed, extended,
endorsed respecting each other, surmounting one another,
fretted, and so on.
In blazoning fishes, those borne feeding should be deem¬
ed devouring; all fishes borne upright and having fins,
should be blazoned hauriant; and those borne transverse
the escutcheon, should be termed naiant.
Fish Ponds, excavations filled with water, and intended
for the breeding or feeding of fish. In making a pond, its
head should be at the lowest part of the ground, that the
trench of the flood-gate or sluice, having a good fall, may
not be too long in emptying. The best way of making the
head secure is to drive in two or three rows of stakes about
six feet long, at the distance of about four feet from each
other, the whole length of the pond head, the first row of
which should be rammed at least about four feet deep. If
the bottom is false, the foundation may be laid with quick¬
lime ; which, when slaked, will render it as hard as a stone.
Some place a layer of lime, and another of earth dug out
of the pond, among the piles and stakes; and when these
are well covered, drive in others as they see occasion, ram¬
ming the earth as before, till the pond head be of the height
which is required.
The dam should be made sloping on each side, leaving a
waste to carry oft' the superabundant water in times of
floods or rains ; and as to the depth of the pond, the deep¬
est part need not exceed six feet, rising gradually in shoals
towards the sides, for the fish to sun themselves, and lay
their spawn. Gravelly and sandy bottoms, especially the
latter, are best for breeding; and a fat soil with a white
fat water, as the washings of hills, commons, streets, sinks,
and the like, is best fitted for fattening all sorts of fish. For
storing a pond, carp is to be preferred for its goodness,
quick growth, and great increase, as breeding five or six
times a year. A pond of an acre, if it be a feeding and
not a breeding one, will every year feed two hundred carps
of three years old, three hundred of two years old, and
four hundred of a year old. Carps delight in ponds which
have marl or clay bottoms, with plenty of weeds and grass,
on which they feed in the hot months.
Ponds should be drained every three or four years, and
the fish sorted. In breeding ones, the smaller fishes are to
be taken out, to store other ponds withal; leaving a good
stock of females, at least eight or nine years old, as they
never breed before that age. In feeding-ponds, it is best
to keep them pretty near of a size.
FISHER, John, Bishop of Rochester, was born at Be¬
verley, in Yorkshire, in the year 1459, and educated in the
collegiate church of that place. In 1484, he removed to
Michael Flouse in Cambridge, of which college he was
elected master in the year 1495. Having applied himself
m the study of divinity, he took orders; and becoming emi-
as a divine, attracted the notice of Margaret, countess
Richmond, mother of Henry VIL, who appointed him
her chaplain and confessor. In 1501 he took the degree
FIS
of doctor in divinity, and the same year was elected chan¬
cellor of the university. In the year following he was ap¬
pointed Lady Margaret’s first professor of divinity in Cam¬
bridge ; and in 1504 he was consecrated bishop of Roches-
ter, a see which he would never resign, though he was of-
ered both Ely and Lincoln. It is generally known that
the foundation of the two colleges of Christ-Church and
8t John s, Cambridge, was owing to Bishop Fisher’s per¬
suasion and influence with the Countess of Richmond ; he
not only formed the design, but superintended the execu¬
tion, and was appointed by the statutes visitor for life after
the death of Lady Margaret. On the promulgation of
Luther s doctrine, the bishop was the first to enter the lists
against him. Upon this occasion he exerted all his influ¬
ence, and is generally supposed to have written the book
on account of which Henry VIII. obtained the title of De¬
fender of the Faith. Hitherto he had continued in favour
with the king; but in 1527, having opposed his divorce,
and denied his supremacy, the implacable Harry determin¬
ed, and finally effected, his destruction. In 1533 the par¬
liament found him guilty of misprision of treason, for con¬
cealing certain prophetic speeches of a fanatical impostor,
Elizabeth Barton, otherwise called the Holy Maid of Kent,
relative to the king’s death, and condemned him, with five
others, to suffer loss of goods and imprisonment during his
majesty’s pleasure ; but he was subsequently released, upon
paying a fine of L.300 for the king’s use.
King Henry having now espoused Anne Boleyn, his ob¬
sequious parliament took the oath of allegiance proper for
the occasion. But in this oath the Bishop of Rochester
steadily refused to join, alleging that his conscience had
not been convinced that the king’s first marriage w as against
the law of God. For this refusal he was attainted by the
parliament of 1534, and committed to the Tower, where
he experienced cruel treatment, and would probably have
died a natural death, had not the pope created him a
cardinal. The king, having now determined on his de¬
struction, sent Rich the solicitor-general, under the pre¬
tence of consulting the bishop upon a case of conscience,
but really with a design to draw him into a conversation
concerning the supremacy. The honest old bishop spoke
his mind without suspicion or reserve; and an indictment
and conviction of high treason were the consequence. He
was beheaded at Tower Hill on the 22d of June 1535, in
the seventy-seventh year of his age. Thus died this vete¬
ran prelate, who, notwithstanding his inflexible enmity to
the Reformation, was undoubtedly a learned, pious, and
honest man.
The Bishop of Rochester was the author of a number of
works, of which the following is a list: 1. Assertionum
Martini Lutheri Confutatio ; 2. Defensio Assertionis Hen-
rici Octavi de Septem Sacramentis ; 3. Episfola Responsa-
ria Epistoke Lutheri; 4. Sacerdotii Defensio contra Luthe-
rum; 5. Pro Damnatione Lutheri; 6. De Verilate Cor¬
poris et Sanguinis Christi in Eucharistia, adversus (Ecom-
poladium; 7. De Unica Magdalena; 8. Petrum fuisse
Romce; 9. Several Sermons, amongst which was one
preached at the funeral of Henry VIL, and another at
that of the Countess of Richmond; 10. His opinion of
King Henry the Eighth’s marriage, in a letter to T. Wol-
sey, printed at the end of the second volume of Collier’s
Ecclesiastical History. Most of the tracts above mention¬
ed were collected and printed in one volume folio, at
Wurtzburg in 1595. Fisher, as already stated, is supposed
to have had a considerable share in the composition of
Henry’s book, entitled Assertio septem Sacramentorum;
and in the Norfolk library of manuscripts belonging to the
Royal Society there is an answer made by him to a book
printed at London in 1530, concerning Henry’s marriage
with Queen Catherine.
589
Fisher.
590
FISHERIES.
Fisheries. We propose in the present article to take a general and
extended view of this important branch of employment,
and at the same time to give a sketch of the present state
both of the home and foreign fisheries.
HOME FISHERIES.
Alleged The alleged neglect of the fisheries, on the part of Great
neglect of Britain, has been the subject of unqualified censure from a
by Great very early period of her naval and maritime history ; and
Britain. repy0aches have been dealt out with no sparing hand, not
only for having disregarded those advantages so liberally
bestowed by nature along the extensive coasts of her sea¬
girt islands, in supplying a wholesome and nutritious arti¬
cle of food for the sustenance of an abundant population,
but also for suffering the nations of the Continent to re¬
sort to her very bays and harbours wuthout molestation,
and even purchasing from them that very property which
she was either too ignorant or too indolent to procure by
her own sagacity or industry, though neither of these re¬
quired to be exerted in any extraordinary degree in the
pursuit of this occupation. “ The fishery,” says Sir \\ illiam
Monson, “ needs no discovery ; the experience of our neigh¬
bours having found it out, and practised it since the year
1307, to their immeasurable wealth and our shame.
Contrasted Thus also Sir John Boroughs complains in his Sore-
with the reignty of the British Seas, that “ it maketh much to the
attention ign0miny and shame of our English nation, that God and
nature offering us so great a treasure, even at our own
DutCh‘ doors, we do, notwithstanding, neglect the benefit thereof,
and, by paying money to strangers for fish of our own
seas, impoverish ourselves to make them rich and as
a contrast to our supposed indolence and indifference, he
draws a lively picture of the bustle and activity which the
herring fishery of Holland communicated to the various
tradesmen and artificers, labourers, salters, packers, and
others, and of the multitude of poor women and children
to whom it afforded employment. In a little pamphlet en¬
titled England's Path to Wealth and Honour, the w hole
alphabet in regular order is ingeniously brought to bear,
in the shape of a dialogue between an Englishman and a
Dutchman, on the trades and occupations connected with
the herring fishery of Holland. The importance, indeed,
of this branch of national industry in that country is pretty
obvious from the following abstract of the population of
the States-General taken in 1669?
Persons employed as fishermen, and in equipping
fishermen with their ships, boats, tackle, con¬
veying of salt, &c  450,000
Persons employed in the navigation of ships in
the foreign trade, wholly independent of the
trade connected with the fisheries  250,000
Persons employed as manufacturers, shipwrights,
handicraft trades, dealers in those manufactures 650,000
Persons employed in agriculture, inland fishing,
daily labourers  200,000
Inhabitants in general not included in any of the
above  650,000
Idle gentry without calling, statesmen, officers,
soldiers, beggars, &c. supported by the labour
of the rest  200,000
Making a total of. 2400,000
From which it appears that the pensionary De Witt did
not exaggerate when he stated that every fifth man earned
his subsistence by the sea fishery; that Holland derived her Fishej
main support from it; and that the herring fishery ought to
be considered as the right arm of the republic. It is further ImP0'’
asserted that, when in the zenith of her prosperity, not less?nce, i: 1
than 3000 boats, of various kinds, were employed in the bays ;
and islets of her own coasts; and that, in those of Great Bri-the D
tain, they had 800 vessels, from sixty to a hundred and fifty
tons burden, occupied generally in the cod and ling fishery,
besides others employed in carrying out salt to them, and
returning with cured fish; that from Buchan-ness to the
mouth of the Thames they had a fleet of 1600 busses ac¬
tively engaged in the herring fishery, each of which might
be said to give employment to three others in the importa- i
tion of foreign salt, in carrying the salt to fishing ships and
returning with cured fish, and in the exportation of that fish
to a foreign market; thus making the total number of ship¬
ping engaged in and connected with the herring fishery
alone to amount to 6400 vessels, calculated to give em¬
ployment to 112,000 mariners and fishermen. By the same
authority we are told that Holland, at that time, could boast
of 10,000 sail of shipping and 168,000 mariners; “ although
the country itself affords them neither materials, nor victual,
nor merchandise, to be accounted of towards their setting
forth.” Indeed the Dutch themselves made no scruple of
avowing that the wealth, strength, and prosperity of the
United Provinces were derived from the herring fishery;
the importance of which was strongly marked by an ob¬
servation in common use among them, that “ the founda¬
tion of Amsterdam was laid on herring-bones.”
No wonder, then, that the example of the Dutch should
be held forth as a reproach to England ; and we find, ac¬
cordingly, that it was so considered by some of the ablest
writers of former times, as Sir Walter Raleigh, Sir W illiam
ivlonson, Sir William Petty, Sir Roger L’Estrange, and
others. It would seem, however, to have altogether escap- Circum
ed these writers, that the situation and circumstances ofstances
the Dutch were entirely different from those in which thejeJ®
people of the British islands were placed. Ihe provinces -j;ng[an
of Holland where the fisheries flourished had few or noan(jHc
resources but those which the waters afforded them, they land,
grew no corn, they had no superabundance of food for the
rearing of cattle, they had few or no manufactures; where¬
as Great Britain had all these, and abounded in most of them.
The Dutch having, therefore, neither food nor raiment but
what they must purchase from foreign nations, and the only
article they had to offer in return being the products of the
seas, it was necessary for them to expend their whole in¬
dustry in availing themselves of those products, in order to
exchange them for others of the land. It was not there¬
fore from choice, but absolute necessity, that the Holland¬
ers braved the dangers and submitted to the fatigues c
deep-sea fishery. It was their whole resource, and a or .
ed them the only scope for turning their industry to pro ,
and it must be allowed that, by an extraordinary ogre
of patience and perseverance, and by long practice, y
succeeded in bringing to a state of unrivalled per ec
the mode of catching and the method of cure, whic o
nations, less experienced and less interested, had no
rived at; though it is now known and admitted * ^
is no great art or mystery in the craft, nothing t a
tish fishermen could not then have, and, in Point , ■ ’
nothing which they have not of late years accomp is
as perfect a manner as the Dutch. Rr;tain.
But the case was different with regard to Grea
That country laboured under none of the disadvan g
Fishei
F I S H E R I E & 591
and felt none of the necessities, which pressed upon Holland, and, as we shall .r i t u
Her capital was employe., in foreign commercl in the im- flon’rS” fnd^^elV ate'of i^ rveS^" m “
proveraent of her agriculture, and m the introduction of rru-~ •- - •’ - ^ e eni
£ncou-
rageme
given t
the fist
ries.
some and the perfection of other branches of manufacture
The complaints, therefore, of the indolence of the British,
of their buying fish from the Dutch rather than choosing
to undergo the risk and fatigue of catching them, even on
their own shores, will not perhaps, on due consideration,
appear to be well founded. Their conduct may be ascrib¬
ed rather to the very natural result of being able to employ
their capital in more lucrative, more pleasing, and less pre¬
carious investments. It would be too much to expect that
he who can buy a fish for half the money required to catch
one, will quit his present employment and turn fisherman ;
or that he who can make a greater and more certain pro¬
fit in commerce, agriculture, or manufactures, than by fish¬
ing, will divert his capital from the former to embark in the
latter. The government had repeatedly held out encou¬
ragement for the pursuit of the fisheries, and aided the ef¬
forts of individuals in various ways to promote the success
of a branch of national industry of so much importance to
the national wealth and strength. Liberal subscriptions
for this purpose have, at various times, been set on foot;
privileges and immunities have been granted ; villages have
been built at the public expense, and ships and boats with all
the necessary articles and tackle supplied; premiums have
been conferred, bounties granted, duties exempted; the
fishermen have been protected from the impress, and those
who may have followed the occupation for seven years al¬
lowed to set up, and freely exercise any trade or profession
in any town or place of Great Britain.
The failure, therefore, could not always have been owing
to want of protection and encouragement, though it may, in
some measure, be owing to the want of knowledge or cir¬
cumspection in the way of administering it. Neither could it
be ascribed to the want of funds. In 1580 a plan was ma¬
tured for raising L.80,000 for establishing the British fishery.
In 1615 the same sum was raised by a joint-stock company.
In 1632 a royal fishing company was established by the
sanction of King Charles I., who, in order to increase the
demand, prohibited the importation of foreign fish, direct¬
ed a supply to be furnished for his fleet, and ordered lent
to be more strictly observed. In 1660 parliament grant¬
ed a remission of the salt duties, and freed all the ma¬
terials employed in the fisheries from customs and ex¬
cise. In 1661 the national fishery met with very great
encouragement under the auspices of Charles II. In 1677
this monarch incorporated the Duke of York and others
into “ The Company of the Royal Fishery of Eng¬
land but on this occasion the miserable capital was ex¬
hausted in the purchase and fitting out of a few busses,
built in Holland, and manned with Dutchmen, which were
seized by the French on the breaking out of the war. In
1713 it was proposed to raise L. 180,000 on annuities, for
the purpose of establishing a fishing company. In 1749,
by the recommendation of George II. in his opening speech
to parliament, and in consequence of a report of a com¬
mittee of the House of Commons, the sum of L.500,000
was subscribed for carrying on the fisheries, under a cor¬
poration, by the name of “ The Society of the Free Bri¬
tish Fishery,” of which the Prince of Wales was chosen
governor. This society, patronized by men of the first
rank in the kingdom, promised fair for a little time, but
soon began to languish; nor was the large bounty of 56s.
a ton able to prevent its total failure. The attention of
parliament was again called to this great national object in
786, when a new corporation was formed, under the name
of « TU„ , r. f . ^ t-. . "i*  t':_i 
Thus, then, it is evident that we must seek for the real Present
grounds ol the general languishing state of the British impedi-
fishenes in other causes than those which have usual-ments t0
ly been assigned by our ancestors; and though the com-the pr°:
plaint in modern times may have some foundation, which
is almost exclusively levelled against the salt duties, and, exaSerat-
after these were wholly removed, against the numerous ed.
checks and excise regulations, which are stated to be as
grievous and discouraging as were the duties themselves;
yet the impediments which these are alleged to throw in
the way of the improving state of the fisheries have pro¬
bably been mucb exaggerated. There can be no doubt
that much benefit would be derived from a total repeal of
all the acts relating to the duties and the regulations of
salt; and yet, when the old writers stated their grievances,
the article of salt is never once mentioned. In fact there
were then neither duties nor restrictions on this article of
universal use ; and yet the fisheries did not flourish under
the free and unlimited use of it.
The salt laws were supposed to operate strongly against
the prosecution of the fisheries, and this was stated as one
of the reasons which produced their repeal; but they
scarcely affected those fisheries which were established
and conducted on a grand scale. What then, it may be
asked, is the real cause of our fisheries not being carried
on to a greater extent, at a time when population is so ra¬
pidly increasing, and work not to be found for multitudes
of the labouring classes of the community ? It certainly
is not that the government is indifferent or insensible to
the political importance of the fisheries. It has not only
at different times held out such encouragements as were
deemed conducive to the end in view, but shown itself so
jealous of the interference of our neighbours as to attempt
to establish an appropriate and exclusive fishery in all the
seas surrounding our coasts. Thus James I. in 1600 issued
a proclamation prohibiting all persons, of what nation or
quality soever, not being natural born subjects, from fish¬
ing upon any of the coasts and seas of Great Britain and
Ireland, and the isles adjacent, without first obtaining
licenses from the king. But this, as well as the repetition
of the prohibition by Charles I. in 1636, was utterly dis¬
regarded by the continental powers. To enforce this mea¬
sure, the Duke of Northumberland, as admiral of the fleet,
was sent into the North Sea to compel the Dutch fisher¬
men to take licenses, and pay for the same; but the am¬
bassador of the States-General in England remonstrated
against so unprecedented a proceeding, and disavowed the
acts of their fishermen.
The attempt to set up a limited fishery, and to pre¬
scribe boundaries to the prohibited grounds, met with no
better success ; but they showed at least a desire to pre¬
vent the advantages derivable from this element from
falling into the hands of others. It is probable, however,
that these claims were set up with the view rather of
maintaining the title of the sovereignty of the seas, than
from any contemplation of the national advantages deriv¬
able from the encouragement of the fisheries; and more
especially for the purpose of preventing any encroach¬
ments on the part of the Dutch and French.
This, however, has been found to be impossible. The
Dutch continue to fish even into the mouths of the Thames,
and the French insist on their right to fish within a mile
of the English coast, whilst they also claim the right of ex¬
cluding our fishermen within a league of their own shores,
and in some places three leagues ; and it is contended by
-- The British Society for Extending the Fisheries and jurists, that as the fisheries on t^ie]^ v nTtkirTt^the
Improving the Sea Coasts of the Kingdom,” which has con- mankind, no fixed laws can be made by any nat on to the
t'mied, with various modifications, to the present time; exclusion of any other, and that whatever rights o
592
FISHERIES.
Fisheries, strictions now exist, are sanctioned by prescriptive usage,
' and can only be altered by treaties or conventions between
the parties who may mutually agree to a change.
Ileal cause The simple fact we take to be this ; that the success of
oftheback-the fisheries, like that of every other speculation, must de¬
ward state pen(| mainly on the two great binges on which all com-
ol the fish-mercjaj enterprises turn, viz. supply and demand; where
these exist to any great extent, and without any material
fluctuation, the success of a fishery establishment cannot
be doubtful. If, however, the supply be not equal to the
demand, the article will be in danger of falling into the
hands of monopolists, whose common practice is to add to
the scarcity in order to enhance the price. By thus con¬
tracting the supply within its natural limits, they not only
raise the price, but reduce the demand. On the contrary,
where the supply exceeds the demand, the market be¬
comes glutted, the prices are too low to afford a suitable
return for the expenditure, and the adventurers withdraw
their capital, and turn it into some more profitable chan¬
nel. But a certain and steady demand creates competition,
and regulates the supply according to the wants of the
consumer, at a fair and reasonable price.
Want of It is the want, we conceive, of this steady and constant
steady de- demand, and not of supply, which has at all times operat-
mand. et\ t0 the discouragement of the British fisheries. That
the supply of fish is most abundant, and indeed inexhaus¬
tible, on the coasts of Great Britain, has never been called
in question. “ The coasts of Great Britain, says Sir
John Boroughs, “ doe yield such a continued sea-harvest
of gain and benefit to all those that with diligence doe
labour in the same, that no time or season in the yeare
passeth away without some apparent meanes of profitable
employment, especially to such as apply themselves to
fishing; which from the beginning of the yeare unto the
latter end, continueth upon some part or other upon our
coastes, and these in such infinite shoales and multitudes
of fishes are offered to the takers, as may justly move ad¬
miration, not only to strangers, but to those that daily bee
employed amongst them.” That this harvest, ripe for ga¬
thering at all seasons of the year, without the labour of
tillage, without expense of seed or manure, without the
payment of rent or taxes, is inexhaustible, the extraordi¬
nary fecundity of the most valuable species of fish would
alone afford abundant proof. To enumerate the thousands
and even millions of eggs which are impregnated in the
herring, the cod, the ling, and indeed in almost the whole
of the esculent fish, would give but an inadequate idea of
the prodigious multitudes in which they flock to our
shores; the shoals themselves must be seen, to convey to
the mind any just notion of their aggregate mass. The
herring, for instance, makes its appearance in shoals, the
dimensions of which are measured by leagues and miles,
moving steadily along in‘close array, and in columns of
such depth from the surface downwards, as to have ob¬
tained the name amongst the northern nations of herring
mountains. These columns advance yearly from the north¬
ern seas, early in the spring, with undiminished numbers,
though preyed upon by a multitude of enemies, as well
from the shore, as in their native element and in the air.
Wherever their vast columns proceed, if unmolested by
man, they have to sustain constantly the attacks of the
grampus, the porpoise, the shark, cod-fish, and even had¬
docks ; and if they approach the surface, they are seized
by the innumerable flocks of sea-gulls, gannets, and other
aquatic fowls, which hover along their line of march.
Where the spawn of the herring is usually deposited, na¬
turalists do not seem to be agreed; but as young herring
have not been caught, either with the old ones, or within
the limits of the fishery, and as the shoals invariably pro¬
ceed from the northward, making their first appearance
about the Zetland Islands in the month of April, it has Fis eji
generally been thought that their winter habitation is'—'J
within the Arctic circle, under those vast fields of ice which
cover the Northern Ocean, where they fatten on the swarms
of shrimps and other marine insects which abound in
those seas, and which afford also the principal food of the
whale. Here it is supposed they deposit their spawn,
and, on the return of the sun toward the northern hemi¬
sphere, again rush forth in those multitudinous hosts
which exceed the power of the imagination to conceive. j
The pilchard, which is a species of the same genus as
the herring, is also a migratory fish, but makes its ap¬
pearance from the southward, in vast shoals, inferior only
to those of the herring; which is also the case with the
mackerel, both being of equal or greater fecundity with
the herring, and liable to the attacks of the same enemy.
The salmon is equally irregular in its visits to the coasts
of Great Britain and Ireland, and approaches the mouths
of our rivers in shoals, which they ascend to considerable
distances, surmounting every obstacle in order to find a
safe and convenient spot where to deposit their innume¬
rable eggs. The various kinds of white fish, as turbot,
sole, plaice, whitings, and haddocks, are plentifully dis¬
persed throughout various parts of the British seas, afford¬
ing an inexhaustible supply of fresh fish for home con¬
sumption during the whole year, without the least appre¬
hension of such supply being exhausted or diminished.
On the eastern shores of Great Britain, and on the rocky
coasts of the Orkney and Zetland Islands, are plenty of
lobsters, which would more than supply the market of the
metropolis with this article of luxury, as the south-eastern
and southern coasts do the oyster with its nutritious food
for eight months in the year.
In spite, however, of this abundant supply of wholesome, Use sli
palatable, and nutritious food, yielded by the surrounding scare
seas of Great Britain, every acre of which is infinitely™*
more productive than the same quantity of the richestrior
land; notwithstanding that these salt water fields are
perpetually “ white to harvest,’ it is a remarkable fact,
that in the inland and middle counties of England, the
labouring classes scarcely know the taste of fish, which, of
late years, has become a scarce article, even in most of
the maritime counties. Formerly^ salmon, whilst in sea¬
son, was the common food of all ranks in the northern
counties bordering on the sea, and in most parts of Wales,
and what could not be used fresh was salted for winter con¬
sumption ; there was scarcely a family in the neighbour¬
hood of a sea-port or salmon fishery that did not lay up a
supply of pickled salmon for the winter. In the progress
of luxury, well-boats were invented to convey the fish fresh
to the London market, yet these were not sufficiently nu¬
merous to carry off the whole supply. I he next contriv¬
ance was that of packing them up in ice, by which they
could be kept fresh for 3 length of time, and conveyed
either by land or water to the metropolis; since which tie
local markets have nearly been left without a supply, even
for the few families wdio can afford to pay an extiavagan^
price for the article. That price in London was for a onb
time greatly enhanced, by the trade being almost exc u
sively in the hands of monopolists, who had it at a ^me,
in their power to create an uncertainty in the supp y, an
consequently a fluctuation in the price, both of w 11c 1 ar
detrimental to an augmented demand; but that monopo y
has been recently broken down. ,
That a narrow confined corner, at the very extrem y
of the metropolis, should have been allowed for sue
length of time to exercise the privilege of absor mg
the fish brought within the radius of seven miles roun
vortex, but ill accorded with the boasted goo seI! j
these enlightened times. It needs scarcely be men 1
Fish* ’•
fisheries.
that Billingsgate was this favoured spot; holding by char- sent to other parts of the town, and sold
teraninjanoas and hateful privilege, which, as Sir Thomas - • - u, ana soia
593
Hvrv a. 1 i . .—  ’ to the poor at Fisherie*:.
the same rate ; and it is stated that « the supply increas- '
Obser
lions (
bounti
Eiperi
wents
sliowini
the pos
bility o
extend
the de-
®and.
Bernard justly observes, “ in the greatest and most po- ed to so great a degree that 'iOO nnn i r
pulous city in the world, restricts the sale of an article of were sold in one day ” The whole^oSnffv and
life to a small and inconvenient market, and has exclu- for the distribution of , J C?t °f hlS fP^ment,
ottrohr rylnrod tho mnnonolv of fid, ^ Hal „ Jl. , r ^ Vo and sweet mackerel at a penny
a piece, was L.55. 10s. expended chiefly in the carriage
from Billingsgate. In like manner, it is estimated that
herrings might be supplied in any quantity at one half¬
penny a piece, and cod, haddocks, whitings, flounders, &c.
proportionally cheap, provided a steady demand was created
as it is presumed there would be, by the establishment of
several regular markets in different parts of the metropolis
Another experiment of the committee shows how easily
a demand for salted or corned fish might be created in the
inland counties. They contracted for 200 tons of corned
cod, caught and cured on our own coast, and also for
400,000 corned herrings. The former was supplied to the
distressed manufacturers of Sheffield at twopence halfpenny
a pound, and the latter at the rate of two for three half¬
pence. Here, as well as in other parts of the country, the
poor, it is stated, received the fish distributed among them
at low prices with the liveliest gratitude ; and one gentle¬
man in Worcestershire states that “ the herrings, in par¬
ticular, have proved a bonus to the poor of the most essen¬
tial benefit. We sold them,” he says, “ at a very lo.w
and reasonable rate, on account of the extreme indigence
of the purchasers ; and they have produced LAO (profit),
which, after the expense of carriage is paid, will be laid
out in employing the poor in repairing the roads.”
It deserves to be mentioned, as an instance of the cer¬
tainty of a supply to answer the demand, that, when the
Association was formed in 1812, the North Sea and Ice¬
land fishery had for some time entirely ceased; but, on
the committee offering the fishermen L.18 a ton for all the
fish they should catch and cure, they supplied, in the first
instance, 100 tons of dry-salted, and fifty tons of fresh cod;
in the second, 200 tons of dry-salted, and 400 tons of fresh ;
in the third, 600 tons of dry-salted, and 300 tons of fresh;
in all 1350 tons of fish w ere taken and brought to market in
consequence of this offer, not a fish of which would other¬
wise have been caught.
The obvious policy, then, to be pursued for extending
the British fisheries, is by creating an extended and con¬
stant demand. In the foreign markets this can only be
done by the care and attention bestowed in curing the fish,
so that, in point of quality, it may compete with those of
the Dutch and other nations of the continent; a point
which we have just now happily attained ; but in the sup¬
ply for home consumption every thing almost yet remains
to be done. The Fish Association have, however, clearly
shown the way of proceeding to obtain this desirable end;
they have proved that, not only in the metropolis, but in
the interior of the country, the poor have none of those
prejudices which w^ere ascribed to them, against the use
of fish, when it is fresh and sweet, and when they are able
to procure it at a moderate price. A free circulation, by
means of markets established in the metropolis and at all
the fishing ports, might effect this to a certain degree; but,
in addition to these, some artificial expedients might be
advisable, for a time at least, to raise and keep steady the
demand. It is much to be regretted that Queen Elizabeth,
who was well aware of the importance of the fisheries in
a political as well as economical point of view, did not, in
regulating the church ritual, ordain two days in every
week to be set apart by Protestants as fish days, which
would have created a steady and permanent demand for
fresh and salted fish in every part of the United Kingdom.
Such an ordinance might, in her reign, have been enfor¬
ced, and long habit would have reconciled people to the
observance of those days in our times; but it would be in
4 F
sively placed the monopoly of fish in the hands of a few
interested salesmen.” The establishment of that splen¬
did and most commodious market, the Hungerford, has put
an end to that injurious monopoly, and consequently re¬
duced the prices and increased the quantity of this spe¬
cies of food for the use of the metropolis.
The encouragement given by the government in the
shape of bounties appears to have contributed but little
to the success of the fisheries. If a branch of trade once
fairly established will not support itself without being bol¬
stered up by bounties, it never can be worth carrying on.
Bounties should only be continued for a definite time, and
decreased gradually. Those on the fisheries should be
given on the quantity procured, and the quality of those
cured, and not on the instrument of their production ; on
the fish, and not on the vessel. It was proved by a com¬
mittee of the House of Commons, in 1785, that the her¬
ring fishery absolutely cost little short of L.20,000 annual¬
ly, which, on an average of ten years, was equal to L.75
per cent, on the value of all the fish that had been taken
by the vessels on which it was paid. Adam Smith has just¬
ly observed, that a tonnage-bounty proportioned to the
burden of the ship, and not to her diligence and success
in the fishery, is not the best stimulus to exertion ; it
was an encouragement for fitting out ships to catch, not
the fish, but the bounty ; or to induce rash adventurers to
engage in concerns which they did not understand, and
cause them to lose, by their ignorance, more than was gain¬
ed by the liberality of government. The carelessness of
such persons, and the ignorance of those employed by them
in curing and packing the fish, not only robbed the public
purse, but destroyed the character of the article in the
foreign market; where, if saleable at all, it fetched only
an inferior price, whilst the skill and attention of the Dutch
secured for their fish that preference to which they were
justly entitled. The change of the bounty, however, from
the tonnage to the quantity and the quality of the fish
caught and cured, with the regulations adopted by the acts
of 48th and 55th Geo. III. have had the good effect of
raising the character, and consequently increasing the de¬
mand, for British fish in the foi'eign markets, where the
herrings in particular are now held in equal estimation with
those ot the Dutch. The bounty, granted by the act 48
Geo. III. c. 110, is 2s. per barrel on all herrings branded
by the proper officers, and 4s. a barrel granted by the act
55 Geo. III. c. 94, and is so considerable that at this time
it amounts to a sum not less than L.30,000 a year.
It would appear, however, that all which is now wanting
for the encouragement and extension of the British fisheries,
is a constant, steady, and increased demand in the home and
foreign markets. An experiment made by Mr Hale, one
of the members of the committee for the relief of the ma¬
nufacturing poor, proves decisively how easy it would be
to introduce the general use of fish in the metropolis. He
agreed with some fishermen to take from ten to twenty
thousand mackerel a day, at a price not exceeding 10s. the
hundred of six score, or at a penny a piece, a price at which
the fishermen said they could afford to supply the London
jnarket to any extent, provided they were sure of a regu¬
lar sale. On the 15th of June 1812, upwards of 17,000
mackerel were sent to Spitalfields, and sold at the original
cost of a penny a piece, to which place women were em¬
ployed to carry them from Billingsgate until eleven o’clock
at night. They were purchased with great avidity, and vast
numbers continued to pour into Billingsgate. They were
vol. IX.
594
FISHERIES.
Fisheries, vain to attempt the introduction of any such custom in the
present refractory generation. There seems, however, to
be no good grounds of objection to those who are main¬
tained at the public expense being fed twice a week with
a wholesome meal of fish. It is neither just nor politic
that, whilst the poor labouring man, after toiling the whole
week, can scarcely procure a little brown bread and a tew
potatoes for his wife and children, the indolent pauper
should feed on the best white bread and choice butchers
meat. Supposing the number of paupers receiving parish
relief, of convicts in the hulks, criminals in the jails, and,
in short, all those who are fed at the public expense, to
amount only to 1,000,000 ; and that to each was served
out, twice a week, a sufficient allowance of good fresh fish,
corned cod, or salted herrings, according to the season ot
the year and the situation of the parties, which could be
amply provided for the value of three pence a head, the
annual demand for fish, from this source alone, would
amount to the sum of L.1,300,000. The voluntary con¬
sumption of the labouring poor would be at least equal,
could an adequate supply be obtained at a cheap rate ; and
that it might will readily be inferred, when it is stated that,
in the herring season, these fish may, on an average, be
purchased at the stations for sixpence a hundred, whilst the
salt required to cure them costs about one penny. Suppos-
in<T the whole expense of a hundred to be one shilling, and
one shilling more for land carriage to the farthest point in
the interior, and allowing the retailer a profit of 100 per
cent., a good salted herring might still be purchased lor one
halfpenny, and two herrings, with a few potatoes, would fur¬
nish a wholesome palatable meal. Salted or corned cod
' would be supplied at an almost equally cheap rate; and
thus the quantity of food for the subsistence of man would
be greatly increased, the fisheries encouraged, the consump¬
tion of butchers’ meat lessened, and more pasturage convert¬
ed into corn-lands, by which the enormous sums of money
which are annually sent out of the country for the purchase
of foreign corn would be employed at home. At present
we have to trust for a supply of this “ staff of life to a mi¬
raculous plenty or a ruinous importation.
Political It would be superfluous to dwell on the political, econo-
importance mical, and commercial importance of encouraging and im-
of the fish-proving the fisheries, to an insular empire like ours. We
erie3' shall only observe, that, by their augmenting the quantity
of food, there would necessarily result a reduction in the
prices of all the necessaries of life ; the condition of the la¬
bouring poor, the artificers, and trades-people, would as ne¬
cessarily be improved; they would not only be the means
of rearing and supporting a bold and hardy race of men for
the defence of the sea-coast, but also of creating a nursery
of excellent seamen for the navy in time of war, and of
giving them employment when peace may render their fur¬
ther services unnecessary. If the fisheries flourished to
that extent to which they appear to be capable, every sea¬
port, town, and little village on the coasts, or on the banks
of the creeks and inlets, would become a nursery of sea¬
men. It was thus in Holland, where the national and na¬
tural advantages were very inferior to those of Great Bri¬
tain ; for it is well observed, in the Report of the Downs
Society, that Holland produces neither timber, nor iron, nor
salt, all of which are essential to fisheries, and all the na¬
tural produce of Great Britain ; that Holland has no her¬
rings upon her own coast, whilst the coasts of our island
abound w ith them and other fish, at different if not at all sea¬
sons of the year, so that there are few if any months in
which shoals of this fish in particular are not found on some
part of our shores ; and lastly, that her population is under
3,000,000, whilst ours amounts to about 18,000,000, giving
to our fishermen six times the consumption of a home
market that the Dutch can command.
Though the occupation of a fisherman is dangerous, la- Fish* t
borious, and precarious, yet it does not appear that the want '"—-y ’ v
of sufficient hands has at any time retarded the progress of
the fisheries. At this moment about 20,000 seamen, re¬
ceiving pensions of from I. •'( to L.20 and upwards, according
to their wounds, infirmities, and length of service, are lo¬
cated for the most part along the sea-coasts of the united
empire, all of whom, not otherwise employed in the coal
and coasting trade, would readily add to the little pittance
they receive from a grateful public, by being employed on
an element so congenial to their habits.
The report of the committee which sat in the year 1833
to inquire into the present state of the Channel fisheries,
ascribes the decline of these fisheries to other causes than
the want of demand. They report that they find the Bri¬
tish Channel fisheries to be generally in a very depressed
and declining state ; that they appear to have been gradu¬
ally sinking since the peace in 1815, and more rapidly dur¬
ing the last eight or ten years; that the capital employed
does not yield a profitable return ; and that the number of
vessels and boats, as well as of men and boys employed, is
much diminished: and they ascribe the principal causes
that have tended to produce this depression, first, to the
extensive interference and aggressions of the 1 rench fish¬
ermen on the coasts of Kent and Sussex; secondly, to the
large quantity of foreign-caught fish illegally imported and
sold in the London market; and, thirdly, to the great de¬
crease and comparative scarcity of fish in the Channel.
1. With regard to the interference of the French fisher¬
men, they have undoubtedly, as we have observed, an ad¬
vantage over ours, by fishing within half a league of the
shores of Kent and Sussex, and frequently much nearer;
but if it be true, as is stated, that they have now between
200 and 300 sail out of Boulogne alone, being more nume¬
rous and larger than those of our countrymen, manned with
-double or treble the number of men, and carrying nets and
fishing-gear of a much larger and heavier description, what
can possibly occasion this great difference in favour of the
French over us, but the very great demand for fish in the
one country and the wrant of it in the other. It is the gteat
demand alone that affords them capital to send out more
boats, and of a larger size, with more men in them, than our
fishermen, for want of demand, can afford to do. In tact,
fish in a fresh, or salted or dried state, may be said to be
in universal demand throughout France, whilst in England
the supply is almost wholly limited to the capital, and a ew
large towns at no great distance from the sea-coast. e
middling and lower orders in England, generally speaking,
have no great relish for fish^ they give the preference en
times over to bacon, and every species of butchers mea.
The herring and mackerel fisheries are stated to have been
nearly abandoned, whilst the French continue on our coasts
during the whole of the season of these fisheries, m g
a constant practice of selling their cargoes ot fash at se<,
and shipping them into carrier boats from the f
othefi ports, and into boats which board them in t e ay
Dover, for the supply of the London market. This pra
requires but small capital and little outlay. Sue an i
course may also have for its object the more pro
cupation of smuggling, as well as trafficking oi * ‘
further grievance, and one that certainly ought o F
-.rcmiwl ie. tlint nt nther seasons of the year tne _
venteu, is, mat at omei betisuno ^ j-— :nt0
come every morning from Boulogne and other pa > ^
the English bays, and there drag with nets lor ^ .
shallow waters, close upon the shore, taking an > ,
in immense quantities, the young and unsizea e >
this is done at those periods of the year when they ^
not permitted to fish in the bays upon their own
practice which tends materially to diminish the q
grown fish on our coasts.
fisheries.
FishenThe suggestion of the committee, that, in order to remedy
w-y the grievances at present sustained by the English fisher¬
men, foreigners should be prevented, at all seasons of the
year, from fishing within one league, or such other distance,
of the English coast, as by the law or usage of nations is
considered to belong exclusively to this country—this
would undoubtedly be most desirable if it could be effected;
but we have conceded this point, and ancient usage is un¬
fortunately against us, and the law cannot remedy it; the
grievance can only be removed by mutual agreement.
Measures, however, it is presumed, might be taken for the
better preservation of the spawn and brood of fish in the bays
and shallow waters upon our coast, which is of the utmost
importance.
2. The importation of foreign-caught fish is prohibited
by various acts of parliament, under heavy penalties and
forfeiture, imposed on the parties, both foreigners and Bri¬
tish subjects, who may be implicated in such a transaction.
The kinds of fish exempted from prohibition are, turbots
and lobsters, eels, stock-fish, anchovies, sturgeon, botargo,
and cavear; these may all be, and are, legally imported,
—turbots and eels generally by the Dutch, and almost all
the lobsters from the coast of Norway. The committee
however report, that, notwithstanding the prohibition and pe¬
nalties, it appears in evidence that about one third of the fish
supplied to the London market is procured from foreigners,
including, however, in that estimate, the turbots, eels, and
lobsters. It is further stated that the violation of the acts
of parliament has of late years been practised openly, and
without interruption on the part of the government or offi¬
cers of his majesty’s customs, arising probably, as the com¬
mittee think, from some misapprehension of the provisions
of the statutes. The practice, it appears, prevails chiefly
off the mouth of the Thames, and upon the coasts of Kent
and Sussex, and it operates most injuriously during the
mackerel and herring seasons.
Our fishermen complain that they are much injured by
the continued permission given to foreigners to import tur¬
bots free of duty; and it is stated in evidence, that if relief
were afforded in this respect to the English fishermen, the
markets of this country would still be adequately supplied
with this valued species of fish, without increased prices ;
and that the alteration of the law, in this respect, would
tend very materially to revive the fisheries connected with
the coasts of Norfolk and Essex, and also with those of
Kent and Sussex, and be of great value to our fisheries in
general. There do not seem to be any political grounds for
opposing such an enactment, as the English fishermen are
not allowed to import any description of fish into France
or Holland. Why should not our fishermen, when driven
by stress of weather or for repairs into a French or Dutch
port, be permitted to sell a sufficient portion of their fish
to provide themselves with necessaries for their support,
whilst this indulgence is granted to those of France and
Holland in the ports of England ?
3. The scarcity of fish in the Channel, with the exception
of mackerel and herring, which are fish of passage, is said
to have increased during the last fifteen or twenty years, oc¬
casioned by the great destruction of the spawn and brood of
fish consequent on the non-observance of the laws which
at present exist for their preservation. By the statute 3
James I. “ for the better preservation of sea-fish,” it is en¬
acted, that “ every person who shall fish in any haven, har¬
bour, or creek, or within five miles of the mouth of any
haven, harbour, or creek, with any draw-net or drag-net
uoder three inches mesh, or with any net with canvass or
other engine or device, by which the spawn, fry, or brood
°f sea-fish may be destroyed, shall forfeit such net, and also
ten shillings.” By 14 Charles II. “ for regulating the pil¬
chard fishery,” from the 1st June to 30th November no
595
person shall take fish in the high sea, or in any bay, port, Fisheries,
creek, or coast of Cornwall or Devon, with any drift-net,
trammel, or stream-net, or other nets of that sort, unless
at the distance of one league and a half from the shore,”
under penalty of forfeiting the nets or value, and one
month s imprisonment of the offender. The 1st Geo. I. en-
acts “ that the meshes of nets used at sea upon the coast
oi England shall not be less than three inches and a half
from knot to knot,” under penalty of forfeiture of nets, and
of L.20, with power of imprisoning the offender. The 33d
Geo. II. provides “ that no person shall kill or destroy, or
knowingly have in his or her possession, either on the wa¬
ter or on shore, or shall bring to shore, or offer for sale or
exchange, any spawn, fry, or brood of fish, or any unsize-
able fish, or fish out of season,” under the penalty of twenty
shillings, and forfeiture of the baskets or other packages
containing them.
These salutary statutes seem to have been neglected, and,
in the opinion of the committee, ought to be revised, and
the provisions extended; and that conservators or overseers
should be appointed for the purpose of enforcing the act.
The French take care to protect their bays and breeding-
grounds from the 15th April to the 1st September, the in¬
termediate months being the spawning or breeding season
of the fish, when the young brood have not become of a
sufficient size or strength to take refuge in deeper waters.
It is stated in evidence, that in the year 1816 the Trowl
fishermen on the coast of Devon, acting under the advice
of the present Lord Vernon, tried the experiment by mu¬
tual consent, of preserving their breeding-grounds undis¬
turbed from the 1st of July to the 20th of September in
that year, the consequence of which was a greater abun¬
dance of fish in the ensuing season than had ever before
been knowm upon that coast; and the fishermen were de¬
sirous that the restraint which they had thus voluntarily
imposed upon their fishing should in future be enforced
by law. Accordingly, in 1819 a bill was brought into the
house, “ to prevent the destruction of the brood and spawn
of fish,” which, however, was thrown out on the third read¬
ing ; but in the year 1822 the same bill was again brought
in and passed the Commons, but was lost in the Lords;
since which no further attention appears to have been paid
to the subject, and thus the evils complained of have con¬
tinued unredressed, and, as it appears, are increasing.
The stow-boat fishery, or catching of sprats for manure,
which prevails principally upon the Kentish, Norfolk, and
Essex coasts, is highly injurious to the spawn and brood of
fish, the nets used being so very fine as to enclose not only
sprats, but the spawn and young breed of all other kinds of
fish. The demand for this species of manure is said to be
so extensive, that there are at this time from 400 to 500
boats engaged in stow-boating on the Kentish coast only,
each remaining out till it has obtained a full cargo of dead
fish for the purpose of manuring the land. The legislature
ought certainly to put a stop to this most injurious prac¬
tice, or at least confine it within specific limits both as to
time and space.
It is stated that the herring and pilchard fisheries have
declined considerably, not so much from the competition
of French fishermen, as from the heavy duty levied at Na¬
ples of sixteen shillings a barrel, w hich amounts nearly to a
prohibition; the pilchard fishery also suffers from the same
cause. It appears also that the clergyman demands tithe
to the amount of between two and three pounds per annum
for each herring or mackerel boat, which appears not to be
more than about one-eightieth part, after deducting the
boat’s expenses.
It is suggested that it would afford some small encourage¬
ment to the fisheries, by increasing the inland consumption,
if the fish-carts were allowed to pass the turnpike gates
596
FISHERIES.
Fisheries, free of tolls. This exemption, if granted, would particu-
'-'-V'*-' larly relieve the fisheries at Yarmouth, Harwich, Dover,
Folkestone, and Hastings, and increase their supply of fresh
fish, particularly of mackerel, to the London market. Lon¬
don, however, is the best supplied market for fish, perhaps,
in the kingdom, and it does not appear that any monopoly
or injurious regulations now exist, either in the mode of
supplying the market or in the sale of fish.
It may be curious to see the weekly supply of different
kinds of fresh fish for the London market, that is to say,
for six days from the 19th to the 24th of June inclusive :—
Salmon  253£ boxes.
Turbot  3,153 individuals.
Lobsters 131,000 do.
Mackerel 131,700 do.
Whitings  31,175 do.
Soles  164 bushels.
Maids and plaice  1,045 do.
Besides fresh cod-fish, skate, haddock, and other fish in
smaller quantities.
Actual With all the impediments to an extended use of fish in
progress of the home market, and notwithstanding the established cha-
the British racter which the Dutch fish have always borne among fo-
herring reign nations, it is consoling to find that the herring fish¬
ery generally has been in a progressive state of improve¬
ment. Since the act of 48 Geo. III. appointing commis¬
sioners, separate and distinct from the customs and excise,
fishery.
bounty had been refused on all barrels not full of pickle; Fiat ;i
and that the strictest orders had been given to the officers ^ j
of the fishery, to apply the official brand in no case, unless
both herrings and casks were in every respect such as
would do credit to the establishment. In the year 1817,
the commissioners point out in their report the great in¬
crease which had taken place in the exportation of British
herrings to the Continent of Europe, in consequence of the
communication made to and the regulations adopted by
them, as contained in the preceding report; and, in the
year 1818, they observe that they had received a memorial
on the subject from Hamburg, signed by a number of her¬
ring merchants of that port, bearing testimony to the im¬
provement which had taken place in the quality of British
herrings, and pointing out the means of raising their cha¬
racter still higher. This memorial the commissioners like¬
wise caused to be printed and distributed amongst the curers,
which they accompanied with such additional observations
as they conceived to be necessary, and which they state to
have produced the most salutary effects. They conclude
their statement with the gratifying intelligence, that the
character of the British fishery is rising both at home and
abroad ; for that, whilst the quantity of herrings cured gutted
is annually increasing, the quantity cured ungutted is every
year diminishing; that, great as the amount of the fishery
had been in the course of that year, the demand had fully
kept pace with it; and that, at the end of the season, few
to superintend the distribution of bounties, stationing of herrings remained unsold in the hands of the curers. They
  ^ i r*.ii • r* 1       XI    a. i-’L ^ i- 11 ..4- 4-V» i-v o + f no I rvt-
further report, that whilst the exportation to the Continent of
Europe had nearly equalled that of the preceding year, and the
exportation to the West Indies and Ireland had increased, a
new market had opened in the East Indies, to which dif¬
ferent shipments of herrings had been made, by way of ex¬
periment, both from Greenock and London; that, from the
former of these places, upwards of 1300 firkins were ex¬
ported to Calcutta, all of which, they understood, were pur¬
chased by Europeans there at 20s. to 25s. per firkin; and
that it was the intention of the exporter, in consequence of
this encouragement, to ship a larger quantity next season;
so that the commissioners trust that India will soon be¬
come a permanent and valuable market for the consump¬
tion of British herrings. The report thus concludes: “ It
is impossible to state, within the compass of this report,
officers versed in the trade of the herring fishery, persons
who had experimentally and practically followed that fishery
as a trade, but who are excluded from all interest or parti¬
cipation in the trade, the herring fishery has become with
us, as it was with the Dutch, an object of national concern;
the good effects of which are most sensibly felt in every
part of the coast where it has regularly been established,
by the labour it provides, the demand it creates for a va¬
riety of articles required by it, and the money it throws
into circulation. By this act, an annual report by the com¬
missioners, of their proceedings, ending the 5th April, is
required to be presented to parliament each session ; con¬
taining the details of the fishery of the preceding year, to¬
gether with such observations and suggestions as may have
occurred, or been communicated, to the commissioners, in —r  - , - , .
the interval between the reports. In the report of the year the advantages resulting to the community from t e prw
ending 1814, they had stated, “that the superior value of perity of the herring fishery ; but the commissioners think
herrings branded by the officers of the fishery, in point of it their duty briefly to mention that the effects thereot are
quality, weight, and measure, was becoming every year felt in almost every part of the kingdom ° B f'rIT’pn
more generally acknowledged, even in markets where till
of late gutted herrings were not much prized; and this
they ascribe to their refusal of every application for allowing
bounty on barrels out of the full size of thirty-two gallons,
and to their having directed prosecutions against the pro¬
prietors of such herrings as had been seized, for being pre¬
sented for bounty in undersized barrels; and that, with
• other precautions respecting the proper cure of the her-   r—   .
rings, the desired effect had been produced, of raising the during the continuance of the fishing season, and tnere
character of British herrings in the foreign market.” In ‘A dprpnt livelihood in the operations of gutting an pa
their report of 1816, they state that they have had their
attention turned to different matters calculated to improve
the cure of herrings, and to raise the character of the British
fishery in foreign parts; that a communication, made to
them by a mercantile house of respectability, on the sub¬
ject of increasing the exportation of herrings to the Conti¬
nent of Europe, had been printed, and distributed among
the curers throughout the kingdom ; that regulations had
been adopted for improving the construction of barrels in¬
tended for bounty; that the boats of the fishermen had
been properly fitted up for the reception of herrings; that
     ^ ^  o The fishermen
have, in many cases, been enabled, by the produce of their
industry, to replace the small boats formerly used, by new
boats of much larger dimensions, and to provide themselves
with fishing materials of superior value. The number of
boats and of fishermen has been greatly increased; while,
by the general introduction of the practice of gutting, a
valuable source of employment has been opened to thou¬
sands of poor people, who now annually resort to the coas
during the continuance of the fishing season, and fV‘orp pflrn
a decent livelihood in the operations of gutting
ing. New dwelling-houses and buildings, on a superior
construction, for the curing and storing of the herrings,
are erecting at almost every station along the coast, w i
the demand for home wood for the manufacture of barr
affords a source of profit and employment to numbers
people in the most inland parts of the country. -i 1019
The following report for the year ending 5th APril*r!
exhibits at one view the then state of the herring s
at the different stations in Great Britain, under t e sup
intendence and control of the commissioners, and
cers appointed by them.
fisheries
No. I.
An Account of the Total Number of Barrels of White Herrings which have been landed from thP i
Shore, in the Year ended Sth April 1819; in a, far as the same leas came uJ^fgZtfof^bffi^TofZ
STATIONS.
Ayr, Irvine, and Saltcoats.
Campbeltown 
Fort-William 
Glasgow 
Greenock 
Inverary 
Loch-Broom 
 Carron 
 Gilphead 
Shildag 
Rothesay.
Stornoway....
Stranraer 
Tobermory...
Bristol 
Liverpool 
St Ives 
Whitehaven.
Anstruther...
Banff. 
Burntisland..,
Cromarty 
Eyemouth...
Fraserburgh.
Helmsdale...,
Leith 
Lybster 
Orkney 
Port Gordon,
Wick 
Dover 
London 
Portsmouth..
Yarmouth....
Total 
Year ended 5th April 1818.
. • Quantity and Description of Herrings.
Cured for Bounty.
Gutted
with a knife
and packed
within 24
hours after
being ta¬
ken.
Barrels.
Difference, year ended 5th )
April 1819 J
2,806
3,543
1531
16,525
24,667
4,084
1,383
1,7641
1,456
1,6671
10,020
1,2301
1,7121
2,832f
187
404
3,481
6,966
29,170
3,3481
13,9531
18,1811
19,4821
21,7521
3,301
19,6281
8,714
14,299
61,111^
34
4124
1,1391
611
Gutted not
with a
knife and
packed
within 24
hours after
being ta
ken.
Barrels.
300,023
4
139£
137
303],
55
134
38
11
158
22
22
801
2264
Total for
Bounty.
Cured not for Bounty.
Gutted
and packed
not within
24 hours
after being
taken.
Barrels.
2,806
3,547
293
16,662
24,9701
4,139
1,517
1,8021
1,467
1,6671
10,178
1,2521
1,7121
2,8541
187
700
2,031
4841
3,7071
6,966
29,170
3,3481
13,9534
18,18l|
20,1821
21,7521
3,301
19,6281
8,714
14,299
61,1111
34
412
1,139
61li
Ungutted.
Barrels.
302,054
203,2851
98,768f
Increase
20
634
3li
10
351
72
9
3181
150
150
65
465
54
88
62
45
44
1,684
985
699
Increase.
Barrels.
462
1,1121
610
124
51
325
64
82
250
187
534
1574
134
151
9161
1,4241
50
308
3,6601
1,099“
2,8501
153
909
1,015
1,6661
167
3,129
46
13
3,7201
25,372
15,799
9,573
Increase.
Barrels of
Bulk.
90
768
1171
3811
634
Total Bar¬
rels not for
Bounty.
Barrels.
185
34
149
86
52
783
1,412
1,0711
64
329
1,0271
200
420
l,307f
506
66
117
1,709
54
129
428
11,550
7,621f
3,9281
Increase.
572
1,8801
1171
1,055
219
10
237
3601
98
154
408
273
52
1,317
1571
1,546
1,2221
980
2,072
1,2271
508
3,8101
1,519
4,2231
1,124
963
1,103
1,7941
284
4,883
100
13
3,8931
428
Grand To
tal.
Barrels.
38.606
24,405f
14,2001
Increase.
3,378
5,4271
4104
17,717
25,1891
4,149
1,754
2,163
1,565
1,8211]
10,586
1,5251
1,7641
4,17li
3444
1,546
1,707
4,688
9,038
30,3971
3,856
17,764
19,7001
24,405|
22,876|
4,264
20,731|
10,5081
14,583
65,9941
134
4251
5,033
1,0391
340,660
227,691
112,969
Increase.
597
Fisheries.
V—
FISHERIES
598
Fisheries.
Fisk
No. II.
An Account of the Total Number of Barrels of White Herrings which have been branded for the Bounty of Is. and of
3s. 9d. per Barrel, in the Year ended bth April lb 19.
STATIONS.
Ayr, Irvine, and Saltcoats.
Campbeltown 
Fort-William 
Glasgow 
Greenock 
Inverary 
Loch Broom 
 Carron 
 Gilphead 
 Shildag 
Rothesay 
Stornoway 
Stranraer 
Tobermory 
Bristol 
St Ives 
Whitehaven 
Anstruther 
Banff 
Burntisland 
Cromarty 
Eyemouth 
Fraserburgh 
Helmsdale 
Leith 
Lybster 
Orkney 
Port Gordon 
Wick 
Dover 
London 
Portsmouth 
Yarmouth 
Total....
Year ended 5th April 1818.
For the Bounty of 4s. per
Barrel.
Bung packed'
Difference, year ended 5th ^
April 1819 J
Barrels.
Repacked.
2,074
2,525
95
9,161
7,1861
3,6161
1,2051
1,516“
1,093
1,102
7,910
1,135
1,5031
2,294
244
1,3141
7,029“
15,9491
10,851
8,987
6,073
10,368
7,969
28,983
7,6941
5,9791
6,927
24,7611
40
3951
Barrels.
185,983
131,1231
54,8591
Increase.
For the Bounty of 3s. 6d.
per Barrel.
Bung packed.
2,234
15,8701
632
193
147
2.152
3321
8,226
8,713
1,690
7,422
3,197
3,801
6.153
4,866
2,1821
4,309
9,772
34
359
517
82,8021
50,875
31,9271
Increase.
Barrels.
109
50
130
10
8
Repacked.
Barrels.
Total Her¬
rings branded.
295
141
22
15
211
242
489
658
169
Decrease.
Barrels.
Amount of Bounty.
2,074
2.525
204
11,395
23,352
3,6661
1,3351
1.526
1,101
1,102
8,683
1,157
I, 5031
2,294
193
391
3,6921
7,3611
24,1751
19,564
10,677
13,495
13,811
II, 770
35,136
12,5601
8,162
11,236
34,5331
34
359
557
395£
s. d.
748
433
270,0221
183,089}
315
Increase.
86,933
Total incr,
414
505
38
2,279
4,663
732
263
304
220
220
1,733
230
300
458
38
78
732
1,472
4,835
3,912
2,135
2,699
2,756
2,354
7,027
2,512
1,632
2,247
6,906
6
71
111
79
16 0
0 0
1 6
0 0
0 6
1 0
17 0
19 0
0 0
8 0
1 6
17 0
14 0
16 0
12 0
4 0
17 0
6 0
2 0
16 0
8 0
0 0
1 0
0 0
4 0
2 0
8 0
4 0
14 0
16 0
16 0
8 0
2 0
L.53,973 11 6
36,590 12 6
L. 17,382 19 0
Increase.
fisheries.
599
Fisheries.
No. III.
An Account of the Total Number of Barrels of WhitP „, / • 7 .
Year ended bth April 1819, in as far as the same have cams unlr'tCTogaZmTf^e ^
STATIONS.
Ayr, Irvine, and Saltcoats,
Campbeltown 
Fort-William  
Glasgow 
Greenock 
Loch-Broom 
Loch-Shildag 
Rothesay 
Tobermory   
Bristol  
Liverpool 
St Ives 
Whitehaven 
Anstruther 
Banff. 
Burntisland 
Cromarty 
Eyemouth 
Fraserburgh 
Helmsdale  
Leith 
Lybster 
Orkney 
Port Gordon 
Wick 
London 
Portsmouth 
Total 
Year ended 5th April 1818.
Exported to Ireland.
Gutted.
Barrels.
165
1,112
385
5,829
3,8212
165
1,105
1,186
3,216
969
134
172
655
2,069
4,031
2,855
2,258
1,770
4,439
2,062
9,674
465
3,452
2,600
17,869
4,707
30
Difference, year ended 5th April 1819....
77,195i
44,304|
Ungutted.
Barrels.
To other places in
Europe.
Gutted.
Barrels.
487
1,407
60
614
163
60
”294
1,383
148
325
470
252
665
”332
1,060'
1,330
520
2,938|
32,891
Increase.
12,5081
9,082“
100
600
10,822
5,463
500
3,705
3,580
22,222
926
1,035
3,170
310
3,4261
Increase.
52,333
43,368
8,965
Increase.
Ungutted.
Barrels.
To places out of
Europe.
Gutted.
Barrels.
528
528
Decrease.
27,642
4,872
2,198
2,397
611
1,638
800
42,595
20
Ungutted.
Barrels.
Total
Exported.
Barrels.
82,773
60,475
91
186
1,317
177
54
’*50
200
277
22,298
Increase.
2,352
4,582
2,230
Decrease.
652
2,519
445
6,543
31,7171
225
1,105
1,480
4,599
6,175
3,649
172
3,554
3,039
14,853
8,570
3,423
1,770
9,141
5,642
34,644
1,391
5,782
3,635
21,559
47.889
2,9881
227,162
162,3391
64,8221
Total
Increase.
Progr
the it
land
ery,
°f This rapid progress shows that there is no art or mystery
■ in the catching and curing of herrings that the English
cannot attain as well as the Dutch ; and the same thing is
further proved by the successful experiment made by the
Downs Society of Fishermen, in the report of whose pro¬
ceedings it is stated that herrings had been taken within
the Cinque Ports of a quality so nearly resembling the
deep-sea fish, that they were cured and sold as the best
Dutch herrings. It will also be seen by Table I. that the
progressive increase of the herring fishery is confined to
Scotland ; and that the quantity brought under the inspec¬
tion of the officers in England amounts not to one twenty-
second part of the whole ; whilst the flourishing little town
°i Wick alone furnishes nearly one fifth. But the most
extraordinary increase is that which has taken place in the
neighbouring county of Sutherland. Formerly the people
0 this county were contented to hire themselves as fisher¬
men to the adventurers of Wick. In 1814 they attempt-
e a fishery on their own account, and the mouth of the
elmsdale river was fixed upon as the station. A storehouse
and curing-house were here erected; and the boats were
manned by the people brought from the mountains and
the interior of the country. Every thing was new to
them in the employ they were about to engage in. The
fishing commenced on the 20th July, and ended on the
3d September 1814; and the produce of four boats was
respectively L.105. 3s., L.83. 8s., L.96. 8s., and L.148. 3s.
They were manned by four men each, so that they made,
on an average, rather more than L.27 a man. In 1815
the number of boats employed amounted to fifty, almost
entirely manned by Sutherland men; and the number of
barrels caught and repacked exceeded 4000, chiefly gut¬
ted. In 1817 this fishery gave employment to about 200
tenants, seventeen coopers, and 130 women; in 1818 to
seventy coopers, 520 women, 700 men, 140 boats ; and, in
the year 1819, the quantity caught and cured at Helms¬
dale, as appears by the table, amounted to no less than
22,876 barrels, besides upwards of 100,000 cod and ling.
Whilst the herring fishery was making these rapid strides
in the Highlands of Scotland, the ancient town of North
600
Fisheries.
White
fishery.
FISHERIES.
Turbot
fishery.
Salmon
fishery.
Yarmouth, which owes its existence to the herring fishery,
and in the time of Edward III. had an act, usually called
“ the statute of herrings,” passed in its favour, for the re¬
gulation of its herring-fair, exhibited only the small num¬
ber of 1039 barrels.
And not only does North Britain take the lead in the her¬
ring-fishery, but it has also availed itself of its favourable
situation for carrying on that branch which may be reckon¬
ed next perhaps in importance, namely, the cod and ling
fishery. The whole extent of sea, from the neighbourhood
of the Orkney and Zetland Islands, to Iceland on the one
hand, and to the coast of Norway on the other, and along
the eastern and western shores of Scotland, to the r lennsh
banks on the east and the coast of Ireland on the west,
maybe considered as one great fishing domain, over which
the different species of the cod genus are most plentifully
dispersed ; as are also turbot, skate, soles, haddocks, and
whitings. These fish, which constitute collectively what is
usually called the white fishery, surround as it were the
whole of North Britain, and give to that portion ot the
united kingdom advantages which its southern neighbours
cannot boast of. . „ . ,
The only fishery perhaps which neither the Scotch nor
the English follow up with the same success as the Dutch,
is that of the turbot, the finest of which are supposed to be
taken upon the Flemish banks. The turbot fishery begins
about the end of March, when the Dutch fishermen assem¬
ble a few leagues to the south of Scheveling. As the w arm
weather approaches, the fish gradually advance to the
northward, and, during the months of April and May, they
are found in great shoals on the banks called the Broad
Forties. Early in June they have proceeded to the banks
which surround the small island of Heligoland, off the
mouth of the Elbe, where the fishery continues till the
middle of August, when it terminates for the year. The
mode of taking turbot is as follows : At the beginning of
the season the drag-net is used, which, being drawn along
the banks, brings up various kinds of flat fish, as soles,
plaice, thornbacks, and turbots ; but when the warm wea¬
ther has driven the fish into deeper water, and upon banks
of a rougher surface, where the drag-net is no longer prac¬
ticable, the fishermen have then recourse to the hook and
line. Each line extends from one to nearly three miles in
length, and is armed with six, seven, or eight hundred
hooks, fixed to it at the distance of several yards from each
other. To keep these long lines properly stretched, and
prevent their being carried away by the tide, heavy mass¬
es of lead in some places, and small anchors in others, are
attached to them. The hooks are baited with the common
smelt, and a small fish resembling an eel, called the gore-
bill. Though very considerable quantities of this fish are
now taken on various parts of our own coasts, from the
Orkneys to the Land’s End, yet a preference is given in
the London market to those caught by the Dutch, who are
supposed to have drawn not less than L.80,000 a year for
the supply of this market alone ; and the Danes from
L.12,000 to L.15,000 a year for sauce to this luxury of the
table, extracted from about one million of lobsters, taken
on the rocky shores of Norway, though our own shores are
in many parts plentifully supplied with this marine insect,
equal in goodness to those of Norway.
Scotland has very decidedly the advantage over England
in the salmon fishery, which, if not of superior value, may
be allowed to rank next in importance to the cod fishery.
This fish being rarely caught except in estuaries or rivers,
may be considered as in a great degree private property ;
and it may therefore be presumed that the fishery is con¬
ducted to the greatest possible extent and advantage. From
the extremity of the Highlands, and from the Orkney and
Zetland Islands, these fish are sent to the London mar¬
ket, as before mentioned, in ice ; and when the season is Fishe:
at its height, and they catch more than can be taken off^ ]
hand fresh, they are then salted, pickled, or dried, for win¬
ter consumption at home, and for the foreign markets.
Perhaps the fishery of the Tweed is the first in point of
the quantity caught, which is sometimes quite astonishing,
several hundreds being taken at a single draught of the
net. It is here where the kitted salmon is principally pre¬
pared for the London market, being first boiled and then
pickled with vinegar.
The decrease of salmon in the English and Scotch rivers,
particularly of late years, is a fact as to which there can
be no manner of doubt. Much unsatisfactory discussion
has taken place as to its causes, which are probably of a
very diversified character. A good deal has been ascribed
to the increase of water machinery on the banks of the dif¬
ferent rivers; but we hardly think that this could have
much influence, except perhaps in the case of the smaller
class of rivers. Weirs or salmon traps have also been
much objected to ; though, as we have been assured, with
still less reason. On the whole, we are inclined to think
that the falling off in the supply of this valuable fish is
principally to be ascribed to the temptation to over-fish the
rivers, caused by the extraordinary rise in the price of sal¬
mon ; to the prevalence of poaching ; and, more than all,
to the too limited duration of the close time. In 1828, after
a great deal of discussion and inquiry, an act was passed
(9 Geo. IV. c. 39), which has done a good deal to remedy
these defects, in as far at least as respects the Scotch fish¬
eries. The rivers are to be shut from the 14th of September
to the 1st of February ; and every person catching or at¬
tempting to catch fish during that period is to forfeit not
less than L.l and not more than L.10 for every ofifence,
besides the fish, if he have caught any, and such boats, nets,
or other implements as he may have made use of. Pecu¬
niary penalties are also inflicted upon poachers and tres¬
passers ; and provision is made for the watching of the
rivers. We understand that this act has upon the whole
had a vei’y good effect; though it is believed that it would
be better were the close time extended from the 1st of Sep¬
tember to the middle of February.
The late Sir Humphry Davy delivered into the hands oi
the committee a paper on the natural history of the salmon,
which he concludes with the following observations. “ There
is a general complaint,” he says, “ of the diminution ox sal¬
mon in fisheries. In the Thames it can scarcely be sax
to exist; and even in the Avon, the Severn, and the Trent,
it is becoming comparatively a scarce fish. The great
northern fisheries, and the Irish fisheries, are muc ess
productive than formerly.” The simple remedies tor is
national evil he states "to be, 1. to suffer more fish to
spawn, and fish of all ages and sizes; 2. to prevent any
fish from being killed in rivers after spawning ; and, ^ to
prevent the young salmon or salmon fry from being i e
He is of opinion that each variety of salmon or sa mon
trout affects a particular river, and always returns to it;
therefore all stake fishings should be abolished, as tney
enable persons having no interest in the river t0 cu f
almost entirely the supply of fish, for salmon do no g
out into the sea, and always return along the coast, s
ing out, as it were, their own river ; and that a strong P
mg out, as it were, tneir own rxver , tmu u.cm- ^,
across an estuary might destroy in one year the w o ,
ery of a river. He recommends that no close wears
be allowed, but that there should be always a free p e
for fish, so that early fish may go up as well as a ^
that no machinery should be allowed in a nyer, Y ,
spawning fish may be killed ; that nets shorn e a
to a certain size, so as to render it impossible rj.
river ; and that no angling should be allowed in s,
vers till May, nor after October.
Fishe
Gener
survej
theBi ^
fisheri
Scotch
fisherii
fisheries.
601
The annual value of the Scotch and English fisheries,
and the number of persons and craft employed on them,
are but vaguely stated in the statistical reports of the se¬
veral maritime counties of Great Britain ; and in some of
them the subject, important as it certainly must be con¬
sidered in our economical system, and as connected inti¬
mately with the subsistence and employment of the labour¬
ing poor, is altogether omitted. This defect is more par¬
ticularly to be regretted at this moment, when inquiries
are anxiously making, not only how to employ a super¬
abundant population, but to ascertain to w hat extent the
powers of the country are capable of supplying the means
for its subsistence. Indeed we conceive that a statistical
survey of the British fisheries, as far as it could be made
out, would afford a most valuable document in aid of a
more complete investigation of that branch of political eco¬
nomy which relates to the employment and the feeding of
the people. The following brief account must, therefore,
be considered as very imperfect. It is to be understood
that the returns of the herring fishery, as given in the pre¬
ceding table, are not taken into the account.
Sutherland. The waters in which the salmon fishery is
chiefly carried on in this county are those of Naver,
Helmsdale, and Brora, and the rent of these fisheries is
about L.1700 a year ; the produce L.6800. In one year,
from December to March inclusive, were caught between
Bighouse Bay, on the north coast, and Rou-stoir in Assynt,
on the west coast, 30,000 lobsters, which at three pence a
piece, the price paid to the fishermen, amounted to L.375.
They were carried in smacks to the London market, where
at that season of the year their value was estimated at about
L.7000. It is estimated that each of the thirty-seven
boats on the coast of Assynt might produce L.100 a year.
Three boats at Golspie are stated to make about L.150 a
year by haddocks alone, which are consumed by the coun¬
try people. Of the quantity of cod and ling exported no
account is given, but these valuable fish are taken in great
abundance on every part of the coast. Whatever opinions
may exist with respect to the policy of the measures which
have recently been adopted regarding the tenantry of this
county, there can be but one in considering the late Duke
of Sutherland as a great promoter of the fisheries, and a
benefactor to all who are concerned in them.
Caithness. It is asserted, with every probability of truth,
that there is no district in Europe better calculated for
carrying on the fisheries, either in point of profit, variety,
or extent, than Caithness. In the fresh waters of the
county, and the seas by which it is surrounded, there are enu¬
merated forty-five diflerent kinds of esculent fish. Next
to the herring, the cod fishery, near Thurso, may be rec¬
koned as the most important. Indeed the whole coast of
Wick and Latheron, and every part of the Pentland Frith,
abounds with this valuable species of fish, as well as all the
other kinds usually distinguished by the name of white fish.
The herring fishery, as will be seen in the preceding table,
holds a high place among the established fishing stations ;
and, in fact, the whole county feels the beneficial effects of
an active prosecution of the fisheries, out of which has of
late years risen a new town, near Wick, named Pulteney
Town; and all the villages on the coast are in a progres¬
sive state of enlargement and improvement from the same
Source.
Hoss and Cromarty. In the report of the agriculture of
these counties, by Sir George Mackenzie, there are some
excellent observations respecting the herring fishery, the
decline of which, previous to the late act, he ascribes to the
circumstance of salt being delivered to the fishers free of
duty; which made the fishermen rely on the greater part
of their expenses, and some part of their profits, being paid
by the fraudulent practice of smuggling the salt for sale ;
VOL. ix.
and to such an extent was this practice carried, that it is Fisheries,
broadly asserted “ there is not a farmer in the Highlands
who uses any other than fishery salt for butter, cheese, and
other provisions ; there is no other salt used in private fa¬
milies.”
The cod fishery of Gairloch is the most productive of
any7 upon the coast of Scotland. T he fishing is from January
to April. I he fish are small in size, but rich, averaging
about five pounds each when cleaned for salting. They are
mostly pickled, and also dried, and sent to Ireland, Liver¬
pool, and London. The average annual produce is about
20,000 cod, taken by twenty boats, each having about 400
hooks ; which number, it is stated, might easily be doubled.
For the success of this fishery, those who followed it were
greatly indebted to the bounty and judicious assistance of
Sir Hector Mackenzie.
Nairn and Moray. The principal fishery of this part of
North Britain is that of salmon, chiefly in the rivers Nairn,
Tindhorn, and Spey, the whole of which, supposed to
amount yearly to about L.25,000, is exported to the Lon¬
don market in smacks of eighty or a hundred tons burden,
packed to the number of three or five in a box with pounded
ice. These smacks keep the sea in all kinds of weather,
and generally reach their destination from the fifth to the
ninth day. When salmon begins to be too plentiful in the
market, it is then boiled and sent up in kits. The price is
so high where caught, that salmon is considered as a luxury,
and is exhibited only at a feast.
Aberdeen. The salmon fishery is the most considerable
in this county, and most productive on the Dee and the
Don. The usual practice, formerly, was to salt the fish,
pack them in barrels of about four hundredweight each,
and export them to the south of Europe. In 1798 the
quantity caught on the Dee was equal to 1890 of these
barrels, and on the Don 1667 barrels. At present they
are sent up fresh to the London market; and it is stated
that the price, since 1768, has increased in a five-fold pro¬
portion, and that not more than one pound of salmon is con¬
sumed in the county for forty that are exported. The fish¬
ings on the Ugie, the Ythan, and the coast near these ri¬
vers, vary from 200 to 600 barrels. The ordinary sea fish¬
ing for haddocks, cod, ling, skate, turbot, halibut, &c. is
stated to employ a number of fishermen, who carry on their
occupation chiefly in small creeks, and that it brings in year¬
ly from L.l5,000 to L.30,000, the greater part of which is
consumed within the county ; excepting about 500 barrels
of cod, and a considerable quantity of ling, exported from
Peterhead; from which place also, and Aberdeen, the
Greenland whale fishery has been carried on with great suc¬
cess. The whole of the fisheries connected with the county
yield from L.80,000 to L.l00,000 annually.
Kincardine. The sea fishing, or white fishery as it is
usually called, is stated to have greatly fallen off in this
county. In upwards of thirty miles of sea-coast, the an¬
nual value of the white fish caught, and chiefly consumed
in the county, does not exceed L.6000, giving employment
to about 303 fishermen, or 200 families, consisting of 900
souls. The number of boats is about forty-three, and of
yawls twenty-seven. The salmon fishery is of more im¬
portance ; that in the North Esk is farmed at upwards of
L.2400 a year. This, however, is the principal fishery, all
the other waters in the county not producing a rental ot
more than L.300 a year.
The Lothians. Excepting a limited herring fishery at
Dunbar, and a local fishery for the scanty supply of the neigh¬
bouring towns, the only other fishery deserving of notice,
as a branch of trade, in East Lothian, is the oyster fishery
at Prestonpans. From this place there have been sent to
fatten, in bays near the mouths of the Ihames and Medway,
thirty cargoes in one season, eacl cargo consisting ot 3-
fi02
FISHERIES.
Fisheries, barrels, and each barrel containing 1200 saleable oysters,
which brought about L.2500 ; but the quantity consumed
near the spot, and in Edinburgh, brought somewhat more,
and this branch of trade gave occasional employment to
about forty boats. In that part of the Frith of Forth
which washes the coast of West Lothian, besides a herring
fishery on a limited scale, a scanty supply of cod, had¬
docks, whitings, skate, flounders, crabs, lobsters, and oys¬
ters, is taken for the use of the neighbouring towns.
Dumfries. The only fishery of any importance in this
county is the salmon fishery in the Solway Frith, and the
rivers, chiefly the Annan, falling into it, the rents of which
do not exceed L.1400 a year, and are supposed to be too
high ; the fishing having greatly decreased in consequence
of the destructive engines made use of by the renters. It
is stated by one gentleman, that the number of salmon
taken is not equal to one in a hundred of those caught some
forty years ago.
Inverness. The salmon fisheries in the lochs and rivers
of this county are those of most importance, and let for
about L.3000 a year. Those on Loch Beauly and Loch
Ness are the most valuable. A singular method of taking
salmon is described near Invermoriston, where the river
flows in a narrow chasm between two projecting rocks:
“ The fisherman seats himself on a cleft of this rock, right
over the cascade, with a spear in his hand, which has a line
fixed to the upper end of the shaft, similar to the practice
of fishing for whales with harpoons. Whenever the salmon
makes a spring to gain the ascent over the cataract, the
spearman strikes the fish and lets the shaft go, holding only
by the line until the fish has exhausted his strength ; then
the spear and fish are thrown ashore by the stream, and
taken out at the lower side of the pool.”
Argyle. The whole of this county is so intersected with
sounds, straits, lochs, and rivers, that the fisheries might
be carried on within them to almost any extent; and fish¬
ing is accordingly the occupation of a great number of its
inhabitants, there being in the whole about 1500 fishing-
boats employed, of which Lochfine alone employs 600.
The value of the fish caught is stated to be from LAO,000
to L.50,000 annually.
The Hebrides. The following is the whole account of
the fisheries of these numerous islands, contained in the
Agricultural Survey: “ These fisheries,” says Mr Mac¬
donald, “ do not belong to an agricultural survey ; but they
are of very essential importance to the Hebrides, and there¬
fore merit notice in this place. They bring into those isles
L.200,000 a year, at an expense perhaps of L.120,000, that
is, they yield a clear profit in money and sustenance of
L.80,000 to the natives. They occupy, together with the
kelp manufacture, 2562 boats and vessels of every descrip¬
tion, and for some months in the year 10,500 sailors. The
fencible men, or those between the age of sixteen and
twenty, being one fourth of the population, are 22,762 ; so
that nearly one half of the effective male population is con¬
nected with the fishery. The principal fishing ports are
Rothesay in Bute, Stornoway in Lewis, Tobermory in
Mull, and Portnahaven in Islay ; but the districts of Harris,
Barray, South Uist, Skye, and various other islands, fit out
a number of boats annually, or supply the Clyde busses
with excellent mariners and fishermen.”
Berwick. London, it has been already observed, receives
a very considerable portion of its fresh salmon from the
fishery on the Tweed, that on the English side of the river
alone giving employment to seventy small boats and about
300 fishermen. The value is not mentioned, but it is stat¬
ed, in the Survey of Durham^ that the rents amount to
L.15,766 annually, and that, so far back as 1807, the num¬
ber of boxes sent to London was 8445, of eight stone each,
English
fisheries.
what is killed for exportation, and what is sole fresh in the Fisheri,
neighbourhood. The salmon, as they are caught, are pack-
ed in ice and sent away in the vessels well known under
the name of Berwick smacks. Formerly it was all pickled
and kitted, after being boiled, and sent to London under
the name of Newcastle salmon ; but the present mode has
so raised the value of the fish, as nearly to banish this ar¬
ticle of food from use among the inhabitants in the envi¬
rons of the fishery, excepting as an expensive luxury.
Within memory, salted salmon formed a material article
of economy in all the farm-houses of the vale of Tweed,
insomuch that in-door servants often bargained that they
should not be obliged to take more than two weekly meals
of salmon. It could then be bought fresh at 2s. the stone,
of nineteen pounds weight; it is now never below 12s.,
often 36s., and sometimes two guineas, the stone.
The coast fishery is not of very material importance. It
gives employment to upwards of 100 fishermen, at eight
small fishing stations, with about twenty boats. The fish-
carriers, under the name of cadgers, purchase and distribute
the white fish, codlings, haddock, whitings, skate, halibut,
and flounders, with a very few turbot, into the inland coun¬
try, and often as far as Edinburgh. Cod and ling are ge¬
nerally contracted for, by the season, at a fixed price, by the
fish-curers, who either salt and dry them, or barrel them,
as the weather may serve. The fisheries on the coasts of
Cumberland, Northumberland, Yorkshire, and Lancashire,
are not once adverted to in the agricultural surveys of these
counties.
Durham. The salmon fisheries in the Tyne, the Wear,
and the Tees, are stated to have declined very much of
late years, in consequence, it is supposed, of dams being
thrown across these rivers, which prevent the fish from
getting up to spawn.
Lincolnshire. On the coast of this county the fisheries
appear to be almost wholly neglected. There is a little
fish, however, in the east and west fens, called a stickle¬
back, so numerous, that a man may make 4s. a day by sell¬
ing them at a halfpenny a bushel. They also come from
the sea into Boston Haven, where they are purchased for
manure, being more powerful than any other kind known,
even that of the whale refuse. It is almost unnecessary to
state that, in this fenny county, pike, carp, perch, and
tench, are most abundant.
Norfolk. The Norfolk surveys take little notice of the
fisheries. It appears that the sticklebacks are caught in
immense quantities in the Lynn river, about once in seven
years, and are purchased for manure at the rate of sixpence
or eightpence a bushel. It is mentioned, however, in
Kent’s Norfolk, that herrings to the amount of L.50,000
are annually exported, but that fish for the use of the in¬
habitants are neither regularly supplied nor cheap; that
the best fish are lobsters, soles, and cod; that the whitings
are small, and the oysters very large.
Suffolk. Besides the herring fishery carried on lrom
Lowestoffe, by forty or fifty boats of forty tons each, t e
mackerel fishery is pursued during the season with grea
vigour. The value of this fish, caught in the course of six
weeks, is stated to exceed L.10,000, independently o e
usual kinds of white fish for the supply of the neig our
hood and the London market, the total value °f tfie s
ings being not less than L.30,000 a year. Most of the or
rings caught here are dried and sent to the ports o
Mediterranean. .
Essex. The oyster fishery is of all others the mos i
portant to this county. The principal stationof t^e./et^e
ing-boats is at Mersea in Blackwater, which, wi
Crouch and the Coin, are the most extensive bree
rivers in Essex. The oysters are brought from the c°
or 67,560 stone, which, at 16s. a stone, is L.54,000; besides of Hampshire, Dorset, and other maritime counties,
Fishel
V-y
fisheries.
. as far as Scotland, and laid in the beds or layings in the
creeks adjoining those rivers. The number of vessels im¬
mediately employed in the dredging for oysters is about
200, from twelve to forty or fifty tons burden each, em¬
ploying from 400 to 500 men and boys. The quantity of
oysters bred and taken in this county and consumed an¬
nually, mostly in London, is supposed to amount to 14,000
or 15,000 bushels. All the other fisheries connected with
this part of the coast are stated to employ a capital sup¬
posed to amount to from L.60,000 to L.80,000.
Middlesex. This county, having no fishery of its own,
but the very trifling one afforded by the Thames, is infi¬
nitely the greatest consumer of fish, and demands a larger
supply than all the rest of the empire together. By a re¬
turn of the cargoes of fish brought by water to the Billings¬
gate market, it appears that, on an average of six years
ending 1785, the number of cargoes amounted to 1569,
and of four years ending with 1803, the average was
2428; the average tonnage being about fifty, and the ge¬
neral average of fish in each about forty tons, which will
give nearly 100,000 tons of fish. Supposing the quantity
brought by land carriage to be one fifth of the other, the
whole weight of fish brought to the London market would
amount to the enormous quantity of 120,000 tons a year,
which, supposing the capital and its environs to contain
1,200,000 inhabitants, would allow 200 pounds of fish an¬
nually to each individual; and, of course, a very consider¬
able quantity must be dried or salted fish for exportation,
if the returns be at all correct.
Kent, Sussex, Hampshire, and Dorset. In the Agri¬
cultural Surveys of these counties, little notice is taken of
the fisheries ; in the first they are not even mentioned. In
Sussex, the produce of the ponds in carp, tench, and perch
only are noticed; and even these, it would seem, are mo¬
nopolized by a London fish-dealer. In the rivers of Hamp¬
shire the salmon fishery is carried on, but to no great ex¬
tent. The little town of Hamble, situated on the shore
of the Southampton water, has about twenty sail of well
and other boats constantly employed in fishing, and which
go as far as the Scilly Islands and the Land’s End for lob¬
sters, crabs, and craw-fish in the season. In the winter
they dredge for oysters, and for about a month catch vast
quantities of herrings round the Isle of Wight, the waters
of which also afford employment in the whitings, plaice,
prawns, shrimps, lobsters, and crabs, with which they
abound. Southampton market is generally well supplied
with all kinds of fish, and Portsmouth pretty well, but not
equally so with the former place. The town of Poole in
Dorset is deeply engaged in the Newfoundland fishery.
Along the sea coast of all these counties, the mackerel
fishery during the season, and the taking of the various
kinds of white fish, especially soles and whitings for the
London market, and the supply of the neighbouring towns,
occupy a very considerable portion of the inhabitants of
the former place.
Devonshire. The supply of salmon in the waters of De¬
von was formerly so abundant, that here too the farm
servants found it necessary to stipulate that they should not
be obliged to eat salmon more than twice a week; but
the case of late years is widely altered, the fishery having
fallen off so as to be of little or no importance. This is
stated to be owing to a wasteful and improvident destruc¬
tion of the species, by taking the young fish on their re¬
turn seaward towards the end of the year ; no less than a
thousand having been taken in one week at Brightley on
the river Taw, where, and at Umberleigh, it has been
usual for the young salmon fry, or gravellers, to be given
to the pigs.
The sea-fishery is conducted with a considerable degree
°f activity in this county, Brixham alone having no less
603
than 100 sail of vessels employed in the fisheries. Soles, Fisheries,
whitings, flounders, gurnet, John dories, and the red mul-
et, are caught in great abundance and of the finest qua¬
lity, and sent off to London, Bath, and Bristol, also to
ymouth, Exeter, and the neighbouring towns ; and when,
in the summer season, the quantity taken is greater than
can be disposed of, the fish are well cleaned, salted, and
dried in the sun: thus prepared, they take the name of buck-
horn, . and are esteemed an excellent relish, much sought
after in the navy, and also along the French coast.
Cornwall. In addition to the different kinds of fish
which are taken oft the coast of Devon, Cornwall has the
advantage of an annual visit of vast shoals of pilchards,
equally abundant, for the space they cover, with the shoals
of herrings. The four principal ports from which the pil¬
chard fishery is carried on are, Fowey, Falmouth, Pen¬
zance, and St Ives. At Polperro, which is perhaps the
smallest establishment, upwards of forty boats and nearly
200 fishermen are engaged in the hook and line fishery ;
and the aggregate value of the fish taken is supposed to
amount to L.5000 annually, most of which is distributed all
over the country to the distance of thirty miles, by men
and women carriers. The markets of Exeter and Bath,
Plymouth, Liskeard, Tavistock, and other places, receive
supplies from hence; and lobsters are delivered to the
Southampton well-boats for London. The neighbouring
poor are supplied almost all the year round with fresh
and salted pilchards. Indeed the multitudes of these fish
taken on the coast of Devonshire, as well as Cornwall, are
enormous between the months of July and September in¬
clusive, when the whole line of coast presents a scene of
bustle and activity. The fish for foreign export and win¬
ter consumption are laid up on shore in large stacks or
piles, with layers of salt between each row; here they are
suffered to lie for twenty or thirty days, during which time
a vast discharge of pickle mixed with blood and oil takes
place, all of which is carefully caught in pits, and preserv¬
ed for manure, which is eagerly purchased by the farmer
and carried away in casks. It is said that every pilchard
will dress and richly manure one square foot of ground.
The fish are then carefully washed with sea-water, dried
and packed in hogsheads, in which state they are sent
abroad. The average value of pilchards taken in one year
in Cornwall is supposed to be from L.50,000 to L.60,000.
The pilchard fishery has indeed been long of great im¬
portance to the inhabitants of the coast of Cornwall, the
quantity taken by seine nets in some years having amount¬
ed to the enormous extent of 50,000 hogsheads; but it has
not, on an average of the last fifteen years, exceeded half
of that quantity. This, as before stated, is very much
owing to the heavy duties imposed by the government of
Naples; but the practice of driving the fish, and taking them
by what are called drift nets, is considered as most injurious
to the more important fishery by the seine.
The pilchard is supposed not to be a fish of passage, but
to remain off the coast, in deep water, when not frequent¬
ing the bays. At such times they move about in large
bodies of separate and distinct shoals, each shoal having,
it is supposed, leading fish to direct them; indeed they
are known to have a lively instinct of danger, and to leave
the shore on the least interruption and noise. A few years
ago, when an experimental squadron was manoeuvring in the
Channel, on exercising the great guns, the inhabitants at
Cornwall complained that the pilchards had wholly disap¬
peared, and requested that the practice of firing might be
discontinued. It is this sensitiveness of the fish that makes
the drift nets so particularly objectionable, the drivers fol¬
lowing the shoals, and constantly interrupting their progress,
diverting and dispersing the shoals, and preventing them
from coming into shallow water.
604
Fisheries.
FISHERIES.
Fisheries
of Wales.
The principal fishing station between Plymouth and
Falmouth is Mevagissey, whence in the year 1818 about for¬
ty seines were sent out, which have since been reduced to
about twenty, employing not more than about 330 men
and 40 boys; but the employment given on shore to
men, women, and children, is said to comprehend, directly
and indirectly, nearly the whole population of the place.
The original cost of each seine or concern is about L.1000
a float, and the capital on shore about L.500; so that the
total outlay of the twenty seines will amount to L.30,000.
Formerly these twenty seines would land in favourable sea¬
sons 10,000 hogsheads, which are said of late years scarcely
to exceed 1000 hogsheads. The driving boats are stated
to be about twenty-three, having two men, and in some in¬
stances two men and a boy, in each boat. The cost of a
boat and nets may be from L.50 to L.100. The fish they
catch are conveyed chiefly to the home market. Yet, in¬
significant as it appears to be, it is stated that the import¬
ant branch of the fishery with the seine is fast sinking un¬
der the lawless proceedings of the drivers, which in the end
must be its total ruin, unless it be protected by the govern¬
ment, or some more effective legislation. Why do none of
the Cornish members take some steps to remedy this cry¬
ing evil? Here there are no foreign competitors, but
this valuable branch of the fisheries is impaired and threat¬
ened with destruction by the conflicting interests of our
own countrymen.
Somerset. The salmon and herring fisheries of 1 orlock,
Minehead, Watchet, and other places on the shores of the
Bristol Channel, are stated to have been carried on to a
considerable extent since the duty on salt used for cuiing
fish for home consumption was removed ; and the increase
of the latter fishery has been the means, not only of furnish¬
ing employment during the winter for the seamen, who are
engaged in the lime, stone, and culm trade during the sum¬
mer, but of providing a cheap and wholesome food for the
labouring class of inhabitants.
The great extent of coast, washed by the sea, and. the
numerous fine streams and navigable rivers by which it is
intersected, give to the principality of Wales the advan¬
tages of fisheries little if at all inferior to those in Scotland.
In South Wales, Milford Haven, and its tributary streams,
the Towy and its branches, the Laughor, the Teivy, and
the Dovy, all navigable, abound with the finest salmon,
sewin, trout, samlets, &c.; and the same kind of fish are
equally plentiful in the twenty-two inferior streams, which
fall into the sea on the coasts of the four maritime coun¬
ties of Glamorgan, Caermarthen, Pembroke, and Cardigan.
The value of the salmon sent to Bath and Bristol from
Monmouth alone, the produce of the Wye, Usk, and Rum-
ney, is said to exceed L.4000 annually, exclusively of what
is consumed in the county. The sea affords them annual
shoals of herrings, which, with potatoes, is one of the chief
articles of sustenance for the poor. They first appear in
the bay of Cardigan towards the middle of September, just
as the harvest is finished. The other sea fish are cod, had¬
docks, whitings, skate, ray, turbot, plaice, flounders, soles,
mullets, gurnards, mackerel, dories, shad, &c. Shell-fish
of all kinds are most abundant, and in various pavts of Mil¬
ford Haven there are inexhaustible beds of oysters of su¬
perior excellence. Those of Tenby and other parts of the
coast are of enormous size, but of inferior quality to those
taken in Milford Haven.
It is worthy of remark, that the sewin is a fish peculiar
to South Wales, and is not found in any river east of the
Wye, or north of the Teivy, but frequents all the interme¬
diate rivers, which they visit annually about the beginning
of June, and continue in season till the end of August,
weighing from one and a half to four or five pounds each.
The samlet is a small fish about nine inches long, frequent¬
ing all the rivers in which salmon and trout are found; Fist *
and it has been concluded, from the circumstance of a■ j
female samlet being utterly unknown, that they are the
hybrid offspring of the female salmon and the male trout.
As an article of food, they are excellent when fried, pott¬
ed, or pickled.
In . North Wales the sea fish are of the same description
as those of the southern coast; and the herring fishery in
the bay of Caernarvon is, perhaps, the most flourishing in
all Wales; but the badness of the roads, and the distance
by sea from any great market, check the demand for fish,
and discourage the people from following the occupation.
A good road from Caernarvon into Shropshire, to open a
direct and speedy conveyance to the heart of England,
where sea fish is scarcely known to nine tenths of the
community, would be the means of increasing the demand
for this palatable and wholesome food, of which the sup¬
ply along the extensive coast of North Wales is inexhaust¬
ible.
The sea coasts of Ireland are as abundant as, and perhaps Irish L
more so, in every valuable species of fish, than those of Greateries,.
Britain. Its numerous bays, creeks, inlets, lakes, and ri¬
vers, swarm with them. It is visited annually by vast
shoals of herrings ; and the banks near its shores are well
stored with excellent cod, hake, and ling, equal in all re¬
spects to those caught upon the banks of Newfoundland.
With the westerly winds, which may be reckoned to blow
for nine months in the year, the produce ot these fisheries
might always be sent to ready markets at Bath, Bristol,
Liverpool, and other great towns on the western and south¬
ern coasts of England ; yet, either from indolence, want of
inclination, or, which is more probable, want of capital,
and most of all from want of proper regulations, the Irish
have hitherto done little more than procure from their fish¬
eries a scanty supply for the chief towns, and the families
of those who are resident near the coast. It would seem,
indeed, that the Irish have not much taste for a seafaring
life, few of their young men volunteering for the navy,
whilst they go in shoals into the army ; and those few who
follow the occupation of fishermen are so much prejudiced
in favour of their own clumsy methods of proceeding, as
to resist all attempts at improvement. It is stated by Mr
Whately, in his Hints for the Improvement of the Irish
Fishery, that, when the trammel net was attempted to be
introduced, by winch, in a couple ot hours, more fish might
be taken than with their hookers in a whole night, such was
the prejudice against this new mode of fishing, that the
crews of the hookers, alarmed at the supposed diminution
of their profit by the increased supply, combined together
along the whole coast, and destroyed the trammel nets
wherever they were discovered, dhere is, however, a
species of trail, not commonly made use of, which, accorc -
ing to the opinion of Mr Mitchell, is highly injurious to tie
Irish fisheries.
“ The common method of fishing in this manner on the
coast,” says this author, “ is with what they call a beam
trail, or trail, which consists of a large beam or P°|e> §e'
nerally between twenty and thirty feet long, beade a
both ends with large flat pieces ot timber, which resem
the wheels of a common cart; except that, instead o eing
round, like them, they are rather semicircular, or resem mg
a heart cut in twm, lengthways. Ihey are shod, i e
wheels of a cart, with iron. To this beam the tiai *ie ,
bag is fixed, and at each end ropes are fastened, y
help of which the ground is entirely swept so clean,
have been assured a fisherman will venture to throw
knife or any such small matter overboard, m t ir ^
forty fathom water, and readily take it up againan
the ground is swept clean for a considerable ra]c ’
every put, as they call it, the boat commonly sai i
Fish
fisheries. finP;
,s. mile, or perhaps a league, before the bag and beam are however the BanK m e ° °
hauled up. , ® Banks of Newfoundland are most esteemed, Fisheries.
“ It has great inconveniences ; for, ls£, it sweens and Fnrnnf.ar, ^nsecluence) the general fishing grounds of all s—
tears away all the sea plants, moss, herring-grass, &c which Fonnerl }ailpls’ more especially the English and French. Newfound-
sorae fish feed on, miking those species^ eTk elslwhlre bank and Wth ^n-r'6 ** «reat fahers -» these
for food , a%, it disturbs and affrights the larger kinds of erv hkftho^ eStab“",“t8 ?■> S b«t their fish- e“e“
fish, as cod, ling, &c. in the same manner as /purf^d bv Ser and thfoT”*1"06’ “ W,th the lledi"e »*' their naval
larger fish of prey; and, &%, which is worse thlTtdl! *». ^ “ ‘heir
these beam nets, and others of the kind which are dragged The Dutch huvo n f, by hipS belo^mg to foreigners,
along the ground, tear away, disturb, and blend im the whfch thev found t abandoned a fishery
spawn of many kinds of profitable fish, in a terrible manner • deed so i jin Profitab1^ ^ that nearer home. In-
and often many hogsheads of their spawn are drawn np to Banks of Newfoundland, Zt Sir WmilmM^™ to Z
LS Xos oXng fihZ tmCtly SeeD
Under proper regulations, the Irish herring fishery would never stings soX^as whmUtbtewiUtttohSZTto
no doubt equal, if not exceed, that of North Britain. At French, by the treaty of 1763 with Great Bribin', were
present no pains are bestowed m the salting and gutting of limited in their fisheries to the neighbourhood ofZ small
the fish. In some parts of the coast they are thrown into islands of St Pierre and Miquelonf and the Spaniatos” by
holes dug m the^earth, and there salted, whence they are the same treaty, consented to abandon the NewfoZdhind
fisheries altogether.
^ Since that time, however, a more formidable rival to the
Biitish fishery has started up in that of the Americans,
who have latterly prosecuted the cod fishery with great
 J, —-    , soe.ii.v.ii, vvilcilL-k; Lllty ell O
sent in bulk to Cork and other places, to be put into bar¬
rels. Loch Swilly is one of the principal bays for the her¬
ring fishery. The salmon fisheries in the north of Ireland
might be rendered very valuable. That of Coleraine is,
 . , p laticiiy piuseouicu me con nsnery witn great
perhaps, the most productive; from five hundred to nearly vigour, and with advantages which the English, even with
a mmisnrul fifth hpino* cnm^f-imoc of o  1.4. 4.1. _ • 0 . P 7
a thousand fish being sometimes taken at a single draught.
They are mostly pickled for exportation.
Fishe 5 If the information be correct which is stated by Mr Fra-
oflhi le ser) in A Letter to the Right Honourable Charles Abbot,
ot -1 nothing can more strongly exemplify the beneficial effects.
the possession of Newfoundland, are unable to command;
owing, in a great degree, to the regulations by which this
ancient possession of the British empire has till very lately
been governed.
In a pamphlet entitled Considerations on the Expediency
Forei;
fisheri
.. o o-., m vciiiiynivv. vnuuea Lsonsiaeratwns o?i me Jixpediency
arising rom the free use of salt, without being subject to of Adopting Certain Measures for the Encouragement or Ex-
bonds, pains, 01 penalties, than those derived from the pri- tension of the Newfoundland Fishery, supposed to have been
vf Se SUlllte(* bY parliament to the inhabitants of the Isle written by the Secretary of Lord Gambier, when governor
of Man, to import salt f rom England duty free, not only of that island, it is stated, that in the year 1805, the number
for curing fish,^ but for all other domestic purposes. “ In of vessels employed in the American fishery amounted to
the year 1784, says Mr Fraser, “I had the honour to be about 1500, carrying about 10,000 men, and that the quantity
appointed by the Treasury to make an inquiry into the of fish caught by them amounted to 800,000 or 900,000
state of the revenue and fisheries of that island. I found quintals; whilst the whole produce of the British Newfound-
that, at that period, without bounties on their boats, or the land fishery of that year did not exceed 500,000 quintals,
tonnage of their fishing smacks, or any premiums other than and that the number of vessels and men employed did not
the free use of salt, they carried on a most extensive fish- amount to one half of that employed by the Americans,
ery, which employed 2500 seamen. In the absence of the The causes assigned for this increasing success on the
herrings, the fishermen supplied the consumption of the one hand, and falling off on the other, are as follow: The
island in great abundance with white fish; the agriculture New England fishery, in all its branches, is carried on by
was greatly increased, and the population consisted of shares, each man having a proportion of his own catch, and
30,000 souls, having nearly doubled the number of its in- few or none being hired as servants on w^ages. By this
habitants in fifteen years.” It further appears, from the mode the fisherman’s interest being proportioned to his in-
Report of the Committee of the House of Commons for the dustry, he is prompted to labour by the most powerful in-
Fisheries in 1798, that their boats had increased, both in centive. The American fishermen are remarkable for their
number and size ; that from a burden of ten or twelve tons, activity and enterprise, and not less so for their sobriety
they had now advanced from sixteen to twenty-two tons, and frugality ; and, in order to be as independent as pos-
of which the number exceeded 350, each employing seven sible of the owner of the vessel, each fisherman victuals
or eight men ; that they had, besides, from forty to fifty himself, and the crew take it in turns to manage and cater
fishing smacks from twenty to forty tons each, the whole for the rest. It is hardly necessary to add, that men, pro-
employing upwards of 3000 seamen, which were then equal visions, and every other article of outfit, are procured upon
to the number of men and boys employed in the whole of much better terms in the United States than in Great Bri-
the buss fishery of Scotland, supported by bounties to the tain. But the English fishermen must not only lay in a
extent of L.20,000 a year. ' 1 " large stock of provisions out and home at a dear rate, but
The fish which we have said to be next in importance to must also carry out with them a number of persons to assist
the herring in point of value, is perhaps not inferior to it in the fishery, who, consequently, eat the bread of idleness
point of numbers. Lik^ ^ w, rm tlip nnssno-p mit •nd linmo: for the laws bv which the
migratory, though conf
44° or 45°, and 68° or 70° of latitude, and is found gene
)t value, is pemaps not interior to it in tne nsnery, who, consequently, eat me uieauui imt.:
w point of numbers. Like it, too, the cod is supposed to on the passage put end home ; for the laws by which
lie migratory, though confined chiefly within the limits of colony was held were such as almost to forbid residency,
44° or 45°, and 68° or 70° of latitude, and is found gene- and those who did reside had no power of internal legisla-
rally on banks covered with a considerable depth of water; tion ; they were restrained from erecting the necessary
and the deeper the water the better is the quality of the dwellings for themselves and their servants; they veie
fish- It is for this reason that the great Banks of New- prohibited from enclosing and cultivating the land, beyond
foundland, those near Ireland, the coast of Norway, the the planting of a few potatoes; and from the importation ot
Orkney and the Zetland Islands, and other hanks in the provisions from the United States, excepting only on such
^orth Sea, the principal of which are the Wellbank, the conditions as were not calculated to ato.c tie resi ents
Ooggerbank, and the Broad Forties, are resorted to as the much relief. “From a system,’ says the author of the
most favourable spots for the cod fishery. Of all these, pamphlet above mentioned, “ the first object ot which is to
1
606
FISHERIES.
Fisheries, withhold that principle of internal legislation, which is ac-
knowledged to be indispensable to the good government of
every community, which restrains the building of comfort¬
able dwellings in a climate exposed to the most inclement
winter, which prohibits the cultivation of the soil for food,
and restricts the importation of it from the only market to
which the inhabitants have the power to go,—from such a
system it is not surprising that the inhabitants of New¬
foundland are not able to maintain a competition against
the American fishermen.”
During the late war, however, when France was com¬
pletely driven out of her fisheries in the Gulf of St Law¬
rence, and the islands of St Pierre and Miquelon, the Bri¬
tish and the resident fisheries about equalled, in the amount
of fish taken, that of the Americans in the same quarter,
who employed, in the year 1812, about 1500 vessels carry¬
ing each ten men, making, in the aggregate, the enormous
number of 15,000 men employed in this branch of trade
alone. The English merchants of London and Poole com¬
plain, and not without apparent good grounds, of the extra¬
ordinary privileges which America enjoyed at Newfound¬
land, in being permitted to cure and dry her fish on shore ;
which privileges, granted no doubt on an expectation that
such a liberal proceeding would have paved the way to a
reciprocal friendly conduct on her part, became a source
of gross abuses and of unwarrantable claims. By the as¬
sembling together of numerous fleets, they interrupted the
occupations of our residents; they destroyed their nets,
enticed away their servants, smuggled into the colony cof¬
fee, tea, spirits, tobacco, India goods, and other articles of
contraband, undersold the inhabitants in stores and provi¬
sions, and added insulting and abusive language to their
manifold injuries.
Since the conclusion of the war, the United States have
been re-admitted, by a convention, to all their former pri¬
vileges of curing and drying their fish on the unsettled bays,
harbours, and creeks of Nova Scotia, Labrador, and New¬
foundland; but under certain modifications, which it is
hoped will prevent those abuses that existed in a flagrant
degree previously to the war. The Great Bank, owing to
its distance from the shores of Newfoundland, is of course
free to all the world; but the fishery can only be success¬
fully carried on by a constant and uninterrupted communi¬
cation with the shore, and the nearer to the shore that the
fish are taken, the more advantageous is it to the fishermen.
The Americans, being restrained from fishing within certain
limits, and having the privilege of curing and drying their
fish only at certain spots on the shore, labour under a com¬
parative disadvantage with us in this respect, which serves
to balance the advantage they possess over us in others.
Under this convention, the fishermen of the United States
are at liberty to take fish, in common with the subjects of
his Britannic Majesty, on that part of the southern coast of
Newfoundland which extends from Cape Ray to the Ra¬
meau Islands, from Cape Ray to the Quirpon Islands, on
the shores of die Magdalen Islands, and also on the coasts,
bays, harbours, and creeks, from Mount Joly, on the
southern coast of Labrador, to and through the strait
of Bellisle, and thence northerly indefinitely along the
coast; and they are at liberty also to dry and cure fish in
any of the unsettled bays, harbours, and creeks of the
southern part of the coast of Newfoundland, and of the
coast of Labrador; but as soon as the same, or any portion
thereof, shall be settled, they are no longer at liberty to dry
and cure fish at such portion, without a previous agreement
with the inhabitants or proprietors; and, in consideration
of these privileges, the United States renounce, on their Fie
part, any liberty heretofore enjoyed or claimed by their ^
subjects, to take, dry, or cure fish, on or within three ma¬
rine miles of any of the coasts, bays, creeks, or harbours of
his Britannic Majesty’s dominions in America, not includ¬
ed within the above-mentioned limits; but they may be
admitted to such bays and harbours, for the purpose of
wooding, watering, or repairing damages only. The mer¬
chants of Poole, and others concerned in the fishery, com¬
plain of this treaty; but it appears to be well calculated to
prevent those disputes and abuses which before existed, and
which would probably have interrupted the harmony so de¬
sirable to be preserved between the two nations.
The importance of the fisheries on the Banks of New¬
foundland, on the coast of Labrador, in the Gulf of St
Lawrence, and the neighbouring islands, may be conceived,
from a memorial of the committee of merchants trading to
Newfoundland, addressed, in 1814, to Lord Liverpool, in
which it is stated that the catch of the French was generally
estimated, at the least, at 300,000 quintals; that the Ameri¬
cans had reached, in 1811, nearly 1,000,000 quintals, besides
fish-oil and other articles, the produce of the sea; and that
the English fishery, during the American war, had in¬
creased to a degree equal to the most sanguine expecta¬
tions ; the export of dried cod alone, for the year 1813,
having amounted to 946,102 quintals, which exceeded the
shipment of the preceding year by nearly 300,000 quintals,
or one third of the catch of the whole fishery, with a pro¬
portionate increase in cod-oil, seal-skins, seal-oil, salmon,
&c. amounting in value to above L.1,500,000 sterling; em¬
ploying in its transport to different markets at least 75,000
tons of British shipping, and 5000 seamen, independently
of the persons actually employed in catching and curing
the fish; and returning to England upwards of L.2,000,000
sterling.
These advantages, however, can scarcely be supposed to
continue since the re-admission of the French and Ame¬
ricans, both of whom, it is to be feared, will be able to un¬
dersell our fishermen in the foreign markets; the former
from a considerable bounty being given by government on
the fish caught and cured on the Banks of Newfoundland,
and the latter from their nearness to the fishing grounds,
and cheapness of the outfit. It has indeed been ques¬
tioned by political economists, whether it would not be
more advantageous to the national interests, if the capi¬
tal employed in the distant possession of Newfoundland,
and the fisheries contiguous to it, were engaged wholly in
the fishery on the banks of our own seas, and those ot
Iceland and the coast of Norway, which are so much
nearer home. Newfoundland, however, in spite of all t e
restrictions imposed upon it, has risen into a colony of too
much importance to be abandoned; and its growing pros
perity depends so much (it may be said indeed solely) on
the fishery, that the residents, with the assistance of Ame¬
rica, will always be able to carry it on independently of Eng¬
land. Much of late has in fact been done to improve the
condition of the colonists, and more will be required.
Among other things, a resident governor has been appoint¬
ed, so that the inhabitants are not left for a great portion
of the year, as heretofore, to administer justice among
themselves, which was usually done in his absence by a
surrogate, with a salary of L.60 a year, and magistra es>
whose occupations are in some way or other connec e
with the fishery. c ,
The nature and value of the exports from Newiouna
land will be seen by the following table:
fisheries.
607
L 318,396 Quintals to Foreign Europe, at 25s. per Quintal, L.397,935 0 0
60,230  British Europe 18s  54 215 in 0
67,725  West Indies. 18s .eo^ 10 0
.18s.
14,784  United States.
161,144
.13,306 12
LjL   2,796 Tuns British Europe....L.22
  4,033 Tierces Various  72
Seal 5 (is••••36,000  Great Britain  4
purs,   value  Ditto 
10 0 per Tun  62,910 0
6 6 Tierce  14,619 12
0 0 each  7,200 0
  1,980 0
0
Remitted to the United Kingdom, either
directly, or through Foreign Europe.
 L.397,995 0
  54,215 18
6 say one half to Gr. Britain..
0  
0  
62,910 0
7,309 16
7,200 0
1,980 0
Total value at the Shipping Price in the Island...IJ.613,179 12 6
L.531,610 14
Fish 
Oil -
Stlmo ..
Seal S is.
Freight and Insurance.
318,396 Quintals to Foreign Europe, at L.O 3
60,239  British Europe  0 1
67J25   West Indies  O 1
14,785  United States  0 1
, 2,796 Tuns British Europe  5 5
. 4,033 Tierces Various  0 10
, 36,000  British Europe  0 0
0 per Quintal, 47,759 8
6  4,517 18
5,079 7
739 4
7,689 0
2,016 10
900 0
6
6 
0 per Tun 
0 per Tierce..
0 say 
0   47,759 8
0   4,517 18
6
0
0   7,689 0
0 say one half to Gr. Britain 1,008 5
0   900 0
L.681,881 0
Insurance, say 5 per cent  34,940 10
L.593,485
29,674
L.61,874. 11s. paid
for freight on ships
owned and fitted out
■ in Gr. Brit., cleared
out from Newfound¬
land for British and
Foreign Europe,viz.
Ships 228
Tons 28,132
Men 1,775
This sum may be assured as the lowest value at market, L.716,821 10 9
L.623,159 10
Deduct the value of foreign 4
salt, say 12,000 tons, at > 12,000 0
L.l per ton j
Lowes alue of Imports and Remittances from the Newfoundland Fishery to the United Kingdom in the year 1802 L.611,159 10
But the following statement, taken from official documents, as the returns of the two years ending the 10th Octo¬
ber 1814 and 1815, will show the advanced and advancing state of the fisheries of Newfoundland and of the colony.
In 1814.
1. Number of fishing ships, European and island bank¬
ers, ships from Nova Scotia, &c. the West India
and stationary vessels  892
2. Burthen of the above-mentioned ships  107,998 tons.
3. Number of men belonging to them  6,966
4. Number of boats kept by the fishing ships, bye-boat¬
men and inhabitants  3,241
5. Number of men employed in the fishery and trade
in ships and boats, and as shoremen  19,295
6. Quintals of fish caught and cured by the fishing
ships, bankers, and boats  865,132
7. Exported to Spain, Portugal, and Italy, British Eu¬
rope, the West Indies, British America, and the
Brazils  947,811
8. Tierces of salmon cured and sent to British and fo¬
reign markets  3,425
9. Tuns of train oil made by the fishing ships  4,126
10. The number of seal-skins taken  110,275
Tuns of seal oil made  1,263
In 1815
Number of the same descrip¬
tion  1,036
Of the same  127,582
Number of the same 7,981
Number of the same 3,518
Number of the same 22,167
The same  866,580
The same 1,180,661
The same  3,752
The same  4,298
The same  121,182
The same  1,397
Difference
in one Year.
Increase.
144
19,584
1,014
277
2,872
1,448
232,850
327
172
11,007
134
The price of cod fish is, per quintal, from 15s. to 25s.;
01 salmon, from 65s. to 80s. the tierce ; of train oil, from
E.26 to L.34 the tun, and seal oil generally about L. 36 the
tun. In 1814 the number of passengers who went over
om England> lre]and) and jerseyj amounted to 2800 ; in
tolS they were 6735. In 1814 the population of residents
amounted to 35,952, and in 1815 to 40,568. In 1814 the
WOft161" habitants were 45,718, and in 1815 they were
>*84. The number of houses on the whole island was
about 5000, and the number of acres under cultivation
about 6000.
If we are to credit the information which Alfred is said Northern
to have received from Octer, the Norwegians were engag- whale fish¬
ed in the whale fishery as early as the year 890. The story, er^‘
however, is not very probable. The first people known
to have carried it on as a regular occupation were the Bis¬
cayans, who, when the English first embarked in this fish¬
ery, towards the end of the sixteenth or beginning of the
608
fisheries,
part of the kets with whale oil, but must in future look to the con- Fish §
f c . " 1  i.:— TWtmn nlnnp. It is thprp.forp sncrcrpctorl wn
Fisheries, seventeenth century, were aiwnys engage P ^ and sumption of Great Britain alone. It is therefore suggested
■  —; crew. It continued to be carried on b> ereat by the shipowners as some relief, that the enormous quan-
the East India Company for some years attempt tity of foreign rape-seed, which has recently been imported
thmnrh sufficient to induce the Dutch to attempt y & nonrlv should hfi rllPrlrf'fl • onrl
into this country nearly duty-free, should be checked; and
that, by laying a sufficient duty on the importation of this
article, the protection of government would be beneficially
extended at once to the encouragement of the British agri¬
culturist and the relief of the Greenland trader. No rea¬
sonable objection, it is stated, can be made to such a mea-
success, though sufficient ^ Ftnmhnrffers and
it After them came the Danes, the .Hambu g >
tbe French, all of whom were finally driven out, or near y
so bv the Dutch. At this time the whales were so plen¬
tiful in all the bays of Spitzbergen, that the practice then
was to boil the oil on shore ; but when, mprocess of time,
these large fish became more t°a ^^0 from the sure,’unless from'a mistaken apprehension with regard to
the shore, the fishery was earned o , tl solid its effects on the price of woollen cloths, which is so incon-
land, when it was found necessary to bung home the soya n f{nfv of L.12 r,er last on foreign race-seed
blubber in casks. This circumstance was a further dis¬
couragement to the English merchants, who, fin more tha
a century, relinquished the whale fishery altogether. T
South Sea Company, however, revived it m the early pa
of the eighteenth century, when parliament granted a
bounty ofW)s. per ton on ah Brit,h slfips of 20 t^s and
7 — • - • - L
out of employment; and that if all the parishes in London,
Westminster, and Southwark, should be so lighted, it must
entirely put an end to a trade which employs 10,000 sea¬
men, 2000 apprentices, and 2000 landsmen, training con¬
stantly to the sea, and which affords occupation to about
100,000 individuals. The Gas Company say, on the other
hand, that the expenditure of coal will amply compensate,
in a national point of view, for any loss the Greenland trade
may sustain, by the additional quantity of shipping em¬
ployed in bringing the coal to the metropolis. Ihis, how¬
ever, is an exaggerated statement; but as whale-oil is
now employed for so many more purposes than formerly,
and even in the manufacture of gas, the lighting of the
streets, even if general, wall probably not injure the fishery
to any great extent; though the lighting ot the shops and
private houses, should the practice become general, must
seriously injure the South Sea fishery, as sperm was\ery
commonly used for domestic purposes.
The state of the northern whale fishery will be seen
six apprentices for each ship of 300 tons, by which about
900 youths are constantly training for the future service of
the country, and that about 200 of them complete the term
of their servitude every year, when such as are not boat-
steerers, harpooners, or line-managers, become liable to
serve in the navy; that not less than 300 men are also
taken annually from employments on land, or from the
river trade, most of whom, after two years, are competent
to serve in his majesty’s navy ; who, wdth the apprentices
and unprotected seamen employed, make a total of 4000
effective men subject to impressment.
It is further stated by the owners, that at the termina¬
tion of the war, no less than 148 valuable ships, comprising
50,000 tons, and engaging a capital of L.2,000,000, were
employed in the Greenland and Davis’ Straits fishery ; that
the provisions for the voyage amount to about L.600 for
each ship, forming a total of L.90,000, wholly furnished
from our own markets, affording encouragement to agricul¬
ture, as well as to the various descriptions of tradesmen
through whose hands the provisions are supplied; that the
whole produce, therefore, of the fishery may be considered
as gain to the country.
As, however, foreign ships may be sent to the fishery on
more moderate terms than the English can supply theirs,
and as the king of the Netherlands has offered consider¬
able bounties to ships proceeding to the northern fisheries,
all hope appears to be cut off that Englishmen will ever be
again permitted to contribute to the supply of foreign mar-
ery, in the year 1814:
Ships.
58
20
1
1
8
5
2
10
1
8
3
2
13
7
2
1
1
143
Hull 
London 
Lynn 
Grimsby....
Whitby 
Newcastle..
Berwick....
Leith 
Kirkaldy...
Dundee—
Montrose..
Liverpool..
Aberdeen.
Peterhead.
Banff*. 
Kirkwall..
Greenock.
Fish.
Oil.
697
367
25
7
172
49
16
73
7
61
47
43
178
164
30
10
35
Total.
1981
732G
2981
187
85
1381
628
178
1021
100
955
306
437
1733
1390
245
120
245
19,408
siderable that a duty of L.12 per last on foreign rape-seed
would not occasion an advance of more than about one far¬
thing and a half per yard on narrow cloths ; and that in fine
cloths Gallipol oil alone is used. This appears to be rea¬
sonable enough ; but the owners of the whale-fishing ships
had another and a more formidable rival in the market in
m-’ but several^encouragements wWe ailed for the pro- metropolis thus lig^five uhole^pswouH be ttoo™
secution of the whale fishery by able and expert seamen.
The harpooners, the line-managers, and the boat-steerers,
were not only protected from impress during the voyage,
but were allowed to engage in the coal and coasting trade
unmolested in the winter months, with other privileges
granted by that and subsequent acts. _
1 The decline of the Dutch whale fishery kept pace with
the decline of their herring fishery, and, from the same
cause, the decline of their maritime power, which had reci¬
procally supported each other. 1 lie English now began to^
carry on the fishery with great vigour on both sides ot
Greenland, so as to make it an object of great national im¬
portance, both as a nursery for excellent seamen, and as a
source of public wealth. Upon the termination of the late
war, the owners of ships employed in the northern whale
fishery, alarmed by the apprehension of the Dutch and
French reviving the fishery, but more so at the opening of
the ports on the Continent, put forth a statement of the
amount and extent of the fishery, from which it would ap- — -----   i Qnj nrn_
pear that 7500 men and boys are employed in it as sailors ; from the following account of the number ot tisli an p
that, by act of parliament, the ow ners are required to take duce of oil brought by the ships of the severa po
J ~ Great Britain from the Greenland and Davis Straits hbli-
143 ships, at 50 men to each ship, give 7150 as •?
her of men emnloved annually in the northern w ia
her of men employed annually in
0
FIT
pislj : rd 19,408 Tuns of oil, at L.38 L 737,504
647 Ditto whale-bone, the produce of
1981 fish, at L.80 per ton....... 51,760
Fit
Ur ,J
0 0
Total amount of the produce of the north¬
ern whale fishery in the year 1814 L.789,264 0 0
joUt|i The statutes of 35 Geo. III. c. 92, and 42 Geo. III. c.
wteil ah-18, regulate the proceedings, and prescribe the conditions
er.^ on which premiums of L.100 to L.400 may be claimed by
each of sixteen ships employed in this fishery. Though
less important, in a national point of view, than the north¬
ern whale fishery, the number of ships and seamen em¬
ployed in it are very considerable. They - are fitted out
mostly from London, and amounted, in the year 1815, to
107 ships, comprising 32,100 tons, and manned with about
3210 seamen, and their return cargoes were calculated to
be worth about L. 1,070,000 sterling.
The returns of the two fisheries, then, will stand thus :
In the northern fishery.
In the southern ditto...
Total..
Ships. Men.
..143 7150
.107 3210
250 10,360
Value.
L.789,264
1,070,000
L.1,859,264
fit
609
n Th?Se/!:atementS of tlie productive value of the foreign pitch v
rUisli fisheries may probably approach pretty nearly to H
le ru ’ but the reports of the home fisheries are too Fitzher-
vague to afford any thing like an accurate estimate. If we bert'
should take the 120,000 tons of fish said to be imported  
annually into the metropolis, at the low average rate of
threepence a pound, and allow for the rest of the con¬
sumption in the British empire only one half the quantity
consumed in and exported from the capital, and half a mil¬
lion for the export produce of the herring and cod and
ling fishery, we shall have the productive value of the
whole as under:
The Greenland and South Sea fisheries L.1,800,000
The Newfoundland fishery ] 500 000
The herring, cod, and ling ditto for exportation.. 500’000
The consumption of London and re-exportation 3,000,000
Ditto of the rest of Great Britain 1,500,000
L.8,300,000
As to the number of seamen, landmen, and boys employ¬
ed in the fisheries, that is, on the water, they may be rec¬
koned at about 120,000.
Pearl Fishery. See Pearl, Mollusca, Index.
Whale Fishery. See Balcena, Mammalia, Index.
FISHGUARD, a market-town of Pembrokeshire, in
South Wales, within the hundred of Komyss, 151 miles
from London. It is situated on the shore, at the spot where
the river Gwaine falls into the sea. It is governed by a
mayor and corporate body. The trade is but trifling, but
there is a well-supplied market on Friday. A corps of 1200
French troops, composed chiefly of enlisted felons, landed
here in 1797, but were speedily made prisoners by the lo¬
cal volunteers. The population in 1801 amounted to 1503,
in 1811 to 1572, in 1821 to 1837, and in 1831 to 1990.
FISHING, in general, is the art of catching fish, whether
by means of nets, spears, or the line and hook. See Ang¬
ling and Fisheries.
FISSURES, in Geology, certain interruptions, which di¬
vide the several strata of which the body of our globe is
composed, in a horizontal or parallel manner.
Fissure of the Bones, in Surgery, is when they are di¬
vided either transversely or longitudinally, not quite through,
but cracked like glass, by any external force.
FISTULA, in the ancient music, a wind instrument re¬
sembling our flute or flageolet.
The principal wind instruments of the ancients were the
tibia and the fistula. But how they were constituted, in
what they differed, or how they were played upon, does
not appear; indeed all that we know is, that the fistula
was at first made of reeds, and afterwards of other matters.
Some had holes, others none ; some again were single pipes,
others a combination of these ; as, for instance, the syringa
of Pan.
Fistula, in Surgery, a deep, narrow, and callous ulcer,
arising generally from abscesses. It differs from sinus in
oeing callous, which the latter is not.
r ITCHES, in Husbandry, a sort of pulse, more gene¬
rally known by the name of chick-pea. Fitches are culti¬
vated either for the purpose of feeding cattle or improving
he land. They are a wholesome and nourishing food, whe¬
ther given in the straw or thrashed out. When sown only
0 “oprove the soil, they are ploughed in just as they begin
^l|)^ssom> by which means a tough clay soil is much en-
ITCHET, a name used in some places for the weasel,
" IIC1 *s also called the foumart.
VOL. IX. J
FITCHY, in Heraldry (from the French fiche, fixed),
a term applied^ to a cross when the lower branch ends in a
sharp point. The origin of this device is supposed to be,
that the primitive Christians were accustomed to carry
about crosses with them wherever they went; and when
they stopped at any place on a journey, they fixed these
portable crosses in the ground for the sake of devotion.
FITERO, a town of Spain, in the province of Navarre.
It is situated on the banks of the Alhama, which, though a
river of short course, is highly beneficial, by its irrigating
capabilities, to the country through which it passes. The
monastery of Fitero is very richly endowed; and the town,
which contains 3500 inhabitants, as well as the land around
it, is the property of that establishment. The whole of the
people are employed in the cultivation of hemp, and in the
consequent manufactures of that article. There are some
warm mineral springs, which are resorted to for the cure of
several complaints, and which attain to the heat of thirty-
six degrees Reaumur.
FITZHERBERT, Sir Anthony, a learned lawyer in
the reign of Henry VIII. was descended from an ancient
family, and born at Norbury in Derbyshire, but in what
year is not known. After receiving the rudiments of his
education in the country, he was sent to Oxford, on leaving
which he entered himself in one of the inns of court, and
appears in due time to have been called to the bar. By
talents and diligence, united with judgment, he soon dis¬
tinguished himself in his profession, and in 1511 he became
a serjeant at law. In 1516 he received the honour of
knighthood, and the year after was made one of the king’s
counsel. And in 1523 he was raised to the bench as a
puisne judge of the court of common pleas, in which ho¬
nourable station he spent the remainder of his life. Fitz-
herbert was deservedly respected for his ability and inte¬
grity as a judge; and, at a time when judicial independence
was a rare virtue on the bench, he opposed the court in
some of its favourite projects, particularly regarding the
alienation of church lands. He died on the 27th of May
1538, and was buried in the parish church of Norbury, the
place of his birth. The works of this learned lawyer are,
1. The Grand Abridgment collected by that most reverend
judge Mr Anthony Fitzherbert, lately conferred with his
own manuscript corrected by himself, together with the re¬
ferences of the cases to the books, by which they may be
4 H
610
Fitz-
stephen
II ,
Fixed
Bodies.
F I X
easily found, printed in folio by Rynson ■” 1514>^
kende Worde in 1516, and again ,e-
and Authority of Justices of Peace, 1538, but otte^
nrinted, the last edition being dated 1617,3. I he umce
i Sheriffs, Bailiffs of Liberties, Escheators, Constables, Coro¬
ners and others, 1538; 4. Of the Diversity of Courts, 1529,
5 The New Natura Brevium, 1534, to which, in the last
edition, published in 1794, 2 vols. 8vo, is added a commen¬
tary supposed to have been written by Clnef-dustice Hale,
with notes, references, and an enlarged index; 6. Ot the
Smveying of Lands, 1539; 7. The Book of Husbandry,
1534, reprinted several times in the reigns of Mary an
Elizabeth. Of these works, five, in the order in whic
they are here enumerated, were, with the exception o
part of the second, originally written in French.
^ FITZSTEPHEN, William, an English monastic histo¬
rian of the twelfth century, and author of the earliest de¬
scription extant of London, was of Norman extraction, but
born of respectable parents in the city of London. Being
a monk of Canterbury, he attracted the notice of Arch¬
bishop Becket, who made him one of his clerks, received
him as an inmate into his family, and employed him m va¬
rious capacities. He was remembrancer in the archbishop s
exchequer, a subdeacon in his chapel when he officiated, a
reader of bills and petitions when his grace sat to hear and
determine causes, and sometimes an advocate before the
ecclesiastical court, when he was desired to perform that
office. He was also present with Becket at Northampton,
when the archbishop was forsaken by his suffragans, and an
eye-witness of his sacrilegious murder at Canterbury, one
of the foulest deeds of an age fertile in crimes. This wor¬
thy monk is supposed to have died in the year 1191. His
Description of the City of London, which seems to have been
written between the years 1170 and 1182, contains, after
Doomsday-Book, the earliest account we have of the me¬
tropolis ; and it may be doubted whether any other nation
of Europe can produce a description of its capital, or of one
of its principal cities, written at so remote a period as the
twelfth century. The first edition appeared in the shape of
a translation inserted in Stowe’s Survey of London; but
as this was found to be in many respects inaccurate, and
had, besides, become obsolete, Dr Pegge published a more
correct translation, with notes and a preliminary disserta¬
tion, 1772, in 4to. Fitzstephen was a person of great learn¬
ing for his age. He appears to have been tolerably versed
in Horace, Virgil, Sallust, Ovid, Lucan, Persius, and other
Latin classics; and he had even looked into Plato and some
other of the Greek writers. His credulity was a failing
less imputable to the individual than to the times in which
he lived.
FIUME, a circle in the Austrian province of Trieste,
extending over 1364 square miles, containing thirty-four
cities and towns, and 193 villages, with 24,930 houses, and
131,484 inhabitants. The principal products are wine,
olives, fruit, and silk. The capital is a sea-port situated on
the Gulf of Quarnaro. It consists of two long parallel
streets on the shore, and others connecting them, and con¬
tains 743 houses and 7576 inhabitants, chiefly employed in
fishing or in trade, which consists in the productions of the
surrounding district. The harbour is good, and the situa¬
tion as favourable for the trade with Hungary as Trieste is
for that of the other Austrian states. Long. 14. 20. 10. E.
Lat. 45. 20. 16. N.
FIXATION, in Chemistry, the rendering of any volatile
substance fixed, so as not to fly off or evaporate upon being
exposed to a great heat.
FIXED BODIES are those which sustain a considerable
degree of heat without evaporating, or losing any of their
weight. Some of the most fixed bodies are diamonds, gold,
FIX
FIXITY, or Fixedness, in Chemistry, is in a peculiar Fix-
manner used for the affection opposite to volatility; in [
other words, it is the property by which bodies sustain the
action of the fire, without being dissipated in fumes. ne;
FIXLMILLNER, Placidus, a learned astronomer, was ^
born at Achleuthen, near Linz, in Austria, on the 28th of
May 1721. He received the rudiments of his education
in the monastery of Kremsmun^ter, of which his uncle
Alexander was abbot; afterwards went to Salzburg, where
he studied a regular course of philosophy, but turned his
attention particularly to the mathematics. In 1737, he
was admitted as a novice into the Benedictine monastery,
Kremsmunster, and the next year he took the solemn vow
in presence of the abbot. After being two years in this
monastery, during which time he devoted every leisure hour
to the study of mathematics and philosophy, he returned to
Salzburg to finish his studies in theology and jurisprudence,
and at the same time acquired a competent knowledge of
the oriental and modern languages, besides history and an¬
tiquities. In 1745, he obtained the degree of doctor in
divinity, after which he received priest’s orders in his own
monastery, and was created professor of ecclesiastical law,
which office he held during forty years, discharging its
duties until within a few days of his death. He was also
chosen as dean of the higher schools, and regent of the
young nobility, offices which he retained during his life.
Fixlmillner wrote a commentary on the Jus Canonicum,
but this work was never published. By the entreaties of
his friends, he was induced to publish his Reipublicce sa-
crce Origines divince, seu Ecclesice Christi exterior junctura,
imperium, et hierarchia, ex primigeniaejusinstitutioneeruta
et demonstrata. But it was his knowledge of astronomy
which rendered him truly illustrious. His uncle Alexander
fitted up an apartment for containing the instruments ne¬
cessary for the pursuit of mathematical knowledge; and he
also erected an observatory, which was begun in 1748, and
completed in 1758, under the direction of Anselm Bering
of Emsdorf, a celebrated architect. Whilst the observa¬
tory was building, Fixlmillner led a life of retirement and
severe study, his favourite pursuit during this time being
astronomy. When the edifice was finished, Dobler, a ma¬
thematician of some note, was appointed first astronomer,
but the successors of his uncle the abbot having discovered
Fixlmillner’s extensive mathematical knowledge, made him
an offer of the astronomical department, and the sole di¬
rection of the observatory; and this place he accepted in 1 e
year 1762, at the same time retaining his chair as professor
of ecclesiastical law. He was not yet master of the learn¬
ing which practical astronomy requires; but to remedy this
defect he perused attentively Lalande’s Exposition du ta -
cul Astronomique, soon after which he obtained the large
astronomical work of the same author, and in 1766 pubhs e
his Meridianus Specidce Astronomies Cremifanensis-, fete) er,
4to, by which he acquired considerable reputation. en
years after this period he gave the world his Decenmum
Astronomicum, Steyer, 4to, containing many curious an
important particulars respecting the theory and practice
astronomy. His Acta Astronomica Cremifanensia, b eye >
1791, 4to, which did not appear till after his decease, stui
further increased his astronomical reputation; andhe w>
besides, a large contributor to many periodical publica i
in different countries. . „
He made and collected a great number of observa^
on the planet Mercury, the importance of which was p
licly acknowledged by Lalande, as they greatly assist
him in constructing his tables of that planet.
was one of the first astronomers who calculated t e
of the new planet Uranus (Georgium Sidus), ms ta
specting which will be found in the Berlin Almana
1789. He also proved the truth of what had or
FLA
FLA
Fla | J
FI
yj
been conjectured, that the thirty-fourth star of Taurus,
which Flamsteed observed in 1690, was the new planet.
It may be said of most philosophers, that they observe a
great deal and calculate little; but the conduct of Fixl-
millner was exactly the reverse. He turned his attention
more than any of his predecessors to the solar spots, which
he observed in the years 1767, 1776, 1777, 1778, and 1782,
and from which he deduced important inferences respect¬
ing the revolution of the sun on his axis.
Fixlmillner had a genius singularly adapted for the study
of mechanics, by which he was enabled to invent a new
micrometer, and a machine for grinding concentric circles.
As he resided in the country, he was in a great measure
deprived of literary assistance; but his indefatigable zeal,
diligence, and perseverance more than supplied the want of
such aid. He was but little subject to the influence of the
stronger passions. Like the laws of nature, which it was
his chief delight to study, he was simple, uniform, and con¬
stant ; and by the mildness and integrity of his charac¬
ter, he acquired the love and esteem of mankind. His high
reputation never inspired him with’vanity, and he rather
wished to conceal than to propagate what had been writ¬
ten in his praise. His health having been very much im¬
paired by his intense application, he terminated his earthly
career on the 27th August 1791, in the seventy-first year
of his age.
FLACCUS, Caius Valerius, an ancient Latin poet, of
whom personally but little is known. He is supposed to
have been born at Setia, a town of Campania, now Sezzo,
whence he has derived the surname of Setinus. But Mar¬
tial, his contemporary and friend, seems to intimate that
he was a native of Padua, or at least lived there. He died
when he was about thirty years of age, in the year 93 or 94
of our era, before he had put the finishing hand to the
poem on which his reputation entirely rests. The subject
which he selected as deserving of celebration was the his¬
tory of the Argonautic expedition ; but of the ten books
into which he intended to divide it, he lived only to com¬
pose seven and part of the eighth. This poem, which is
addressed to the emperor Vespasian, whom the poet com¬
pliments on account of his conquest of Judsea, whilst Do-
mitian is at the same time praised for his poetical talents,
is an imitation rather than a translation of the Argonautics
of Apollonius; and Flaccus has evidently been most suc¬
cessful in those parts where he had not the Greek poet im¬
mediately in his view. The model upon which he formed
himself was Virgil; and, notwithstanding Horace’s sneer
at the servum pecus, it is surprising how closely the imita¬
tor sometimes approaches to the great original. Quinti¬
lian’s opinion of his merit may be easily gathered from the
brief but expressive eulogium, Multum in Valerio Flacco
miper amisimus. The best editions of this poet are that
of Nicolas Heinsius, published at Amsterdam, 1680, in 8vo,
reprinted of the same size in 1702; and that cum notis inte-
gris variorum et Petri Burmanni, which appeared at Ley¬
den, 1724, in 4to. It is proper to add, that Baptista Pius,
an Italian poet, completed the eighth book of the Argo-
nautics, which Flaccus had left unfinished, and added two
more from Apollonius; a supplement which was first print¬
ed by Aldus in 1523, and which has been subjoined to
most, if not all, of the subsequent editions. (Vossius de
■roet. Lat.; Fabricius, Bibl. Lat.; and Moreri.)
b LAGS, in the army, are small banners of distinction
»tuck in the baggage waggons, to distinguish the baggage
o one brigade or battalion from that of another, in order
at they may be marshalled by the waggon-master-gene-
r > so as to avoid the confusion that might otherwise ensue.
r lag, in nautical affairs, a banner or standard, by which
^ admiral is distinguished at sea; also the colours by
w Uc i one nation is distinguished from another.
In the British navy flags are either red, white, or blue,
and are displayed from the top of the main-mast, fore-mast,
or mizen-mast, according to the rank of the admiral. When
a flag is displayed from the staff on the main-mast, the
officer distinguished thereby is known to be an admiral;
when from the fore-mast, a vice-admiral; and when from
the mizen-mast, a rear-admiral.
The first flag in Great Britain is the royal standard,
which is only to be hoisted when the king or queen is on
board the vessel; the second is that of the anchor of hope,
which characterizes the lord high admiral, or lords com¬
missioners of the admiralty; and the third is the union
flag, in which the crosses of St George and St Andrew are
blended together. This last is appropriated to the admiral
of the fleet, who is the first naval officer under the lord
high admiral.
The next flag after the union is that of the white squa¬
dron at the main-mast head; and the last which charac¬
terizes an admiral is the blue, also at the main-mast head.
For a vice-admiral, the first flag is the red, the second the
white, the third the blue, at the flag-staff on the fore-mast.
The same order proceeds with regard to the rear-admirals,
whose flags are hoisted on the top of the mizen-mast. The
lowest flag in our navy is accordingly the blue on the mizen-
mast.
To Lower or Strike the Flag, in the navy, is to pull it
down upon the cap, or to take it in, as a token of the re¬
spect due from all ships or fleets to those which are unde¬
niably their superiors. To lower or strike the flag in an
engagement is a sign of submission or surrender.
The method of leading a ship in triumph is to attach the
flags to the shrouds, or the gallery, in the hind part of the
ship, letting them hang down towards the water, and to
tow the vessels by the stern. Livy relates that this was
the mode in which the Homans used those of Carthage.
To Heave out the Flag, is to display or put abroad the
flag.
To Hang out the White Flag, is to ask quarter; or, when
a vessel has arrived on a coast, it shows that it has no hos¬
tile intention, but comes to trade, or the like. The red flag
is a sign of defiance and battle.
Flag-Officers are those who command the several squa¬
drons of a fleet; such as the admirals, vice-admirals, and
rear-admirals. The flag-officers in our pay are the admi¬
ral, vice-admiral, and rear-admiral, of the white, red, and
blue. See Navy.
FLAGELLANTES, a set of wild fanatics who chastised
and disciplined themselves in public by means of the lash.
The sect of the Flagellantes took its rise in Italy in the
year 1260 ; its author vras one Rainier, a hermit, and it was
thence propagated throughout almost all the countries of
Europe. The formation of this sect was in all probability
merely the effect of an indiscreet zeal. A great number
of persons of all ages and sexes made processions, wak¬
ing tw'o by two with their shoulders bare, which they whip¬
ped till the blood ran down, in order to obtain mercy from
God, and appease his indignation against the wickedness
of the age. They were then called the devout; and hav¬
ing established a superior, he was called the general of the
devotion. Though the primitive Flagellantes were exem¬
plary in point of morals, yet they were joined by a turbu¬
lent rabble infected with the most ridiculous and impious
opinions, and both the emperors and pontiffs felt them¬
selves called upon to put an end to this religious frenzy, by
declaring all devout whipping contrary to the divine law,
and prejudicial to the eternal rest of the soul.
This sect was revived in Germany towards the middle of
the next century, and, rambling through many provinces,
occasioned great disturbances. They held, amongst other
absurdities, that flagellation was of equal virtue with bap*
611
Flagel¬
lantes.
612
Flageolet
II
Flam-
borough
Head.
FLA
tism and the sacraments; that by means iA‘ it the f<>rg™-
ness of all sins was to be obtained from God without the
merits of Jesus Christ; and that the old law of Christ was
soon to be abolished, and a new law enjoining the baptism
of blood, to be administered by whipping, was to be su -
«tifnted in its stead. By an injudicious as well as unngh
teous policy, Clement VII. thundered out anathemas against
the Flagellantes, who were consequently burnt by the i! ‘
quisitorsSin several places , but they were not to be easily
extirpated. They appeared again m Thu™^a and Lower
Saxony in the fifteenth century ; and rejecting not only the
sacraments, but every branch of external worship, place
their only hopes of salvation in faith and flagellation, to
which they added other strange doctrines concerning evil
spirits. Their leader Conrad Schmidt and many others
were very needlessly committed to the flames by German
inquisitors about the year 1414. . , n
FLAGEOLET, or Flajeolet, a little flute, made ot
box or other hard wood, and sometimes of ivory, and having
six holes besides that at the bottom, the mouth-piece, and
the one behind the neck. .
FLAIL, an instrument for thrashing corn, consisting,
first, of the hand-staff, or piece held in the thrasher s hand ,
secondly, of the swiple, or that part which strikes out the
corn ; thirdly, of the caplins, or strong double leathers,
made fast to the tops of the hand-staff and swiple ; and,
fourthly, of the middle band, being the leather thong or
fish skin that ties the caplins together.
FLAIR, in nautical language, to incline or hang over.
Seamen say that the work flairs over when a ship is housed
in near the water, so that the work hangs over a little too
much, and is let out broader aloft than is warranted by the
due proportion.
FLAMBEAU, a kind of torch made of several thick
wicks, covered with wax, and serving to burn at nights in
the streets, as also at funeral processions, illuminations, and
such like occasions. Flambeaux differ from links, torches,
and tapers, in being made square, sometimes of white wax
and sometimes of yellow. They usually consist of four
wicks or branches about an inch in thickness and three feet
in length, made of a sort of coarse hempen yarn half twist¬
ed. They are prepared with the ladle, in much the same
way as torches or tapers, by pouring the melted wax on the
top of the several suspended wicks, and letting it run down
to the bottom ; an operation which is repeated till the re¬
quisite thickness be obtained. After each wick has thus
got its proper cover of wax, they are laid out to dry, then
rolled on a table, and four of them joined together by means
of a red-hot iron. When united, more wax is poured on,
until the flambeau is brought to the size required, which is
usually from a pound and a half to three pounds. The
last thing is to finish their form or outside, which is done
with a kind of polishing instrument of wood, by running it
along all the angles formed by the union of the branches.
The flambeaux of the ancients were different from ours,
having been made of woods dried in furnaces or otherwise.
Various kinds of wood were used for this purpose, but that
most commonly employed was pine. Pliny says, that in
his time oak, elm, and hazel wrere also frequently used. In
the seventh book of the iEneid mention is made of a flam¬
beau of pine ; and Servius remarks that flambeaux were
also made of the cornel-tree.
FLAMBOROUGH HEAD, a cape or promontory on
the eastern coast of Yorkshire, five miles east of Burling¬
ton, and 215 from London. This was the FlccLTnburg of
the Saxons, having, it is supposed, been so called from the
lights made on it to direct the landing of Ina, who, in 547,
joined his countrymen in these parts with a large reinforce¬
ment from Germany, and founded the kingdom of North¬
umberland. In the time of Edward the Confessor, Flam-
F L A
borough was one of the manors of Harold, earl of the West
Saxons, afterwards king of England; but on his death the I
conqueror gave it to Hugh Lupus, who bestowed it on the Flai:j i
monastery of Whitby. The town is situated on the north ^
side, and consists of about 150 small houses, entirely inha¬
bited by fishermen, few of whom, as is said, die in their
beds, but meet their fate in the element with which they are
so conversant. The cliffs of the Head are of a tremendous
height and amazing grandeur. Beneath are several vast
caverns ; some closed at the end, others pervious, and all
formed wdth a natural arch. In some places the rocks are
insulated, and of a pyramidal figure, soaring up to a vast
height. The bases of most are solid, but in some instances
they are pierced through and arched. The colour of all
these rocks is white, from the dung of the innumerable
flocks of migratory birds, which quite cover the face of
them. Long. 20. E. Lat. 54. 15. N.
FLAME is a general name for every kind of luminous
vapour, provided the light it emits has any considerable de¬
gree of intensity. Flame, however, is most generally ap¬
plied to such as are of a conical figure, like those arising
from our common fires; the others are commonly called
luminous vapours, or simple lights. See Heat.
Flames are of different colours, according to the sub¬
stances from which they are produced. Thus, the flame
of sulphur and spirit of wine is blue; the flame of nitre
and zinc, of a bright white; that of copper, of a greenish
blue, and so on. These varieties afford an opportunity of
making a number of agreeable representations in fireworks,
which could not be accomplished if the flame produced from
every different substance was of the same colour. See
Pyrotechnics.
FLAMEN, in Roman antiquity, the name of an order
of priests, instituted either by Romulus or Numa, authors
not being agreed which of the two was its founder.
They were originally only three; the Flamen Dialis, Fla-
men Marlialis, and Flamen Quirinalis. The Flamen Dialis
was sacred to Jupiter, and a person of the highest conse¬
quence and authority in the state. He discharged several
religious duties which properly belonged to the kings, and
was honoured with many eminent privileges, but was oblig¬
ed to observe several superstitious restraints. The Flamen
Martialis was sacred to Mars, and wras ordained to inspect
the rites of that warlike god. The Flamen Quirinalis was
sacred to and superintended the rites of Romulus Quirinus.
But the Flamines last mentioned, though of high authority,
w ere much inferior to the Flamen Dialis; and all tlnee
were chosen by the people, and consecrated by the Ponti-
fex Maximus. In latter times several priests of the same
order and name were added to their number, but infeuoi
in power. The whole at last amounted to fifteen, the rs
three of whom were senators, and called Flamines Majores,
whilst the other tw elve, taken from among the people, were
denominated Flamines Minores. According to some au
thors, the Romans had a Flamen for every deity they wor
shipped. The greater Flamines wore the robe edged wi
purple, like the great magistrates, and had an ivory c air,
with a seat in the senate. They also had a little an
of thread about their heads, and hence their name, gw#
Filamines, is said to have been derived. The wife o
Flamen Dialis was called Flaminica, and wore a am
coloured habit, on wdiich wras painted a thunderbolt, w
above her head-dress she had green oak boughs, to in ic
clDUVU llt:i out: liciu. / j
that she belonged to Jupiter the thunderer, tojvjwa ^
oak was sacred.
The Flamines wore each of them a
or cap called Flammeum or Apex. . i
FLAMINIA Via, an ancient Roman road, construe^
by C. Flaminius, during his censorship, 220 B» c.
ceeding from Rome through Etruria in a dir^c. 1
Narnia, now Narni, in Umbria, it was divided in
FLA
FLA 613
branches, the one to the east leading through Terni and
/ Spoleto to Foligno, where it met the other, which passed
through Careoli and Bevagna. It then continued its course
to Nuceria, where it again branched off in two directions,
the one passing through the district of Picenum to Ancona,
and along the coast of the Adriatic to Fanum Fortune,
Fano, where it met the other, which followed the more
direct line of Intercisa or Furlo, and Forum Sempronii or
Fossombrone. It did not go beyond Ariminum. (Bergier,
Hist, des Grands Chemins.)
FLAMINIUS, C., a Roman senator, one of the most dis¬
tinguished men of his family, the chief transactions of whose
life are comprehended between his tribuneship, 232, and
death, 217, b. c. He was one of the most powerful sup¬
porters of the liberal party in Rome, and was amongst the
first to suggest the idea of dividing the land taken from the
Galli Senones, in Picenum, amongst the lower orders; a
suggestion which proved ever afterwards a source of irrita¬
tion between the aristocracy and plebeians. This proposal
made him, of course, the favourite of the people, and detest¬
ed by the senate, who lost no opportunity of mortifying and
thwarting the plans of c'laminius as far as they could do so
with safety to themselves. By his influence with the peo¬
ple he was raised to the consulship (223 b. c.), and pro¬
ceeded with his colleague Furius to conduct the war against
the Galli Insubres, a powerful tribe in Cisalpine Gaul, to
the north of the Po, whose capital was Milan. They had
scarcely arrived, when the senate, who had it always in their
power to punish a magistrate whose conduct they disap¬
proved, by pretended flaws in the election, or by sacrifices
not duly performed, sent an order for their immediate re¬
turn. The friends of Flaminius had advertised him of the
contents of the dispatch, and he, resolving not to be baf¬
fled in his object, deposited it quietly in his portfolio, under
pretence that he was too much occupied with his military
manoeuvres to have time to attend to the civil affairs of
Rome. But when he had struck a decisive blow against
the enemy, and thus justified the support given by his
| friends at Rome, he opened the dispatch, and found that
it contained his recal. He felt himself, however, too power¬
ful in the affections of the people to care for the spleen of the
senate, and boldly set it at defiance, by remaining in the
north of Italy till he had made a satisfactory arrangement
of this part of the country. On his return he was degrad¬
ed by the senate, but the people indemnified their favourite
by voting him a triumph.
Flaminius continued to support every measure calculated
to increase the power of the people, or to diminish that of
their opponents. He procured the enactment of a law, that
no senator should possess a ship of larger burden than was
sufficient to contain three hundred amphorae, equal to about
900 English bushels. This increased still more his influ¬
ence with the people, and he was again elected consul (217
c.), though absent at Ariminum, to which place he had
retired to await the result of the election. He was fearful
] that the senate would manage to retain him in the city, by
falsifying the auspices or delaying the celebration of the Fe-
ria Latince. They attempted to recal him, but he dis¬
regarded their commands, and took his station at Arretium,
now Arrezzo, to wait the arrival of Hannibal. But that
artful general drew the army of Flaminius into the ambus¬
cade he had laid on the Thrasymene Lake, and the result
was the complete defeat of the army and death of Flami-
nius. (Polyb. ii. 21, 32, 33; Cic. Acad. iv. 5; Liv. xxi.
xxii.)
Flaminius, T. Quinctius, an illustrious Roman senator,
born about 228 b. c., at a time when his country was en¬
gaged in important wars, which drew forth all the talent it
possessed. His early youth was passed in arms against
Hannibal; and so much did he distinguish himself in the
various duties he was called on to discharge, that he ven- Flamsted
tured to stand candidate for the consulate before the legal li
age, and without having passed through the inferior offices. Flamsteed.
His canvass was successful, and he became consul at the age
of thirty (198 b.c.). The Romans had for several years been
engaged in a contest with Philip HI. king of Macedon,
whose supremacy extended over the whole of Greece ; and
he had as yet baffled all attempts made by them to bring
him under subjection. The war with this monarch was en¬
trusted to the young Flaminius ; and by the w isdom and vi¬
gour of his measures he compelled Philip to retreat from a
strong position on the river Apsus in Epirus, where he had
hitherto been able to set the Roman generals at defiance.
This opened up to him the road to Thessaly, where he had
no sooner arrived than the whole country declared itself in
his favour. The mildness of his manners, his affability, and
constant regard to the strict rules of justice, gained him the
hearts of all who approached him; but Philip was determined
not to yield the power which he had inherited from his an¬
cestors without a struggle. The armies met at Cynosce-
phalae in Thessaly, to the south of the river Peneus, small
hills so called from their resemblance to the heads of dogs ;
and the result was the entire defeat of Philip (197 b. c.).
Though that monarch was entirely in his power, Flaminius
restored to him his kingdom, but compelled him to renounce
all claim to the sovereignty of Greece. He prevailed on the
commissioners, who had been sent by the senate to assist
him in settling the affairs of Greece, to declare its entire in¬
dependence, and to withdraw the garrisons from all its cities.
The wisdom of this policy was soon effectually proved; as
Greece became more completely attached to the Roman
dominion from affection than she could ever have been by
force. In the latter years of his life we find him employed
in a mission to which, from his noble character and humane
disposition, wTe can scarcely give credit. He was sent (183
b. c.) by the senate to demand from Prusias king of Bithy-
nia, that Hannibal should be given up to the Romans; and
though Prusias used every intercession in favour of a man
who lived with him under the sanction of hospitality, he
could not prevail. Flaminius, it seems, insisted that his de¬
mand should be granted; and, to escape his enemies, Han¬
nibal put an end to his life by poison. Plutarch states that
there is some doubt whether Flaminius was employed in this
embassy ; and we would fain believe that he did not tarnish
his character by conduct so utterly unworthy of it. (Plu¬
tarch, Life of Flaminius ; Livy, xxxii. xxxiii. xxxiv.)
FLAMSTED, a village and parish of England, in the
county of Flertford, anciently called Verlamstedt, from its
vicinity to the river. The population amounted in 1831
to 1462.
FLAMSTEED, John, an eminent English astronomer,
and the first who obtained the appointment of astronomer-
royal, was born at Derby in the year 1646. He was edu¬
cated at the free school of Derby, where he was head scho¬
lar at fourteen years of age, at which period his constitution,
naturally delicate, sustained a severe trial by an attack of
illness. When some of his companions went to the univer¬
sity, the state of his health prevented him from accompany¬
ing them. He afterwards met with a treatise De Sphcera,
by Sacrobosco, a work which, being perfectly suited to the
natural turn of his genius, he perused with uncommon satis¬
faction, translating as much of it into English as he thought
could be necessary for him; and from the Astronomia Caro-
UruB of Street he learned the method of calculating eclipses,
and ascertaining the places of the planets. Mr Hatton, a
mathematician, sent him Kepler’s Tabula Rudolphina, and
Riccioli’s Almagestum Novum, together with some other
astronomical works to which he was as yet a stranger. In
1669 he calculated an eclipse of the sun, which had been
omitted in the Ephemerides, together with five appulses of
614 FLA
Flamsteed, the mion to fixed stars, aid sent.them L^rouncker,
«sident of Royal Society, who submitted them
to the examination of that learned body, by whom they
were creatly applauded, and Flamsteed received letters of
thanks fromVr Oldenburg the secretary, and from Mr John
Comns, one of the members. In 1670, being invited by
his father to come up to London, in order that he might be¬
come personally acquainted with his learned correspondents,
he gladly accepted the invitation, and had an interview wi
Mrg01dLburg and Mr Collins, by the latter of whom he
was introduced to Sir Jonas Moore, who became his ^a™
friend and patron. In consequence of this journey he be¬
came acquainted with many astronomical instruments, and
was presented with Townley’s micrometer by Sir Jonas
Moore, who also assisted him in procuring glasses at a mo¬
derate rate for the construction of telescopes. On hisv ay
home he paid a visit to Dr Barrow and Mr, afterwards Sir
Isaac Newton, at Cambridge, and entered himself as a stu¬
dent of Jesus College. w
In the year 1672, he made large extracts from the let¬
ters of Gascoigne and Crabtree, by which his knowledge
of dioptrics was much improved; and during the same
year he made a number of celestial observations when the
weather would permit, which were afterwards published in
the Philosophical Transactions. In 1673 he composed a
treatise on the true and apparent diameters of the planets,
when at their greatest and least distances from the earth;
a work from which even Newton himself did not sciuple to
borrow, and of which he made some use in his Principia
in 1685. In 1674, Flamsteed published an Ephemeris, in
which he exposed the folly and absurdity of astrology; and
the same year he drew up a table of the tides for the use
of the king, with an astronomical account of their ebbing
and flowing, which Sir Jonas Moore assured him would
be well received by his majesty. Sir Jonas received from
Mr Flamsteed a pair of barometers, with directions how to
use them, which he presented to the king and the duke of
York, to whose notice he embraced every opportunity of
introducing Mr Flamsteed.
Having taken the degree of master of arts at Cambridge,
he formed the resolution of entering into holy orders, when
Sir Jonas wrote to him to come to London, where he had an
appointment for him very different from any in the church.
But as Sir Jonas found that nothing could induce him to
abandon the resolution he had formed, he obtained for him
a situation which was perfectly consistent with the charac
ter of a clergyman. This was the new office of astronomer
to the king, with a salary of L.100 per annum. In Easter
1675, he received ordination at Ely-House by Bishop Gun¬
ning ; and on the 10th of August the same year was laid
the foundation stone of the royal observatory at Greenwich,
which received the designation of Flamsteed-House, in ho¬
nour of the first astronomer-royal. Till this edifice was
erected, he made his observations in the queen’s house at
Greenwich; and in 1681 Flamsteed’s Doctrine of the Sphere
was published by Sir Jonas Moore in his System of the Ma¬
thematics. But notwithstanding his extraordinary merit, he
never rose higher in the church than the living of Burslow
in Surrey, although he was held in deserved estimation by
the greatest men in the nation. He corresponded with Sir
Isaac Newton, Dr Halley, Mr Molyneux, Dr Wallis, and
many others ; whilst M. Cassini and he commenced their
respective discoveries with the utmost confidence and cor¬
diality. But none of his works contributed so much to es¬
tablish his fame as his Historia Ccdestis Britannica, in
three volumes folio. Mr Flamsteed was suddenly carried off
by a stranguary, on the 31st of December 1719, having,
notwithstanding the extreme delicacy of his constitution,
and incessant labour, reached the seventy-third year of
his age.
FLA
FLANDERS, a province of the Netherlands, bounded Fla-j r3
by the German Ocean and the United Provinces on the
north, by the province of Brabant on the east, by Hainault LsiL
and Artois on the south, and by another part of Artois and
the German Sea on the west; being about sixty miles long
and fifty broad. See Netherlands.
FLANEL, or Flannel, a kind of slight, loose, woollen
stuff, composed of a woof and warp, and woven on a loom
with two treddles, after the manner of baize.
Dr Black assigns as a reason why flannel and other sub¬
stances of the same kind keep the body warm, that they
compose a rare and spongy mass, the fibres of which touch
each other so lightly, that the heat moves slowly through
the interstices, which being filled only with air, and that too
in a stagnant state, give little assistance in conducting the
heat. From the experiments of Count Rumford, it ap¬
pears that there is no relation between the power which
the substances usually worn as clothing have of absorbing
moisture, and that of keeping the body warm. Having
provided a quantity of each of these substances mentioned
below, he exposed them, spread out upon clean china plates,
for the space of twenty-four hours, to the warm and dry air
of a room which had been heated by a German stove for
several months, and during the preceding six hours had
raised the thermometer to 85° of Fahrenheit; after which
he weighed equal quantities of the different substances with
a very accurate balance. They were then spread out upon
a china plate, and removed into a very large uninhabited
room upon the second floor, where they were exposed forty-
eight hours upon a table placed in the middle of the room,
the air of which was at 45° of Fahrenheit. At the end of
this time they were weighed, and then removed into a damp
cellar, where they were placed on a table in the middle of
the vault, the air of which was at the temperature of 45°,
and, by the hygrometer, seemed to be fully saturated with
moisture. In this situation they were suffered to remain
three days and three nights, the vault being all the while
hung round with wet linen cloths, to render the air as com¬
pletely damp as possible. At the end of three days they
were weighed, and the weights at the different times were
found as in the following table :—
,1 I Weight
Weight af- Weight af- after re-
ter being ter coming1 maining
dried in outofthe 72 hours
the hot coi,i room. in the
room. vault
Sheep’s wool 
Beaver's fur 
The fur of a Russian hare....
Eider down 
5 Raw single thread 
Ravellings of white 1
taffety j
f Fine lint 
Linens Ravellings of fine)
linen J
Cotton wool 
Ravellings of silver lace 
Parts
1000
1084
1072
1065
1067
1057
1054
1046
1044
1043
1000
1163
1125
1115
1112
1107
1103
1102
1082
1089
1000
In regard to these experiments our author observes, that
though linen, from the apparent ease with which i
dampness from the atmosphere, seems to have a muc &
er attraction for water than any other, yet it w ou PP
from what is related above, that those bodies w uc
water in its unelastic form with the greatest ea ’ ^
most easily wet, are not those which in all cases a ,.
humidity of the atmosphere with the greate ^
“ Perhaps,” says he, “ the apparent dampness
FLA
Fla
II
IslaJ^
the touch arises more from the ease with which that sub¬
stance parts with the water it contains, than from the quan¬
tity of water it actually holds; in the same manner as a
body appears hot to the touch, in consequence of its parting
freely with its heat; while another body which is really at
the same temperature, but which withholds its heat with
great obstinacy, affects the sense of feeling much less vio¬
lently. It is well known that woollen clothes, such as flan¬
nels, &c. worn next the skin, greatly promote insensible
perspiration. May not this arise principally from the strong
attraction which subsists between wool and the watery va¬
pour which is continually issuing from the human body ?
That it does not depend entirely on the warmth of that co¬
vering, is clear; for the same degree of warmth produced
by wearing more clothing of a different kind, does not pro¬
duce the same effect. The perspiration of the human body
being absorbed by a covering of flannel, it is immediately
distributed through the whole thickness of that substance,
and by that means exposed, by a very large surface, to be
carried off by the atmosphere; and the loss of this watery
vapour which the flannel sustains on the one side by evapo¬
ration, being immediately restored from the other, in con¬
sequence of the strong attraction between the flannel and
this vapour, the pores of the skin are disencumbered, and
they are continually surrounded by a dry and salubrious
atmosphere.”
Our author expresses his surprise that the custom of
wearing flannel next the skin should not have prevailed
more universally. He is confident it would prevent a num¬
ber of diseases; and he thinks there is no greater luxury
than the comfortable sensation which arises from wearing it,
especially after one is a little accustomed to it. “ It is a
mistaken notion,” says he, “ that it is too warm a clothing
for summer. I have worn it in the hottest climates, and at
all seasons of the year, and never found the least inconve¬
nience from it. It is the warm bath of perspiration con¬
fined by a linen shirt wet with sweat, which renders the
summer heats of southern climates so unsupportable; but
flannel promotes perspiration, and favours its evaporation;
and evaporation, as is well known, produces positive cold.
It has been observed that new flannel, after some time
wearing, acquires the property of shining in the dark, but
loses it on being washed. (Philosophical Transactions, No.
483, sect. 7.)
FLANK, or Flanc, in the manege, is applied to the
sides of a horse’s buttock. In a strict sense, the flanks of
a horse are the extremes of the belly, where the ribs are
wanting, and are immediately below the loins.
Flank, in IFar, is used by way of analogy for the side
of a battalion, brigade, division, or army, in contradistinc¬
tion to the front and rear.
Flank, in Fortification, is a line drawn from the extre-
“ffy of the face towards the inside of the work. Or, flank
is that part of a bastion which reaches from the curtain to
the face, and defends the opposite face, the flank, and the
curtain.
Fichant Flank is that whence a cannon playing fires
directly on the face of the opposite bastion.
Fasant or Razant Flank is the point whence the line
of defence begins, from the conjunction of which with the
curtain the shot only rases the face of the next bastion; and
this happens when the face cannot be discovered but from
the flank alone.
. FLANNAN Islands, a group of small islands, some
six or seven in number, lying twelve miles north-west of
ie Isle of Skye. They are wild, rocky, and uninhabited;
ot from the remains of sacred edifices found upon them,
ncy must formerly have been the residence of some Chil¬
ean or other religious order. At present they are noted
w sheep pasturage.
FLA
FLATS, in Music. See Interval.
. Island, a small island in the Eastern Seas,
n^ar the north coast of the island of Flores. Lone.
120. 59. E. Lat. 7. 59. S. Also an island in the Mergui
Archipelago, lat. 10. 27. N.; and another near the east
coast of New Zealand, long. 183. 13. W. lat. 37. 40. S.
FLAVEL, John, an eminent non-conformist minister,
was educated at University College, Oxford. He became
minister, first of Deptford, and afterwards of Dartmouth, in
Devonshire, where he resided the greater part of his life,
much respected and admired for his preaching, although
he was persecuted on account of his principles in 1685,
when several of the aldermen of the town, attended by the
rabble, carried about an effigy of him, to which were affixed
the bill of exclusion and the covenant. Upon this occa¬
sion he thought it prudent to withdraw from the town, not
knowing what treatment he might experience at the hands
of a riotous mob, headed by magistrates who were them¬
selves amongst the lowest of mankind. Part of his Diary,
printed with his remains, will give the reader a high idea
of his piety. He died in 1691, at the age of sixty-one; and
after his death, his works, which consisted of many pieces
of practical divinity, were printed in two volumes folio.
Amongst these the most curious are his Navigation Spiri¬
tualized, or a New Compass for Seamen, of which there
have been several editions in 8vo ; and Husbandry Spiri¬
tualized, with occasional meditations upon beasts, birds,
trees, flowers, riversj and several other objects, of which
also there have been many editions in 8vo.
FLAX. For some particulars as to the culture of flax,
see the article Agriculture. What more remains to be
said will be found under the connected head of Hemp.
FLAXMAN, John, an eminent English sculptor, was
born at York on the 6th of July 1755. He was the second
son of John Flaxman, a moulder in plaster, who, besides
keeping a shop in London for the sale of his figures, sought
employment in the country. He was of a weakly consti¬
tution, and slightly deformed, which prevented him from
mingling with associates of his own age in the robust pas¬
times of youth. But he was not idle. Behind his father’s
counter he usually seated himself during the day, and, with
drawing materials before him, busily employed himself in
transferring to paper representations of the numerous figures
with which he was surrounded. Indeed, almost from child¬
hood he evinced that partiality for and love of works of art,
in the creation of which he so much excelled in maturer
years. But he did not confine himself to copying alone.
Young as he was, he had dipped into the Iliad, and actually
attempted to design historical illustrations of that immortal
epic. His education seems to have devolved principally
upon his parents; and as his thirst for knowledge was great,
the superintendence of his studies must have been an easy
task. At his books and models he laboured incessantly,
and before he entered his tenth year he had made a great
number of small models in plaster of Paris, wax, and clay,
some of which are still preserved ; and, besides being inte¬
resting as the first efforts of genius, they possess consider¬
able merit as works of art. At ten years of age, a salu¬
tary change took place in his health. He became strong,
lively, and active; and the crutches, by means of which he
had hitherto walked, were thrown aside, not to be again
resumed. With renovated health he came to the determi¬
nation to follow sculpture as a profession. In his father’s
shop, where he assiduously pursued his studies, he learned
form and proportion from the casts of antique statues which
it contained ; whilst in the woods and fields, to which he
could now repair, he was supplied with new images and ideas
of beauty. At the house of a Mrs Mathew, whose husband
had been attracted to the youthful sculptor, Flaxman often
spent his evenings hearing her read Homer and Virgil, and
615
Flat
Island
Flaxman.
616
FLA
for the lady was very
Mrs
“• Montague, «
^ Chapone, and Mrs Barbauld. Here he was encouraged to
acquire the dead languages, so necessary to one of his pro¬
fession ; and although he never attained to great scholar¬
ship, he, by this desultory mode of study, obtained sue
knowledge of Greek as enabled him to embody the ideas of
the ancient poets in a manner which no modern artist has
surpassed. He embodied those passages which caught his
fancy whilst he sat listening to Mrs Mathew; andthetas
which he displayed in these juvenile efforts induced a
gentleman to order six large drawings in chalk, the sub-
fects being chosen from antiquity. The praise which was
bestowed upon them gave new impulse to the genius of the
youth, and refreshed that consciousness of superior power
which he early experienced. But he never overrated him¬
self, nor allowed his industry to relax on account ot the
flatteries of friends. He continued to labour assiduously
in his vocation, well knowing that it was only in this man¬
ner that he could attain great eminence, and succeed in
embodying those idealised conceptions of beauty which,
although they scarcely admit of being defined or described,
are nevertheless not less real, nor less universally acknow-
ledged ^ year Flaxman became a student of the
Royal Academy, and soon made himself known by assidu¬
ous and enthusiastic application. In the same year he cai-
ried off the silver medal; and in due time became a can¬
didate for the gold one, the reward of the highest degree
of merit, but proved unsuccessful. This defeat, however,
only increased his assiduity. But finding himself now com¬
pelled to labour for bread, he was employed by the Wedge-
woods, the enterprising potters, in making designs for adorn¬
ing their wares. His sketches consisted chiefly of small
groups in very low relief, the subjects being taken from an¬
cient poetry and history. Previously to this period the por¬
celain of England had little external beauty to recommend
it; and the genius of Flaxman may be said to have created
this branch of art in his native country. The rude and
unseemly shapes which formerly prevailed were no longer
tolerated, and figures of classic elegance and beauty were
invented to supply their place. In 1782, Flaxman having
quitted his paternal roof, took a small house, and entered
into a matrimonial alliance with a person of considerable
accomplishments, in whose society he enjoyed much do¬
mestic happiness. During the ten years which preceded
this event, he had exhibited some thirteen works at the
Royal Academy, but, from the pecuniary difficulties under
which he laboured, none of these were executed in marble.
FLA
the figure of Hercules, but added another of Omphale. Flaxs
But this statue did not give satisfaction to the connoisseurs v
of Italy, and Flaxman caused it to be destroyed some time
previously to his death, without any injury to his fame.
The remains of ancient sculpture in Rome, and in other
cities of Italy, engaged not a little of his attention. He
executed numerous drawings, and made a great many me¬
moranda, the most valuable of which were subsequently
embodied in his lectures on sculpture. He had been elect¬
ed a member of the academies of Florence and Carrara;
and after seven years’ residence in a foreign country, he at
length returned to his own.
Flaxman’s statue of Lord Mansfield had raised the ex¬
pectations of his countrymen to a high pitch. In 1797 he
was elected associate of the Royal Academy, during which
year he sent to the exhibition three sketches in bas-relief
from the New Testament, ana a monument to Sir William
Jones. The sketches are distinguished for their elegance
of grouping. The monument is a bas-relief, but not one
of the artist’s most fortunate efforts in that line. In the
forty-fifth year of his age Flaxman was elected a member
of the Royal Academy, and, as is usual on such occasions,
presented to the institution a work of art. His offering on
this occasion was a marble group of Apollo and Marpcssa;
the conception of which is fine, though the workmanship
is not so good. In the mechanical use of the chisel he
never excelled. It was now his ambition to be employed
upon some great national work, and he proposed to make
a statue of Britannia two hundred feet in height, but the
project was not carried into execution. His fame, how¬
ever, was now firmly established, and employment flowed
rapidly in. A quick succession of noble works followed
from his hand, one of which, a monument in memory of
the family of Sir Francis Baring, is considered among the
greatest efforts of the national genius of England. One
of his biographers remarks with respect to it, “ This is one
of the finest pieces of motionless poetry in the land.’ Of
historical monuments Flaxman executed several, but they
are not equal to his other works. They have been admir¬
ed for the fine sentiment which pervades them, but their
execution is considered by many as too coarse and heavy.
The statue of Sir Joshua Reynolds is one of his best pro¬
ductions. But the works he loved most were those which
embodied poetical passages in the Bible, and of these he
executed a great number. In 1810 the Royal Academy
created a professorship of sculpture, and bestowed it upon
Flaxman. His lectures are ten in number. The style is
rather heavy ; yet although his compositions are destitute
of those flashes of poetry which irradiate the pages o
Fuseli, they display a very comprehensive knowledge o
Shortly after his marriage, he formed the resolution of stu- .. v.  r  ifdto
dying at Rome, and at the end of five years of incessant the subject, much sound sense, and are more ealeu j* e ^
labour, during which he executed several monuments and convey definite information to the student than t °se
other works of considerable merit, he was enabled to carry
his design into execution. It is unnecessary to observe,
that Flaxman, like every other artist, was struck with the
noble specimens of art which Italy possesses, and that by
a close study of these he greatly improved himself. But he
was no servile imitator, for he was as capable of creating as
of copying. In Rome Flaxman executed a number of works.
For three individuals of his own country he illustrated
Homer, Aischylus, and Dante. These designs are splendid,
being varied with great skill, and drawn with a fine sense of
the beautiful and harmonious in composition. Of works
in marble he executed a small size grojip of Cephalus and
Aurora ; a statue of Lord Mansfield; a group representing
the fury of Athamas, from Ovid’s Metamorphoses, consisting
of four figures of the heroic size; and the restoration of
that splendid torso which is generally believed to be a frag¬
ment of a Hercules. This last undertaking was as difficult
as it turned out to be thankless. He not only completed
the other artist above named. But if the offspring of is
pen was cold and uninformed with ideal beauty, the pro
ductions of his pencil and chisel display an exuberance o
imagination. His sketches and drawings are very num(f
ous. Amongst the works which he illustrated were
Pilgrim’s Progress, Sotheby’s translation of Oberon, an
Hesiod. These designs are in all respects fully equa
his other works, and unsurpassed by any thing wine i ev
was executed in that line. During the last ten years
his life Flaxman produced some of his noblest w°r
Amongst these were the group of the Archangel lC'
vanquishing Satan, the Shield of Achilles, Psyche, t ie
toral Apollo, and the statues of Michel Angelo ant
faelle. The first is a work of the highest merit, an _
of the great poem which it illustrates. “ In the sy
and the Pastoral Apollo,” says Mr Allan CunnxnghaWj
“ the genius of him who illustrated Homer is su ci
apparent; a certain austere composure is breat e
FI.
Fle'i f-
F L E
them. The Michael Angelo and the Raphael are poetic,
yet real; heroic, yet familiar ; and their costume, though
not antique, is at once historic and picturesque.” Flaxman’s
statues of Burns and Kemble, executed about the same time,
are scarcely so happy. Amongst his other works were mo¬
numents to Collins at Chichester, and to Earl Howe in St
Paul’s; and statues of Washington, Nelson, Pitt, and Sir
John Moore. They are of various excellence, yet all more
or less bear the impress of genius and taste. But the career
of this great sculptor was drawing to a close. In the be¬
ginning of December 182() he was seized with an inflam¬
mation of the lungs, which terminated fatally on the 7th
of the same month.
In stature Flaxman was small, and his figure was slim.
In manners he was mild, gentle, and placable ; and his
mind, whilst it was rich in the gifts of genius, was embued
with unaffected piety. Of his works there are four kinds ;
the religious, the poetic, the classic, and the historical.
In each of these he has left specimens which entitle him
to rank very high as an artist, but in all he has not attain¬
ed the same degree of excellence. In the historical and
the classic he was less successful; but in the religious and
poetic he has been surpassed in purity, simplicity, and
taste, by no modern sculptor. His religious compositions
consist of groups and figures embodying moral and spiri¬
tual passages from Scripture. They are generally of small
dimensions, but very numerous. His mind was essentially
poetical; and his productions are embued with the finest
inspiration. It was probably of some of these works that
Sir Thomas Lawrence spoke when he said of Flaxman,
“ His solitude was made enjoyment to him by a fancy
teeming with images of tenderness, purity, or grandeur.
His genius, in the strictest sense of the words, was original
and inventive.” His lectures were published in 1829, in
one vol. 8vo, illustrated with fifty-two plates.
FLEAM, in Surgery and Farriery, an instrument for
letting blood of a man or horse. A case of fleams, as it is
called by farriers, comprehends six sorts of instruments ;
two hooked ones, called drawers, which are used for cleans¬
ing wounds ; a pen-knife ; a sharp-pointed lancet for mak¬
ing incisions; and two fleams, one sharp and the other
broad pointed. These last are somewhat like the point of
a lancet, fixed in a flat handle, and no longer than is just
necessary to open the vein.
FLECHE, LA, an arrondissement in the department
of the Sarthe, in France. It extends over 722 square
miles, is divided into seven cantons, and these into eighty
communes, containing 84,995 inhabitants. The capital, a
city of the same name, is a well-built place, situated on the
river Loir, in a valley surrounded with vineyards. It con¬
tains 843 houses, and 5099 inhabitants. There is a public
school for military instruction, with a good library. Long.
0-13. W. Lat. 47. 22. N.
FLECHIER, Esprit, bishop of Nismes, one of the most
celebrated preachers of his age, and author of a number of
works, was born at Perries, a small town in the diocese of
Carpentras, on the 10th of June 1632, and educated under
me eye of his uncle, Father Audifret, general of the con¬
gregation of Christian doctrine, a learned and estimable man.
According to the constitution of the congregation, Flechier,
laving completed his own education, was immediately em¬
ployed in teaching. In 1659, when only twenty-seven, he
professed rhetoric at Narbonne, and there pronounced the
aneral oration of M. de Rebe, archbishop of that city,
which, however, is not to be found in his collected works,
probably because it was deemed unworthy of the reputa-
ion which he subsequently acquired. A few months after¬
wards, on the death of Audifret, followed as it was by some
c anges in the government of the congregation, which he
1 not relish, Flechier laid aside the habit of the doctri-
vol. ix.
F L E
naires, and proceeded to Paris, where he was at first em¬
ployed in the humble occupation of a parochial catechist:
but he soon made himself known by his Latin and French
Fr^-’n- I)articularly by a description in Latin verse of
a%1Carousa1’ Circus Regius, given by Louis XIV.
11 ibis was the commencement of Flechier’s repu¬
tation. He was now entrusted with the education of Louis
Urbain Lefevre de Caumartin, afterwards intendant of fi¬
nances and counsellor of state; and as the house of Louis
de Caumartin, the father of his pupil, was then frequented
by the most considerable personages both of the court and
the city, Flechier was thus introduced into the first society,
amongst which his talents, amiability, gentleness of demea¬
nour, and regularity of manners, soon procured him many
mends. The Duke of Montausier, who was not pxpdigal of
his notice, conceived a great regard for Flechier, declared
himself his patron, and having presented him to the dauphin,
procured him the place of reader to that young prince. The
sermons of Flechier increased his reputation, which was af¬
terwards raised to the highest pitch by his funeral orations.
Having been chosen to pronounce that of Madame de
Montausier, he displayed so great talent on the occasion
that his discourse opened to him the doors of the French
Academy, into which he was received in 1673, in the room
of M. Godeau, bishop of Venice. He was admitted the
same day with Racine, and having precedence in address¬
ing the Academy, his discourse was warmly applauded;
the great poet however was less fortunate than the orator,
for his address being scarcely audible, was coldly received
and unfavourably judged of; so much is chance concerned
even in the success of eminent merit. The favours of the
court now flowed upon Flechier. The king gave him suc¬
cessively the abbey of St Leverin, in the diocese of Poitiers,
the office of almoner to the dauphiness, and, in. 1685, the
bishopric of Lavaur, accompanying his kindness with the
most flattering expressions of favour and regard. “ I have
made you wait a little for a place which you have long me¬
rited,” said the monarch ; “ but I did not wish to deprive
myself sooner of the pleasure of hearing you.” From the
see of Lavaur Flechier was, in 1687, translated to that of
Nismes, which was more valuable, and also accounted more
honourable. His own wish was to remain at Lavaur; but
the king overcame his repugnance to the proposed transla¬
tion by making him sensible that he would be more useful
to the church at Nismes than at Lavaur, and that in the
former place there was more labour to be performed and more
good to be done. In fact the Calvinists were very numerous
at Nismes; and although several had made abjuration, their
conversion was at best but equivocal. But Flechier, by his
prudent conduct, in which zeal was tempered by charity,
brought back the greater number of these sectaries to the
bosom of the church, and made himself esteemed and be¬
loved even by those who declined to abjure their faith.
During the troubles in the Cevennes he softened, as much
as in him lay, the rigour of the edicts, and showed himself
so sensible of the evils of persecution, and so indulgent even
to what he regarded as error, that his memory is, even at
this day, held in veneration amongst the Protestants of that
district. In the famine which succeeded the winter of 1709,
he distributed immense sums, making no distinction between
Catholics and Protestants; all were his children, and all
shared his beneficence in proportion to their respective
wants. He also published an eloquent pastoral letter on the
subject of a cross of St Gervais, which, it was pretended,
worked miracles, and warned his flock against those lying
wonders, by which the credulity of the people has frequently
been abused. This appears to have been amongst his last
efforts in the cause of truth and religion. The good bishop,
indeed, foresaw that his end was now approaching; and,
having prepared for himself a humble tomb, he died at
4 i
617
Flechier.
018 F L E
and chariw, simplicity and eloquence.” Flech.er’s works
are, l. AnLii ^an2Gratiani de Vita Joannu Framnc,
Commendoni Cardinalis libri iv. Pans, 1669, m 12mo,Jk
La Vie du Cardinal Commendon, Pans, 1671, in4l0 ’ •
Casibm Virorum Il^triuma^ore MmuoMarta Gramnc,
opera et studio Sp. Flechert,, Paris, 1680, into; 4. Bwknre
de TModose-le-Grand, Paris, 1679, in 4to, composed for the
education of the dauphin ; 5. Histotre du, Omiuwl Xnmmes
Paris, 1693, in 4to; 6. Ora,sons 1681, m to
and in 12mo; 7. Panegyriques des Saints, Pans? 16JU,
4to ; 8. Sermons de Morale preches devant le Rot, avec des
Discours synodaux et les Sermons preches par F/ec/her a«a?
Etats de Languedoc et dans sa Cathedrale, m 3 voL. 12mo ,
9 CEuvres Posthumes, contenant ses Harangues, Compli¬
ments, Discours, Poesies Latines, Poesies Frangaises, Pans,
1712 in 12mo ; 10. Mandements et Lettres pastorales, avec
son Oraison funebre par VAbbe du Jarry, Paris, 1712, in
12mo; 11. Lettres Choisies sur divers sujets, Pans, i/lo,
in 2 vols. 12mo; 12. Relation dun Voyage en Auvergne.
The only collection yet published of the works ot rlechier
is that of the Abbe Ducreux, canon of Auxerre, which ap¬
peared under the title of (Euvres Completes de Messire Es¬
prit Flechier, Nismes, 1782, in 10 vols. 8vo. If we except
the History of Theodosius, pulpit eloquence is the only
branch of the belles-lettres cultivated by Flechier in which
he excelled. His Funeral Orations have been compared with
those of Bossuet, without attending to this distinction, that
comparisons become useless between two kinds of genius
which are totally different. That of Bossuet was sublime
throughout. Flechier, on the other hand, was only remark¬
able for the nobleness of his thoughts and the harmony of his
diction. It is true that he possessed in an eminent degree
these two qualities of an orator, and that nobody has carried
the latter further than he; but even i n that department where
he has been most successful, Flechier is not without faults,
and may be reproached with an ambition of giving point to
his thoughts, an affectation of symmetry in the style, and a
love of antitheses, all at variance with the principles of good
taste. But if his funeral orations and sermons lose much
of their merit by a too measured elegance, his pastoral in¬
structions and synodal discourses are wholly free from such
affectation, indeed as remarkable for simplicity of style as
for generosity of sentiment, and that indulgent spirit which
laments whilst it combats error, and which, repudiating all
attempts at persecution, seeks to win men over to the right
way, not by the instrumentality of fear, but through the
medium of their understanding and affections. “ C’est dans
ces ouvrages,” says a distinguished French critic, “ que la
philosophic elle-meme apprendra 1’usage qu’on doit faire
des lumieres et du sentiment, et se convaincra que 1’huma-
nite n’a pas de consolation plus solide que la religion,
comme la politique n’a pas de meilleur appui.” (a.)
FLECKNOE, Richard, an English poet and dramatic
writer in the reign of Charles II. who has been more in¬
debted for the preservation of his name to Dryden’s satire
of Mac-Flecknoe, than to the merit of his own productions,
is said to have been originally a Jesuit, and connected with
some persons of distinction belonging to the Roman Ca¬
tholic persuasion. The origin of Dryden’s antipathy to
this man has not been ascertained. It was confirmed, how¬
ever, when the office of poet-laureat, of which Dryden had
been deprived on account of his religion, was conferred
upon Flecknoe ; and resentment of this wrong appears to
have produced the celebrated satire above mentioned,
which, besides being equally spirited and amusing in it¬
self, served in some degree as the model of the Dunciad.
F L E
Flecknoe wrote some plays, but not more than one of them fj E
was ever acted. His comedy called Damoiselles a la Mode
was printed in 1667, and addressed to the Duke and Du-Fle'
chess of Newcastle ; but the players refused to perform it.
His other dramatic pieces were Ermina, or the Chaste
Lady ; Loves Dominion, printed in 1654; and The Mar¬
riage of Oceanus and Britannia. His other works con¬
sist of, 1. Epigrams and Enigmatical Characters, 1670,
in 8vo ; 2. Miscellanea, or Poems of all sorts, with divers
other pieces, 1653, in I2mo ; 3. Diarium, or the Journal,
divided into twelve Jornadas, in burlesque verse, London,
1656, in 12mo. Flecknoe died in 1678. Mr Southey, in
his Omniana, has generally endeavoured to vindicate him
from some of the ridicule thrown upon him as a writer,
and from certain grave reproaches made against his charac¬
ter as a man. (a.)
FLEECE, the covering of wool shorn off the bodies of
sheep. See the article Wool.
FLEET commonly implies a company of ships of war
belonging to any prince or state; but sometimes it de¬
notes any number of trading ships employed in a particular
branch of commerce.
Fleet is also a noted prison in London, where persons
are committed for contempt of the king and his laws, par¬
ticularly of his courts of justice; or for debt, where any
person will not or cannot pay his creditors. See London.
FLEETWOOD, William, a learned English bishop,
descended of an ancient family in Lancashire, was born in
the Tower of London, where his father resided, on the
21st of January 1656. He received his education at Eton,
and at King’s College, Cambridge. About the time of the
Revolution he entered into holy orders, and having soon
become a distinguished preacher, was appointed chaplain
to King William and Queen Mary. By the interest of Dr
Godolphin, vice-provost of Eton, and residentiary of St
Paul’s, he was appointed rector of St Austin’s, London,
which is in the gift of the dean and chapter of St Paul’s ;
and soon afterwards he also obtained the lectureship of St
Dunstan’s in the West. In 1691 he published \i\slnscrip-
tionum Antiquarum Sylloge, in two parts ; one containing
remarkable Pagan inscriptions, and the other ancient
Christian monuments. In 1692 he published a transla¬
tion of Jurieu’s Plain Method of Christian Devotion, the
twenty-seventh edition of which was printed in 1750. In
1701 appeared his Essay on Miracles, which called forth
the animadversions of several writers, particularly Hoad-
ly. In 1704 he published anonymously, The Reasonable
Communicant; and in 1705, Sixteen Practical Discourses
on the relative duties of parents and children, husbands
and wives, masters and servants, with three sermons on the
case of self-murder. Having a natural inclination for the
study of British history and antiquities, he gave a spew-
men of his skill in these pursuits by publishiug, in 1707,
his Chronicon Preciosum, containing an account or t ie
English money, the price of corn and other commodities,
for the preceding six hundred years. In the previous
year he had, without any solicitation on his part, been no¬
minated to the see of St Asaph, upon the death of Beve¬
ridge ; but he was not consecrated until June 1708. 18
conduct as a bishop was highly exemplary, and such as e
came the episcopal character. In 1710 he published a vm
cation of the thirteenth chapter to the Romans, upon t eau
thority of which the regal dignity had been so magnme
some as to make tyranny seem an ordinance ol Go , an
to represent the most abject slavery as founded upon
principles of religion. This degrading doctrine was ig Y
offensive to Bishop Fleetwood, who, in this tract, con en
that, in the chapter referred to, St Paul requires ot nop
pie any more submission to the higher powers than
which is enjoined by the laws of their several coun
F L E
FEE
Flei
Flens
H
In 1712 he published Four Sermons, one on the death of
Queen Mary in 1694, another on that of the Duke of
Gloucester in 1700, a third on that of King William in
41701, and a fourth on the accession of Queen Anne; and
also, the same year, an anonymous tract on Lay Baptism,
according to the Church of England, a subject which then
engaged a good deal of attention. The Life and Miracles
of St Wenefrede, together with her Litanies, appeared in
1713, likewise without his name ; the object of which was
to expose the absurd superstitions by which weak minds
are apt to be influenced, and, in particular, to show the
delusions which had been practised under the names of
pretended saints. In 1714 he was translated from the
see of St Asaph to that of Ely, vacant by the death of Dr
Moore, and continued there till his death, which took
place at Tottenham, Middlesex, on the 4th of August 1723.
The remaining works of Bishop Fleetwood are these: 1. The
Chancellor’s Plea in the Divorce of Sir G. Downing, 1715;
2. Papists not excluded from the Throne on account of
Religion, 1717; 3. A Letter from Mr T. Burdett, exe¬
cuted at Tyburn for the murder of Captain Falkner, to
some attorneys’ clerks of his acquaintance, 1717; 4. A
Letter to an Inhabitant of the Parish of St Andrews, Hol-
born, about New Ceremonies in the Church, 1717; and,
5. A Defence of Praying before Sermon, as directed by
the fifty-fifth canon. All these tracts, howrever, were pub¬
lished without the author’s name. Bishop Fleetwood’s
character stood deservedly high in general estimation. His
virtue was without any alloy of fanaticism, and his piety
wholly untinctured with superstition. He was the friend
of liberty and learning, equally zealous in defending the
one and in encouraging the other. He assisted Dr Hickes
in his great work, Linguarum veterum Septentrionalium
Thesaurus; and Hearne confesses himself to have been
under many obligations to the same excellent person. In
a professional point of view he was unquestionably the best
preacher of his time; and his occasional sermons exhibit a
felicity of adaptation to the circumstances that had called
I them forth, which we should perhaps seek for in vain in any
other compositions of the kind. In a word, Dr Fleetwood
was an honour to the church, of which he was a distin¬
guished member, and an ornament to a hierarchy which
has been illustrated by some of the greatest names to be
found in the history of English literature. (a.)
FLEMINGIANS, or Flan drians, in Ecclesiastical His-
tory, a sect of rigid Anabaptists, who acquired this name
in the sixteenth century, by way of distinction from the
Waterlandians. In consequence of some dissensions among
the Flemingians relative to the treatment of excommuni¬
cated persons, they were divided into two sects, distin¬
guished by the appellations of Flandrians and Friesland-
ws, who differed from each other in their manners and dis¬
cipline. But in process of time many of these came over
to the moderate community of the Waterlandians, whilst
those who continued separate still retained the name of the
old Flemingians or Flandrians. They maintained the opi¬
nion of Menno with respect to the incarnation of Christ;
alleging that his body was produced by the creative
power of the Holy Ghost, and not derived from his mother
Mary.
FLEMISH, or the Flemish Tongue, that which is
otherwise called Low Dutch, to distinguish it from the
ermcm, of which it is a corruption and a kind of dialect,
t differs from the Walloon, which is a corruption of the
reach language. The Flemish is used throughout all the
provinces of the Netherlands.
FLENSBURG, a city of the duchy of Sleswick, in Den-
?ar^' It is finely situated on a fiorde or arm of the sea,
rom which rises hills on three sides, on which the city is
Ul t, and from the sea resembles an amphitheatre. It
contains 1208 houses and 13,109 inhabitants. It is a place
of great trade and manufactures, the chief port to which
ships from the West Indies repair. The manufactures are
numerous, being assisted by good water power. There
are several institutions for education and for charitable
purposes, and some delightful promenades and prospects.
Long. 9. 21. E. Lat. 51. 17. N.
F LESH, in Anatomy, a compound substance, consisting
of the various softer solids of the animal body, and so de¬
nominated in contradistinction to bones. See Anatomy,
passim.
F LETA, the name given to an unknown writer who
lived about the end of the reign of Edward II. and begin¬
ning of Edward III. and who, whilst a prisoner in the Fleet,
w rote an excellent treatise on the common law of England.
FLETCHER. See Beaumont and Fletcher.
Fletcher, Andrew, of Saltoun, a celebrated Scottish
patriot and political writer, was descended from an ancient
family, who traced their origin to some one of the followers
of William the Conqueror. He was the son of Sir Robert
Fletcher of Saltoun and Innerpeffer, and was born in the
year 1650. The tuition of young Fletcher was committed
by his father, on his deathbed, to Mr, afterwards Bishop,
Burnet, then his parish minister, to whose care and at¬
tention he was indebted for a pious, learned, and polite
education. Being endowed with uncommon genius, and
possessed of virtues and abilities peculiarly suited to the
times in which he lived, Mr Fletcher quickly shone forth
the ornament of his country and the champion of its free¬
dom. Having in the course of his classical studies and his¬
torical reading been impressed with an enthusiastic admi¬
ration both of ancient and modern republics, he had early
contracted an ardent love of liberty, and an aversion to
arbitrary rule. Hence his spirit the more readily took
alarm at certain measures in the reign of Charles II. Being
knight of the shire for Lothian to the parliament where the
Duke of York appeared as commissioner, he openly op¬
posed the designs of that prince and the bill of accession;
and he had a share with Lord Viscount Stair in framing
the test act, by which the Duke of York complained that
he had lost Scotland. On these accounts he became pecu¬
liarly obnoxious to his royal highness, and was at last
obliged to fly to Holland, to avoid the fatal consequences
of prosecutions which on various pretences were com¬
menced against him. Being cited before the privy coun¬
cil and justiciary courts, and not appearing, he was de¬
clared a traitor, and his estate confiscated.
In Holland, Fletcher and Baillie of Jerviswood were the
only persons whom the Earl of Argyll consulted concern¬
ing the designs which were then in agitation. In 1681
they came over to England in order to concert matters
with their party in that country ; and they were the only
persons who were entrusted so far as to be admitted to the
secrets of Lord Russell’s council of six. Mr Fletcher ma¬
naged his part of the negotiation with so much address,
that the administration could find no pretext for seizing
him; nor could they fix upon him those articles on ac¬
count of which Baillie was condemned; and to the ho¬
nour of the latter be it remembered, that although offered
a pardon on condition of accusing his friend, he persisted
in rejecting the proposal with indignation.
Mr Fletcher having joined the Duke of Monmouth upon
his landing, received a principal command under him ; but
the duke was deprived of his services owing to a circumstance
which is related by Sir John Dalrymple. Being sent upon
an expedition, and not esteeming “ times of danger to be
times of ceremony, he had seized for his own riding the
horse of a country gentleman (the mayor of Lynne), which
stood ready equipped for its master. The master, hearing
this, ran in a passion to Fletcher, gave him opprobrious
619
Flesh
H
Fletcher.
620
F L E
»»j^i»aKrsX'Sis.!£
s hiria sfiSi&SK's
dieranda gentleman, and" of the affront of a cane, pn ed
out his pistol and shot him dead on the spot. Th® acti
was unpopular in countries where such refinements were
not understood. A clamour was raised against A among
the people of the country ; in abody they waited upon the
duke with their complaints; and he was forced to des re
the only soldier, and almost the only man of parts, m tns
army, to abandon him. With Fletcher all Monmouth s
chance of success in war left him.” In a manuscript me¬
moir belonging to the family there is the following n -
tice concerning Mr Fletcher’s connection with Monmouth,
in which his separation from that prince is very differently
accounted for: “ To Lord Marischal Mr Fletcher explained
the motives which first induced him to join, and afterwa
abandon, the Duke of Monmouth. The former he ascribed
to the duke’s manifesto in Scotland relating to religion, and
in England to liberty. For the latter he accounted by the
disgust produced in his own mind, and that of his asso¬
ciates, when the duke declared himself king, and broke
faith with all who had embarked with him on his principles.
He complained heavily of the account commonly given of
the death of the mayor of Lynne ; and mentioned to Lord
Marischal, in proof of the contrary, that he did not leave
the duke till he came to Taunton, where he was proclaimed
king, several weeks after the death of the mayor of Lynne.
Seeing all the efforts of his friends and of himself in fa¬
vour of liberty frustrated at Taunton, he endeavoured to
secure his own personal freedom by taking his passage in
the first ship bound to a foreign country. It was his mis¬
fortune, however, to land in Spain, where he was imme¬
diately arrested, cast into prison, and guarded by three dif¬
ferent bands of soldiers, till a vessel could be prepared to
carry him a victim in chains to the court of London. But
on the morning upon which the ship was to sail, whilst he
looked pensively through the bars of his window, he was
hailed by a venerable personage, who made signs to speak
with him. The prison doors he found open ; and whilst
his friendly conductor motioned to him to follow, he passed
through three different guards of soldiers all fast asleep.
Without being permitted to offer his thanks to his deli¬
verer, he found himself obliged to prosecute with all speed
his journey, in which he was directed by a person concern¬
ing whom he could never collect any information, and thus
he proceeded in safety through Spain.
During his exile he maintained a frequent and exten¬
sive correspondence with the friends of liberty at home,
and he partly employed himself in making a curious col¬
lection of books. But his genius also prompted him to
engage in more active employments. He repaired to Hun¬
gary, and served several campaigns with much reputation
as a volunteer un^ler the Duke of Lorrain. At length, un¬
derstanding that the great design then projected in Hol¬
land, and upon the issue of which he considered the liber¬
ties of Britain to depend, had obtained a considerable de¬
gree of maturity, he hastened thither, and his counsels and
address were of eminent service to the cause. He came
over with King William ; and in zeal, activity, penetration,
and political skill, proved inferior to none of the leaders
in the Revolution.
Such, however, was his magnanimity, that whilst others
laboured to render this grand event a source of emolument
to themselves and aggrandisement to their families, Mr Flet¬
cher asked for nothing. His estate had been forfeited, and
his house abandoned to military execution ; his fortune was
greatly shattered, and his family reduced to circumstances
of distress; yet nothing was given him in recompense of all
F L E
his sufferings. On the contrary, he had the honour, along F!
with the Duke of Hamilton, to be distinguished by marks ^
of both royal and ministerial dislike. Still, whatever private
resentment he might entertain, his ruling principle was
the good of his country, and to this grand object of his
heart he was willing to sacrifice all personal considerations.
Accordingly, in 1692, when the abdicated king meditated
an invasion, Mr Fletcher addressed a letter, preserved in
Sir John Dalrymple’s collection, to the Duke of Hamilton,
in which every argument is employed with skill and energy
to engage his grace to forget his injuries, and in the actual
crisis to employ the extensive influence which he then pos¬
sessed in the cause of freedom and of his country. This
letter produced its full effect, and the duke returned to his
duty, from which he had in some degree begun to estrange
himself.
To follow our author throughout all the mazes of his po¬
litical life subsequently to the Revolution, is beyond our
purpose, and would exceed our limits. It will be sufficient
to mention one or two additional circumstances illustrative
of his character. Being elected a member for the parlia¬
ment 1693, he showed an uniform zeal for the interest of
his country. The thought of England domineering over
Scotland was what his generous soul could not endure.
The indignities and oppression which Scotland lay under
galled him to the heart; and in his learned and elaborate
discourses he exposed them with undaunted courage and
affecting eloquence. In that great event, the Union, he
performed essential service. He got the act of security
passed, which declared that the two crowns should not be
placed on the same head until Scotland had been secured
in her civil and religious liberties. After the queens de¬
mise, therefore, Lord Godolphin was forced into the Union,
in order to avoid a civil war. Although Mr Fletcher dis¬
approved of some of the articles, and indeed of the whole
frame of the Union ; yet, as the act of security was his own
work, he had all the merit of that important transaction.
We must not omit mentioning, that in the ardour of his
political career Mr Fletcher forgot not the interests of the
place which gave him birth. He esteemed the education
of youth as one of the noblest objects of government. On
this subject he wrote a treatise, still extant, which is most
characteristic of himself; and he established at Saltoun a
foundation for the same purpose, of great utility while it
lasted. This remarkable person died at London in Hlo,
at the age of sixty-six, and his remains were conveyed to
Scotland, where they were deposited in the family vault a
Saltoun. , r ,
Mr Fletcher was master of the English, Latin, uree ,
French, and Italian languages, and well versed in history,
the civil law, and other kinds of learning. In his trave s e
had not only acquired considerable knowledge in tie ?r
of war, but had also become conversant with the respec iv
interests of the several princes and states of Europe,
private life he was affable to his friends, and free fj0™
manner of vice. He had a penetrating, clear, an ive y
apprehension ; but is said to have been too much wee
to opinions, and impatient of contradiction. He was Y ^
the finest speaker in the parliament of Scotland, an
Earl of Stair alone rivalled him. The latter was fame
a splendid, the former for a close and nervous eloquen*
In 1698 he published a Discourse on Governmen
Relation to Militias, and two Discourses concerning mjV
fairs of Scotland. These and some other pieces, 08 ,
with a few of his speeches, were after his death co ^
and rmhlished in an octavo volume, entitled 0
and published in an octavo volume, entitled
Works of Andrew Fletcher, Esq. . . „„
Fletcher, Phineas, an English poet who enj?ye , oin
siderable popularity in his own day, but fegarmng ^
few particulars have descended to posterity. He
F L E
son of Dr Giles Fletcher, who, on account of his abilities,
jj was entrusted by Queen Elizabeth with several important
missions, especially one to Russia, in which he negotiat¬
ed a treaty highly advantageous to England. He publish¬
ed an account of The Russe Commonwealth, which was
at first suppressed, but afterwards reprinted in 1643. Phi-
neas, his eldest son, was educated at Eton, and in 1600
was elected to King’s College, Cambridge, where he took
the degrees of bachelor and master of arts. Having en¬
tered into holy orders, he received the living of Hilgay in
Norfolk in the year 1621. It appears from Blomefield’s
Norfolk, that he continued to officiate in his clerical capa¬
city for twenty-nine years, and it is probable that he died
here. These are all the facts known regarding Phineas
Fletcher, a poet who was styled “ the Spenser of his age,”
but whose fame is scarcely equal to his merit. He w rote
Sicelides, a piscatory drama, which was printed anonymously
in 1631. In the year following he printed at Cambridge
a work entitled JDe literatis antiquce Britannioe, prcesertim
qui doctrina claruerunt, quique collegia Cantabrigice funda-
runt, 12mo. In the year following he printed, in one vol.
4to, his Purple Island, Piscatory Eclogues, and Miscella¬
nies. These poems have all been reprinted, but not fre¬
quently. They are, however, to be found in Anderson’s
British Poets.
The character of Phineas Fletcher appears to have been
mild and amiable, and his contemporaries passed liberal en¬
comiums upon him for his learning and piety. As a poet
he possesses more merit than posterity seems disposed to
attribute to him. The Purple Island is his longest and his
best production. It is an allegorical poem, of which man
is the subject. The first five cantos may be entitled the
anatomy of the human body in rhyme. In the remainder
of the poem the poet quits the dissecting-room for the aca¬
demic grove of intellectual philosophy, and the learning of
the schools. Although the design is bad, and the reader
sickens over anatomical details and abstract subtilties, it
is impossible not to admire the ingenuity with which the
writer has invested them with the flowers of fancy and of
poetry. There is a profusion of images ; and although, as
might have been expected, many of his allegorical perso¬
nations are too elaborately drawn and too highly coloured,
some of them are distinguished by a boldness of outline, a
majesty of manner, a brilliancy of tint, a propriety of attri¬
bute, and an air of life, w hich are rarely met with in mo¬
dern productions, and rival the best things of the kind
even in Spencer, the author from whom he caught his in¬
spiration. Too often, indeed, his conceptions are incon¬
gruous, and his conceits fantastical; but many beautiful
thoughts are interspersed throughout, and the whole is en¬
riched with a vein of genuine poetry.
Fletcher, Giles, brother of the preceding, and of whom
also few memorials remain, was born in the year 1558.
He was bred at Cambridge, and died at his living at Al-
denston in Suffolk, in the year 1623. He is principally
known as the author of Christ’s Victory and Triumph over
and after Death, a poem characterized by a tone of enthu¬
siasm peculiarly solemn. Like his brother, he wras an imi¬
tator of Spencer, and, with the diction of the latter slightly
modernized, he retains much of his melody and luxuriant
expression. Giles Fletcher, there can be no doubt, is in¬
ferior both to Spencer and Milton, but he frequently re¬
minds us of both ; and it seems evident that the latter was
indebted to him for hints, particularly with reference to Pa¬
radise Regained ; and some of the finest parts of Paradise
Los« appear likewise to have been suggested by passages in
Christ s Victory and Triumph. Although in several parts
rather fantastical and quaint, that poem is a fine effusion
°f genius, and one of the best productions of the kind in
the language.
F L E 621
FLETEWOOD, William, an eminent English lawyer Fletewood
and recorder of London in the reign of Queen Elizabeth. II
He was very zealous in suppressing mass-houses, and in Fleury.
imprisoning Roman Catholic priests; but having once ' 
rushed in upon mass at the Portuguese ambassador’s house,
he was committed to the Fleet for breach of privilege.
Mr Wood says he was a learned man and a good anti¬
quary, but of a marvellous merry and pleasant conceit.
He was a good popular speaker, and wrote well upon sub¬
jects of government. His principal works are, 1. Annalium
tarn regum Edwardi V. Richardi III. et Henrici VII. quam
Henrici VIII.; 2. A Table of the Reports of Edmund
Plowden ; 3. The Office of a Justice of Peace. He died
about the year 1593.
FLEURY, Claude, sub-preceptor of the young princes
of France, was the son of an advocate before the council,
originally from Rouen, and born at Paris on the 6th of De¬
cember 1640. He studied under the Jesuits, in the Col¬
lege of Clermont, where he passed six years ; and he ever
afterwards cherished sentiments of the liveliest gratitude
towards his kind and able masters. Being intended by his
father for the bar, he now applied himself to the study of
the civil law and of history, to which he added the belles-
lettres, for which he had a strong predilection, and he was
admitted as an advocate before the parliament of Paris in
1658. He remained at the bar nine years, during which
time the peaceable life he led, a natural taste for solitude,
and religious sentiments, the fruits of his early education,
insensibly produced in his mind an inclination for the
church. As soon as his resolution was fixed, he made a
corresponding change in his pursuits, and the works which
had hitherto been the objects of his study were replaced
by theology, the fathers, ecclesiastical history, and the
canon law, in all which he became very learned. He had
already been some time in priest’s orders, when, in 1672,
he was chosen, on account of his merit, as preceptor to the
sons of the Prince of Conti, who were educated along with
the dauphin. At the expiration of this engagement, the
king, who had occasion to observe and appreciate his merit,
entrusted him with the education of the Count of Yerman-
dois, which, however, he did not complete, as this young
prince died in 1683. In 1684, the king conferred on him
the abbey of Loc-Dieu, belonging to the order of Citeaux
and in 1689, appointed him sub-preceptor to the Dukes of
Burgundy, Anjou, and Berry. The Abbe Fleury having
thus found himself associated with Fenelon, shared the la¬
bour which that illustrious prelate bestowed on the educa¬
tion of his august pupils, and contributed essentially to its
success. It was in 1696, whilst he was still occupied with
the instruction of the princes, that he was named one of
the forty of the French Academy to fill the place of La
Bruyere. In other respects he led as retired a life at court
as he could have done in the most profound solitude. En¬
tirely occupied w ith the duties of his office, to which he de¬
voted himself without reserve, he had but few moments of
leisure; but these, when he could command them, were
given to useful pursuits. When the education of the princes
was completed, Louis, wdio not only knew howto distinguish
talents, but also howto reward them, conferred on Fleury the
rich priory of Argenteuil; upon which the abbe, faithful to
the discipline established by the canons, resigned his abbey
into the hands of the king. It was then that, free from all
care, he devoted himself entirely to pursuits worthy a man
of his station; but Louis XIV. having died, in 1716, he
was recalled to the court by the regent, to become con¬
fessor to the young king. In appointing him to this office
the regent is reported to have said, “ I have chosen you
because you are neither Jansenist, nor Mohnist, nor U -
tramontanist.” Fleury discharged with zeal and sagacity
the delicate functions of his new situation, which, however,
622
Fleurus
II
Flinders
Island.
F L I
he resigned in 1722, by reason of his great age. He died
on the Hth of July 1723, in his eighty-third year, hleury
was alike remarkable for his great learning and extreme
simplicity of manners; in him Christian humility was blend¬
ed with true dignity, and the gentlest disposition wi h the
He was mild, afiable, benign, charitable , an
Pro-
F L I
the south coast of New Holland. Seals are numerous on F
the beach, and a species of kangaroo not larger than a cat
is also found there. Long. 134. 27. E. Lat. 33. 41. S.
FLINT, a mineral which is principally composed of si- ^
lica. See Mineralogy.
Flint, the county town of Flintshire, in North Wales,
an an-
_ s of
Rhyddlan, Overton, Caerwys, and Caergoety, returns one
member to the House of Commons. It is resorted to in
summer for sea-bathing. Though the assizes are held at
Mold, the county jail is at Flint. The population amounted
in 1801 to 1169, in 1811 to 1433, in 1821 to 1612, and in
1831 to 2216.
FLINTSHIRE, a county of North Wales. It consists of
a narrow tract of land, about twenty-eight miles in length,
but varying considerably in its breadth, though in no part
excellent, was cultivated with infinite labour; and
was as carefully disciplined as his understanding,
found knowledge, sterling rectitude of principle, innocent
manners, a simple, laborious, and edifying life, sincere mo¬
desty, admirable disinterestedness, unfailing regularity, and
the utmost fidelity in the discharge of all his duties; such
are the traits of the character of Fleury as delineated by
his contemporaries ; a character which, in their judgment,
wMch fo^hfFrfoimTschote, the honesfnZ, and the exceeding ten miles. The Irish Sea partly bounds it on
devout Christian The following is a list of the numerous the north ; the nver Dee and part of Cheshire on the
Ss which he left behind him, part of which were com- north and north-east side ; and the county of Denb,gh
po" d during brief snatches of leisure, whilst occupied with on the south and west s,des. A portion of the county is
the education of his different royal and noble pupils: 1. detached from the rest by the interposition of a par of
Hilire du Droit Fmncais, 1674, in 12mo; 2. Catechisms Denbighshire. It is divided into five hundreds, viz. Coles-
Historiaue Paris, 1679, in 12mo; 3. Les Mceurs des Is- hill, Maylor, Mold, Prestatyn, and Rhyddlan. The river
raelites Paris 1681, in 12mo; 4. Les Mceurs des Chre- Dee formerly w'ashed the walls of the ancient castle of
tiens 1682 in 12mo ; 5. La Vie de la venerable mere Mar- Flint, the county town, but has of late considerably receded,
querite d'Arbouze, abbesse et reformatrice du Val-de- Grace, and it has now no means of carrying on commerce by sea,
Paris 1684 in 8vo; 6. Trade du choix et de la methode except in very small vessels; and it is necessary that those
des Etudes Paris 1686, inl2mo; 1. Institution au Droit should be so constructed as to remain dry, during low water,
Ecclesiastique, Paris, 1687, in 2 vols. 12mo ; 8. Les Devoirs without injury. Mold, the town at which the assizes are
des Maltres et des Domestiques, Paris, 1688, in 12mo ; 9. held, has rapidly increased, owing in some measure to the
La Traduction Latine de VExposition de la Doctrine de establishment of very extensive mills for spinning cotton m
lEqlise Catholique par Bossuet, Antwerp, 1678, in 12mo ; its vicinity. The city of St Asaph is neither distinguished
10. Histoire Ecclesiastique, Paris, 1691 and the following by its extent nor the beauty of its buildings. Its situation,
years, in 20 vols. 4to, continued by Pere Fabre, of the on the side of a hill, the summit of which is crowned by
Oratory, Paris, 1726 and the following years, in 16 vols. the cathedral, and between the rivers Clwyd and Elwy, is
4to, making in all 36 vols. 4to; 11. Discours sur I’His- very imposing, and strikes the traveller forcibly as he ap-
toire Ecclesiastique, Paris, 1802, in 8vo; 12. Discours proaches it. Though the immediate vicinity of this city
sur les Liberies de I'Eglise Gallicane, 1724. Besides these has a sterile appearance, yet the views near it in one direc-
works, the Abbe Fleury was also the author of the follow- tion over the enchanting vale of Clwyd, and in another oyer
ing, viz. 1. Discours sur la Predication, 1773, in 12mo; the diversified landscape which terminates with the ruins
2. Trade du Droit publique de France, 1769, in 4 vols. of the castle of Denbigh, present to the eye of those who
12mo ; 3. Le Soldat Chretien, 1772, in 12mo ; 3. Lettres have a taste for beautiful scenery a most delightful treat.
d Santeul, et deux Lettres en vers Latins ; 4. Discours sur The diocese of St Asaph extends nearly over the whole
la Poesie et notamment sur celle des Hebreux ; 3. Portrait of the county, and, from several livings which are held in
du Ducde Bourgogne, et Avis pour ce Prince; 6. Rdjlexions commendam by the bishop, is a very lucrative preferment.
sur Machiavel; 7. Lettres sur la Justice ; 8. Pensees tirees The Episcopal chair has, since the Reformation, been filleu
de Saint-Augustin ; 9. Memoires pour le Roi d'Espagne ; by many prelates of most distinguished character. Morgan
10. Discours Academiques. All the works of the Abbe
Fleury, with the exception of the Ecclesiastical History,
were collected by Rondet, under the titles of Opuscules,
Nismes, 1780, in 5 vols. 8vo; but M. Emery, superior-
general of the Congregation of Saint-Sulpice, published a
wns translated to this see in 1601, as a reward for his emi¬
nent acquirements as an oriental linguist. He was employe
in translating the sacred writings into the Welsh language,
as well as in a part of the English edition commonly ca
ed Queen Elizabeth’s Bible. Dr Isaac Barrow, uncle to
volume entitled iVcmreawa; Opuscules, Paris, 1807, in 12mo, the celebrated mathematician, was eminent for his mmu
containing several unedited pieces, some of them possess- cence to the see, as well as for his profound learning. 1 o
ing considerable merit. . pious Beveridge, during a few of his last years, was bishop o
FLEURUS, a small town of the province of West Flan- St Asaph ; and the chair has been since filled by the ami-
ders, in the circle of Charleroy, containing 600 inhabitants, able and learned Shipley, and the pow erful and energetic
and remarkable for the htutloc tLii.t-Lf icoo icon Horsley r,w.. nf lore much improved
and remarkable for the battles fought there in 1622, 1690,
1794, and 1815, though the last is more frequently desig¬
nated the battle of Ligny.
FLEXIBLE, in Physics, a term applied to bodies capa¬
ble of being bent or deflected from their natural figure or
direction.
1 LEX OR, in Anatomy, a name applied to several mus¬
cles, which are so called from their office, which is to bend
the parts to which they belong, in opposition to the exten¬
sors, which open or stretch them.
FLINDERS Island, is an island in the form of an irre¬
gular quadrangle of from three to five miles each side on
j-iuioicj. The cathedral has been of late much impr
and beautified by the bounty of Bishop Bagot, and t e 1
beral contributions of the nobility and gentry of the coun v.
It was built about the year 1480, upon a foundation o dMC
more ancient date; it is in length from east to wes
feet, and in breadth from north to south 108 feet. ^
most important place in this county, from its wealth, is p
pulation, and its continued increase, is the town of o y
well, deriving its name from the well of St Wene re ,
which, in the ages of credulity, was supposed to P0Sj._,
miraculous pow ers of healing, but has of late been app ^
to better purposes than nurturing such superstitions.
Flo
FLO
there are many Catholics in Flintshire, the belief in the mi¬
raculous power of this spring is not wholly extinct, nor have
the pilgrimages to it altogether ceased. So late as 1805,
^ indeed, a very zealous attempt w as made to revive the credit
of the saint, and establish faith in the wonderful cures
achieved by bathing in her well. A case was narrated, ac¬
companied with certificates, and a challenge given to all
who doubted of the miracle, by an appeal to facts which,
however it might confirm the faith of the saint’s votaries,
had no influence beyond that narrow circle.
The productions of Flintshire which deserve most notice
are the minerals, the preparation of which gives employment
to a considerable share of the population. Coals are found in
abundance, chiefly near the banks of the Dee, and in other
parts near the surface, and in very thick seams. The city
of Chester is principally supplied with its fuel from hence,
and considerable quantities were shipped for Ireland before
the change in the course of the Dee, and before the coal
mines of Lancashire and Cumberland had attained their
present extent. Lead is most copiously raised from a very
extensive mining tract near Holywell; and in the same ex¬
cavations is raised most excellent limestone, applicable to
the purposes of agriculture as well as building, and so hard
that it will bear a high polish, in fact a kind of marble. Be¬
low the limestone is found petrosilex, which is ground and
becomes very valuable in the manufacture of earthenware.
Calamine is found in considerable quantities ; a part is ex¬
ported, but much is used within the county in the prepa¬
ration of brass. The lead is divided by the miners into two
kinds; that called cubic, or dice ore, is generally used in
glazing earthenware ; the other, called white, or steel- grain¬
ed ore, is principally cast into pigs for distant consumption :
this latter contains a portion of silver sufficient to defray
the expense of separating the metals, and several thousand
ounces have been annually extracted. The workmen in
the lead mines are visited with maladies which both embit¬
ter and shorten their lives.
The manufactories of this county are very considerable,
and have taken that course which the natural productions
seem to have indicated. Brass is made by the mixture of
copper with calamine, and formed into the different shapes
to fit it for domestic and commercial purposes. Copper-worJks,
under the Pargs Mine Company, are constructed, and pro¬
duce large quantities of copper sheathing, bolts, nails, and
FLO
other necessaries for naval equipment, as well as brass wire
manlffiTr'fer ^tlcles' The P°tteries are very extensive, and
manufacture arge quantities of the inferior kinds of earth- ,
enware, which supply the consumption of a great part of
Wales, and export considerable quantities to Ireland. Be-
stdes those manufactories which the minerals have introdu¬
ced, the fine stream that issues from the well of St Wene-
trede has attracted the attention of cotton-spinners, who
have erected a most powerful mass of machinery They
carry on the operatiops of carding and spinning cotton to
a great extent. . r r &
The agriculture of this county is in a neglected state,
drawing to it a very insufficient portion of its capital; and
hence few improvements have been adopted of late years.
Near the banks of the Dee there is some good corn land
of a clayey texture, on which, after a fallow, good wheat is
grown. The meadows in this part produce excellent herb¬
age, and the cows afford the best possible butter. The
northern part of the county is generally a level country,
and well calculated for the growth of wheat, oats, and beans.
On the higher lands rye is cultivated, but those lands are
very imperfectly tilled, and nearly destitute of manure.
The rich vale of Mold forms a striking contrast with the
moi e mountainous parts of the county, and yields very good
butter, corn, and meat.
The ruins of ancient edifices, and other antiquities, are
numerous, and invite the attention of the antiquarian. A
few years ago, whilst digging for the purpose of laying the
foundation of a copper work, a Roman hypocaust, or hot
bath, was discovered, furnished with numerous flues, co¬
vered with tiles of a red colour; a clear evidence that the
county had been anciently inhabited by some persons ac¬
quainted with the luxuries of Rome.
Few counties, in proportion to their extent, contain so
many gentlemen’s seats as Flintshire. The most remarkable
are, Mostyn Hall, Sir Thomas Mostyn; Pengewern, Sir Ed¬
ward Pryce Lloyd; Boddlewyddan, Sir John Williams;
Kinmael Hall, Reverend Edward Hughes; Gwernhailed,
Philip Lloyd Fletcher, Esq.; Hanmer Hall, Sir Thomas
Hanmer; Downing, David Pennant, Esq.; Halken, Earl
Grosvenor; Adwynt, J. Roberts, Esq.; Llewenny Hall,
Lord Kirkwall.
The following are the returns of the population for the
years ending 1811, 1821, and 1881.
YEARS.
1811
1821
1831
8816
9973
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
9740
10,611
155
147
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
4086
4421
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
3009
3531
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
2645
2659
PERSONS.
Males.
22,712
26,733
29,924
Females.
23,806
27,051
30,088
Total of
Persons.
46,518
53,784
60,012
See Agricultural Survey of North Wales; Wynne’s History of Wales ; Aikin’s Tour in North Wales. (g.)
FLIP, a sort of drink, composed of malt liquor, brandy,
and sugar, and in great favour among sailors.
*LOAT, a certain quantity of timber bound together
, 1 rafters athwart, and put into a river to be conveyed
down the stream.
FLOATING Bodies are those which swim on the sur-
ace of a fluid, the most interesting of which are ships and ves-
in commerce and war. See Ship-Building.
FOOD, a deluge or inundation of waters. See the
article Deluge.
Flood is also used in speaking of the tide. When the
water is at the lowest, it is called ebb ; when rising, young
Jlood; when at the highest, high flood; when beginning to
fall, ebb water.
FLOOD-mark, the mark which the sea makes on the shore
at flowing water and the highest tide. It is also called high-
water mark.
FLOOR, in building, the underside of a room, or that
part which we walk on. See Building.
FLORA, the reputed goddess of flowers, was, according
623
Flood
II
Flora.
FLO
Xp a™u^ebrated ^
“i£5SS£p“5£
isssss
Sabine deity, and thinks that her worship might have com
Xr/SrVmulu, His ~ tMt Vajro m h.
fourth book of the Latin tongue, ranks Flora amongst tne
deities to whom Tatius king of the Sabines offered up vows
before he joined battle with the Romans. The goddess
Flora was according to the poets, the wife of Zephyrus.
HeMmage Hie temple of c'astor and Pollux was dressed
in a close habit, with the flowers of peas and beans in the
hand; but the modern poets and painters have been moie
lavish in setting off her charms, considering that no parts
nature offered such innocent and exquisite entertainment,
as the beautiful variety which adorns, and the odour which
embalms, the floral creation. , r-
FLORAC, an arrondissement of the department ox the
Lozere, in France, extending over 660 square miles. It is
divided into seven cantons, and these into fifty-five com¬
munes, containing 43,500 inhabitants. The capital is the
town of the same name situated on the river lornou,
which falls into the Tarn. It contains 340 houses, with
2160 inhabitants. . . . .
FLORALES Lum, or Floral Games, m Antiquity,
were games celebrated in honour of Flora, the goddess of
flowers. The ludi florales, according to Pliny (lib. xvni.
c. 29), were instituted by order of an oracle of the Sibyls,
on the 28th of April; not in the year of Rome ioxvi. as
we commonly read it in the ancient editions of that author,
nor in ioxiv. as Hardouin has corrected it, but, as Vossius
reads it, in 513 ; though they were not regularly held every
year till after 580. They were chiefly held in the night
time, in the patrician street; but some will have it there
was a circus for the purpose on the hill called Hortulorum.
FLORALIA, in Antiquity, a general name for the feasts,
games, and other ceremonies, held in honour of the goddess
Flora.
FLORENCE, a city, the capital of the grand duchy of
Tuscany, and of the division of it of the same name. The
department of Florence comprehends the extensive valley
of the Arno, and a great portion of the Appennine Moun¬
tains, and extends over 3652 square miles, divided into
thirty-three vicariates, and containing 643,385 inhabitants.
The city of Florence is at the foot of the Appennines, in a
beautiful and fertile valley, and is watered by the Arno,
which divides it into two unequal parts. It is surrounded
with fortifications, but of no great military strength. It has
seven gates, of which that of St Gallo is distinguished by a
noble marble triumphal entrance. It is divided into four
wards, and contains seventeen piazzas, 172 churches, twelve
hospitals, many noble private palaces, 9000 dwellings, and
75,200 inhabitants. The streets are not altogether regular
or wide, but they are kept clean, are well paved, and lighted
by night. The Via Larga is distinguished by many large
and magnificent palaces ; but the Corso, in which races are
held, is the favourite promenade of the fashionable people.
The finest view of the city is, however, to be seen from the
piazza of Santa Maria to the palace Pitti, the grand ducal
residence. The cathedral, the galleries, the churches, the
obelisks, and the fountains, are the most magnificent of any
FLO
in Italy, and deserve a description more detailed than the jv :nc{
compass of this notice will allow. The institutions for cha¬
rity, and the establishments for instruction, especially in the F da.
fine* arts, are upon an extensive and liberal plan. ThereV
are three public libraries; the Laurenziana with 120,000
volumes, the Machlibecchiana with 90,000, and the Mar-
celliana with 40,000. Florence was formerly one of the
most distinguished manufacturing places of Italy, and the
various kinds of silk goods and of fine black cloth there
produced still maintain a high reputation. Besides these,
it produces table and other linen, woollen cloths, carpets,
caps, soap, perfumery, and essences, lacquered and silvered
ware, and many works in alabaster and marble. Florence
has produced many individuals eminent in arts, science,
and literature ; among others, Machiavelli the political
writer ; Dante Allighieri, Luigi Rucellai, Menzini, and
Filicaja, poets ; Guicciardini the historian, Michel Angelo
Buonarotti the artist, Galileo the astronomer, Amerigo
Vespuccio the navigator, Lully the musician, and the
artists of the school of this city. It is in long. 11. 0. 25.
E. lat. 43. 46. 30. N. ,, . tx
Florence, an ancient piece of English gold coin. Every
pound weight of standard gold was ordained to be coined
into fifty Florences, to be current at six shillings each;
or into a proportionate number of half Florences, or quar¬
ter pieces, by indenture of the mint. See 18 Edw. III.
FLORES, or Ende, an island in the Eastern Seas, ex¬
tending about 200 miles in length by forty or fifty in breadth,
at the extremity of which is a strait called Flores Strait.
Near the coast is a fine open country, but the interior parts
are mountainous and woody ; and there is said to be a vol¬
cano in the centre. Sandal wood was formerly obtained
here in great abundance, but it is now grown scarce. At a
village in the straits which separate Flores from Sabraon
and Solor, European vessels procure refreshments in ex¬
change for ammunition, coarse cutlery, and other articles.
The island belongs to the sultan of Beema, in the island ot
Sambawa, who derives a considerable revenue hom the
edible bird-nests found in it. The Portuguese formerly
resided in it; and their descendants, or those calling them¬
selves such, and professing the Roman catholic religion, are
still dispersed over the island. The island is situated be¬
tween the 120th and 123d degrees of east longitude, and
the 8th and 9th degrees of south latitude.
FLORIDA, a country of North America, now belong¬
ing to the United States. It is about 450 miles in lengt ,
and has an average breadth of about 120 miles. is
prehended between the parallels of 80. 25. and 8 . ■ •
long, and 25. and 31. N. lat. Formerly it wasseparate
into two political divisions, whose geographical hmits wem
strongly marked by nature, viz. East and W est
But this division has ceased to exist, and the tvvo
now constitute one government. It is bounde
north by Alabama and Georgia, on the east y
lantic Ocean, and on the south and west by xe ^
Mexico. - The northern part of the western bounday
formed by the river Perdido, which separates i
bama. Florida formerly extended as far west as tne
sissippi, the northern boundary being formed by ^ e
River from the ocean to its source, thence y a * ® iach.
to the point where Flint River unites with t ie PP .
icola, thence up the Appalachicola to ypgsis-
31. N. and thence due west on that parallel to me 1
sippi. The part lying between the Mississippi a ^
River is now included in the state of Louisiana,
River is now included in the state ox Ljouisia > t teS 0f
part between the Pearl and the Perdido, in „
Mississippi and Alabama. The part east of e ^ gup.
under the territorial government of Florida. ^
posed that this country contains about twenty-
of acres of marketable land.
FLORIDA.
625
It is now generally admitted that Florida was discover-
f ed in 1497 by Sebastian Cabot. In 1512, however, it was
more fully explored by the Spaniards under Juan Ponce
de Leon, who gave this region its name from Pasqua Flo¬
rida, or Palm Sunday, probably the day on which land was
descried. For a long time the name was general, in Spa¬
nish works, for the whole Atlantic coast of North America.
The first effectual settlement of the country was made in
1524. Four years afterwards an expedition was under¬
taken by Pamphilo de Narvaez, with 400 men, from the
island of Cuba. He penetrated into the interior of the
country, but was never heard of more. In 1538 Florida
was entirely subdued by Fernan de Soto, an officer in the
Spanish service, after a long and bloody struggle with the
natives. In 1564 the French also obtained a footing in the
country, owing to the facility with which they gained the
good will of the natives, and the readiness which the latter
displayed in assisting them against the Spaniards. They
formed little settlements along the shore, but these were
ultimately destroyed by the Spaniards. In 1597 the French
made severe reprisals against their European enemies,
but from this time they abandoned their settlements in this
part of North America. In 1586 the town of St Augus¬
tine was attacked and pillaged by Sir Francis Drake ; and
in 1665 it was also entered and plundered by a body of
bucanneers under Captain Davis. In 1702, Colonel More,
with a body of troops, besieged this town for three months;
but the Spaniards having come to its relief, he was com¬
pelled to retreat. Another attempt to take St Augustine
was made in 1740, but without success. In 1763 Florida
was ceded to Britain by Spain, which received Havannah
in exchange. The British government gave great encou¬
ragement to agriculture, and numerous colonists poured
into the country from various parts of Europe, as well as
from Great Britain. This is regarded as the most flourish¬
ing period in its history. It was, however, by a well-con¬
certed scheme of the Spaniards, reconquered in 1781, and
guaranteed to them by the peace of 1783. In 1819 nego¬
tiations were commenced between the United States and
Spain, for the cession of Florida to the former ; and a treaty
to that effect was entered into. This treaty was ratified
shortly afterwards, and in July 1821 Florida was finally
taken possession of by General Jackson, by order of the
i government of the United States, to which it now entire¬
ly belongs.
As the whole province is a peninsula, it presents an ex¬
tended point to the sea, and from its position, as well as its
formation, is calculated, when peopled, to enjoy a consider¬
able share of navigation; but the want of secure bays and
harbours, and the dangerous bars at the mouths of its
rivers, will prevent any sanguine expectations of its speedy
pre-eminence from being realized.
From the uncommon flatness of the country on the sea
shore, and from its being intersected by numerous rivers,
there is perhaps no part of the world of the same extent
which has so many inlets, sounds, narrow passes of water
between the islands, and communications of one point
of the shore with another by means of inland channels.
The whole coast is almost a continued line of these sounds;
and it is contemplated that, at a comparatively small ex¬
pense, a canal, communicating with the sea in a hundred
places, might be made from New Orleans to the river St
“ary- Almost all the rivers, before discharging them¬
selves into the gulf, spread into broad lakes, which are
requently joined by a natural canal, containing from four
to six feet of water. Perdido Bay, which divides Alaba¬
ma from Florida, is thirty miles in length and from two to
six in breadth. Pensacola Bay is of about the same length,
ut of greater breadth ; it receives several rivers, and af-
ords the best harbour on the whole shores of the gulf.
VOL. XI.
Chactawhatchee Bay is forty miles in length, and from Florida,
seven to fifteen in breadth. It is connected with Pensa- ’
cola Bay by St Rosa Sound, a fine sheet of water, about
forty miles in length and from one and a half to two miles
in breadth. There are a number of other bays, but of
smaller dimensions than those above mentioned.
All the rivers which have long courses rise in the high
lands of Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. St Marys,
which is for a long way the separating line between Flo¬
rida and Georgia, is a very considerable stream, which
falls into the Atlantic by a broad mouth, but is only navi¬
gable for a short distance. St John’s is also a large river;
it rises in the centre of the peninsula, and flowing with a
gentle current in a northerly direction, spreads into a wide
channel, and passes through several lakes, the largest of
which, St George, is twenty miles long and twelve broad,
and finally falls into the sea forty miles to the south of St
George. It has been navigated by a steam-boat. Most
of the rivers which fall into the gulf have their sources in
Georgia. The most important of these is Appalachicola,
which divides East from West Florida. It is formed by the
conjunction of two considerable streams, and is the longest,
largest, and most important river in Florida. Besides those
above mentioned, there are a great number of other rivers
which fall into the gulf at different points. Indeed the
whole country is intersected by them, and so furnished
with inlets, and level in the soil, that there is no part of
the territory at any considerable distance from water com¬
munication. The value of the rivers, however, is consider¬
ably depreciated by most of them having a bar at their
mouth, which prevents vessels drawing much water from
entering. But schooner and steam-boat navigation is
practicable to a considerable extent.
The sea islands on the Florida shore are not of much
importance. St Rosa island is a long and narrow slip pa¬
rallel to the coast, between St Rosa Bay and Pensacola.
The Tortugas are a group of islands opposite the southern¬
most point of East Florida ; they are covered with man¬
grove bushes, and extend from north-east to south-west.
Anastasia, which is opposite to St Augustine, and divided
from the mainland by a narrow channel, is twenty-five
miles in length. They are covered with pine trees and
sand banks, and have a sterile soil. On the West Florida
shore are Hummoch, Crooked, St Vincent’s, St George’s,
Dog, and James’ Islands.
There are a vast number of springs, fountains, and lakes
in Florida. The subterranean waters frequently burst
forth in the form of vast boiling springs, which form rivers
at a short distance from their outlets, and by their fre ¬
quency, their singular forms, the transparency of their wa¬
ters, and the multitude of their fishes, constitute one of
the most striking curiosities of the country. There is a
spring or outlet of immense size situated about twelve
miles from Tallahasse. It has a depth of about two hun¬
dred and fifty fathoms. The waters, like those of the gulf,
have a cerulean tinge, and are of aerial transparency.
Amongst the other curiosities of Florida may be mention¬
ed a number of natural caverns and bridges, some of which
are of considerable dimensions. The antiquities consist of
great roads, causeways, forts, and other indications ot for¬
mer occupation.
The climate of Florida may be considered as in some
respects tropical, but the northern belt of country, which
lies along the southern limits of Georgia and Alabama, par¬
takes of the cooler temperature of those states, and is re¬
markably salubrious. The regular range of the thermo¬
meter throughout Florida, from June to the autumnal equi¬
nox, is between eighty-four and eighty-eight degrees oi
Fahrenheit. The mercury occasionally rises to above 1UU ,
but this seldom occurs. There is generally a sky of mild
626
Florida.
FLORIDA.
azure, a southern breeze, and an air of great purity; but
even in winter the influence of the unclouded and almost
vertical sun is uncomfortable
The evening air, however,
oaks was commenced at Deer Point, and in 1829 upwards V);
of 76,000 were growing in a flourishing condition. The ^
cabbage palm, or chamarops palmetto, is common, and grows
   , to a areat height. The leaves of this superb tree are
is very humid, and the dews are excess) . ^ manufactured into hats, baskets, and mats. In the deep
sular parts there are sometimes shg ’ bear swanips immeasurable cypress trees shoot up in straight co-
dom or never freezes. The most delicate orange trees bear
fruit in full perfection, and of a delicious quality. The rainy
season commences only in winter, and the sultry season
begins in June and ends with the autumnal equinox, me
peninsular parts being nearer the tropics, have a higher
temperature than West Florida, which is of asmnally fan¬
ned by Canadian breezes, sweeping the valley of the Mis
sissippi. Like the West Indies, the peninsula is subject to
tornados; and during the autumnal equinox hurricanes and
destructive gales sometimes occur. There are m particu¬
lar seasons indications of considerable humidity over the
whole country; and the same sudden variations or tem¬
perature which constitute so distinct a feature m alf the
south-western parts of the United States are experienced
here. The unremitting heat which prevails, and the fre¬
quent rains which fall from June to October, are apt to ge¬
nerate the fevers of southern climates, especially in places
which lie in the vicinity of ponds and marshes. On the
wnicii lie m uic v*—    - n j
other hand, it may be safely asserted that those parts of and mangrove
swamps immeasurable cypress trees shoot up in straight co¬
lumns, the foliage of which is closely interwoven at the top,
forming a canopy of verdure of vast extent. On the ham¬
mock lands, the beautiful dog-wood trees spread their hori¬
zontal branches, which, interlacing each other, form a fine
deep shade, impervious to the rays of the sun, and surpass¬
ing the growth of all vegetation underneath. Here also may
be seen the beautiful pawpaw, which has a stem perfectly
straight, smooth, and silver-coloured, with a conical top of
evergreen foliage, and fruit of the richest appearance. Titi
is the name of a shrub which fills the southern swamps, as
the elder does those of the north. It flowers in masses of
white ornamental blossoms, and has singular strings of co¬
vered seeds, which hang on the bushes till winter. Five
or six species of pine are found here. The southern extre¬
mity of Florida is very rocky. Instead of the trees and
shrubs which are found in the rest of the country, it is co¬
vered with mastic, lignumvitsc, gum elemy, ovino, wild fig,
Florida which are removed from swamps and other stag¬
nant waters are healthy.
The lands of Florida, in their general character, are light
and sandy; and they are represented as not capable of sus¬
taining a continual succession of exhausting crops. Con¬
siderable tracts in different parts are fertile ; but by far the
greater part is sterile or unproductive. The lands have been
divided into seven varieties: 1. Pine Barrens, which con¬
stitute a great part of the country. They produce vast
quantities of yellow and pitch pine ; also shrubs in great
variety, and a wiry grass, which yields sustenance to nu¬
merous herds of cattle. In wet seasons, orchards of peach
and mulberry trees flourish remarkably well on these lands.
2. Hammock Land. This variety, which constitutes the
main body of good land, is so called because it rises in
mounts or small tufts among the pines. Most of the islands
remote from the sea are of this kind, which is adapted to
sugar cane, cotton, indigo, potatoes, and pulse. 3. Prairies.
These are of two kinds; one of them, found in the pine
barrens, has a covering of sand, and is sterile ; and the
other, which is covered with wild grass, is met with on high
lands. 4. Swamps. These are of two kinds, the river and
inland swamps ; the latter are the most valuable, producing
rich crops of rice, and, in some instances, the best cot¬
ton, corn, and indigo, in the country. 5. Marshes, some
of which are covered with salt water, and others with fresh.
The fresh-water marshes produce an abundance of wild
oats. 6. A species of marsh called Gallen, consisting of
water courses covered with strong earth, which trembles
like jelly when touched. 7. Elevated grounds covered with
large trees of different species.
Florida is not rich in minerals, although it is affirmed
that several kinds of precious stones have been found in it.
There are many traces of ruined towers and Indian vil¬
lages, together with other indications of former occupation;
and wherever these are discovered, there may also be seen
those groves of lime, orange, peach, and fig trees, which are
spoken of by travellers as having been found here indige¬
nous to the soil. Wild grape vines abound. Myrica odo-
rata, or candle berry laurel, is common ; and from the ber¬
ries of this plant an excellent kind of wax for candles is
prepared. Among other flowers is found the magnificent
Hybiscus, which, though an herbaceous and annual plant,
grows to the height of ten feet, branching regularly in the
form of a sharp cone. It is covered with large crimson
flowers, which unfold in succession during the whole of the
summer months. Tillandsia usneoides, long moss or Spanish
beard, is common here. It hangs down in festoons, some¬
times from ten to fifteen feet in length, like the pendent
stems of the weeping willow. The fibre, when properly
prepared, is elastic and incorruptible, and in many respects
resembles horse hair, both in appearance and use. It is used
for stuffing cushions, saddles, and the like.
The low savannahs are covered, like the prairies of the
upper country, with a prodigious growth of grass and flow¬
ers. In the swamps, the cane brakes are of great height
and thickness, and the rushes, and other meadow plants,
grow to an uncommon size. Some of the reed canes are
seen from thirty to forty feet in height. The lakes an
creeping bayous, especially in summer, are covered wit a
curious species of aquatic plant, called by botanists pis w
stratiotes. It somewhat resembles the vegetable commonly
called house-leek, and has a beautiful elliptical leaf. W en
the roots of thousands of these plants have twined together,
so as to form a large and compact surface, the mass is o en
drifted by the wind or current to a considerable distance.
tnat several kinus ot precious stones nave been tound m it. dnited by the wind or current to a consiuciauic ^
Pit coal, iron ore, and ochres of different colours, are, how- and thus presents the appearance of a floating is an o
ever, abundant. considerable extent. The herbarium of this country is ex-
The vegetable kingdom in Florida displays greater va- ceedingly rich and diversified. The cultivated vegeta es
riety than is to be found in any other part of the United are, maize, beans, potatoes, especially sweet potatoes, P^P
States. In the hammock lands, on the river courses, and kins, melons, rice, and a variety of esculent roots, par ic
in the richer swamps, nothing can surpass the luxuriance larly a species of arum, which is not cultivated ^ ^1C rna^f
and splendour ot the trees and shrubs. Ever verdant fo
 r-   ninuuc. -l.vci veiuam iu-
rests of pine cover a great extent of country, and the trees
are of uncommon height and beauty. What are called
white cedar and cypress abound in the swamps, and they
grow to an enormous size. Oaks are also numerous, and
the tree here developes itself in full perfection. After the
union of Florida with the United States, a plantation of
larly a species of arum, which is not cultivated in the man
time parts. It has a large bulbous root, which, when r^
ed or boiled, has a taste similar to the yam. 1 he pistac
a kind of nut in pods, which grows abundantly in san
land. It is much cultivated both by the Semino es f
Indian tribe) and by the Americans. It is baked or ™
ed in the shell, and used by confectioners as a swee
Tobacco, cotton, indigo, rice, and the sugar cane, wi
FLORIDA.
future be the principal articles of culture. The African
«/ and Otaheite cane flourish remarkably well in the southern
parts of the country, and planters are beginning to turn
their attention to the cultivation of them. The coffee-tree
has been tried on the peninsula; and coffee can unques¬
tionably be raised there, but whether of a kind or in
quantities which will justify an extensive cultivation of the
article, has not yet been sufficiently proved. The olive, it
has been found, flourishes here, and bears well. A species
of cactus, on which the cochineal fly feeds, is common in
the country. This plant, it is conjectured, will become an
important article of manufacture. A species of cabinet
wood of great beauty called bastard mahogany is also found
here.
Florida is an admirable country for raising stock, and
formerly the rearing of cattle and horses was the chief em¬
ployment of the small planters. Deer are very abundant,
and hunting is pursued to a considerable extent, although
the Indians complain of the scarcity of game. Wolves
sometimes assemble in great numbers, and, whether united
or single, they are always formidable enemies to the folds
and vacheries of the planters. Bears are still found here,
and their flesh is esteemed a luxury by the inhabitants.
The other quadrupeds of Florida are, wild cats, panthers,
foxes, rabbits, many beautiful kinds of squirrels, raccoons,
Mexican oppossums, and wood-cocks.
The ornithology of Florida is probably the richest in
North America. The variety and splendour of the birds
is one of the most striking features of the country. Those
of the aquatic species are immensely numerous, especially
during winter. In the woods are vultures, hawks, rooks,
jays, parroquets, wood-peckers, pigeons, turkeys, herons,
cranes, curlews, cormorants, plovers, blue birds, mocking¬
birds, red birds, and great varieties of the sparrow tribes,
fhe dog-wood groves are the resort of vast numbers of
the small singing birds. Among the remarkable specimens
of the feathered tribes are the snake birds, a species of cor¬
morant of great beauty. Wild ducks and wild geese are
found in prodigious flights; wild turkeys are plentiful, and
of a very large size.
The sea coasts, the rivers, and the lakes, abound with
every variety of fish, and furnish food to the greater pro¬
portion of the people, especially on fast days and in Lent.
The rivers and lakes swarm with alligators, who feed most
voraciously on the innumerable fry of smaller fish. The
abundance of these smaller fish is a most singular fact. The
sea-shore abounds with sharks, which, like the alligators,
find a supply of food by preying on the smaller tribes,
which, when pursued by those voracious monsters, ascend
the creeks to parts where they suddenly contract, and so
fill the water as to impede the passage of a boat. In some
instances, where the contraction of the stream is very sud¬
den and very great, those smaller fish have been seen so
closely crowded as to become a mass actually filling the
channel, and even rising, wedged together, above the sur¬
face of the water.
Various kinds of serpents are common in Florida, and
incredible numbers of the small insects called ephemerae
cover the surfaces of the lakes and rivers, supplying abun¬
dant food for the birds, frogs, and fishes. Gnats, mosqui¬
tos, and other insects, also abound, and in some parts are
extremely annoying.
This country was, in some respects, an invaluable ac¬
quisition to the United States. Besides its political im¬
portance, it was necessary to them on account of its har-
ours, its immense line of coast, and its inexhaustible
supplies of ship timber. From the period of the incorpo¬
ration of Florida with the North American States, emigra-
on to this state has been considerable. It has been di-
Vlded into counties, judicial and military districts; and the
benefits of American institutions have been diffused over
its whole extent. The present number of inhabitants is
estimated at about 35,000. They comprehend emigrants
trom all countries, and from every American state, and
they are as thoroughly mixed as any community in the
United States. Almost all the inhabitants are poor, and
too great a proportion of the recent emigrants consists of
mere adventurers. Most of the ancient inhabitants lead
a pastoral life, and subsist by the rearing of cattle. A
few of the planters are opulent, and possess good houses,
which are generally situated in remote forests and savan¬
nahs. They are said to be remarkable for their hospitality
to strangers. 1 3
Of the Indians, which were formerly so numerous and
powerful in this country, only a few small fragments of
tribes remain, which, with refugees from other tribes, are
dispersed throughout the forests and savannahs. The In¬
dians of this region are an alert, active, and athletic peo¬
ple ; of joyous dispositions, and fond of war. They have
the common propensity for intoxicating liquor, and for
gambling. As hunters they are expert; and by the sale
of bear, deer, panther, and wolf skins, of horses and cattle,
bees’ wax, honey, venison, and such articles as are the pro¬
duce of the chase, they procure the necessaries of life.
The chief town of East Florida, and the most populous
in the country, is St Augustine. It is situated on the At¬
lantic coast, thirty miles below the mouth of St Johns, on
an inlet behind the island of St Anastasia, in north lat. 29.
45. It is about two miles within the bar, which has only
from eight to ten feet of water, thus precluding the en¬
trance of large vessels into the harbour. The town is built
of an oblong form ; it is surrounded by a ditch, fortified
by bastions, and defended by a castle called Fort St John.
The river St Mark flows through the harbour, and divides
the town from the island. The streets are in general nar¬
row ; the houses are not more than two stories high, with
thick walls, spacious entries, large doors, windows, and bal¬
conies, and having commonly a fine garden attached to
them. Although the soil around St Augustine is so sandy
as to have the appearance of being sterile, yet it is produc¬
tive to a considerable extent. It yields two crops of maize
yearly, and garden vegetables are reai'ed in abundance.
The orange and lemon arrive at great perfection here ; the
palm or date tree grows near to the town, and the olive
has become naturalized in the soil. The population of St
Augustine consists of between 4000 and 5000 inhabitants.
The capital of West Florida is Pensacola, which is situated
on a bay of the same name, in long. 87. 12. W. and lat. 30.
20. N. The shore is low and sandy, but the town is built
on a gentle ascent. Like St Augustine, it is of an oblong
form, and nearly a mile in length. Small vessels only can
come close up to the town; but the bay affords one of the
safest and most capacious places of shelter for shipping in
the Gulf of Mexico. This town has been selected by the
American government as a naval station and depot, for
which it is admirably adapted. Pensacola has increased
in prosperity since its union with the United States, and
at present contains about 3000 inhabitants.
The seat of government for the territory of PTorida is
Tallahasse. The position of this town was fixed upon in
1824, and in the year following it was divided into lots,
and immediately incorporated as a city. The situation of
Tallahasse is remarkably pleasant, and is supposed to be
healthy. The ground on which it stands is considerably
elevated, and the surrounding country is high. An ele¬
vated chain of hills bounds the shores of the Mexican Gulf,
and the town lies three miles north of this ridge, in long.
84. 36. W. and lat. 30. 28. N. The country around is ge¬
nerally fertile, and suited to the cultivation of sugar. At
present it is covered with various kinds of trees, amongst
628
Florilegi-
um
FLO
which is an excellent kind of mahogany. ,
which is an excenc... *■■ ■ ■ ■ , incon.
SS^na^^of^m^om
la"&rof thisteS^aretoo insignificant to require
a tKontem”Snto cut a canal through Flor.da, which,
when accomplished, will develope iB resources mid cause
the country to present many attractions to the g
Upon°th^subject Mr Flint observes, ‘‘ As an agncuhura
country, it must be confessed, a great part of Florida !S
sterile. The level pine forest lands will bring one or
crops of corn without manure ; and will probab ^ e cuj
tivated to a certain extent with indigo. The drier lands
of this sort are admirable for sweet potatoes, and on the
whole better, with the requisite cultivation and manun g,
for gardens, than soils naturally more fertile. There are
considerable bodies of excellent land distributed at wi
intervals over all the country ; but a small Proportion
these are what are denominated first rate. Some part ,
probably, offer equal advantages for the cultivation of
sugar with the sugar lands of Louisiana. Cochineal, it
supposed, will be made to advantage, and, it may be, coffee.
It offers superior maritime advantages of every sort ,
abounds in the materials of ship-building ; and, in its rich
and inexhaustible fisheries, and its supply of oysters and
sea fowl, has its own peculiar advantages. The immigrant,
who sought to enrich himself by cultivation alone would
probably make his way to the richer soils west of the
Mississippi. But, if taken as a whole, it is more sterile
than the country along the Mississippi, it feels the icfres -
ing coolness of the sea breeze and the trade winds, and it
is beyond a doubt more healthy.”
The counties and chief towns, besides those already men¬
tioned, are, Alachua, Dell; Duval, Jacksonville ; Escam¬
bia, Pensacola ; Hamilton, Miccotown ; Jackson, Marian¬
na; Jefferson, Monticello; Leon, Tallahasse, 896 miles
from Washington; Madison, Hickstown; Monro, Key
West; Moscheto, Tomoka; Nassau, Ferdinanda; St Johns,
St Augustine, 841 miles from Washington, 292 south-east
from Tallahasse ; Walton, Aliqua ; Washington, Holme’s
Valley. There are also Gadsden, Fayette, and some other
new counties.
FLORILEGIUM, Florilege, a name given by the
Latins to what the Greeks call av0oXoy/ov, anthology, a col¬
lection of choice pieces, containing the finest and brightest
things of their kind.
Florilege is also particularly used for a kind of breviary,
in the Eastern church, compiled by Arcadius, for the con¬
venience of the Greek priests and monks. The florilegium
contains the general rubrics, psalter, canticles, the horolo¬
gium, and the office of the feriae.
FLORIN is sometimes used to signify a coin, and some¬
times a money of account. Florin, as a coin, is of different
values, according to the different metals, and different coun¬
tries where it is struck. See Money.
FLORINIANI, or Floriani, a sect of heretics of the
second century, so denominated from its author Florinus,
or Florianus, a priest of the Roman Catholic church, de¬
posed along with Blastus for his errors. Florinus had,
along with Irenaeus, been a disciple of St Polycarp. He
made God the author of evil; or rather asserted that the
things forbidden by God are not evil, but of his own
appointment. The Floriani had also other names given
them. Philastrius says they were the same with the Car-
pophorians ; and they were also called soldiers, milites quia
de militaribus fuerunt. St Irenaeus calls them Gnostics ;
St Epiphanius, Phibionites ; and Theodoret, Barbarites, on
account of the impurities of their lives ; whilst others call
them Zaccheans, and Coddians.
FLO
FLORIS, Francis, an eminent historical painter, was F
born at Antwerp in 1520. He followed the profession of
a statuary till he was twenty years of age, when, preferring ^
painting to sculpture, he entered the school of Lambert
Lombard, and afterwards went to Italy, where he completed
his studies. The great progress he made procured him
much employment on his return, and his countrymen com¬
plimented him with the appellation of the Flemish Faffaelle.
He died in 1570, aged fifty.
FLORIST, a person curious or skilled in flowers, their
kinds, names, characters, and culture. It is also applied to
an author who writes what is called the flora of any parti¬
cular place, that is, a catalogue of the plants and trees
which are found spontaneously growing there.
FLORUS, Lucius Annaeus, a Latin historian. Respect¬
ing the time when he flourished, and the country from which
Pg sprung, we have no certain information. Some have
supposed him to be of Spanish origin, connected with the
family of Seneca; others have imagined that he came from
Gaul. It has been suggested that he may be the same with
Julius Florus Secundus, celebrated by Quintilian for his
eloquence; whilst others have ascribed the work which we
possess under his name to Lucius Annaeus Seneca.. But be
this as it may, there seems good reason for believing that
he lived under Hadrian or j raj an. The work left by hini
entitled Epitome de Gestis Romanorum, in four books, is
a summary of Roman history from the building of the city
to 29 b. c. (725 u. c.), when Augustus closed the temple
of Janus. He does not seem to have followed Livy entirely
in his narrative, but to have had recourse to older historians.
It can scarcely however be considered as a history; it is ra¬
ther a panegyric pronounced on the whole conduct of the
Roman people, written with great elegance of language,
and imbued with a rhetorical spirit. The treatment of the
subject is poetical, and far removed from the severe dignity
of history. In the language, we have sometimes cause to
regret the purity of the Augustan age; but in other respects
the style is flowing and eloquent, rising far above the age
in which the author must have flourished. The short ar¬
guments prefixed to the books of Livy are also ascribed to
Florus. The best editions of his work are that of Graevius,
Traject. ad Rhen. 1680; Leipsic, 1760; Bipont, Ho4;
Titze, 1819; Amer. Par. 1822. See Titze, de Flon Mate,
Linz. 1804.
FLORY, Flowery, or Fleury, in Heraldry, a cross
which has flowers at the end circumflex and turning down,
and which is different from the potence, in as much as me
latter stretches out more like that which is called patee.
FLOTSON, or Flotsom. Goods which by shipwreck are
lost, and floating upon the sea, are, with jetsom and hgan,
generally given to the lord admiral. But this is e
only where the owners of such goods are not knoun.
is also to be observed thztjeisom signifies any thingwnic
is cast out of a ship when in danger, and aflerwar
on the shore by the water, notwithstanding wmc P
perishes. Ligan is where heavy goods are thrown o -
board, before the wreck of the ship, and sink to the
of the sea. r
FLOUNDER, Fluke, or But. See Icihthyolo,g
FLOUR, the meal of wheat-corn, finely ground a
sifted. ^
FLOUR, St, an arrondissement of the department^
U mu u it, ot, an urronui&semciiL ^ —i r, jg
Cantal, in France, extending over 660 square mi es.
divided into six cantons and eighty-two communes, a
contains 65,079 inhabitants. The capital is a city built
hill of basalt, 300 feet high, and only accessible on one ’
at the foot of which flows the river Dauzan.
are paved, and the houses constructed of basalt,wn! , ®ourS
the whole a gloomy appearance, and hence the neig _ ^
have named it the black city. It contains 800
FLO
it. 5687 inhabitants, who are occupied in manufactures of glass,
leather, copper, and iron goods, and archil. Long. 3. 0.19
E. Lat. 45. 1. 58. N.
FLOWER (Flos), among botanists and gardeners, the
most beautiful part of trees and plants, containing the or¬
gans or parts of fructification. Flowers were in great re¬
quest at the entertainments of the ancients, being provided
by the master of the feast, and brought in before the se¬
cond course; or, as some think, at the beginning of the
entertainment.
Preserving of Flowers. The method of preserving flow¬
ers in their natural beauty throughout the whole year has
been much sought after by many. Some have attempted
it by gathering them when dry and not too much opened,
and burying them in sand; but this, though it preserves
their figure well, diminishes the liveliness of their colour.
Muntingius prefers the following method: Gather roses,
or other flowers, when they are not yet thoroughly open,
in the middle of a dry day; fill the vessel with them up
to the top, and when full sprinkle them over with some
good French wine, with a little salt in it; then set them
by in a cellar, tying down the mouth of the pot. After
this they may be taken out at pleasure; and, on placing
them in the sun, or within reach of the fire, they will open
as if growing naturally; and not only will the colour, but
the smell also, be preserved.
The flowers of plants are by much the most difficult
parts of them to preserve in any tolerable degree of per¬
fection. Of this we have instances in all the collections
of dried plants, or horti sicci. In these the leaves, stalks,
roots, and seeds of the plants, appear very well preserved;
the strong texture of such parts making them always retain
their natural form, and the colours in many species natu¬
rally remaining. But it is very much otherwise in regard
to flowers, which are naturally the most beautiful parts of
the plants to which they belong; they are however so much
injured in the common way of drying, that they not only
lose, but change their colours, by which means occasion is
given to many errors ; and they usually also wither up, so
as to lose their very form and natural shape. The prim¬
rose and cowslip kinds are instances of the change of colours
in the flowers of dried specimens; for those of this class of
plants easily dry in their natural state, but they lose their
yellow, and, instead of it, acquire a fine green colour, much
superior to that of the leaves in their most perfect state.
The flowers of all the violet kind lose their beautiful blue,
and become of a dead white; so that in dried specimens
there is no difference between the blue-flowered violet and
the white-flowered kinds.
Sir Robert Southwell has communicated to the world a
method of drying plants, by which this defect is proposed
to be in a great measure remedied, and all flowers preserv¬
ed in their natural shape, and many in their natural co¬
lours. For this purpose two plates of iron are prepared of
the size of a large half sheet of paper, or larger, for parti¬
cular occasions. These plates should be made so thick as
not to be apt to bend; and there must be a hole made near
every corner for receiving a screw to fasten them closely
together. When the plates are prepared, have in readiness
several sheets of paper, and then gather the plants with
their flowers when they are quite perfect. Let this be al¬
ways done in the middle of a dry day; and then place the
plant and its flower on one of the sheets of paper doubled
m half, spreading out all the leaves and petals as nicely as
possible. If the stalk be thick, it must be pared or cut in
two, so that it may lie flat; and if it be woody, it may be
peeled, and only the bark left. When the plant is thus
expanded, lay round about it some loose leaves and petals
, flower, which may serve to complete any part that is
encient. When all is thus prepared, lay several sheets of
FLU
paper over the plant, and as many under it; then put the
w io e etween the iron plates, laying the papers smoothly
on one, and placing the other equally over them; screw
them close, put them into an oven after the bread is drawn,
and let them he there two hours. After this, make a mix¬
ture ot equal parts of aquafortis and common brandy ; shake
these well together, and when the flowers are taken out of
t le pressure of the plates, rub them lightly over with a
camel s hair pencil dipped in this liquor; then lay them
upon fresh brown paper, and covering them with some
other sheets, press them between this and other papers
with a handkerchief till the moisture of these liquors is
wholly dried away. When the plant is thus far prepared, take
the bulk of a nutmeg of gum-dragon, put this into a pint of
pure cold water, and let it stand twenty-four hours, in which
time it will be wholly dissolved ; then dip a fine hair pencil
in this liquor, and with it daub over the posterior sides of
the leaves, and lay them carefully down on half a sheet of
white paper fairly expanded, and press them down with
some more papers over these. When the gum water is
fixed, let the pressure and paper be removed, and the whole
work is finished. The leaves in this case retain their ver¬
dure, and the flowers usually preserve their natural colours.
Some care, however, must be taken that the heat of the
oven be not too great. When the flowers are thick and
bulky, some art should be used to pair off their backs, and
dispose the petals in a due order; after which, if any of
them are wanting, their places may be supplied with some
of the supernumerary ones dried on purpose; and if any
of them are only faded, it will be prudent to take them
away, and lay down others in their stead. The leaves may
be also disposed and mended in the same manner.
Another method of preserving both flowers and fruits
throughout the whole year is also given by the same author.
Take saltpetre one pound, Armenian bole two pounds, clean
common sand three pounds, and mix the whole well together.
Then gather fruit of any kind that is not fully ripe, with the
stalk to each ; and put in these, one by one, into a wide-
mouthed glass, laying them in good order. Tie over the
top with an oil-cloth, carry them into a dry cellar, and set
the whole upon a bed of the prepared matter of four inches
thick in a box. Fill up the remainder of the box with the
same preparation, and let it be four inches thick all over
the top of the glass and all round its sides. Flowers are
to be preserved in the same sort of glasses, and in the
same manner; and they may be taken up after a whole
year as plump and fair as when they were buried.
FLUDD, Robert (called in Latin De Fluctibus), a
person of some celebrity in his time, was the son of Sir
Thomas Fludd, treasurer of war to Queen Elizabeth in
France and the Low Countries, and was born at Milgate,
Kent, in the year 1574. He received his education at St
John’s College, Oxford, and afterwards spent six years in
travelling through France, Spain, Italy, and Germany.
He acquired a strong attachment to the Rosicrucian phi¬
losophy, which consisted chiefly of a mystic or cabbalistical
jargon, and those who were initiated therein had certain
secrets communicated to them analogous to those of free¬
masonry. On his return home Fludd took the degree of
doctor of medicine, settled in the city of London, and be¬
came a fellow of the College of Physicians. His piety was
of an enthusiastic kind, and the seeming depth of his know¬
ledge gained him much admiration, and procured him tem¬
porary celebrity. It is said that he employed a kind of
unintelligible cant when speaking to his patients, which
sometimes contributed to their recovery, as it operated on
their faith, and through it on the imagination. But he is
chiefly known as an adept in philosophy, not as a physi¬
cian. Blending the incomprehensible reveries of the Cab-
balists and Paracelsians, he formed a new physical system,
630
U
Fluid
F L
renlete with mystery and absurdity, and believed in two
P „o1 nr;nrir)1es the northern or condensing, and tie
Flute, southern or rarefying power, fnnumerabie gen^ as e
^ ' conceived, presided over these powers, and committed t
charge of diseases to legions of spirits collected tro
four winds of heaven. In his estimation, a harmony sub-
sisted between the macrocosm and the microcosm, or t
world of nature and the world of man. It is impossible to
enumerate all his fancies and whims, which, however ab
surd and extravagant, being supported by mysterious gra¬
vity and the semblance of erudition, attracted the notic
of ythe philosophers of that age. Even Kepler himself
thought die preposterous jargon of Fludd worthy of re u
tation and Gassendi with the same view wrote his Examen
PhihsophicE Fluddiance, 1629. Fludd wrote two books
aeainst ^Vlersenne, the first entitled Sophia cum Morm cer-
TXTquo lapis Lydius, a falsa structore Pairs Manna
Mersenno monacho reprobatus, celebernma voluminis sui
Babylonici in Genesimfugmenta accurate excminat, franc-
fort 1629, folio; and the second, Summum Bonorum,quod
est 'verum Magics, Cabalcs, Alchymics Fratrum Rosea
Crucis Verorum, Subjectum, etc. 1629, folio. His other
works were, 1. Utriusque Casmi, majons etminons, lech-
nica Historia, Appenheim, 1617, in 2 vols. folio ; i. Trac-
tatus Apologeticus integritatem Sac. de Rosea Cruce dejend-
ens, Leyden, 1617; 3. Monochordon Mundi symphoma-
cum, seu Replicatio ad Apologiam Joannis Kepleri, Tranc-
fort, 1620; 4. Anatomia Theatrum triplici effigie designa-
tum, ibid. 1623; 5. Philosophia Sacra et vere Christiana,
seu 'Meteorologia Cosmica, ibid. 1626 ; 6. Medicina Cutho-
lica, seu mysticum artis medicandi sacrarium, ibid. 1626;
7. Integrum Morborum mysterium, ibid. 1631; 8. De Mor-
borum Signis, ibid. 1631; 9. Claris Philosophia et Alchy-
Fluddiana, ibid. 1633; 10. Philosophia Mosaica,
FLU
mia
Goudse, 1638 ; and, 11. Pathologia Damoniaca, ibid. 1640.
FLUENT, or Flowing Quantity. See Fluxions.
FLUID, an appellation given to all bodies, the particles
of which easily yield to the least pressure or force impress¬
ed. See Hydrodynamics.
FLUTE, an instrument of music, the simplest of all
those of the wind kind. It is played on by blowing it with
the mouth; and the tones or notes are changed by stopping
and opening the ventiges arranged along its side. There
is a very ancient instrument. It was at first called the flute
a bee, from bee, an old Gaulish word signifying the beak
of a bird or fowl, but more especially of a cock; the term
flute a bee therefore signifies the beaked flute, which appears
a very proper appellation in comparison with the traverse
or German flute. The word flute is derived from fluta, the
Latin for a lamprey or small eel found in the Sicilian Seas,
and having seven holes immediately below the gills on each
side, the precise number of those in the front of the flute.
By Mersenne this instrument is called the fistula dulcis
seu Anglica; and, according to him, the lowest note for
the treble flute is Cfa ut, and the compass of the instru¬
ment fifteen notes. There is however a flute known by
the name of the concert flute, the lowest note of which is
F. Indeed ever since the introduction of the flute into
concerts, the lowest note of the instrument, of what size
soever it may be, has been called F ; when in truth its pitch
is determinable only by its correspondence in respect of
acuteness or gravity with one or other of the chords in the
scala maxima or great system.
Besides the true concert flute, others of a less size w-ere
soon introduced into concerts of violins ; in which case the
method was to write the flute part in ,a key corresponding
to its pitch. This practice was introduced in 1710 by one
Woodcock, a celebrated performer on this instrument, and
William Babell, organist of the church of All-Hallows,
Bread Street, London. They failed, however, in procuring
for the flute a reception into concerts of various instru- J
ments; for which reason Thomas Stanesby, a curious maker ^
of flutes and other instruments of the like kind, having
about the year 1732 adverted to the scale of Mersenne, in
which the lowest note is C, invented what he called the new
system, in which, by making the flute of such a size as to
be a fifth above concert pitch, the lowest note became C
sol fa ut. By this contrivance the necessity of transposing
the flute part was taken away; for a flute of this size, ad¬
justed to the system above mentioned, became an octave
to the violin. To further this invention of Stanesby’s,
Louis Merci, performer on the flute, published, about the
year 1735, six solos for this instrument, three of which are
said to be accommodated to Stanesby’s new system; but the
German flute had now become a favourite instrument, and
Stanesby’s ingenuity failed to produce the effect intended.
Indeed one great objection against this instrument, which
equally affects all perforated pipes, is, that they are never
perfectly in tune, or cannot be made to play all their notes
with equal exactness. The utmost that the makers of them
can do is to tune them to some one key ; and to effect this
truly, is a matter of no small difficulty. The English flutes
made by the younger Stanesby came the nearest to perfec¬
tion ; but those of Bressan, though excellent in their tone,
were all too flat in the upper octave. For these reasons
some are induced to think that the utmost degree of pro¬
ficiency on any of those instruments is not worth the labour
of attaining it.
German Flute is an instrument entirely ditterent irom
the common flute. It is not, like the latter, put into the
mouth to be played; but the end is stopt with a tompion
or plug, and the lower lip is applied to a hole about two
inches and a half or three inches distant from the end.
This instrument is usually about a foot and a half in
length; rather larger at the upper end than the lower;
and perforated with holes, besides that for the mouth, the
lowest of which is stopped and opened by the little finger
pressing on a brass or sometimes a silver key, like those m
hautboys, bassoons, and other similar instruments. Its sound
is exceedingly sweet and agreeable ; and it serves as a
treble in a concert.
Flute, or Fluyt, is a kind of long vessel, with flat nbs
or floor timbers, round aft, and swelled in the middle, which
serves chiefly for carrying provisions in fleets or squadrons
of ships, though it is often used in merchandise. The word
flute, signifying a sort of boat or vessel, is, according to
Borel, derived from the ancient flotte, a little boat. In the
verbal process of the miracles of St Catherine ot Sweden,
in the twelfth century, we meet with the following words:
“ Unus equum suum una cum mercibus magni pondens in-
troduxit super instrumentum de lignis fabricatum, vulgan-
ter dictum fluta I
FLUX, in Medicine, an extraordinary issue or evacua¬
tion of some humour. Fluxes are of different kinds an
variously denominated, according to their seats or the hu¬
mours thus voided; as a flux of the belly, uterine flux, e
patic flux, salival flux, and the like. See Medicine.
Flux, in Hydrography, a regular periodical motion o
the sea, happening twice in twenty-four hours, m n i
the water is raised and driven violently against the s ore •
The flux or flow is one of the motions of the ti e,
other, by which the water sinks and retires, is cal e
reflux or ebb. There is also a kind of rest or cessation o
about half an hour between the flux and reflux, un
which time the water is at its greatest height, and
called high icater. See Tides.
I
631
FLUXIONS.
JO INTItODUCTIOy.
^ The calculus of fluxions, the most important addition
that ever was made to the fabric of abstract science, was
invented in the latter part of the seventeenth century.
Considered as a purely intellectual speculation, it far
transcends any theory that had been previously known in
pure mathematics; and it is not less estimable by reason
of its applicability to physical knowledge. By its powers
as an instrument of analysis, the science of geometry has
been exceedingly enlarged; and the elegant speculations
of the ancient geometers now go but a little way into the
vast field of knowledge which has been laid open by the
fluxional calculus, the sublime discoveries of Apollonius
and Archimedes being merely easy deductions from more
extended theories. It has, further, rendered most efficient
aid in the investigation of the laws of nature, more espe¬
cially in establishing the true theory of the motions of the
heavenly bodies, which, without its assistance, could not
have attained its present high position in the scale of hu¬
man knowledge.
It may easily be supposed that the invention of the
calculus was not at once fully revealed to the world.
Its principles being inherent in the nature of geometrical
magnitude, they would of course be gradually disclosed
with the advance of mathematical science.
As long as the geometers of antiquity confined their
speculations to the comparison of figures bounded by
straight lines, there was no difficulty. The axioms and
the mental process of conceiving the magnitudes com¬
pared to be placed one upon another, was sufficient to es¬
tablish the equality of triangles in the cases when these
could be brought entirely to coincide. The principle of
superposition might have been carried further in the ele¬
ments, so as to prove the equality of parallelograms, which
are the complements of those about the diameter of a
parallelogram; also of parallelograms having equal bases
and altitudes; and the equality of the square on the hy¬
potenuse of a right angled triangle to the squares on its
sides. In fact, the doctrines of plane geometry were suf¬
ficient to prove that any two equal rectilineal figures ad¬
mit always of being decomposed into spaces, such that,
corresponding to every space in one of the figures, there
may be found a space exactly equal and similar to it in
the other figure; so that in this way any two equal recti¬
lineal figures, however dissimilar, may yet, by division, be
brought to coincide.
The principle of superposition, which was sufficient for
the comparison of rectilineal plane figures, one with an¬
other, could not, however, be extended to the compari¬
son of rectilineal with curvilineal, or of curvilineal with
curvilineal figures. In treating of these, the ancients
mimd it necessary to introduce new notions and modes
of demonstration into geometry; and the difficulty which
occurred in reasoning about curvilineal figures gave rise to
the method of exhaustions, the most refined and important
of their geometrical theories.
The fundamental principle of the method of exhaustions
is this very simple proposition, that the difference of any
two unequal quantities, by which the greater exceeds the
ess, may be added to itself so often, as to exceed any
mte quantity of the same kind. On this the geometers
o antiquity founded their propositions concerning curvi-
meal figures. By its aid they found that polygons may
e mscribed in circles, which shall differ from them by
less than any assignable space; and hence they might in¬
fer that the circles have to each other the same ratio as
simdar polygons mscribed in them, namely, the squares
of their diameters. Although in this way they could as¬
sure themselves of the truth of the propositions, yet as
this kind of proof was of a looser nature than that by
which they established their more elementary doctrines,
they fortified it against all cavil by their usual mode of
synthetic demonstration, proving that the square of the
diameter of one circle was to that of another as the first
circle to a space that was neither less nor greater than
the second, and therefore exactly equal to it. By a like
process they proved that a cone is one third of a cylinder
of the same base and altitude; and from the demonstra¬
tions which they gave of these propositions, it might be
concluded in general, that when two variable quantities
which have a constant ratio approach to two determined
quantities, so as to differ at last from them by less than
any assignable space, the same constant ratio is also the
ratio of the determined quantities, which are the limits of
the variable quantities.
The cautious way in which the ancients proceeded in
finally establishing the truth of their propositions concern¬
ing the proportions of solids, could be*of very little use in
their original discovery. Indeed we may reasonably sup¬
pose, that in the first instance they arrived at a knowledge
of their truth by a much shorter road, probably in a way
not very different from that followed by the earlier geo¬
meters in modern times, who have extended their theories.
But whatever path they followed, it led them to some
truths of the highest importance at the time they were
first known. After ages of fruitless labour in attempting
to square the circle, the fine discoveries of Archimedes,
that the parabola was two thirds of its circumscribing pa¬
rallelogram, and the sphere two thirds of its circumscrib¬
ing cylinder, and its surface four times that of one of its
great circles, must have been received by his contempo¬
raries with high satisfaction.
In the beginning of the seventeenth century, the writ¬
ings of Archimedes greatly engaged the attention of the
principal cultivators of mathematical science, who soon
seized the spirit of his method, which was altogether dis¬
tinct from the unwieldy machinery of the ancient mode
of synthetic demonstration. He had only considered such
solids as could be generated by the revolution of conic
sections about an axis, and he had not even exhausted all
the cases of these. The celebrated Kepler greatly ex¬
tended this theory, in a treatise which he composed on the
mensuration of round solids. These he conceived to be
formed by the revolution of the conic sections about any
ordinate, or a tangent to the curve at the vertex, or, in
short, about any line whatever within or without the curve.
In this way he described about ninety new solids, and
proposed them as problems for the consideration of his
contemporaries; but of these he resolved only a few of
the most simple. In this work he first introduced the
name and notion of infinity into the language of geo¬
metry. He considered the circle as composed of an
infinite number of triangles, having their vertex at the
centre, and forming the circumference by their bases.
The cone he regarded as composed of an infinite number
of pyramids, resting on the infinitely small triangles which
formed its circular base, and having their vertices at its
vertex ; and he supposed a cylinder of the same base and
altitude as the cone to be made up of prisms having the
Introduc¬
tion.
632
IntroduC'
tion.
same
fluxions.
bases and altitudes as those which composed the
“me bold extension which Kepler thus gave to the cau¬
tious language of
SieH friend and disciple of ^Galileo, embodied the
CaV^s1uhis^meaof|indivUiMe1the.lSsO
new views which Descartes brought forward, was the no- Intro;
tion of variable quantity. The early analysts distinguish- N
ed quantities chiefly from the circumstance of their be-'^V/
ing known or unknown ; and the main object of inquiry
with them was to discover the chain of reasoning by which
they might pass from the given quantities to the determi¬
nation of those required. The view which Descartes took
of geometrical magnitude brought the relations of quan¬
tities forward as a principal subject of contemplation. A
new subject of discussion was brought into mathematical
science, namely, the changes which take place in quan¬
tities connected by an invariable relation, when one of
S'hlVole eT uS although it was not publish
Id mtU 1635. lu this work, lines were cons.dered as
made up of points, surfaces as composed of lines, and so¬
lids as formed of surfaces. Cavalienwasexcee mgythose titics connected by an invariable relation, when one of
ful to verify his method, comparing ms res . , them is SUpp0sed to change its value, and pass from one
which had been established by the ^ ment state of magnitude to another. The science of geometry
mode of demonstration ; and, assured by tne §. . leg owes its eiegance and the variety of its doctrines to the
he ventured boldly in his new careei. F ^ combined effect 0f magnitude and position, as they influ-
were attacked, but he defended them & from ence the subjects under consideration ; and, in addition to
they might be tran1^ted11I?to,thoS.® °fnp PXD1.essi0n • his these, the doctrine of curve lines has introduced a new
which they only differed in brevity of e P and element> namely, the property of varying in magnitude, as
surfaces and lines being in fact inerely t anc\ent an attribute of quantity. This property of indefimtude,
small inscribed and circumscribed tuangf respect of greatness, although it may appear a trivial
geometer, and their number ^/^ure abo^t wWch affection of quantity, has, howlver, led to the most im-
the difference between them and the V quantity. portant consequences; for from this, combined with other
they were described was fn principles, have sprung the fluxional calculus and other
the new views proposed by Keple t^ ^ ^athe1matical theories, which, originating in the ordinary
France by Roberval, who had caref y which he conceptions of the human mind, have engaged the atten-
ings of Archimedes, and formed a Y y res< tion 0f men endowed with the highest powers of intellect
could resolve problems concerning DOints and for more than a century past.
Instead of supposing lines to be ma p P ’. h j ti e pr0gress of time the notions of infinite quantity
surfaces of lines, as had b^^^^^^Sr of in- introduced bSy Kepler, Cavalieri, and others, into mathe-
regarded a line as comPosfed d of an infinite matics, became familiar to geometers, who perceived the
finitely short lines, a suiface as co p aSsump- immense value of the improvement, and saw that, by due
number ofmfimtely narrow surfaces, and so on an ass p application, there was no risk of its leading
tion which at bottom was the as that of ^he Itaimn c^ pp ^ the ye&r 1655j gaye &n admi
^mfter’bupcap^ e”irde‘7tlm ancient Lometry. Ro- able specimen of this new analysis in his Arithmetic of
differing less from the spirit of d^.a"ciaa^g tl yas the Infinites; a work which contained the first traces of the
berval concealed his views, employing ‘b61".^61 y as'^ alfebraic analysis applied to the quadrature of curvilineal
means of invention in geometry, and expecting n ns way algebraic aPP " of c4avaIierij he reduced the
^ t . l    l*. *1 4-l-» /-w r~\f* Pcivalipri an- problem of finding the areas of curves to the summation
of the powers of an arithmetical series, consisting ot an
infinite number of terms, or rather the ratio of the mean
of all the terms to the last term. He also showed by the
same principles, that certain curve lines might be rectified,
or that straight lines might be found to which they were
exactly equal; a remark that was shortly afterwards veri-
o-eometer. In the meanwhile the work of Cavahen ap
neared and frustrated his selfish expectations. > .
The facility which the introduction of the notion ot in¬
finitely small quantities gave in the extension of geometry,
induced all the mathematicians of that day to employ it in
their researches. In the doctrine of curve lines it was
applied to the theory of tangents by Roberval, Descartes
^   Lori fVlia Inst.
and Fermat, with^re^t'succ^ss? ^Soverynear had this last- JPJ ,5
mentioned geometer approached to the fluxional or diffe¬
rential calculus, that Laplace says he ought to be reputed
its true inventor. Laplace was no doubt a great autho-
rity; but the facts on which he formed his opinion have
always been generally known, and no one before him has
attempted to reverse the decision of the age in which the
calculus was invented. The justice of the decision has been
riod, who, at the age of nineteen, showed that the lengtn
of the semicubical parabola might be found in finite terms.
This was the first curve that was rectified, and the se¬
cond was the cycloid, a discovery due to Sir Christopher
Wren.
Thus the principles of the fluxional calculus were at tms
period coming gradually into view. Their importance was
calculus was invented. Ihe justice ot tne uecision nas oeen oithnneh without
subjected to a scrutiny by men of the highest powers of seen and understood, and in substance, although
mind, who, differing in many of their opinions, have yet an appropriate notation, they were emp y
 a nfLor-o mfir the dominion of geometry ; it might theretore D p
agreed in ascribing the invention to others.
The problem of drawing tangents to curves is indeed
closely connected with the calculus, and at the period
when this was about to be revealed that problem was
much agitated, and successfully resolved by Slusius, Wal-
an a^-i^i v/|Ji iai,^ xxv/1/m.xxvxx,   •■•' pi n
ing the dominion of geometry ; it might therefore be s p
posed that in the course of time they would have ee
gradually formed into a system, just in the way t ie sc
ence of algebra advanced from the rude form it ha w
first introduced into Italy, to that degree of compac ne
111ULii dgiLaieu, anu icouivcu. uy kjiuoauo, yv ai ^w y # . * . j u i^rPSsivG
lis, Barrow, and others. The writings and discoveries of and perfection which it acquired by ttie s „
,   . i i  .u  vioto H nrrint. {md DeSCartCS. UUI
X*i-., ^           O           
Descartes exerted a most beneficial influence on the new
geometry, particularly by his happy application of algebra
to geometry. Before his time geometrical problems had
been resolved by algebra, and a rich mine of discovery
thereby opened. But he was the first who thought of ap¬
plying algebraic formulae to express the nature of curve
lines; an invention of vast importance to both branches
of mathematical science.
Another most important benefit that resulted from the
provements of Vieta, Harriot, and Descartes. u ’.
the case of the fluxional calculus, a happy combina
of circumstances anticipated the slow operation o i
Newton and Leibnitz, two men endowed with .e ?lg/.eid
powersof mind, appeared nearly at the same time in e
of discovery. The genius of each shone w*t'b^esP].eI! tpn.
lustre, even amidst the blaze of intellect which enligmei
ed the latter period of the seventeenth century, an
has rendered it for ever memorable in the anna s
FLUX
tc- man knowledge. They both turned their attention to this
branch of mathematical science, and, as is now generally
admitted, each, independently of the other, collected the
undigested principles into a system, and, by a powerful
effort, performed at once what the united labour of ordi¬
nary minds would have hardly accomplished in a century.
In ascribing to each of these great men the full ho¬
nour due to the merit of the invention of the calculus, it
is proper to add, that this is a question which at one
time divided the opinions of the learned world, and gave
rise to a controversy which was agitated with great keen¬
ness for almost a whole century. There never could be
any doubt as to Newton being the inventor of the calcu¬
lus of fluxions. He has been acknowdedged by all to have
been the inventor, and the first inventor; but the ques¬
tion strongly contested has been, whether Leibnitz, with¬
out knowing what had been done by Newton, invented
his differential calculus by the force of his own mind, or
borrowed it from the fluxional calculus, with which at
bottom it is identical.
In the course of this controversy it wras clearly esta¬
blished by the British mathematicians, who almost to a
man ranged themselves on the side of their illustrious
countryman, that, as far back as the year 1669, Newton,
then in his twenty-sixth year, and a fellow of Trinity Col¬
lege, communicated to Dr Barrow a tract, entitled De
Analyst per JEquationes Numero Terminorum Infinitas.
In this manuscript the method of fluxions was first indi¬
cated ; and rules deduced from it given for the quadra¬
ture of curves, and various other matters to which the
calculus is applicable, were distinctly specified. From this
tract, which was sent by Dr Barrow to Collins, the secre¬
tary of the Royal Society, it is established beyond all
doubt that Newton was then in full possession of his me¬
thod ; and indeed it is certain from other evidence that
he must have had it as far back as 1666. The important
discoveries made by Newton were communicated without
reserve by the secretaries of the Royal Society to mathe¬
maticians on the Continent, as well as to those in Britain.
In this way it might be generally known that Newton
possessed a most valuable instrument of research, by which
he had been led to these results, although its nature was
too obscurely indicated to give any assistance in divining
i its precise form.
Leibnitz appears to have been later than Newton in be¬
ginning his career of discovery in the mathematics. In
the year 1672, being then in London, he communicated to
some members of the Royal Society what he supposed to
be discoveries relating to the differences of numbers. It
was, however, shown to him that the same subject had
been discussed long before, by Mouton, a French geome¬
ter. He then appears for the first time to have turned
his attention to infinite series. Afterwards, on his return
to Germany in 1674, he announced to Mr Oldenburgh,
then secretary of the Royal Society of London, that he
possessed very general analytical methods, by which he
bad found theorems of great importance relating to the
quadrature of the circle, by means of series. In answer,
the secretary informed him that Newton and James Gre¬
gory had also discovered methods which gave the quadra¬
ture of curves, and which extended to the circle.
In the year 1676 Newton addressed a letter to the se¬
cretary of the Royal Society, which was made known to
Leibnitz. This was the first direct communication between
these two great men. It contained the binomial theo-
rem, which Newton had known in the year 1669, and a
vanety of other matters relating to infinite series and
quadratures; but nothing directly relating to the me¬
thod of fluxions. At this time Newton entertained no
jealousy of Leibnitz, for he speaks of him in the letter
vol. ix.
IONS.
633
with great respect. In a second letter Newton explained Introduc-
at his request the way in which he had found the binomial tion.
theorem, and he adverted also to his own calculus, explain-
ing the purposes to which it could be applied, but conceal¬
ing its nature under the form of an anagram of transposed
letters, which was expressed thus, §accdae\3effl\mn\o
49/t4s9H2ya;. It is not easy to see what certain informa¬
tion Leibnitz could draw from this assemblage of charac¬
ters ; yet such was the effect of national prejudice in bias¬
sing the minds of the British mathematicians, that Raph-
son, in his History of Fluxions, a work dedicated to the
Royal Society of London, expressly asserts that Leibnitz
deciphered the anagram, and found it to be this sentence,
Data equationefluentes quotcunque quantitates involvente in¬
venire fluxiones, et vice versa. “ Having any given equa¬
tion involving never so many flowing quantities, to find
the fluxions, and vice versa.” We believe there was not
the least ground for this assertion; and from such a spe¬
cimen of want of candour, it is easy to infer that there
was very little chance of Leibnitz getting justice done him
by the English mathematicians.
In the month of June 1677 Leibnitz sent to Mr Olden¬
burgh, to be communicated to Newton, a letter contain¬
ing the first essays of a method which extended to all
that could be done by that of Newton. The death of
Oldenburgh, which happened soon afterwards, put an end
to the correspondence, and it was not until the year 1684
that Leibnitz made his discovery public, it being then in¬
serted in the Leipsic Acts ; so that whilst Newton’s claim
to the priority of the discovery must be admitted by all,
it is not less certain that Leibnitz was the first to give the
full benefit of the calculus to the world ; for Newton’s Me¬
thod of Fluxions only became generally known in the year
1687, by the publication of his Philosophice Naturalis
Principia.
It is certain that Leibnitz enjoyed unchallenged for fif¬
teen years the honour of being the inventor of his calcu¬
lus ; even Newton himself rendered him that justice in
the first edition of his immortal work. Subsequently, how¬
ever, a foreign mathematician, Fatio de Duillier, piqued,
it is said, by having been omitted in an enumeration of
eminent geometers by Leibnitz, declared, in a treatise on
the line of shortest descent, printed at London in 1699,
that he was obliged by the undeniable evidence of things
to acknowledge Newton not only as the first, but as by
many years the first inventor of this calculus; from whom,
whether Leibnitz, the second inventor, borrowed any thing
or not, he would rather they who had seen Newton’s let¬
ters and other manuscripts should judge than himself.
The insinuation contained in this passage of Fatio’s book
could not but be very offensive to Leibnitz, who inserted
an animated reply in the Leipsic Acts of 1700, and com¬
plained to the Royal Society of London of the injustice
done him; and here the affair rested for a time: but it
was revived some years afterwards. When Newton’s trea¬
tise on the quadrature of curves, and his enumeration of
lines of the third order, was published, the Leipsic jour¬
nalists gave an unfavourable review of the work. Amongst
other things, after a brief exposition of the nature of flux¬
ions, they added, that Newton uses and has always used
fluxions for the differences of Leibnitz, just as Fabri had
substituted in his synopsis of geometry motion instead^ of
the indivisibles of Cavalieri. This most unjust accusation
excited great indignation in the minds of the British ma¬
thematicians, one of whom, Keill, Savilian professor of as¬
tronomy at Oxford, in a paper inserted in the Philosophi¬
cal Transactions of the year 1708, affirmed that Newton
was the first inventor of the calculus, and that Leibnitz,
in publishing it in the Leipsic Acts, had merely changed
the name and the notation. Leibnitz, thus directly charg-
634
fluxions.
Introduc- ed with having taken his calculus from that of Newto^
tion. addressed a letter to Mr, afterwards Sir Hans ^loane jne
'—-v-^ secretary of the Royal Society, in which he required that
Keill should retract his accusation. Kedl however refuset
to do this, and in answer addressed a letter to the secretai),
in which he professed to show, not only that Newton ha
preceded Leibnitz in the invention, but that he had given
so many indications of his calculus that its nature migi
easily be understood by any man of ordinary understand-
inff This letter was sent to Leibnitz, who addressed a se¬
cond letter to the Royal Society, requiring that they should
stop these reproaches of Keill, saying that he was too
young a man to know what had passed between him an
The society, thus appealed to as a judge, appointed a
committee to examine the old letters, papers, and docu¬
ments which had passed between the mathematicians on
the subject. The report of this committee does not ap¬
pear altogether satisfactory. “ We take the proper ques¬
tion to be,” say the reporters, “ not who invented this or
that method, but who was the first inventor of the method ;
and we believe those who have reputed Leibnitz the first
inventor, knew little or nothing of the correspondence be¬
tween Mr Collins and Mr Oldenburg long before, nor of
Mr Newton having that method about fifteen yeais be¬
fore Mr Leibnitz began to publish his in the Acta Erudi-
torum of Leipsic; for which reason we reckon Mr Newton
the first inventor, and are of opinion that Mr Keill, in
asserting the same, has been nowise injurious to Mr Leib¬
nitz.” This declares nothing on the only point about which
there could be any doubt, namely, whether Leibnitz had
formed his calculus entirely by the power of his own ge¬
nius, or had availed himself of a knowledge of Newton’s
invention. The judgment satisfied neither party. Keill
wished to establish against Leibnitz the charge of plagia¬
rism, but was disappointed ; and Leibnitz found in the de¬
cision grounds of complaint against the Royal Society. In
a communication to the Abbe Conti, a Venetian nobleman
and a common friend of his and Newton, then in Eng¬
land, he accused the English nation of desiring to be con¬
sidered as almost the only inventors. He said it did not
appear, as had been well observed by Bernoulli, that New¬
ton possessed before him the infinitesimal characteristic
and algorithm, although it would have been easy to have
found it if he had been so disposed, just as it would have
been easy for Apollonius to have discovered the theory of
curve lines of Descartes. He complained that his oppo¬
nents had attacked his candour by forced and unfounded
interpretations of his words. The question was the cal¬
culus of differences, and his opponents made it turn en¬
tirely upon series, where Newton had no difficulty in
going before him. He maintained that he had found for
himself a general method for series, and that he had no
need of Newton’s method of extractions. There were
other grounds of complaint, such as, that only extracts
from letters had been given in the Commercium Epistoli-
cum, whereas the entire letters should have been publish¬
ed. Throughout the whole, which is a postscript to a let¬
ter, he manifests much chagrin; and he concludes with pro¬
posing this problem, intended, he says, to feel the pulse of
the English analysts: To find a line which shall cut per¬
pendicularly all curves of a determinate series, and of
the same kind ; for example, all hyperbolas, which shall
have the same vertex and centre. This he desires the
abbe to propose as from himself, or a friend.
In the abbe’s reply to this letter he informed Leibnitz
that he had delayed writing until he could at the same
time send the answer which Newton had given to his
postscript. He tells him that he had read the Commer¬
cium Epislolicum, and the originals of the letters which it
contained, and, on the whole, he inferred that, setting int uc>
aside matters foreign to the dispute, the only question at ti
issue was, whether Newton had found the Calculus of In-
finitesimals, or Fluxions, before, or after him ? The abbe
says, you published it first, it is true ; but you admit that
Newton allowed much to transpire in the'letters which he
wrote to Oldenburgh and others. This has been proved
at length in the Commercium and its extract; what is your
answer? This is what the public requires, to form a cor¬
rect opinion on the matter. The abbe further informs
Leibnitz that his friends believe he jought to give an an¬
swer, if not to Keill, at least to Newton himself, who, in
the letter which the abbe had received from him to be
communicated to Leibnitz, had challenged him m express
terms. In a spirit of friendship and good sense, he fur¬
ther adds, that he wishes to see a good understanding be¬
tween them, that the public will profit but little by their
disputes, and that the additions to knowledge which they
prevent are a pure loss to posterity. He moreover tells
him that the king, George I., had desired to be informed
of all that had passed between Newton and him. From
this we may judge what an interest was excited in the
public mind by a dispute which, even at this day, few
could perfectly understand. The answer which Leibnitz
gave to the abbe’s friendly advice was, that he had put his
letters, and Newton’s, with his own answers to them, into
the hands of Mr Remond at Paris, with a view to have
a neutral and impartial opinion as to the matters in dis¬
pute. The whole were then to be submitted to the Abbe
Varignon and other members of the Royal Academy of
Sciences, and afterwards sent to England. In his an¬
swers he disavowed the sense which the English mathe¬
maticians had extracted from the assertion of the Leipsic
journalists, namely, that Newton employed and always had
employed fluxions for the differentials of Leibnitz,, which
they understood to mean that Newton had availed him¬
self of Leibnitz’s method, only substituting fluxions for
differentials. It was from this passage that the English
had declared Leibnitz to be the aggressor, in having abet¬
ted an attack of Newton ; but Leibnitz declared the Eng¬
lish interpretation to be full of malignity towards him,
and that the sentence in the Leipsic Acts {Prodifferentiis
Leibnitianis D. Neictonus adhibet semperque adhibuitflux-
iones), meant that Newton had employed fluxions after
having seen his differences, and also before he had seen
them.
We believe enough has been detailed to show that, be¬
sides a desire to arrive at truth, there was infused into
this controversy the jealousy of two rivals for the g orj
of a great discovery; and, in addition, the spirit of parti-
zanship of their respective admirers, and that natural
feeling which induces men of different countries to exa
their own nation, although sometimes at the expense o
their neighbours. It is not wonderful, then, that at tie
time this controversy was at its height, men were great y
divided in their opinions.
It is now impossible to obtain absolute certainty as 0
the question, whether Leibnitz derived any aid from e
discoveries previously made by Newton, which, to a ce.
tain extent, were made known to the scientific wor •
may therefore be some satisfaction, in the want °* Per,e
evidence, to have the judgment of Montucla, tie 1
torian of the mathematics, on this subject. “ In iegar
the principle of fluxions,” says he, “ there are only tore
places of the Commercium Epistolicum which rea. ,
it with sufficient clearness to prove that t(5
found it before Leibnitz, but I believe too f
take from him the merit of the discovery,
these is a letter from Newton to Oldenburgh, w o a
marked to him that Slusius and Gregory had foun a
FLUXIONS.
635
simple method of tangents. Newton answered that he
conjectured what it was, and he gave an example, which
is in effect the same thing as these two geometers had
found. He added that it was but a particular case, or
rather a corollary to a method much more general, by
which tangents.to all sorts of curves, whether geometri¬
cal or mechanical, might be found without laborious cal¬
culation. He repeated the same thing, without explain¬
ing himself further, in his second letter, which has been
already mentioned, and he concealed the principle under
transposed letters. The only writing in which Newton
had allowed any thing of his method to transpire is his
Analysis per Equationes numero Terminorum wfiniias. He
there briefly and obscurely reveals-his principle of fluxions.
It cannot be denied that the principle and method were
there indicated; but it is not certain that Leibnitz had
ever seen the passage. His adversaries have never said
that it had been communicated to him by letter; they
have merely thrown out a suspicion that Collins might
have communicated it to him in his second journey to
London. Indeed the suspicion is not altogether void of
probability, inasmuch as Leibnitz admitted that in his in¬
terview with the secretary he had seen a part of his epis¬
tolary correspondence. I believe, however, that it would
be rash to pronounce upon this. There might have been
grounds for suspicion if Leibnitz had merely given a few
essays of his new calculus; but when we consider the
improvements he made, as appears by the number of
pieces he contributed to the Leipsic Acts, it seems proba¬
ble that he owed his calculus to his own genius, and his
efforts to divine the nature of a method by which Newton
had made so many fine discoveries. This is the more
probable, as from the method of tangents of Barrow to
the differential calculus, the step is not too great to have
been made by a power of mind of which Leibnitz had
given so many proofs.”
If it had been true, as the British mathematicians al¬
leged, that Leibnitz had taken his calculus from that of
Newton, it would have been a very remarkable circum¬
stance that such a long period should have elapsed be¬
tween his first putting forth his pretensions to the honour
of the invention, and the denial of Newton and his friends.
This is a thing uncommon in the history of contested
claims to discovery, when both the claimants are alive
and all the facts known. It is also remarkable that New¬
ton, while in the prime of life, did not of his own accord
bring forward a charge of plagiarism against his contem¬
porary. On the contrary, in the first edition of his Prin-
cipia, which appeared in 1687, he expressly admitted
Leibnitz’s claim ; and this admission is found even in the
edition of the Principia published in 1713. It is now
'veil known, that before the period of the controversy be¬
tween Newton and Leibnitz, the mind of the former had at
one time been in a state which rendered him unfit to draw
correct conclusions from the ordinary incidents of life;
witness his letters to Mr Pepys and Mr Locke in Septem¬
ber 1693 (Brewster’s Life of Newton). At this time he
seems to have laboured under great bodily indisposition,
from which he afterwards in appearance recovered; in¬
deed it may be doubted whether his temper was so equal
and mild in the latter period of his life as has been re¬
presented by his biographers. A collection of letters
which passed between Flamsteed the astronomer and
Abraham Sharp the celebrated calculator, which have
lately come into the possession of the Astronomical So¬
ciety of London, prove that Newton, in conjunction with
Halley, opposed Flamsteed in the publication of his His-
toria Ccelestis, a work of the highest merit, and the result
°f the labour of his life, with a pertinacity of purpose
which is by no means an amiable trait in his character.
It is certain that Newton entertained towards Leibnitz Introduc-
a very different feeling at one period of his life, from tion.
that which he in the end evinced. In the edition of the
Principia 1713, and those which preceded it, he says,
“ Ten years ago, in a correspondence with Mr Leibnitz,
I informed him that I had a method of determining max¬
ima and minima, of drawing tangents, and resolving si¬
milar problems, which applied alike to rational and ir¬
rational terms, but concealed it under transposed letters.
He answered that he had found a like method, which he
communicated, and which differed from mine only in the
terms and the signs, and in the way of conceiving quanti¬
ties to be generated.” This concession was liberal, and
worthy of Newton. How-ever, in the edition of 1726, he
retracted this act of justice, having struck out the pas¬
sage, as Montucla assures us, with his own hand. The
historian of the mathematics, however, finds an excuse
for this harshness in the treatment which Newton had
received from Leibnitz’s friends.
The circumstance of the calculus having had two dis¬
tinct origins, had the inconvenient effect of giving it two
different forms and names. Newton at different times
used different notations before he finally adopted that
which has been followed by the English mathematicians.
Leibnitz and his followers employed one somewhat differ¬
ent ; and each sect pertinaciously adhered to the exam¬
ple set by its leader. There was a still greater difference
in the view which each party took of quantity, and the
way in which it may be generated. Newton conceived
geometrical magnitudes to be generated by continued
motion, a line by a point in motion, a surface by a moving
line, a solid by a moving surface, an angle by a line turn¬
ing about a point, and so on. It is evident, that by as¬
suming geometrical quantities as the representatives of
time, force, and whatever can be expressed by number,
these can be conceived to increase or decrease according
to the same laws as their geometrical representatives.
His calculus therefore consisted of two parts:
ls£, Supposing two quantities to have a given relation
to each other (for example, the one to be always equal
to the square of the other), and the rate of increase of
one of them at any instant of time to be known; to find
the rate of increase ot the other at the same instant.
These rates of increase were called the fluxions of the
quantities; and the rules for their determination consti¬
tuted the direct method of fluxions.
2d, The second part was the reverse problem, in which
the relation between the rates of increase of two quantities
which depended the one on the other, being given, it was
required to discover the relation of the quantities. This
was the inverse method.
Leibnitz at first supposed quantity to increase by the
addition of some indefinite portion of a quantity of the
same kind, and his differentials were quantities propor¬
tional to the instantaneous changes in the greatness of
the quantities thus generated. He afterwards found it
shorter to introduce directly these instantaneous changes
into his calculus under the name of infinitely little differ¬
ences (infiniment petites). These however he did not re¬
gard as absolute zeros, but only as not comparable to finite
magnitudes. His calculus had, like Newton’s, two parts,
the differential calculus, which gave rules for deducting^
the relation of the differentials of quantities from that of
the quantities themselves, and the integral calculus, which
resolved the reverse problem, or discovered the relation
of the quantities when the relation of their differentials
was known. This corresponded to the inverse method of
fluxions, as the differential calculus corresponded to the
direct method. ,
There is this distinction, then, between the two methods:
fluxions.
Newton’s fluxions are any finite quantities which have to
Smother the ratio of the velocities, or degree of quick-
which had eluded the penetrating mind of Galileo, were Intrc s
more fully comprehended; many new ones were suggested, ho
each other the ratio 01 ^ T xhe dif- and the cultivators of the calculus challenged each other
ness with which the quantities a g . . a cre_ t0 an investigation of their properties. There is an ele-
ferentials of Leibnitz are infim e y apprehen- gant class of problems which relate to the greatest and
ation of the mind more removed o dmary apprenen^ quantities< Some of thesef called pro.
sion than the finite representa .1VC® f j ’ superiority blems of maxima and minima, can be resolved by the ordi-
tinction has often been urged m ff.™ur.““yXn has nary geometry and algebra; but there is a elass which lies
of Newton’s calculus. On the »the^and, Newton nas y g , ^minion6ofthes „d to it belongs the solid of
introduced time into his calculus. Now 18 ™ ^ resistance, the curve of swiftest descent, and, in ge-
ment foreign to dis- neral, the problems called isoperimet rical, one of the sim-
but little influence on its progress. Whichever of the two given in Jength
forms is chosen, the rules are the same; and so also are
the difficulties to be overcome. , . ,
Some time elapsed before the newly invented calculus
was actively employed. At length Leibnitz, to rouse the
attention of geometers, proposed in 1687 this problem :
To determine the curve along which a heavy body must
Umesnto’ a°horizontel^ plane.^Huygens1 was'thc^first^o we may reckon Cotes, the friend of Newton, who died at
resolve the problem. He showed what was the nature of the early age of thirty-four (his Harmoma Menmmrum,
[he curve but he did not give his demonstration. James and other writings, indicate a genius of the highest order),
thecu ve , , ,s nroblem bv the differential De Moivre, Taylor, Craig, David Gregory, awl Stirling. It
shall comprehend the greatest possible
space. These formed the subject of a warm but honour¬
able contest between the two Bernoullis, brothers; and
their investigation laid the foundations of that branch of
the calculus, the highest, which has been formed into a
theory by the labours of Euler and Lagrange, under the
name of the Calculus of Variations.
Among the early cultivators of the calculus in Britain
Bernoulli also resolved the problem by
calculus, and published his analysis in the Leipsic Acts.
His younger brother John united himself in a close friend¬
ship with Leibnitz, and continued throughout life his
coadjutor and staunch defender. He made the calculus
known in France, where he resided for a time, and gave
lessons to the Marquis de I’Hopital. Part of these form
the Analyse des infiniment Petits, a work which bears the
name of the marquis, with but a slight acknowledgment
in the preface of the share which his preceptor had in its
composition. Indeed it was almost entirely his; and of
this injury Bernoulli complained justly, but privately, in
his correspondence with Leibnitz. The remaining lessons,
which teach the integral calculus, are given in the collec¬
tion of Bernoulli’s works, published in 1742. The whole
form an excellent exposition of the principles of the cal¬
culus, and contain some of its finest applications.
The continental mathematicians who were remarkable
for their skill in the differential calculus were at first few
in number. They might be nearty all included in the
names of Leibnitz himself, James and John Bernoulli, De
I’Hopital, and Varignon. They were, however, remarka¬
bly active, particularly the Bernoullis, whose writings have
contributed powerfully to its advancement.
The inventor of the fluxional calculus seems to have
taken but little interest in its extension. His treatise on
quadratures did not appear till 1706; and his work on
fluxions was not published in his life time, but appeared
in 1736, nine years after his death. He had however
must, however, be confessed, that the continental school
in the course of time advanced before that of Britain, as
well in the number of its disciples, as in their high mathe¬
matical genius and the importance of their discoveries.
John Bernoulli had two sons, Nicolas and Daniel, who ri¬
valled their father’s skill in the applications of the calcu¬
lus ; and these had as condisciples Hermann and Euler.
This last mathematician has carried the subject to a point
of perfection far beyond what it had attained in the hands
of those that had gone before him.
Amongst the means by which the improvement of the
calculus has been promoted, we may reckon the problems
which passed between the British and continental mathe¬
maticians as challenges to each other, in answering which
Newton himself condescended sometimes to enter the
lists. The doctrine of infinite series, a branch of the ma¬
thematics of English origin, gives powerful aid to the
calculus in its greatest difficulties ; but, legitimately, its
assistance ought not to be called in if the problem admit
of being resolved in finite terms. The English sometimes
failed in the observance of this most proper condition of
a good solution, and thus gave rise to reproaches from
their opponents, which in at least one instance were not
unjustly incurred by Newton himself. In the course of
this warfare, Keill, the champion of the English, proposed
as a challenge to John Bernoulli, to determine the nature
of the curve which a projectile describes in a medium re¬
sisting as the square of the velocity. Bernoulli soon re-
fully availed himself of its power in the composition of solved the problem, not only in the case proposed, but also
his Principia, without revealing to the full extent the na¬
ture of the instrument with which he wrought, but esta¬
blishing the truth of his propositions by synthetic demon¬
stration, after the manner of the ancient geometers. Pro¬
bably this was done in deference to the taste of that time ;
when the resistance was as any power whatever of the
velocity. He then proposed to put his solution into the
hands of some confidential person in London, provideo
that Keill would deliver his solution to the same person.
Keill, however, had upon trial not been able to reso ve
for a contemporary writer, Hermann, in following his ex- the problem, and therefore preserved a profound silence,
ample in the composition of his Phoronomia, assigned to and made himself, by his boasting and failure, quite nu
Leibnitz as a reason, that the geometrical method was
likely to be better understood than the analytical in Italy.
This way of proceeding is now, however, disused by the
best writers, and replaced by the more legitimate and un¬
disguised use of the calculus.
The extensive views which the new calculus opened up,
afforded the means of resolving problems which had baffl¬
ed the skill of the earlier mathematicians, and suggested
many new ones, which without its aid would have been
quite intractable. The cycloid and the catenary, curves
culous. The triumph of Bernoulli was complete, and e
did not miss the opportunity of bestowing severe castiga
tion on his humbled adversary, recollecting, we may sup
pose, the treatment which his deceased and lamente
friend Leibnitz had received from him and his frien s.
As another proof of the spirit and rivalry of the sup
porters of the two analytical theories, we may men lorJ
that Brooke Taylor proposed a problem in the integr
calculus to all geometers not English, and sent it 0
Montmort to be communicated to the foreign geome
FLUXIONS.
Int •|C‘
t
637
Notwithstanding the general terms of the challenge, it at thp ♦ u i. -
was well understood to be particularly aimed at John ! VV° brancl[ies intersect each other, Introduc-
Bernoulli, who in return offered to wager fifty Louis that and ^hich in this case is expressed by the fraction -•
he would resolve the problem, and to stake fifty more SannVe . , x. „ . 0
that he would propose a problem which he himself could masses of calculation ohstW?!? but. Rope. mtrenched in
resolve, but which Taylor could not. The English ma- ThTaLde^ ^
thematician did not think it prudent to accept the offered non, who conducted its affairs undprf/snFt ^bb| Blf'
condition. Indeed it was a complaint against the English controversy, with the assistance of MM Gal ois^ndDo fa
geometers that although they made no scruple of trying Hire, two Judges by no means favourable to sTurfa ?hev
to puzzle foreigners with difficulties, they rarely respond- gave no absolute judgment; but recommended to ftoffa
ed to the counter challenges proposed to themselves. to conform more strfatly to the rules of the academy
Perhaps there never was a considerable invention or and to Saurin to forgive the proceedings of his advemry
discovery which had not to encounter opposition; some- Rolle suffered in the estimation of competent iud jes he'
times from the slowness with which the human mind however, afterwards did justice to the calculus, by acknovv-
yields to the force of truth when opposed to long-received ledging that he had done wrong in opposing it and admit-
opinions, and sometimes from less excusable causes, such ting that he had been urged forward by ihe instigation of
as mistaken or interested views, or mere jealousy excited malevolent persons, one of whom was the Abbe Gallois •
by the fame of the inventor. The new calculus had in the and his demise in 1707 accordingly put an end to the mn ’
very outset its opponents, such as the Abbe de Catelan, a troversy. 6 J 1
zealous Cartesian, who declared that it would be better
to extend the principles of the Cartesian geometry than
to seek for new methods; and this was said in the preface
of a book composed on the principles, somewhat disguis¬
ed, of the very calculus of which he was an opponent. It
had another adversary in Nieuwentiit, a man who had
written some tolerable works on morality and religion, but
who had but small pretensions to be regarded as a geo¬
meter. Catelan was satisfactorily answered by De l’H6-
pital, as was Nieuwentiit by Leibnitz, and afterwards by
Bernoulli and Hermann, who proved that this adversary
of the calculus really did not know what he opposed.
The calculus had a more formidable enemy in M. Rolle,
a skilful algebraist and indefatigable calculator, but a man
In England the Newtonian calculus had to sustain an
attack on its principles from a writer of first-rate talents,
Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne. The circumstances which led
to it are curious. Mr Addison had given the bishop an
account of the behaviour of their common friend, Dr Garth,
in his last illness, which was highly unpleasing to these
two advocates of revealed religion ; for when Addison
began to discourse with Garth on a future state, “ Sure¬
ly,” said the latter, “ I. have no reason to believe these
trifles, when my friend Dr Halley, who has dealt so much
in demonstration, has assured me that the doctrines of
Christianity are incomprehensible, and religion itself an im¬
posture.” The bishop therefore took up arms against Hal¬
ley, and in the year 1734) addressed to him, as an infidel,
full of confidence in his own notions, rash in forming his a discourse called The Analyst, the object of which was to
opinions, and jealous of the inventions of others. He at- prove that mathematicians acted inconsistently in object-
tacked the certainty of its principles, and he attempted ing to mysteries in faith, seeing that they did not hesi-
to show that its conclusions were at variance with those tate to admit much greater mysteries, and even false-
obtained by methods previously known, which were ac- hoods, in their own science; and he chose the principles
knowledged to be correct. His attack was repelled by of the doctrine of Fluxions, as laid down by Newton and
\arignon, who.completely obviated the objections to the adopted by his followers, to prove the truth of his propo-
truth of the principles, and further showed that the sup- sition. It may be supposed that so able a writer would
posed discrepancy between its conclusions and those ob- not fail to make an impression on the public mind. But
tamed by other methods, were mistakes he had commit- the mathematicians were not slow in coming forward in
ted from haste and inadvertence. These disputes oc- defence of the doctrines of their chief. In the same year
copied the French Academy a considerable part of the came out a tract with this title: “ Geometry No Friend to
year 1701. The members were chiefly geometers con- Infidelity, or a Defence of Sir I. Newton and the British
siderably advanced in years, who had been long accus- Mathematicians, by Philalethes Cantabrigiensis,” suppos-
tomed to other methods, and were therefore not much dis- ed to be Dr Jurin. As usual the attack was renewed, and
posed to receive new doctrines. Some took no part in the again repelled by the same hand. Other defences of New-
dispute, yet were not sorry to see a storm raised against ton appeared, one of the best of which was from the pen of
a theory for which they had no great liking, and took no Benjamin Robins; it was entitled A Discourse concerning
means to allay it; others, more under the influence of the Nature and Certainty of Sir Isaac Newton’s Method of
their passions and prejudices, yielded to these, and de- Fluxions, and of Prime and Ultimate Ratios. But the most
clared open war against it. In this state of things the importantresultofthiscontroversywas A Treatise on Flux-
best course was supposed to be that of hearing all which ions from the pen of Colin Maclaurin, professor of mathe-
could be said for and against the calculus. The academy matics in the university of Edinburgh, printed in 1742.
was long involved in the dispute. Rolle brought forward This defence of the principles of Newton’s views, express-
objection upon objection; and although Yarignon conti- ly intended to obviate all objections, is quite satisfactory,
nually obviated them, yet the former always claimed the The treatise is indeed considerably prolix ; but this was a
v'ctory. In the end the dispute degenerated into a real consequence of the circumstances in which it was compos-
tjuarrel, and commissioners were appointed to decide on it. ed. It however contains a great deal more than a mere
Ihese were Pere Gouye, MM. Cassini and de la Hire, theory of fluxions. We have in it some of the finest ap-
who, however, pronounced no judgment; but the public plications of analysis to the principal problems which had
°pinion, or at least the opinion of geometers, was in favour been agitated amongst geometers from the invention ol the
arignon. The first controversy thus ended, or at least calculus to the time in which the work appeared.
^ as suspended, for want of a decision from the commission; By the middle of the century the calculus proceeded
but Rohe, the champion of the opponent of the calculus, with a rapid march of improvement. Euler in 1744 great-
soon renewed hostilities. Its defence was next taken up ly enriched it by his solution of the Isopenmetnc Problem
oyM. Saurin. The ground of attack was the indefinite (Solutioproblematis isoperimetrici latissimo sensu accepti), a
ortn which the calculus gives for the subtangent of a curve theory which he afterwards wrought up into the Calculus
i
638
Introduc¬
tion.
fluxions.
for 1772, proposed to make the calculus altogether inde- Intt jC.
of Variations, aim Mefhnrhi* Incremen- pendent of the consideration of infinity, and to rest on t
by Lagrange. Brooke Taylor, by his proceeded principles purely analytical, thus connecting it with the
AvtPndftd the foundations, and even proc ^ doctrines of the ordinary algebra. He has since realised
and extended his views in his Theorie des Fonctions Ana-
hitiques, also in his Lemons sur les Calcul des Fonctions;
works which, from their excellence and the celebrity of
their author, have formed a new era in the history of the
calculus.
of Variations, aI^ Incremen-
whi^^D^Ale^bert'fbhowed^is^te^s^a^d carried the sub*
their views; on the continent Ricatti, ir
and others, followed in the train of Euler and the Bernoulhs
It is a curious fact in the history of mathematics, that
there are instances of ladies who have applied their talents
to its study and improvement with much success. Hypa¬
tia, the daughter of the ancient geometer Theory* one
ject further. The same period abounded in go The twofold origin of the calculus, besides placing its
'In this country Demoivre, Simpson, Landen, a inci leg on different foundations, gave it also two differ-
stand among the foremost in tor the o « ‘ J £nt forms of notation ; and in this state it continued during
Uairaut, ’ the wllole 0f the eighteenth century, to the great incon-
venience of mathematical students, and, we may add, to
the hindrance of the progress of science. A change,
however, has taken place within the last twenty years;
during that period some British geometers, imbued with
tia, tne oaugmci u. - o-- vp^tip-es of the mathematics of the continent, adopted also its nota-
notable instance. L nfortunately we ha^e "P gf her tion in preference to that of the followers of Newton, and
her writings by which we might form an est employed it publicly in their researches. This spirit of in-
proficiency in a science which at first sight seems Mother novation in time took possession of the minds of the junior
attractions for the female mind. We have another ^^ of the univel|ity of Cambridge, and now we may
say that it has completely supplanted the native notation.
We have retained the name of Fluxions, because, from the
changes which have taken place in the way of treating
the subject since the days of Leibnitz and Newton, it
seems to be as proper as the term differential. It is other¬
wise with the notation. This is consecrated by its having
been employed in the writings of Euler, D’Alembert, La¬
grange, and other great masters in mathematical science;
and besides, it has advantages over the other in point of
symmetry and compactness, and the established reputa¬
tion of a whole century of useful _seryice._ It is true, the
late illustrious Lagrange laid it aside in his attempt above
mentioned to new7-model tlje calculus; but subsequent
writers, in extracting what was excellent from his works,
instance in an Italian lady, Maria Gaetana Agnesi, who
was actually professor of mathematics in the University of
Bologna in the year 1748 ; and how well she was qualified
for the office appears from her Analytical Institutions, a
work of great excellence on algebra, the theory of curve
lines, and the differential calculus, composed for the
instruction of the youth of Italy. This work is so excel¬
lent, that Bossut, a French mathematician of great emi¬
nence, translated the part on the differential calculus into
French, and incorporated it with his Course of Mathe¬
matics, as the best treatise he could find on the subject.
There is also an English translation by the Rev. John
Colson, Lucasian professor of mathematics in the univer¬
sity of Cambridge. Her countryman L risi, a most competent
judge, mentions her in enumerating the mathematicians
of Italy, and bestowrs great praise on her work, calling it
opus nitidissimum, ingeniosissimum, et maximum certe opus
quod hactenus ex femince alicujus calamo prodierit. At
the present time we have another admirable instance of a
lady who has surmounted the difficulties of the calculus.
Mrs Somerville, in her work entitled Mechanism of the
Heavens, London, .1831, has enriched English literature
with a treatise on physical astronomy, in which the differ¬
ent branches of the calculus are combined with the most
refined theories of mechanics. Her book does her infi¬
nite credit, and indeed is highly honourable to the whole
female sex.
Geometers have differed in opinion as to the best wray
of w’orking up the principles of the calculus into a sys¬
tem. Newton, as has already been stated, employed the
theory of motion as the means of connecting its doctrines
wdth the principles of the ordinary algebraic analysis.
Leibnitz, again, with the same view, conceived quantity
as passing from one degree of magnitude to another by
the continual accretion of infinitely small parts. The
mind finds no great difficulty in distinctly apprehending
the subject in its simplest state either way. Objections
have, however, been taken to both, and attempts made
to substitute a better. Euler considered the infinitely
small quantities of Leibnitz as absolute zeros, that have
to each other ratios derived from those of the vanishing
quantities which they replace. D’Alembert proposed to
make the basis of the calculus the consideration of the
ratios of the limits of the quantities. An English mathe¬
matician, Landen, has substituted for the Newtonian me¬
thod of fluxions another purely analytical. His views are
contained in a work entitled The Residual Analysis, a
new branch of the Algebraic Art, by John Landen, 1764.
Lastly, Lagrange, in the Memoirs of the Berlin Academy
have ic general invested his view's with the ordinary no¬
tation of the continent. In the following treatise we shall
conform to this beneficial alteration.
Writers on the Infinitesimal Calculus, before the Invention
of the Method of Fluxions.
Kepler, Nova Stereometria Doliorum Vinariorum 16D
Cavalieri, Geometria Indivisibilium 
 Exercitationes Geometricae Sex   
Roberval, Traite des Indivisibles. Mem. de 1’Acad.
des Sciences lbDD
Descartes, in his Letters and Geometry, book 2d,anc* ?
his mathematical works 
Torricelli, De Sphaera, et Solidis Sphaerahbus 
Gregory St Vincent, Opus Geometricum de ^uaara’^g^
tura Circuli   
Wallis, Arithmetica Infinitorum.. 
Fermat, Opera Varia Mathematica jggg
Mercator, Logarithmo-Technia 
James Gregory, Vera Circuli et Hyperbolae ^uadra'il668
Brouncker, Squaring the Hyperbola, Phil ^ranSf^
London   ; VIA'A’ ’ 1704,
Huygens, Opera; Horologium Oscillatonum... >
Barrow, Lectiones Geometricae.....  
Slusius, Tangents to all Geometrical Curves,
Trans   1673
Wren, Rectification of the Cycloid, ibid .V/1682
Ismael Bullialdus, Arithmetica Infinitorum, 1‘brl* ‘V
Leibnitz, Quadrature of the Circle, Leips. Ac
Phil* Trans. ..•••••••••• ••• ••••••••• ••••••• •••••••*****
Viviani* Exerc’. Math, de Formatione et Mensura kor-^
nicum 
1.1
fluxions.
1C- Writers on the Fluxionary or Differential Calculus.
,J Newton, De Analysi per iEquationes numero termi-
G39
norum Infinitas, circulated in manuscript in 1669,
and printed in the Commercium Epistolicum, 1712.
Also contained in a volume edited by W. Jones,
and entitled Amalysis per Quantitatum Series,
Fluxiones, ac DifFerentias 1723
 — Principia, lib. ii. sect. iii. lemma 2 1687
Tractatus de Quadratura Curvarum, pub-
Landen, Mathematical Memoirs  1780 Introdnr
Saunderson, Method of Fluxions 6on
Lyons, Treatise of Fluxions  1758
Kaestner, Separatio Indeterminat. in ^quat. Diff.’.'.l 1756 '
XJ Alembert, Opuscules Mathematiques 1761—80
Robins, Mathematical Tracts.
  ITGl
Waring, Miscellanea Analytica ” l762
Meditationes Analytical    1770
lished with
 The
Condorcet, Du Calcul Integral  
ctatus de yuadratura Curvarum, pub- Le Seur et Jacquier, ElSmens du Calciii Intigrai ' 'l768
M I T 7vr: 1704 LeXe11’ Metll0dus ^tegrandi JEq. Diff. Comm. Petrop 1769
: Method of Fluxions... 1736 Fontaine, Traite du Calcul DifF. et Integral 1 i7^n
^ Mpthndna nm ^ Gianella, De Fluxionibus et earum Usu .....;!“"///.'"mi
Leibnitz, Nova Methodus pro maximis et minimis
itemque tangentibus. Leipsic Acts 1684
James Bernoulli, Analysis Magni Problematislsoperi-
metrici; Acta Erud. See also his Works   1744
John Bernoulli, Acta Erud. Leip.; also Memoires de
TAcad. des Sciences 1742
Leibnitz and Bernoulli, Commercium Phil, et Math.
2 vols. 4to 1745
Demoivre, Use of Fluxions in Geometric Problems,
in the Phil. Trans.., 1695
De I’Hopital, Analyse des Infiniment Petits  1696
David Gregory, On the Catenary, Phil. Trans 1697
Carre, Methode pour la Mesure des Surfaces 1700
Craig, Solid of least Resistance and Curve of quick¬
est Descent, Phil. Trans 1700
 De Calculo Fluentium 1718
Cheyne, Fluxionum Methodus Inversa 1703
Harris, Lexicum Technicum 1704
Hayes, A Treatise on Fluxions 1704
Ditton, Institution of Fluxions 1706
Manfredi, De Construct. Equal. DifF. primi gradus..l707
Taylor, Methodus Incrementorum 1715
Cotes, Harmonia Mensurarum   (
—-— Estimatio errorum in mixta Mathesi j
Riccati, Animad. in Equal. dilFerentiales, secundi
Cousin, Lecons du Calcul DifFerentiel, &c 1777
La Place, TUsage du Calcul aux Differences partieliesj
Mem. de f Acad    1777
Condorcet, De Integ. cujusdam fEquationis, Comm.
de Bonon  1783
Malfatti, Delle formale difFerentiali la cui inteora-
zione dipende dalla rettificatione delle sezfone
coniche..... 1784
Paoh, Memona sull equazione a difFerenze finite e
parziali  
Monge, Sur le Calcul Integral des Equal, aux Dif.
partielles, Mem. de VAcad 1784
Charles, Recherches sur le Calcul Integral, Mem.
de VAcad.
,1784
L’Huillier, Exposition des Principes de Calcul Supe-
rieur...   
Principiorum Calculi DifF. et Integ 1795
Mascheroni, Annotationes ad Cal. Integ. Euleri 1790
Tabiescen, Principia atqile Historia Calculi Differ, et
Integ. nec non Methodi Fluxionum 1793
Lagrange, Calcul des Variations, Mis. Taur. vol. iV.
and iv..  1760-69
Theorie des Fonctions Analytiques 1797
gradus, Acta Erud   1724
Clarke, An Institution of Fluxions 1726
Hermann, De Constructione Equationum DifFeren-
tialium, Comm. Petrop..., 1726
Fontenelle, Siemens de la Geometrie de ITnfini 1727
Clairaut, Determinatio Curvae ejusdem DifFerentialis,
Acta Erud. 1729
Demoivre, Miscellanea Analytica 1730
Stone, Method of Fluxions 1730
Hodgson, The Doctrine of Fluxions 1736
Heidier, Le Calcul DifFerentiel 1740
Simpson, A Treatise on Fluxions.. 1737 and 1750
Maclaurin, A Treatise on Fluxions 1742
Emerson, The Doctrine of Fluxions 1743
Donna Agnesi, Instituzioni Analitiche 1748
2d edit.   1813
 Lecons sur le Calcul des Fonctions, 2d
edit.   1806
The titles of his Memoirs, inserted in Academical
Collections, are given in his Mecanique Analytique,
second edition  
Vince, Principles of Fluxions 1797
Carnot, Reflexions sur la Metaphysique du Calcul
Infinitesimal 1797
Bossut Traite clu Calcul DifFerentiel 1798
Lacroix, Traite du Calcul DifFerentiel et du Calcul
Integral, first edit. 1797, second   1810-19
Abrogast, Du Calcul des Derivations 1800
The preceding catalogue contains the names of the
D ,          principal improvers and cultivators of the calculus, from
French translation of the same work by Cousin 1775 its first invention to the end of the last century. FIow-
An English translation by Colson 1801
Euler, Methodus Inveniendi Lineas Curvas maximi
minimive proprietate gaudentes 1744
Introductio in Analysin Infinitorum 1748
—- Institutiones Calculi DifFerentialis 1755
■ Institutiones Calculi Integralis 1768—70
j dtles of Euler’s academical memoirs, of which
tiiere is a very great number on the Differential
Calculus, are given in the edition of his Calculus
Pifferentialis, printed at Pavia in 1787, and occu¬
py thirty-two quarto pages,
almesly, Analyse des Mesures des Rapport et des
Angles 1750
"tiding, Methodus DifFerentialis 1753
Bougainville, Traite du Calcul Integral 1754
linden, Mathematical Lucubrations 1755
~~ • The Residual Analysis 1764
ever, it does not contain all their writings; to have enu-
merated«these would have extended the catalogue to too
great a length. Almost all the improvements of the calculus
were first given in the form of academical memoirs, from
which they have been drawn, and incorporated into the
systems that have from time to time been published. The
great repertories in which it is contained are the writings of
Newton, Cotes, Demoivre, the Bernoulli's, Maclaurin, Simp¬
son, Euler, D’Alembert, Lagrange, Legendre, La Place,
Monge, Poisson, Gauss, Ampere, Ivory, &c. From these
have been constructed the treatises of De I’Hopital, Bou¬
gainville, Le Seur and Jacquier, Cousin, and others, which
were the most complete at the different periods when they
appeared. At this time the most extensive treatise is
the second edition of Lacroix, which came out between
1810 and 1819. In the present century there have been
published in France treatises by Gamier, Du Bourguet,
640
Direct
Method.
fluxions.
, • U nnt oppn bola ; others again are indefinite in respect of magnitude, Di
Boucharlat, Cauchy, and Dealtry,' and may have any number of particular values; such are M
In Britain we have had treatises by yoo"house’ ^ the co-ordinates at any point m a curve. 11118 difference ^
Lardner, Jephson, Young, Thomson, ana otners. of the antities has equally place m various
versity of Cambridge, long infertile, now teems with ttea in me^ ^ ^ m.xed roatheInaticS| and it na.
S,,y sugge^e di^ all mto^
mathematics^ s'uch'aslhe'E^ement^d'Algebra of Prmli,^he tiable. ,b that which js supposed t0 have
Cours des Mathematiques of Bezout, a wo Y ^ a]wa the same vaiue. A variable quantity, again, is
cceur, &c. There have also been works construe 1 1 h ^hi h may change its value by increasing or decreas-
benefit of students, which "'t'y be * ^examples ing, so that in passing from one degree of magnitude to
on the subject, such as the excellentc0 •““°n intended another it will have had in succession every possible in-
by Peacock, Herschel, and Babb^'’^ ““of an ^mediate magnitude.
as an accompaniment^ to an imglis i trans bleg Thus> in a circle, the radius is a constant quantity, and
abridgment of Lacroix s treatise ; and the g . ^ f the circle aiso its cosine, sine, tangent, secant,
of Hirsch, which have been translated from the original any a^c quantities< In the ellipsej the axes or
German into English. calculus of great interest, semiaxes are considered as constant; and the co-ordinates
There is a branch of the caicuius o^grea ^ tQ point in the curvej and m general any lines or
spaces or angles which in the same ellipse admit of differ¬
ent values, are variable. So again in the parabola, the
parameter is constant, and the co-ordinates to any point
in the curve, also any arc of the curve, and the space con¬
tained by that arc and the co-ordinates, are to be regard¬
ed as variable.
In what follows, we shall in general call constant quan¬
tities simply constants, and variable quantities variables.
It is usual to denote constants by the letters a, b, c, &c.
towards the beginning of the alphabet, and variables by
the letters x, y, z, &c. towards the end.
2. One quantity is said to be a function of another when
Bossut,PLeipsic Acts, 1754; Mem. de Math, et de ^angrftsralue,athe fOTmeratochanges it?value! Thus,
which of lateYas engaged, and will probably long engage
the attention of mathematicians ; we mean the subject ot
Elliptic Transcendents. This theory originated in t e is-
covery of a very remarkable property of the ellipse and
hyperbola by Fagnano, an Italian mathematician, who first
showed that arcs of these curves can be assigned, of
which the difference is expressible in finite algebraic
terms. This most interesting subject has been discussed
by the following writers :
Fagnano, Produzioni Mathematiche, tom. ii. p. 336...1750
Euler, Calculus Integralis, tom. i. sect. ii. and tom.
Legendre, Mem. de 1’Acad. des Sciences, 1786 ; M6-
moire sur les Transcendantes Elliptiques, 1^92-
(There is an English translation of this memoir in
Leyburn’s Mathematical Repository, vols.^ ii. and
iii. new series.) Exercices de Calcul Integral, 3
vols.; Schumacher’s Journal, Nos. 123, 127, 130.
 Traite des Fonctions Elliptiques 1825
   Miscell. Taur. tom. iv.; Theorie des Fonct.
Analytiques, 2d edit.
Ivory, New Series for the Rectification of the El¬
lipse, Trans. R. S. Edin. vol. iv.; JFagnani’s Theo¬
rem made more general, Leyburn’s Math. Reposi¬
tory, vol. i. new series; On the Theory of the
Elliptic Transcendents, Trans. R. S. Lond. 1831.
Wallace, Formula for the Rectification of an Ellipse,
&c., Trans. R. S. Edin. vol. v.
Woodhouse, Integration of Certain Differentials,
Trans. R. S. Lond. 1804.
Brinkley,DemonstrationofFagnani’s Theorem, Trans.
Irish Acad. vol. ix. «
Abel, J. Crell’s Journal, vol. ii.
Jacobi Fundamenta Novae Theoriae Functionum El-
lipticarum 1829
Plana, Memoir read in the Turin Academy 1828
PART I.
DIRECT METHOD OF FLUXIONS, OR
CULUS.
DIFFERENTIAL CAL-
1. In the application of algebra to the theory of curve
lines, some of the quantities under consideration are con¬
ceived as having always the same magnitude as the pa¬
rameter of a parabola, and the axes of an ellipse or hyper-
of the arc. On the other hand, the arc may be consider¬
ed as a function of any one of these quantities. In me¬
chanics, the force by which a body is urged forward, the
space it has passed over, and its velocity at every instant,
may all be regarded as functions of the time.
In this algebraic expression,
a 4- a?
in which a is a constant and x a variable, the quantity y
is regarded as a function of x, which is called the indepen¬
dent variable. Here y is expressed by x; but by rescu¬
ing the equation, x may be expressed by y thus :
«/ + 1 ’
the quantity x is now a function of y. In eltb®r case’ ^
constants a and 1 are not considered. In es
Ples> t . 2
u^a^bx^cx,
u ~ -y/ (®a “F bx -j- x1 2),
a -i_ V 6x
u — , o—>
c -p x2
m is a function of x. . , ^j^ndent
A quantity may be a function of several P
variable quantities. Thus, in the expression
u “ <zx2 -J- bxy -p cyz,
u is a function of the independent vanaWes x an
The variety of forms of functions of a varmbl ^
less. They may, however, be resolved into afe
tary functions such as these,
xn, ax, log x, sin x, cos x.
The first of these, x”, in which n is constant, and alU^
can be formed from it by a finite rumber o
j .t tary operations of algebra, are called algebraic functions;
,(]. for example, this,
CjM ~ bx3 — tfx
u — ax3 -j- —— )
Va2 -j- a?2
which is formed by addition, subtraction, multiplication
division, and the extraction of the square root. These
two, ax, log x, which cannot be expressed by a finite num¬
ber of terms composed of powers of x, are called trans¬
cendental functions, and the remaining two, sin x, cos x
and such as may be formed from'them, viz. tan x, sec x
&c. are called trigonometrical, also angular and circular
functions.
In the last example, the value of the function u may be
immediately found, if the value of x be known. Such
functions are called explicit. There are functions, how¬
ever, which require to be separated from the variable by
the resolution of equations, or other means, before their
value can be found ; as in this example,
u + x
ux — —!—,
u — x
in which u is supposed to be a function of x. In this
case, before the value of u, corresponding to a given value
ofx, can be found, a quadratic equation must be resolved.
Such a function is called an implicit function of x. On
the other hand, x is an implicit function of u. By the
resolution of an equation we find J
u=l{, + l + ^±^TI};
u is now an explicit function of#.
The early algebraists indicated the square root of a
quantity by placing the letter r before it; thus rx meant
the square root of#. The letter was afterwards changed
into the sign ^, and the square root of # was convenient¬
ly expressed thus, V#. In like manner, it is convenient
to have a symbol which shall express generally a function
o a variable, and accordingly it is now usual to express
any junction of a variable # by the symbol fx or f (x) •
also by F#, or <px. Here the letters f, or F, or <p, are con¬
sidered merely as the abbreviation of the word function,
and not as a co-efficient to the letter #. In this way we
include all these expressions,
u~xn, U rr ax, u — log #, u — cos #, u — sin #,
10 m generaI expression, viz. u = fx, or u =/(#).
len a function depends on two variable quantities #,
’/> w ich are independent of each other, such as this ex¬
pression,
u — axi + bxy cy'1,
we shall express it thus,
r , .u =f(x> y)-
ere we take no notice of the constant quantity a, b, c.
•* n°tation may be applied when three independent
variables enter a function.
rpn •^lernanner W^‘C^ we Propose to treat this subject
quires that the reader should distinctly understand what
a vn^Ki ^ a. to the value of a variable function, or
th e rati°- In the elements of geometry it is shown
rwih 6 frea .°^ a c*rcle is less than that of any regular
be/0?0 . fscr^et^ about it; and that the greater the num-
euua? k68 ^ie P0tygon> more nearly is its area
howe ° 1^le tarc^e ’ 80 that any space being given,
cirri Ver a polygon may be described about the
Sunn* W llci shall differ from it by less than that space,
circle ni)W a ®eiaes polygons to be described about a
thate> ?? having the number of its sides greater than
will a 1C° Precehe(I it, the double for example. These
VoiT-h continually to an equality with the circle as
fluxions.
r 641
absduteTv ri ^ SerieS’ h0Wrer far continued, can never Direct
<inmc f ^ ^ 'n 1 esPect °f magnitude, but from which Method.
any space^as^gnable^4 f°ll0W k’ ^ differ ^ leSS than
In like manner, the circle is the limit of the area of all
regular po ygons inscribed in it; and the circumference
o the circle is the limit of the perimeters of regular po¬
lygons described in it or about it. 1
In our article Algebra (sect. 266) it has been shown,
that, putting a for an arc of a circle," the fraction ~ is
sin a
a .
is always
tan a
always greater than an unit, but that
less; farther, that the arc being supposed to decrease con-
tinually, these fractions approach to each other, and may
differ by less than any assignable quantity; therefore
unity, which is always between them, is their common limit.
Hence it appears, that of these three quantities, an arc,
its sine, and its tangent, the ratio of any two is that of
equality. In the same article it has been shown that the
arc a is the limit of the fractions n tan. - and n sin -
i , n ri
supposing the number n to be increased continually.
The geometrical series J
1 4" * + a?2 + #3 . . . . -f- xn—1
is equivalent to the function ^(Algebra, sect. 56);
when # is less than 1, and n is infinitely great, then xn z=j 0,
and the function — ^ ^; therefore, in this case, the
sum of any finite number of terms of the series will al¬
ways be less than but will approach to it as the
number of terms increases, and may differ from it by less
than any assignable quantity; hence it follows that the
function ^ is the limit of the sum of the series.
By the binomial theorem
This is true, whatever be the numerical value of
but suppose w to be a large number, then the factors
1 2
1 > 1 » &c. will differ but little from unity; and
n n J
they will differ the less as n is greater. Suppose now n
to be indefinitely great, then these factors may be ac¬
counted each equal to an unit; and, therefore,
/ #\n , # , #2 #3
(l + n) =1+I + f3+f7273+’&c-
It has been shown in algebra (sect. 177) that the se¬
cond member of this equation is the development of the
function ex, where e denotes the number 2-7182818, viz.
the base of Napier’s logarithms; therefore, if n be sup¬
posed to increase continually, the expression ^1 -f-j*
will approach to ex as its limit; and making # z= 1, the
limit of ^1 + = e = 2-7182818, a constant quantity.
4. Since the value of a function depends essentially on
that of the variable, which is its basis, any change in
the value of the latter will produce a corresponding change
in the value of the former.
4 M
642
Direct
Method.
flux
First, let the function be m = x*, and let us suppose
that the variable changes its value, ,ncr“sed br
a quantity h, and thereby becoming x + hi let «' denote
the corresponding value ol u, so that we hate
u'=(x+ hf r= x2 + 2xh + A2 = w + 2xh + A"';
hence u'—uz=. 2xA + /<2.
It thus appears that, h denoting the increment of the va¬
riable x, the corresponding increment of the function, viz.
The" algebraic expression for a ratio is a fraction whose
numerator is the antecedent, and denominator the elo¬
quent. In the present case, the ratio of the increment of
the function to that of its variable is
U'-T- = 2* + h.
h
As another example, let the function be m = ; then?
supposing, as before, that the variable x is increased by
the quantity /«, and, putting u’ for the new value of the
function, we have
, , = x3 + 3x°h + 3x¥ + hz
u’-(x-\-h) | _M + 2xih + SxA2 + h?;
u’ — u
: 3x2 + Sxh + A2.
In this case we see that when x has increased to x + A,
the function u has become
IONS.
Thus it appears that the expression for —^—, the ratio 'j
• 1 ^ I
of the increment of the function xn to that of its variable x,
may be resolved into two parts, one, wInch is independent
of the increment, and another, qh + rtf + sW-jr, &c.; or
A (<7 + rh + sh° +, &c.),
which, having A the increment as a factor, must decrease i
with it, and, by giving a sufficiently small value to A, may
become less than any assignable quantity, so that the first
term p is the limit of the ratio.
Let us consider the complex function
u=za + bx + cx2. j
When x becomes x + A, becomes
u’= a + b(x + h) + c(x + hf
= a + Ax + ex2 + (A + 2cx) A + cA2,
hence u' — u = (A + 2cx) A +cA2,
— A + 2cx + ch.
A
In this case the limit of the ratio is A + 2cx. By a like
examination of particular functions it will be found that
they have all a common property, that is,
If n be any function of a variable x, and if in that
function x be supposed to change its value and become
-x p . tJie corresponding new value of the function will he
u' — u ph + qh2 + rh3 +, &c.
and the ratio of the increments of the function and its variable,
u + 3x2A + 3xA2 + A3,
having received the increment 3x2A + 3Ax2 + A3, a quan¬
tity composed of the integer powers of A. Farther, it ap¬
pears that the expression for the ratio of the increments is
3x2 + 3xA + A2,
of which the first term 3x2 is entirely independent of the
value of A, the increment of x.
When the function is m = x4, we have, putting, as in
the former examples, A for tbe increment of the variable,
and u’ for the new value of the function,
u' — u + 4x3A 4" 6x2A2 4" 4xA3 4* A4,
    — 4x3 4- 6x2A 4- 4xA2 4" A3.
A
From these examples it appears, that when x changes
its value and becomes x + A, then the new value of the
function
u — xz becomes u' — u 2xA 4* A2,
« x3 becomes u' ■= u Sx2A 4* 3xA2 4* A3,
u — x4 becomes u’ — u 4x3A 4" 6x2A2 4” 4xA3 4* A4;
and in general that
u — xn, any integer power of x, becomes
u' — u ph 4- qh- 4“ rh3 4* sA4 4“, &c.
the new value of the function being composed of a series
of terms, the first of which is its original value, and the
following terms, integer powers of the increment A, mul¬
tiplied by p, q, r, &c. certain other functions of x, the
forms of which depend on the original function, whence
they have been derived.
Farther, it appears that
when u — x2, then — 2x 4- A ■
A *
when u = x3, -- ~M = 3x2 4- 3xA -f- A2;
when u ~ x\ = 4x3 + 6x2A 4- 4xA2 4- A3;
and, in general, that wdten x = un, n being any whole
number, then
^~ p qh rh'1 4” sA3 4*, &c.
u'~Ji = p4-qh4-rh24-,&c.;
u
an expression which, ivhen h is supposed to decrease
nualhj, has for its limit the first term p ; and this limit will
be different for different functions, there being such a con¬
nection between the f unction and its limit, that the one may
be found, from the other. . .
This property of the increments of a function and its
variable suggests an important and extensive analytical
theorv, which wall consist of two parts.
I. Any function of a variable quantity being proposed,
to determine the limit of the ratio of the corresponding
increments of the function and its variable. _
II. On the other hand, having given the ratio of the
increments, to find the function from which it has been
These two inquiries constitute at bottom the Directand
Inverse Method of Fluxions of Newton, the Differentia
and Integral Calculus of Leibnitz, and the Theoiy oj
Functions of Lagrange. Our present subject is the direct
method of fluxions, or its equivalent, the differential ca -
CU5.S*We have seen (4), that by the transition of a func¬
tion, for example, u — x2, from one state of magmtuc e o
another, by a change in the magnitude of it3 yaria,b , L-
acquires the new value u'=n + 2xh + h\ The wUed,f-
ference u' — u between its new and first values is f '
It is the first term of this difference, viz. 2xA, that constitu
what is called the differential of the function from whicn a
has been derived ; and the determination of this rs
for any function is the object of this first part of our ca
In like manner, in the function uz=x?, ^ ,
becomes x 4- A, changes to u' z^u + 3x2A 4" 3xA + >
whole difference betwreen the two states of ro^g111 .
the function is 3x2A 4" 3xA2 4“ A3, and its di eren
3x2A. And the whole difference between the h
succeeding value of the function u — x is 4a. i ,
4- 4xA3 4- A4, and its differential, is 4x2A. ^nd’in,gh ub-
whatever be the nature of the function u, “ # 4" 4 r.
stituted in it instead of x, and the expression t us
be expanded into a series,
u + ph + qh2 4“ rh3 4-sA4, &c.
FLUXIONS.
i;t the complete difference between the two states of the
function is
ph + qh* + rA3 + sA4 -f, <Src.
and its differential is the first term ph.
In conformity with this definition, the differential of the
643
which indeed may be the very thing to be investigated by Direct
the calcidus. Now we have seen (4) that the co-efficient Method,
ot this term is the expression for the limit of the ratio of V—
the corresponding increments of a function and its vari¬
able, and the same quantity is the differential co-efficient of
variable a: itself will be its increment A, which, because of the function (6), therefore the determination of the dif-
11 c o in nrnnpra tino* t- n p pi tip v o rv t- i o 1 F 4- /-i ■C'. ^^r ~  • . -i . .
its use in generating the differential of the function, has
been designated by a peculiar symbol, viz. dx: here the
letter d is to be understooxl as a characteristic, not as a
co-efficient. The letter d is also prefixed to the symbol
for a function to denote its differential. Thus, supposing
u — a;2, we have du = 2xdx, an expression which means
that the differential of the function wis equal to the differ¬
ential of the variable multiplied by 2a? as a co-efficient; so
also, if u — the equation du = Zx^dx means that the
differential of u is equal to the differential of a? multiplied
by 3x2.
6. Since, when u — x1, then du = 2xdx, this last expres¬
sion may otherwise stand thus, = 2a;; under this form
2x is the co-efficient in the expression for the differential
of u, and it is on that account called the differential co¬
efficient of the function u or x1. In like manner, when
ferential of a function is the same thing as the determi¬
nation of the limit of the ratio of the increments.
Let the function be u =: —; then u' —
u
u —
a*
a; + A’
a1 h
and
a; + A x x (x + h)’
and the limit of the ratio of the increments is
u' — u —
A x (x A)‘
Now, without expanding the expression for the limit, it is
obvious that as A decreases, that expression approaches to
— which is therefore the differential co-efficient of
the function; hence du ~
a? dx
a?
In like manner, u
dtt
u — ar3, then du = 3a^c?a; and — = 3a;2
dx
is the differential co-efficient of the function u — a?3. The
general symbol for the differential co-efficient of any func-
du
tion u is and the new value of u being u ph -3cqh2
dxi
•f, &c. we have —zzp, where p is some function of xt
which depends on the form of the function u, and is de-
ducible from it when its form is known.
fo denote the differential of an expression formed in
any way, we prefix the symbol d to the expression. Thus
d{(a + a;)(A2 — a:2)} denotes the differential of a func¬
tion produced by multiplying the factors a-{-x and A2 — a;2,
, d{(a + a?) fA2 — a^)|
and~ ^ — serves to denote its differen¬
tial co-efficient.
The definition which has been given of a differential
suggests immediately this rule for finding the differential
of a function of a single variable.
Substitute x + h in the function instead of x ; expand
the expression thus formed into a series of terms composed of
integer powers of h, and take the term which contains the
first power of h for the differential, exchanging the letter h
for the symbol dx.
Thus, let the function be m = aa; + hoc2, in which a and
h are constants, then, putting a; + A for x, and u' for the
new value of u, we have
(=a(x + h) + b(x+h)2
a' ax -{• bx1 + (a + 2Ax) A + AA2
( = « + (a + 2Aa?) A + AA2.
Here du, the differential of the function, is (a + 2Aa;)A,
or (a + 2bx) dx, and ^ = a + 2Aa; the differential co-ef¬
ficient.
7. The rule given in last article, for determining the dif-
erential of a function, supposes that we have methods
hy which any function may be expanded into a series of
terms, into each of which some integer power of the in¬
crement A enters only as a factor. It is sufficient for oui
purpose, however, if we can find that term of the series
^hich contains the simple power of h; and this can in
general be found easier than the general development,
being the general expression for any function, and u! =
+ ph + qli2 +, &c. its expanded value when a; + A is
in this case 3a;2 put instead of x, we have
A
and limit of
CO If.
- ■= p + qh +, &c.
u du i
— — p z=. and du — pdx.
A r dx
According to this view of the subject, the differential
calculus is the finding of the ratios of the simultaneous in¬
crements of a function and of the variable on which it de¬
pends.
The process of calculation by which the differential of
any function u is found, may be regarded as a particular
operation performed on quantity, analogous to the ele¬
mentary operations of algebra; and it may, like these, be
distinguished by a particular name accordingly. The re¬
sult of the process being the differential, the process itself
is called differentiation, and to perform the process on a
function is to differentiate the function.
8. It is material to observe, that the limit of the ratio of
the increments of a function and its variable are the very
same, whichever of the two be considered as a function of
the other. Thus, u being a function of x, when x becomes
x + A, u becomes u + ph + qh2 + rA3 +, &c. p, q, r,
&c. being functions of x, deducible from the function u.
Let us put
A = ph + qh? rA3 +, &c.
so that the contemporaneous increments of x and u are A
and A. Now, from the value of A, by the reversion of se¬
ries ( Algebra, art. 163), we find
A - - A — £a2+,&c.
p p?
So that, regarding a; as a function of u, when u becomes
m + A, a; becomes
iA—-^A2 +, &c.
p ff
and the general expression for the ratio of the incre¬
ments is
 +> &c-
k p pP
.1 . . . A .
which has for its limit —, and the limit of the ratio -r is, as
p n
before, rr p.
9. It is easy to see that two equal functions must have
equal differentials; for whatever be the value of the va-
644
Direct
Method.
'   >
fluxions.
riable on which they depend, it must necessardy happen
that the respective changes they receive in consequence
of the change which is attributed to the variable must a s
be equal. Thus, if u and be two functions, such, that
u whatever may be the value of x; and if, when ^
becomes * + K then u becomes < and ^ becomes r, we
shall have w' = «/, and u' — u = V — v, and
To find the differential of the product of two functions, mul¬
tiply the differential of each by the differential of the other
function, and add the products.
11. Since, when u = rs, we have du = sdr + rds, it
follows that
If then p and q denote the limits of these ratios, p — q
and pdx — qdx, that is, du — dv. /.
From this it follows, that under whatever form a func¬
tion appears, its differential is the very same quantity.
For example, the differential of a will be identica
with the differential of {x + a) (x~--ax + a ), its equa .
The converse of this proposition is not generally true,
and we should be wrong in affirming that two equal dif¬
ferentials belong to equal functions. _ For, let « = « +
bx be a function of x, then, substituting x + h for and
putting uf for the new value of u, we have u a -f- %
+ bh = u + bh, and —r— = o-
h
We see here that the constant a does not enter into the
limit of the ratio of the increments, which would there¬
fore be the very same for the function u — bx ; hence it
follows that the differential bdx belongs alike to a + bx,
and to bx. Thus it appears, that in differentiating any
function whatever, all the constant quantities combined
with it, either by addition or subtraction, disappear. W ith
respect to those which are connected by multiplication
and division, they enter the result as co-efficients.
10. The differential of any function of a variable x maybe
found by the general methods indicated in article 6; but
it is convenient to have rules adapted to particular cases.
Let r and s be two functions of a variable x. It is pro¬
posed to investigate a rule for finding the differential of
u — rs, their product.
Suppose that by the substitution of x + ^ for x in the
functions r and s, and their expansion, they become
p =. r ph -\r qh% +, &c. s' r= s + p'h + qW +, &c.
In these expressions, p, q, &c. represent functions of a?,
derived from r ; and //, q', &c. other functions of x deriv¬
ed from s. Corresponding to these let u' denote r's', the
new value of the product rs — u. By actual multipli¬
cation we find
u’ — r's' rs + (rp' + sp) h + (rq + pp' + sq) 1$ +, &c.
Hence, putting u for rs, also transposing and dividing by
h, there is got
= rq/ + sjo + (rtf + pfl q) h &c.
%
MU
^ v
du _ dr j ds
u r s
If we suppose u — rtv, the product of three factors, by
putting s z= tv, we have u — rs, and
du _ dr ds
u ~ r s’
but since s = tv, we have for the same reason
ds dt j^dv
s ~~ t v ’
, „ du dr . dt , dv
therefore — — r — T •
u r t v
By writing the product rs' instead of u, there is got, after
proper reduction,
du = tvdr + rvdt + rtdv.
In general, If a function be the product of any number of
functions of a variable, its differential is the sum of the pro¬
ducts obtained by multiplying the differential of each by the
product of all the other functions.
The same rule may also be briefly expressed in sym¬
bols, thus: whatever be the number of functions r, s, t, v,
(dr , ds . dt , dv]
d (rstv) = rstv + - + - + — j •
12. To find the differential of a fraction whose numerator
and denominator are functions of a variable x; let m =
—, then r = us, and
s
dr — uds + sdu,
T
and, putting for u its value —,
dr zzT— + sdu ;
s
therefore, du —
sdr — rds
s2
h
The terms rp' and sp in the second member of this equa¬
tion are functions of x, which are independent of the
function h; the following terms are all multiplied by h,
thetefore they decrease and vanish with it. So that
limit of ratio = rp sp.
Now p — limit of7-— and q — limit of-U~’S.
h h
Instead of the limits of the ratios, let us put the differ¬
ential co-efficients of the functions u, r, s (art. 6), and
we find
Hence we have this rule: To find the differential of a
fraction ; from the differential of the numerator multiplied
by the denominator subtract the differential of the denomina¬
tor multiplied by the numerator, and divide by the square oj
the denominator.
The rule for the differential of m = - may be also sym¬
metrically expressed thus:
du dr ds
TSt
and in general, if u — —, then
du _ dr ^ %
~ 7” + s + t v y'
rst
du
ds
. dr
dx~ T dx S dx'
and du — rds + sdr.
Hence we have this rule,
For, by what has been shown, it appears that when u =
then
du __ d(rst) d(vy)
u ~ rst vy
— d(rst) dr , ds , dt
Now v ~ — 1 + —>
rst rst
and
d(vy)
vy v y '
FLUXIONS.
therefore;
du
dr d$ dt
: r 1- —
r s t
dv dy
od. u r ^ s ^ t v y'
It also follows, from what has been shown, that if the
numerator of a fraction consist of any number of factors
r, s, t, and the denominator of any number v, y, then
^ i rst\ — rst 1 dr ^ _i_ ^ dv dy\
\vy)~~vy\r s t v y $ ‘
13. We shall next investigate a rule for the differential
of any power of a function y, which may be either itself
an independent variable, or else some function of another
variable.
First, let u — yn, n being any whole, number. The
function may be put under this form,
u — y.y.y.y... to n terms,
and then (11) we have
du dy . dy . dy . dy
— = — + — + to n terms ;
u y y y y
, . du ndy
that is, — =—,
u y
and du — u ~ nyn—1 dy.
Next, let us suppose that the function has a fractional
m
exponent, and that u — y 11, then un =. ym,
and nun—1 du = mym—1 dy, by art. 9,
m yn
645
that is, d(V^) —
and du:
n ur
rr dy>
— m — —
but u — yn and un—1 —y n;
1
ym—1 n — 1
therefore   ■. = y ,
un 1 ^
m
j j m ~ — 1
and du — —
n u
Lastly, let us suppose w to be a negative whole number
or fraction, so that m = —. In this case we may apply
the rule for a fraction (12) ; and observing that the nume¬
rator here is a constant, of which the differential must be
accounted = 0, we have
du —
nyn—ldy
r
- zz —ny — n — ldy ;
thus it appears, that whether n be whole or fractional, po¬
sitive or negative,
d(yn) — nyn — 1dy.
Hence this rule : To differentiate any power of a func¬
tion, multiply it by the exponent, diminish the exponent by
an unit, and multiply by the differential of the variable.
If the function have a co-efficient, the differential must
be multiplied by that co-efficient. Thus
d(axn) — naxn —1 dx.
"Ihe determination of the differential of a power of a
variable might have been shortened by assuming the truth
°f the binomial theorem, as found in our article Alge¬
bra, art. 160, 161. That theorem however may be de¬
rived from the differential calculus, and we shall give its
investigation as one of its applications.
It frequently happens that the differential of Vy — y\,
the square root of a function, is to be found; therefore a
mle for that case will be convenient. By the general
rule for a power,
d(yli) = \y^~ ldy - \y ^dy,
TT . 2 Vy
Hence it appears that the differential of the square root
of a function is the differential of the function divided by
twice its square root.
14. Let y be a function of a variable x, and let u be a
function of y; it is proposed to investigate a rule for
finding the differential of u relatively to x.
Suppose x to change its value and become x + h, then y
becomes f-y-fph + qK + rh* +, &c.; or, puttingph
+ qli2 + rA3 +, &c. — k, y becomes y + h. But u beine
a function of y, when y becomes y + h, then u becomes
w' = w + ph + (fhr + +, &e.; here p, cf, r1, &c. de¬
note certain functions of y, which are independent of k
and also of h. Hence, by substituting for k in this last
series, its value ph + +,&c., it appears that when &
becomes x + h, u becomes
u' ~u pph + fpq + y)r) Id +, &c.
and hence
= pp 4- {pq + cfp~)h +, &c.
Suppose now h to decrease continually, we have
limit of
v! — u
T
-pp.
dy
Now, y being a function of x, p — and u being con-
du
sidered as a function of y,p — ~ ; but if we consider u as
a function of x, then
du . v! — u
= ,/j.
Hence it follows that
du  du ^ dy
dx ~ dy dx
and du — X (-f\dx.
\dy dx)
Hence this rule: To find, relatively to x, the differen¬
tial of u, a function of y, the quantity y being a function
of x. Find the differential co-efficient of u considered as
a function of y only, and the differential co-efficient of y
considered as a function of x ; midtiply the product of these
co-efficients by the differential of x, and the result is the dif¬
ferential of u.
It has been found that
du ^ dy _ du
dy dx~ dx3
Now if we suppose that u — x, then this expression be¬
comes
dx ^ dy_dx_^
dy dx dx~
and hence it appears that
dx 1
dy ~~ dp
dx
This shows that the differential co-efficient of x consi¬
dered as a function of y, is the reciprocal of the differen¬
tial co-efficient of y considered as a function of x, a con¬
clusion which may also be deduced from art. 8.
15. Let v, y, z be functions of a variable x, and let it
be proposed to find the differential of
u — a -^r bv cy — ez,
where a, b, c, e, denote constants.
Let us suppose that when x becomes x h, then
v becomes v ph + qld +> &c.
y becomes y + ph + qb1 +, &c.
z becomes z + p"h + fid +, &c.
Direct
Method.
646
Direct
Method.
fluxions.
Let u' be the corresponding value of u, so that
ra + bip + cy — ez
) + (bp + eft — ep")h
w + (hq + cq — efft)!?
Hence, putting for the first term of the second member ot
the equation its value u, and transposing and dividing by
h, we get
v' — bp + eft —eft’ + (bq + cq' — e(f)h, &c-
And passing to the limits, observing that the limit of
is the differential co-efficient of u, also that
and ft* are the differential, co-efficients of v, y, and z re¬
spectively, we get
__ b(h cdy __edz
dx~ dx dx dx*
and du — bdv + cdy — edz.
From this it appears that the differential of a function
made up of others simply by addition and subtraetion is com¬
posed in like manner of the differentials of the several terms,
each with the sign of the function from which it was derived;
the differential of a constant being reckoned = 0. _
16‘ These rules are sufficient for the differentiation of
any explicit algebraic function, and we shall now give
^xamnles.
1. Let u — aaf-, this is a particular case of the general
function u — axn ; therefore, by the rule (13) du — oaxtdx.
— liadx
X
8. As an example of a fractional function, let u = --;
we have, following the rule of art. 12,
(\ + x?)dx — 2 xzdx (1 — ^dx
(i + x2y ” (i + '
9. Again, letM = thismay
exemplify the rule
"»
du —
frs\ rs (dr ds dt\
d(Tj = Ti7 + 7-Tf-
Accordingly, making x =z r, at? + 1 = $, z4 —x' + l
— t, we have
x3 -b x { dx .
\- +
du —
2xdx (4a;3 — 2x)dx\
x* — a^+1 la; ‘ 1+a^
This by reduction becomes
x* — a* 1 I ’
du —
— { a6 + 4a4 — 4x2 — \ }dx
(at? — + l)2
10. As an example of the rule in art. 14, let u = 3y!,
and y =r a;3 + aa:; then
^ = 6y, ^rrSa^ + a;
dy * dx
dfL.fy- 6«(3a2 + a) = 18^ + 6ay,
dy dx
Let uzz.—, — ax-5; then duzz — b ax~* dx —
aw
dxV x.
and du — < dx — \%J?ydx + <oaydx.
3. LetMzzW z=xv; in this case duzz f x^dx —
4. Let u — ox3 + ia2 + ca + e ;
then du = Sax-dx + 2bxdx -f cdx,
or du — (3axi + 2bx + cfdx.
Here the constant e, which is a term of the function,
has disappeared by the differentiation.
5. Let u=(a + bxn)P; we may put y = a + bxn, and
then uz=. yV and du =r pyp~
Now iff 1 = (a + bxn)p'
dy-
n — 1
and dy = bnx dx ;
P — \n — \t
du
dy' dx'
We may in such an example proceed otherwise, thus;
because u — 3^2, du = §ydy;
and since y = a3 + ax, dy r= 3a2 -f- adx,
substitute this value of dy in the expression for du, and it
becomes
du = 18a2y + Qaydx,
the same as before.
17. The subjects which are to follow require the ap¬
plication of the binomial theorem, we shall therefore give
its investigation, as the first application of the calculus.
Supposing n to be any number whatever, whole or frac¬
tional, positive or negative, it is easy to infer, from the
therefore du zz bnp (a + bx ft a dx. consideration of particular cases, that
We might have dispensed with using the symbol y,and _ * Ba?2 + Qx3 + Da4 +) &c.,
regarded a + bxn as a single function, and w as a power ^A R n ;n the series being numbers
of that function, and found the different,al by the rule of ‘ff a;,'and deducible from the inda
As an example of the rule of art. 10, for the product of n alone. fhe expiession (1 + ^ Identical
two functions, being, equal for all^value^ of ^.‘heyjo™ an^denhcal
6. Let u — at? (a -f- a)2;
put p zz a?, and q zz (a + a)2; then u zz pq,
and du zz qdp -j- pdq.
Now dp zz 3a2c?a, and dq = 2 (a x) dx ;
therefore du zz Sx2 (a + x)2 dx + 2at? (a + x) dx
zz x2 (a x) (3a + bx) dx.
In practice, the introduction of the symbols/! and g may
be omitted.
oeing equal iui an vamco v.* -'-j -----
equation, and must have equal differentials, hence (art. )
we have, taking the differential of each term,
n(l + xY-'dx= Adx+ 2Bxdx+3Cx2dx+ 4D^+,&c.
Leaving now dx out of each term, and multiplying o
sides by 1 + #, the result is . in\-i
W(1+/)”=A+ (A + 2B)x + (2B + 3C>2+ (3C + 4D)r
+, &c.
But from the assumed series we have
be omitted. But from the assumed series we nave
7. Let j<:=a:(l + a;)(l-f- x2). In this case, u is the pro- w(l + #)” = w + nAx + nV>x2 + nCx d”!
duct of three functions ; therefore, by the rule of art. 11, Now the terms of these two expansions of n(\ + *)”
du zz (l + x) (\-\- x") dx + x (\ + x2) dx + 2at? (\ + x) dx. be identical; therefore
ciuie, uy tut; xuit; ux an. ix, jnow tne terms or tnesi
Vx -r * j \ i--r * j u*-r x (\+ x2) dx + 2^(1 x)dx. be identical; therefore
This, when abbreviated by multiplication, becomes
= (1 + 2 x -\r 3a;2 + 4a^) dx.
We might have proceeded otherwise by the rule
d(rsl) = rst +
accordingly, we would have had
dx
must
A zz n,
A + 2B — nA,
2B + 3C = wB, >• and hence <
A = w;
(n
B = —
duzzx(l + a;)(l + a?)
an expression reducible to the former
, dx , 2xdx |
1 + x i + x2 ( T
3C “t* 4D — «D,
&c.
2
n —-2
.-A;
_ n — * Tj.
D =
•C;
&c.
FLUXIONS.
647
By substituting for A its value in B, and for B the re- We have now this rule for differentiating a function Eirert
suiting value in C, and so on, there is found which is a variable power of a constant quantity. MeS.
(l + x)n-1 +-X + X* + 1)(7»—2) s , . Multiply the function by the differential of the variable
( + ^ 1.2.3 +&C* mdex> and by Napier's log. of the constant quantity.
, ^ote- The logarithm oi a number a, m any system
quantity,
and again, by putting - instead of x, and multiplying both whatever, will in°what follows be expressed lb/ the^ab
sides of the equation by a”, we get weTh^lTdenote it tlms/U?. ^ ^ °f Napi?r’
(a + = an + - a”-1 x + K” ^ an-s T?. 20- } 0 the differential of the transcendental u= log
1 1.2 base of the system being a. By the definition of a
n(n— 1) (n — 2) , logarithm (Algebka, art. 165),
^ 1 . 2 . 3 * +>.&c- x = au,
18. In the investigation of the binomial theorem we ant^ suPPosing that x becomes x + h, and that u be¬
have employed a principle of analysis of continual use in comes u>
the calculus, namely, that in such an equation as this x + h = au>;
(called an Identical Equation), therefore h. - nu' nu-nu(nu'—u n / u'—n lV
(?+to+cx2+^3 + &c., =A + B^+C*2 + Ea;3+&c.(l.) , ? ’ h “ — a - a (« —!)=<« —0’
in which a, b, c, &c., A, B, C, &c. are constants, and x is ant^ ience> making h _ v! u,
f _ x (a*— 1)
k
variable; in order that the equation may hold universally
true* it is necessary that a z= A, 6 B, c C, e = E,
&c. For since x is indeterminate, we may suppose it to
decrease until it vanish ; then all the terms into which it and — u — - . 
enters also vanish, and we have a — A; therefore, leaving ^ x ak 1
these equal terms out of both sides of (1), and dividing Passing now to the limits of the two sides of the equation,
all the remaining terms by x, we get and observing (as was proved in last article) that h being
6 + ca; + ea;2+, &c., = B + ca; + Ea;2+, &c. (2.) supposed to decrease continually,
By proceeding with this equation as with the former, we
obtain 5 B, c = C, e = E, &c., and so on.
19. We come now to the investigation of the differen¬
tials of transcendental functions of a variable, and begin
with the exponential function u zr ax, the exponent x
being variable, and the quantity a constant. Assuming
that when x becomes x + K u becomes u\ we have
limit of -
ak — 1
1
“* 1. a’
1 1
v! — d
x -^h ,
therefore, u’— u = ax ah — ax = ax {a1 — 1);
and
h
■ u xa
— — a —
— 1
h
, du
we have — z= ; .
dx \.a x
Let M denote the constant factor, viz. the reciprocal
of Napier’s logarithm of the base of the system of loga¬
rithms, which is the modulus of the system (Algebra,
art. 172), and we have
7 ^Sldx
du z=.  ;
x
That is, The differential of the logarithm of a. number is
found by multiplying the differential of the number by the
The determination of the limit of the ratio of the incre- modulus of the system and dividing by the number.
ments requires that we determine the limit to which the Note. In Napier’s system M = 1.
, of1 1 . 21. The differentials of the trigonometrical functions
value of the fraction —^— tends when h is supposed to sin x an(j COs x are next to be investigated.
Letwzrsin#,andM'=sin (x + A); then (Algebra, 240),
decrease continually. Let us put a = 1 + e ; by the bi¬
nomial theorem (art. 17),
</=( i + c)h-1 + /<c+C3 +
— u ~ sin (x -}* ^)
, — u
and —?—
&c.
therefore,
ah—
~T
■sin a; = 2 cos (x sin b h,
. , , ,x sin,4 h
cos (a; + %h) -2-.
3
Observing now that h being understood to decrease
continually until it vanish, the limit of cos (•» -f- 4 h) is
&c. cos x, and the limit of = l (Algebra, 266), we
Now h being supposed to decrease continually, the se- have
oond side of this formula manifestly approaches to
c-i^ + r-1- —2 3 +
1 . —2
-j- &c.
du .. . ur —
— z: limit —t
dx h
— COS X}
2.3''' 2.3
that is, to c — ^ _ i<* +, &c.
= (a - 1) _ 1(«_ 1)2 + ^ _ !)3 _ —iy+, &c.
ow it has been shown in Algebra (art. 173), and w ill
be proved in the sequel, that this series expresses Na-
P!ers logarithm of the number a. Therefore,
limit of
1
zz Nap. log a,
and du zz dx cos x.
Next let u — cos x, and u' — cos (a? 4- h) we have now
u' — u= cos (x 4“ h) — cos a? zz —2 sin (x 4^ b- h) sin j h ;
u' — u . , , . .x sin 4 h
= —an (* + i fy-pr-
Passing now to the limits by supposing h to decrease
continually,
and hence *= limit ^
dx
du
dx
limit
zz — sin a1;
— =: a* (Nap. log a),
and du — (Nap. log a) axdx.
and duzx —dx sin x.
Hence it appears that The differential of the sine of an
arc is the product of the differential of the arc and its cosine:
648
Direct
'Method.
anfl the differential of the cosine is the product of the
differential offhe arc and its sine with ^ wMe^^rc
JN0te The negative sign indicates, that while the arc
increases the cosine decreases when it is positive.
The differential of the cosine might have been found
otherwise, by regarding it as a function of the «ne. Tlius
putting v for the sine, and y for the cosine, because
,2*— 1 _ qft by differentiating, ydy = — vdv; now x
being the arc, dv = ydx ; therefore ydy -^vydx, and
dyM. The functions u—ianx,u— cot x, &c. may be con¬
sidered as formed from the elementary functions sin *
and cos x.
fluxions.
then, proceeding as in the foregoing examples, we find
du =
-dx
xV xl — 1
24. Having now found rules for the differentiation of
the elementary transcendentals and trigonometrical func¬
tions, we proceed to exemplify their application to the
differentiation of complex functions.
(1.) Let the function be w = xy, that is a variable x
raised to a power y, a function of the variable.
By the theory of logarithms \.u-=,y\.x.
Put v — \.u and z—\.x; then v = y2 ;
and dv = ydz + zdy (art. 10).
(1.) Let u zz. tan x — ^then (art. 12 and 20),
v / cos«
d (sin x) cosx — d (cos a) sin a
— ” cos2 X
(cos2 x + sin 3^)dx  dx
~ cos2_a ~ cos2 x
Hence, again, du = dx sec2x = dx(\ + tan2a).
(2.) In the same way, if m = cot a, we find
— dx _ _dxcosec2x-—dx(\Jr cot2x).
du —
sin x
(3.) Let u = sec x = -
v ' cos x
dx sin x
du —
cos2 a?
; then
dx tan x sec x.
1
(4.) Let u — cosec x = — ^
K ' sin a;
du —
dx cos x
: dx cot x cosec x.
then x ~ sin u ; and dx — du cos u — du\/\ — a2 ;
and du —
and du ~
Vl —a;2’
(3.) Let u — arc (tan = a) = tan 1aj.
tlien x zz tan u and dx = du (1 + a:2) ;
dx
and du —
1 + a:2'
(4.) Let u — arc (cot — x') — cot 1ar;
then x — cot u and dx =. —du{\ + «2),
and du —
— dx
Now dv = d(\.u) z=. —; ai\didz=.d(\.x) =
11 X
therefore, — zr + 1. a;. dy,
u x
zz u dx x . dy
I x j
< — dx x . dy \
[x J
dx
(20);
and du
• v i t y i
( = a ydx + x J. a:. dy.
(2.) If w = xx, then, by last example,
= a;^ 1 + l. a; j- dx.
(3.) Let u = put b* = y, then u = ay,
and du = \. a aydy, also dy z=\.b .b dx (19);
sin2 x
23. Corresponding to the direct functions
u ~ sin x, u — cos x, &c.
there are the reverse functions,
u ■= arc (sin = x), u = arc (cos x), &c.
The first, viz. the arc whose sine is x, is sometimes by
British writers expressed thus; u = sin ; and the se¬
cond, the arc whose cosine is x, thus; u — cos x .
(1.) Let u z= arc (sin z= x) — sin-1a;;
therefore du — a A. b . a dx.
In the following examples we shall suppose the loga¬
rithms to be those of Napier’s system.
(4.) Letu = '. { } • Making
Va2 +
dz
we have du — —; but
z
dz —
dxVa1 + ic2 —
x?dx
Vdl + x2
cddx
a2 + a^
(a2 + tf2)2
VI — x1
(2.) Let u — arc (cos — x') — cos-1 x:
then x — cos u ; and dx zz — dusmu — — du Vl a:2 ;
dx
therefore du —
ad dx
(5.) Let u
= ’•{
xiada?')
Vl + a;+ Vl —x
Vl -b x — Vl
puty^Vl + x + Vl—x> z = Vl + x—Vl—M
then u — \. = h (ff) ^ C2)’
anddB=^_*
y Z
Now dy = ^
dx
2 Vl + x 2 Vl—x
 (lx f    1 —zdx
1 + a;2‘
(5.) Let u — arc (sec — x) z= sec lx;
then x = sec u; and dx ~ du sec u tan u — duxVx2—1,
and du —
dx
= 2vt^*\vi+x + j “2vi—^
‘ xVx2 — 1
(6.) Let u zz arc (cosec =z x) = cosec-”^,
, ■ dy dz —2dx__    
therefore — — =
FLUXIONS.
V
__ — (;/ + z^dx
2yzV 1 — x2
and observing that
y + z2 = «, yz = 2a;,
— dx
we find at last
In the next two examples we shall merely put down the
results
(6.)
= l-^a; — V\ + a^j-
du —
dx
V\ + a:2
(7-)
_ 1 J VI + + a; ^
l VI + a^—a; X
=r
sma;.
(2.) Let u — \. (tan x);
dx sec2 x
du
dx
U
tana;
2dx
sm x cos x
sin 2 x ’
26. As examples of complex angular functions
(1.) Lettt =r tan 1 x; that is, let u be the arc whose
tangent is a;, and let z =. cos nu cos” u.
dz
\
\
— ndu cos” 1 u cos (n + 1) u,
sin nu sin u cos” 1 u)
sin nu sin u)
i n 1 1
and — = ti cos (rc + 1) u cos u.
tor example, from the function u r; a;”, we deduce
du ^ ^ .
x : putting now p — nx11 , we hence derive
the differential co-efficient ^ —l)a;”~2;andput-
tinggr:^^—!)^”-2, we find ])(«_2)a;”-3.
We may proceed in this way, until the result of a differ¬
entiation be a constant, and then the process will stop;
but in some cases it may be continued indefinitely.
There is an appropriate notation to express the rela¬
tion in which the successive differentials, p, q, &c. stand
to the original function u, from which they have been de¬
rived : since
_ dp
P — fa? and Q = therefore q
_<£)
Vl + x1
25. As examples combining logarithmic and angular
functions:
(1.) Let u — \. sin n ;
, , dx cos x
then du — —:  — dx tan x.
dx
The symbol d will be more simply expressed by
ddu. dx ; and thus we have
du dp d2u
P = Tx^=---
dx'
so that by the expression q
dx2
(T~u
dx2’
it is to be understood
It is proposed to find the differential co-efficient
In the first place, du — ——5— — dx cos2 u,
sec2 u
= — ndu (sin nu cos”« + coswmsinmcos”
— ndu cos” ^ u (sin nu cos u + cos nu sin u)
ndu cos” 1 u sin (n + 1) u,
and ^~ = — n sin (w + 1) m cos”"*”1 u.
(2.) Next, u being the same function of x as before,
let z — sin nu cos” m,
to find the differential co-efficient
dx
In this case,
= ndu (cos nu cos” u
2 ~~ ndu cos” 1 u (cos nu cos u
that q is the result of two differentiations performed on
the function u, the differential of the variable, viz.efa;, be¬
ing considered as constant.
From the function q we may now deduce
_dq_ d3u
dx dx3'
and so on continually; but the different import of the
characters d^u and dx? must be carefully attended to; the
former implies that the operation of differentiation has
been performed three times on the function u, and the
latter denotes the third power of dx. The combination
cPu
of the two, expresses the function that results from
the three differentiations, in each of which the factor dx
has been left out, and the final result divided by its third
power, or, if retained, that it has been regarded as con¬
stant.
(1.) As a particular case of the function u = axn, let
u — ax? ;
then
du
dx'
: 5ax*,
(Pu
dx1
— 4-5«af5,
^ - 3-4'5ax2, Pt = 2-3-4-5ax,
dx? dx*
d?u
d5x
— 2,3,4*5a.
Successive Differentiations.
27. Afunction of a variable, when differentiated, produces
? new function, viz. its differential co-efficient. This in
lts tarn way be differentiated, and there will be produced
another differential co-efficient, which will stand in the
same relation to the former as that did to the original
unc^10P< By another differentiation, a third differential
'^-efficient may be formed ; and so on continually, unless
s°me differential co-efficient come out = 0.
vol. IX.
In this example we have come to a differential co-effi¬
cient which is a constant, and the series stops ; but if the
index of the power xf1 be a fraction or negative, the se¬
ries may be continued indefinitely.
The expression ^ is called the first differential co-effi¬
cient of the function u, or the differential co-efficient of
the Jirst order ; those which follow are called the second,
third, &c. or the differential co-efficients of the second,
third, &c. orders.
In the case of the function u z= x5, writers on the cal¬
culus of fluxions call du =z bx?dx the first fluxion of the
function ; d^u — 2bx?dx? its second fluxion ; d?u —
its third fluxion; and so on, the terms of the series con¬
stituting the different orders of fluxions.
4 N
649
Direct
Method.
650
FLUXIONS.
Direct
Method.
Other examples of successive differentiation :
then (article 9)> ^ = a ’
lod.
(2.). Let m = a
<Fu
dx2
= (h«)2
dzx
da?
(U)»
d*x
da?
a >
&c-
da M
(3.) Let u = log. ar; then (art. 20) —
M d3u _ 1’2M d^u
xf’ da? ~~
then
d2u
dx
x
1-2-3M
(4) Let u = sin
ar
du
dx
dx*
a?
&c.
panded would have more values than the same function
unexpanded, which is impossible.
This demonstration is general and rigorous so long as
x and h continue indeterminate; but it fails if determi
nate values be given to x, for it may happen that these
values may destroy some radicals in the function /(*),
which may yet exist in the function/(x + A).
30. It being proved that the development of the func¬
tion cannot have any fractional powers of h, it is easy to
be assured that it cannot contain negative powers. For
;T
= cos#,
/
if among the terms one had the form m being a posi-
— — sin #,
dx2
d3u
_ __cos#, ^
d*u
dx*
— sin x, &c.
(5.) Let u = cos x;
, du
then — = — sin x,
dx
dy=- cos x,
da:-
<Pu
da? Sm
d*u
da?
live integer number, then, in making h — 0, that term
would become infinite, and the function (# + h), and of
course f{%), would in this case be infinite, which can¬
not be, unless a particular value be given to x. Thus it
is clearly established that the development of the func¬
tion can contain neither fractional nor negative expo-
(6.) Let u —
. du
then :
dx
— cos X, &c.
—2az#
nents.
d?u
dx1
d?u
da?
+ #2
— 2a* + 6a2#2
(a2 + #2)
,2’
(a2 + #2)3 ’
2^a*x — 24a4#3
(a2 + a2)4
&c.
Taylor's Theorem.
28. We have assumed for the foundation of the differ¬
ential calculus an important analytical principle, first par¬
ticularly recognised by Euler, viz. Let /(#) denote any
function of a variable quantity #; if instead of # there be
substituted x + h, h being any indeterminate quantity,
so that the function becomes j{x + A), this new value
may always be expanded into a series of this form,
/(#) + ph + qh2 + fl? +,&c.,
in which the quantities p, q, &c. are new functions of #
derived from the primitive function, and independent of
the indeterminate quantity A.
29. The truth of this principle has been exemplified by
induction from particular cases. Lagrange has, however,
given a demonstration of it in his Theorie des Fonctions,
which is to the following effect:
In the first place, the development of the function
(# + A) cannot contain any fractional power of A, so long
as # is entirely indeterminate. For the radicals of A can
only come from radicals in the primitive function ; and it
is manifest that the substitution of # + A instead of # can
neither increase nor diminish their number, nor change
their nature, while # and A are indeterminate. On the
other hand, by the theory of equations, every radical ex¬
pression has as many different values as there are units in
its exponent; from which it follows, that every irrational
function has as many distinct values as there are combi¬
nations of the different values of the radicals which it
contains.
tion/(# + A) could contain a term of the form uhn , the
function/# must necessarily be irrational, and contain a
certain number of different values, which must be the
same for its development; but this development being
represented by the series /(#) + ph + qh2 +, &c.
+ «A,l-F, &c. every value of the function/(#) (the
first term) might be combined with each of the n values
of the radical V#”1, so that the function / (# + A)
^ + /A + /A2 + /"A3 +, &c.
r r'h F'A2 + r"'k3 4" > &c*
5 + sli + s’k2 + /'A3 +,
ex-
&c.
31. The general form of the development of the func¬
tion, viz.
/(# + A) = /(#) + joA + qh2 + rA3 +, &c.
being thus ascertained, the next question is, what is the
law of relation between the original function /(#) and
the functions p, q, r, &c. which are derived from it?
We owe the discovery of this relation to a celebrated
English mathematician, Brooke Taylor, vvho gave it in
his Methodus Incrementorum, published in the year 1715
in the form of an analytical theorem, which is now called
by his name : we shall now give its investigation. The
following is that of Lagrange.
Let/(#) = u be any function of x;
then, supposing # to become x h,u becomes
/(# + A) = w + f>A + ql? + rA3 + «A4 +, &c.
Suppose now that # changes again its value, and be¬
comes # -}" A, and here A, like A, is independent of a.
Then
/(# + A) becomes /(# + A + A).
There are two ways of finding what the series
/(# + A) = m + ph + qh2 + rA3 + sh* + , &c.
becomes, when # + A becomes # + A + A. \st, We
may have the value of the series by substituting A + n in
every term instead of A. 2dly, We may also have its
value by substituting # + A in the functions^),s,&c.
for x; that is, instead of p, and q, and r, &c. we must
put the values they have when # + A is supposed to be
substituted in them instead of#. t. i n
By the first-mentioned process we find/(# + A + =
u + ph + qh2 + rh3 + sh* +, &c.
+ ph + 2qhh + 3rA2A + 4sAsA +, &c.
+ qk2 + 3rAA2 + 6sA2A2 +, &c.
+ rA3 + 4sAA3 +, &c.
+ sA4, +, &c.
And, in employing the second, it must be considers
that, when # becomes # + A, then
u becomes a + »A + qk2 + rk3 + sh* +, &c.
' the place of A in the function
Therefore, if the development of the June- f^^h), and^it^developmenTw + ph + qh2 + rh3 +,
The supposition that # changes its value to # + ^eag^
to corresponding changes in the functions p, q> r> c< ’
that
P becomes p + /A + //A2 + ^'A3 + > &c*
FLUXIONS.
Here p, p1, &c. denote functions of x derived from p,
just as 73, q, r, &c. are derived from the function u ; and
' a like remark applies to qf, q'f, &c. also to tj, r", &c. and
so on. Substituting now these new values of u, p, q, r,
Sec. in the series u + ph -f + r/t3 + 5/i4 +, &c. we
have /(# + 4 + A) =
u + pit + q#1 + rA3 + +, &c.
+ ph + p'hh + p'hk2 + p"hk3 +, &c.
+ qh? + q'h2k + q"h2k2 +, &c.
-f- rh3 + r'h k -j- j &c.
+ sh* +> &c.
By comparing the co-efficients of like powers, or pro¬
ducts of powers, of h and k in the two expressions for
f(x + h + h), it appears that, to make them identical,
we must have
2q — p, 2>r zz q', 4s z= r', and so on.
651
Therefore q — ~^rzz.
2’' “ 3
: - , &C.
Now', by the definition of a differential, pdx is the dif¬
ferential of w, where p is the co-efficient of A in the series
u-\- ph qld +, &c. Therefore p — Similarly,
cfdx is the differential of q, where q' is the co-efficient of
k in the development q— c[li + +, &c. Therefore,
?' =
; and in like manner, d — ^-and s'■=. -j-, and
dx dx dx
hence
P=
dy
Tx
q~\p
A.
2 dx'
1 (Pit
T2 dx*
__ -^dq  1 d?u
4 dx
1 d4u
L2.31 (Ac4 ’
&c.
These values of p, q, r, s. &c. being substituted in the
series u •f- ph -f- q/r -}- rh3 -j- +, &c. we obtain
f(x + h) =
A2 , dJu A3 (Am A4 r e
+ + -jzi1-7nn+’&c-
. du. . d’ u
dx ^ dx1 1.2
da? 1.2.3 1 (Ac4 1.2.3.4;
where u — f (x) ; this is Taylor’s theorem.
32. We shall now give another investigation of this
important formula, which is remarkable for its brevi¬
ty and simplicity. It rests on the following analytic
principle.
If u be any function whatever of v -f- z, which relation
may be expressed thus, u — f (v + z) ; the differential co-effi¬
cient of u, found on the supposition that v is variable and z
constant, will be the very same as if it, were found on the
tupposition that z is variable and v constant.
To exemplify this in particular cases, suppose u— (v + zf,
then, making v variable and z constant, <-^} — n^vf-zf1 1;
and making z variable and v constant, ^^=.n(v-\-z)n *,
the same as before.
. du
Again, let m = a
d»an^dzare exPressed by the same quantity \.a.av aT
a.a
,v+z
thei we suppose v to vary and to become v -f- A, w.hile z Direct
remains tbe same, or z to vary and become z -f A, while Method
v remains constant, the result is the very same, viz.
/O + z + A) = f(x + A) ;
therefore, in the development of y (v -f- z + A) =
/(x + A), viz.
/ (x) + Ph + qh2 + rh3 -f, Sec.
in which p, q, &c. are functions of x; that is, of o + z,
these functions will be the very same, whichever of the
two, v and z, has been considered as the variable, the other
remaining constant. Now, by the nature of a differential
(art. 7), we have
^ (Ac d (r + z) ’
and upon the supposition thatv is variable and z constant,
then
4/(0 + *)}
’ ~ dv
but supposing z variable and v constant,
_d{ f(v + z)} _
dz ’
therefore ^./^ + Z>1 = 4/(«-+ =?)}.
dv dz
the first side of this equation being the result of the
differentiation, supposing v variable, and the second the
result, on the hypothesis that z is variable. Since the two
then
P =
expressions
dif(v + -)) and ^{(t’ + z)}
are identical
dv dz
and the same function of (? + z, w;e may represent that
function by the symbol F (v + z); then, by reasoning as
before, we shall have
(/{F(u + z)}  (/{F(v 4- z)}
dv dz ’
that i' (v + d°{f(v+z)}
that 1S> W   *3 
Thus it appears that the second differential co-efficient of
the function f (v z) is the same expression, whether v
or z be regarded as the variable; and the reasoning may
be extended to the co-efficient of any order.
33. Supposing now/(x) — « to be any function of x, and
f(x + h) = u' to be its value when x becomes x + A, it
has been proved (art. 29, 30), that the expansion of u is
u' — ?( + ph + qh2 + rh? + sld;
and here/;, q, r, &c. are functions ofx, into which x does
not at all enter; while, on the other hand, A is entirely
independent of x. From the identity of the function v!
and its expansion, their differentials, taken on the same
hypothesis, must be equal, whichever of the quantities x
and A be regarded as the variable. Supposing, first, x
variable and A constant, we have
dd du + dp_h + d<lh, + dr_Ki + <h_ ^ &c>
(Ac dx ’ dx" dx dx dx
and next, supposing A to be variable and x constant,
^ — ph -f- 2qh + 3rA2 + 4sA3 +, &c.
Now it has been shown in last article
. did
that j-
dx
du'
dh
therefore the series which are their expansions must be
identical; and hence the terms independent of A must be
equal, also the co-efficients of the same power of A, so
that
The truth of the principle is almost self-evident; for if
We Make r + z — so that/(r + z) =/(x); then, whe-
du
2q:
dp
dx
37- =
dq
dx’
dr „
4s = -7-, &c.;
dx
652
Direct
Method.
fluxions.
du
. and since p = ^ therefore ^ i ^ i ^2’
= andr =
1 dhi A
 7 -T-\, &c.; and,
2.3.4 dx*
dx
dq 1 d?u , Ldr
ii = o*»ia,!0S=i*-
on the whole,/(a? + ^) —-
. ji.du — Yd— —  K &c.
M=M + ^^+^"22 +^32.3 ^ dx* 2.3.4
From this formula it appears, that if h be the increment
of the variable x; the whole increment of u, any function
of x, is
du h , d^u A2 , d3u h3 , „
u'~~u= cixl^ dx* 1,2 + dx3 1.2.3
a series composed of the successive differential co-effi¬
cients of the function, each multiplied by an integer
power of h, and divided by the products 1, 1.2, 1.2.0,
&c.
Application of Taylors Theorem to the Development of
Functions.
We shall now give some applications of this most im¬
portant analytic formula to the development of functions.
34. Let the function/O) be w = x", so that/O + h)
_ By successive differentiation (art. 13 and 27),
g=»(K-])^, g=»(«-l)(»-2V-3
aA= 2-718281828459.
Let this number, which will frequently recur, be denoted
by the letter e, and we have
aA = e, and a — e and
eAX — d* zz 1 + Ax 4
A2*2 , A3x3
AV
1.2 ' 1.2.3 ' 1.2.3.4
and making y — Ax, so that y may be any number,
/=1+y + j^+_^r3+ ^
+ > &C.;
+ , &c.
1.2.3.4
This formula expresses a remarkable property of the
number e.
36. Let the function f (x) be u = log x to base a,
then, by article 20,
du _ \ d*u _ — 1 d3u _ 1 • 2
dx — Ax dx1 ~~ Ax9' dx? Aa?3’
ifu 1.2.3 1.2.3.4.5
dx? ~~
&c.
&c.
dx3'
^ -n(n—\)(n — 2)(n — 3) xn^\ &c.
These differential co-efficients, when substituted in the
formula, give
(a: + K)n -xn-\- nxn ~1A + Xn ~2
A2
+”("TT12Kr2)*n~3y+’&c-
This is the well-known binomial theorem (Algebra,
art. 160).
35. Next, let / (x) be w ax, a variable power of the
constant quantity a. Then, putting
A =(«—1)—Ka-1)2 + i(a- 1)3-K«- l)4 +, &c.
cPu
By article 19, * = Aa*. g = a*, g = A» a^,
dhi
dx*
— A4 ax, &c.
Remarking now that / O + A) = ax + h — ax ah, we
have
x h x f . , . , , A2A2 , A3 A3 . A4A4 . 4
1 ^ ^ 1.2 ^ 1.2.3^ 1.2.3C‘j ’
and dividing both sides by ax, and changing A into x,
nx _ i i a ^ , A*x* A3x3 A V
" + ^ + 172+1-^3+ 172^4+>&c-
If we suppose a? = 1, then,
a=l + A+I^+r-|_3+ 772^74 + ’&c-
and if we make x = we have
A3
«A r: I + 1 + —— 1   -f 1
1.2^ 1 .2.3+ 1727374
+ , &c.
Hence it appears that aA is a constant number, which is
the sum of this series. By taking the sum of a sufficient
number of its terms, we find
dx* Ax* ’ dx? Ax?
Hence, by the theorem, f (x + h) — log (a? + A) =
1 , 1 JA A2 A3 A4 A5 \
l0ga; + _|-_
Make a? = 1, and observe that log 1=0, and change h
into x, and we have
log (1 + /) = -- -jx —£a;'2 4- —&c. j
This is the logarithm of 1 -f- a; in the system whose
base is a.
In the preceding article we found that a = eA, hence,
from the theory of logarithms (Algebra, sect, xix.), A
is the logarithm of a to the base e. Now
A = a—1—l(a—l)2 + i(«— 1 )3—K«“ 1)4>+>&C-
Therefore, in the system whose base is e,
\oga = a—l — ±(a—l? + ±(a—]y — l(a-V/-,
and hence, putting l-j-a: for a, and a; for a— 1, in that
system,
log (1 + a;) = x — la^+^c3 — ^q-, &c.
Now we found that in the system whose base is a,
log (1+a?) = — |a;2 + ^a:3 — ^a^ + j &c.}
By comparing these two expressions for log (1+a;), it
appears that in the system whose base is e, the constant
quantity A, which is
e—1 —l(e—1)2 + Ke—l)3—Ke—1)4 + >&c-
is equal to unity. Logarithms computed according to
this system are the same as those first given to the world
by Napier, the celebrated inventor of logarithms, who
was, however, led to them by a very different path from
that here followed. It so happens that the same loga¬
rithms express hyperbolic areas, and hence they were
called hyperbolic logarithms, a distinction quite improper,
because hyperbolic areas may be expressed by logarithms
of any system. Accordingly, it is now common to deno¬
minate them, in honour of the inventor, Napierian loga¬
rithms. In speaking of these, then, it must be understood
that their base is e=2-718281828459, &c.; and remem¬
bering that the letter 1 prefixed to any expression of a
function means Napier s logarithm of that function (art.
19).
1. (l + ^)=a; — ijXp+jiX?—j i^4 +> &c-
and since A = Nap. log a (see last article), therefore m
the system whose base is a,
log (1 + a?) = — ^x? +,&c.}
FLUXIONS.
653
The constant multiplier p—, called the modulus of the
system, is, for Briggs’s logarithms,
I = *434)2944819033 —, and its reciprocal,
1. (10) = 2*302585092994.
37. Let the function be^/ic = m = sin then
du , d2u . d?u
— — + cos x, -rv =
dx
dx1
■ sin x. ——— —
’ dx3
-n ... d4U n „ .
By (0 = 2.3 sin 4m cos4 u,
B.y (2) -^5 = 2.3.4 cos 5m cos5 u
d^u
By (1) = 2.S.4.5 sin 6m cos6
By(2)^ =
Direct
Method.
■ 2.S.4.5.6 cos 7m cos7 m. &c.
dAu . d?u ,
-rj = 4* sin x> ~r~n — + cos x, <Src.
rfar4 ^ dx5
These values of the differential co-efficients being sub¬
stituted in the theorem, it gives f(x+h)= sin
h . A2 A3 . A4
sin x
Hence, if we put tan u = x, and tan u' =z x+h, we de¬
duce from Taylor’s theorem this very general and re¬
markable formula: •
», A
M' — M -f- COS M COS M.y ■
ft? 7 3
• sin 2m cos2 u— — cos 3m cos3 u —
~ 3
=sin # + cos a; j — sin a?——cosa^ y—
1.2.3.4
I ' A d . r , A5
-f- sin 4<t< cos4 ——H cos 5m cos6 m —
4* 5
A2 A4
9 “1“ Q €
+, &c.
sin a; ^1
"f"cos a?^A —
A6
+
2.3.4 2.3.4.5.6
A3 . A5 A7
, &c. j
A6
• sin 6m cos6 m —
6
-, &c.
2.3.4.S
Let the function befx=z u=: cos x, then
du . dP-u dzu
A7 \
^ 3 'f ^ 6 7 ^ &c* J
If the arc m be supposed = 0, then sin m, sin 2m, &c.
are each 0, and the powers of cos u each = 1, and the
formula becomes
m = tan m ^ tan6 M+^tan5 m — ^ tan7 m +, &c.
dx
— — sin a;,
—cos a?, -j-t = sin x,
da? dx3
dAu d5u
-7-7 — cos x, -t-t- — — sin a;, &c.
mm4 ^ar*
and by substituting in the formula/(a:+A) = cos (#4. A)
.A A* . A3 , A4
=cos a—sin ay—cosa — 4 sin a — 4 cos a •Z7TT-T—, &c.
/, A2 . A4 A6
cos a( 1
■ sm a
(A-
2 1 2.3.4
A3 , A5
2.3
2.S.4.5.6
A7
A2
Put P = 1 — —4  
2 ^ 2.3.4
A5
2.3.4.S 2.3.4.5.6.7
A4 A6
2.3.4
+ , &c.^
+ , &c.j
A3
QzrA-l-34^3^5
2.3.4.5.G
A7
+ , &c.
4, &c.
2.3.4.5.G.7
Then sin (a4A) =: P sin a 4 Q cos a,
cos (a4A) = P cos a — Q sin a.
Hence, by eliminating Q and P in succession,
sin (a4A^ sin a4cos (a4A) cos a 3= P,
sin (a-j-A) cos a — cos (a4A) sin x = Q.
Therefore (Algebra, 239), cos AzrP, sinA=Q; and
exchanging A for a,
a2 . a4 a6
cos*=l——+ — —
• a3 . x5
sin a = a — — 4 
2 3 1 2 3 45
2.S.4.5.6
a7
- 4, &c.
f, &c.
2.3.4.S.6.7
The same results might have been obtained easier by
making a =r 0 in the series for sin (a 4 A) and cos. (a 4 A).
38. Let the function be the arc whose tangent is a,
that is, m= tan-1 a,-
dx
= dx cos2 m (art. 23),
then du ~
14a2
, du
and ^ — cos m cos M.
The succeeding differential co-efficients will be found
y formulae (1) and (2) of article 26.
By (1) = — sin 2m cos2 m,
TJ /ns d?u
By (2) -^3 = — 2 cos 3m cos3 m,
a formula due to dames Gregoryr. We have found this
series in a very different way (Algebra, art. 270), and
have there applied it to the determination of the ratio of
the diameter to the circumference. It will be therefore
sufficient to state the result here. Let denote half the
circumference of a circle, of which the rad. — 1, then
-rzz 3*141592653590—.
Maclauriris Theorem.
39. There is a general formula nearly related to that of
Taylor, and indeed an easy deduction from it, commonly
called Maclaurins Theorem. It is given at page 610 of
the second volume of his fluxions (printed in 1742); but
it is proper to say, that the same formula, in substance,
was given in 1717 by Stirling, in his Linece Tcrtii Ordines
Neutoniance, p. 32.
We have found that f(x) = m being any function of a
variable x,
„ 17 s , du, dlu A2 . diu A3 d^u A4 ,
Suppose now that x = 0, and that by making this assump¬
tion
f(x) = u becomes U,
also that-7- becomes U’.
dx
v.
dx2   ’
^ rrm
dx3   ’
&C.
Then Taylor’s theorem becomes
A2 A3
/(A) = U+U>h + U"^ 4 U"’ y-l-g 4, &c.
or, changing A into x,
f(x) = U+ Ux 4 U»4 U"> y-^-g 4, &c.
From this it appears, that provided u be such a func¬
tion of x as admits of being expanded into a series of the
form
m A 4 Bx 4 Cx2 4 D#3 4, &c.
where A, B, C, D, &c. are constant quantities, then, f7
being the value of m when xz=0, and U', U", U"', &c. be-
654
fluxions.
Direct
Method.
. du d2u (Pu i
ing the values of the differential co-efficients^, ^ ^ cosx_
&c. fouml^at hypothe^, we have ^ &c
and consequently,
1.2^1
a?4
+-&c-
,/ = U+ V'X + V’ ~ +, *C-
This is Maclaurin’s theorem, of which we shall now
sive some applications. .
40. Let w = (a + x)n. Tlie expansion of this expres¬
sion has the tequisite form ; then — =r w (a + x)n \
2.3.4 1.2.3.4.5.6
44. Let u denote the arc whose sine is x; that is, let
u = sin~l x. In this case (23),
du _
dx ~
(1—x"1) i,
d u 11 o \
d3u
(Pu ,
dj=n(*n
da?
d*u
dxi
d5u
da?
z=. n (ii-
1) (a + x)n-~,
1) (n — 2) (a + a1)"-3, &c.
The supposition that x — 0 makes
w=zan — — nan~l -U^ = n{n.
dx
^ = n(n—\) (n-
dx3
’ dx2
■ 2) a"-3
l)a”-2= U",
U”\ &c.
The proper substitutions being made in the general theo¬
rem, we have
(a + xf — an + nan~x x +  — "n~2 ^
+
n (n 1) (n — 2)
1 .2 . 3
1 . 2
an-3 ^
_ (1 —a?)— I + 3x2 (1 — x)- f,
= 3.3x(l—jc2)—!! + S.h^Cl —a2)”^,
&c.
Making a’ ~ 0 vire get TJ — 0, — 1, Zj” — 0, ZJm^ ~ 1,
jji\ — 0; and, by continuing the process of differentiation,
Z/v — 3.3, &c. therefore
, ^ . 3.3^ ^.5V_
u zz: x ~t ^—g g ^ ^ 2 345'i 234 5 6.7 1 ’ v''
Cases in which Taylors Theorem fails.
45. We have seen that Taylor’s theorem, viz. u =f(x)
being any function of a variable a,
. du h . cPu I? , cPu
f(x+h) = u+ — t + — v ^ + —
h3
+, &c.
dxl ' dx2 1 . 2 1 da? 1.2.3
will always hold true, provided that the variable x be re¬
garded as indeterminate. If however particular values
x rp,. n -i p.i be given to x, there are cases in which the development
41. Let « = <■ This function is also of the kind that ? f b’ in theee cases it is „0t applicable to
admits of expansion by the theorem ; the differential co- 10 . . ’
efficients are (art. 19), putting A = 1. a,
du
dx
- Aax,
dxz
d3u
— A3ax, &c.
d3u
The supposition that x =
du - \ d*u - A2
dx ~ ’ dx2~ ’ da?
A2r2
Hence a* = 1 + A* + ^ +
da?
0 gives u—l, and
= A3, &c.
A3^
the function.
1
For example, let m =z 5 + (x — a)- ; in this case,
^ 1 1, &c.
du
dx
O / ^ dx*
2 (a?— a)2
+ , &c.
1.2.3
as was found in art. 35.
42. The formula M = log x does not admit of being ex¬
panded into a series of the prescribed form, for in this case
4 (x — a)2
and by the theorem,
f(x + h)=:b + (x — a + A)- =£ + (# — «)^
1 , 1
+
A2 +, &c.
2 (x — a)3 8 (x — a)^
Now if we give to x any particular value greater than
a, the development is perfectly significant, and expresses
truly the value of b + (# — a + A)3. If however we give
well as all the following differential co-efficients, infinite, to x the particular value a, then x — a — 0, and the de-
The function u r= log (« + x), however, admits of the
application of the formula. In this case (art. 20),
du 1 d2u — 1 d?u 1 . 2
&c.
~ —; the supposition that x = 0 makes u and ^,as
dx Ax dx
A2
velopment becomes b + 0 +  ;— g
9 /nW fi /W
+, &c.
2(0)^ 8(0)*
from which no conclusion whatever can be drawn, because
all the terms having zero in the denominator are m mte.
dx A (n Hr x)’ dx2 A(tt-j-x)2’ da? A(w + x)3’
The assumption that x r= 0 makes u — log n — U, and
— — — — TJ' —— L_ — TT" d3u — ^ • ~ _ jju, o
dx - An ~ ’ dx2 ~ An* ~ ° ’ dx3 ~ An3~ U ’ &C
We have now, by the general formula,
log (»+ *)=log»+i-jg + g-,&c.}.
By making ^ 1, and therefore log n = 0, w'e have the it is impossible that it should" express the function in
If in the expression A + (# — a + A)2 we make x — ^
it becomes b -H A^. This expression has two values, viz.
b + Vh, b — VA. The development given by the the¬
orem contains, however, only positive integer P°''r®rs °
A; therefore it can have only a s*ng^e ,va^e ’ ;„e”jie
the first we have
<7=0, W
and sin x= x •
expression for log (I + x), as already found. particular case of x = a. In such cases the theorem has
43. I he theorem may be applied to the functions been said to fail; this however happens not frorn an/
“Tiln/7alLd_M ~ C°Swlthout the least difficulty. For imperfection in the theorem, but merely because it
unsuitable to the purpose to which it has been app 12 ’
and this want of applicability is indicated by the co
cients of the powers of A failing to express any tung
finite.
46. Again, let the function be w = ^ * ^ien
1, Un — 0, U"’ = _ 1, &c.
x3 . x5
1.2.3
for the second function
^=i, U'— o, w
+
12 3 ^ ^ 1 , &c. ^
-1, Uw = 0, &c.
ct
;od.
du
dx
Zb drtl
fluxions.
66
655
In this case
(x—a)3’ dxu {x — a)^
Sec.
2b
+
36
(x—af (x~af
7 ri hz —, &c.
(a; — a)4
Here a’ may have any particular value greater or less than
a, and the development will be perfectly significant; if
however, x be equal to it becomes
6 2 6, 36
(o)s 003 ^ + T^)4 4 &C-;
an expression that has no meaning, because each of the
co-efficients of h is infinite.
6
mimr l,nl 1 f den,tlCa equation, involving x only, which Direct
r*nrJ • d f/UevNhateJr Value be S!ven t0 Let the Method.
nnQP Sl0n^—f(x> y) be denoted briefly by a. Sup-
p now a; to change its value and become x h ; by
I ay for s theorem, its new values will be
The equationy*(x, ?/) ~ u ~ 0 must hold true whatever
value be given to x ; therefore we must have v! — 0, and
tins requires that the co-efficients of the different powers
of the indeterminate quantity h be separately = 0 (art.
lo), so that from the equation u=f(x, y) = 0 there may
be derived a series of equations,
du . cPu _ d3u
dx dx1
If we make x=. am
(a: + a + h)z
expanded, it becomes
66 2, an expression in which
the exponent of h is negative ; therefore this case cannot
be included in a formula which contains only positive in¬
tegers of 6, and hence the apparent failure of the theorem.
47. That a general formula should not express all par¬
ticular cases, was at one time regarded as a kind of para¬
dox in analysis. Lagrange first cleared up this point, and
showed, that when by giving particular values to x, the
new state of the function contains terms of the form
the function to be wb*cb mus^ hold true at the same time as the original
equation. °
50. ^Let us take for example the equation
y°- + of = a2, or / + — a2 = 0 (1.)
in which a is a constant quantity; in this case,
, , , u.=r y1 x~ — ^ 5
hence we have by differentiation
— - 9 „ ^
dx
0,
P6 , or Q6B, that is, negative or fractional powers of 6,
then, from the very nature of the calculus, all the co-effi¬
cients in the general development after a certain term
will become infinite. On the other hand, when a parti¬
cular value of x renders the co-efficients infinite, we may
conclude that the development in that case ought to
contain fractional or negative powers of 6. In such par¬
ticular cases as appear not to admit of expansion by
Taylor’s theorem, other methods deducible from the cal¬
culus are applicable; in general, the ordinary algebraic
methods are sufficient.
Differentiation of Equations of two Variables.
48. We have as yet differentiated only equations in
which the variables were separated, such as this, y — a
+ 6*4- c*2, where y is an implicit function of x. But
the equations which chiefly occur in analytical inquiries
contain for the most part the two variables combined or
mixed together; as in this equation,
y1 — 2 mxy -+ *2 — a2 — 0.
If we suppose the equation resolved, so that y is ex¬
pressed in terms of x only, which gives
y = mxz±=L Va2 + (m2—l)*2,
the differentials may be found by the rules already ex-
P ained. In general, however, the variables cannot be so
separated, and therefore it is necessary that we be able to
etermine the differential co-efficients of a function by
other means.
49. An equation formed in any way from two inde¬
pendent variable quantities may be represented by the
general symbol j r ^
Thp • u, /O’ y) = Q;
ne variable y must be expressible in some way by x ;
lerefore we may represent its value, however found, by
le equation y X, where X denotes an expression
t" 6 yy terrns chaining only x and constant quanti-
j|e^ ’''hen this value ofy is substituted in the equation,
/o, X) = 0.
and^ = _?.
dx y
•(SO-
To determine the differential co-efficient of the second
order, put — p, and we have
du
dx
— 2yp+2x;
as is a function of x and y, and y is a function of *,
theiefore p is a function of x. Taking now the differen¬
tials, and dividing by dx, the result is
d'u ^ f dp dy \
do<?-~ \Jdx +Ptic+ ^ - 0 ’-
hence, because p ~ and — —
dx dx dx1
d?u ( d'y , dij* , , \
tf*2 da* + dtf+ l) ~ ° O)
From this equation we get
A
da? ~ y \dxl ^ f
or, since
dy x
dx ~ y
d°y  x3 l
doc2 y3 y'
.(4.)
To find the differential co-efficient of the third order, we
put ^ = q; and substituting p for ^ in equation
(3), it becomes
— ~2(yq+p2+ 1) = 0;
observing that p and q are functions of x and y, and con¬
sequently of x, we may find by differentiation an expression
which will involve, besides x and y, these quantities,
(lqdp_dfy dfy PV.
dx’ dx doc2' * dx2' ” dx'
and from this equation ^ ^ may be determined, ob¬
serving that “ and are expressed by x and y in equa¬
tions (4) and (2).
51. The preceding analysis gives the following rule for
656
fluxions.
Direct determining the differential co-efficients of */, a faction
Method, of#, when the relation between # and y is expiessed y
3n Take fhe'differentials of the terms of the equation, con-
sidering7as a function of *, and dividing by cfc, the re¬
sult will be an equation which gives the value of
Again, take the differentials of the terms of this equation,
dy_
dx
d^y
equivalent to ^ + (1
■ m2)
y~ — Zmocy + xz
= 0.
^considering y and ^ as functions of #, and the result will
be an equation involving ^ and which, combined
with the former, serves to determine A third equa¬
tion may be found from this, by taking the differentials,
and considering y, and g, as functions of#; and this,
combined with the other two, gives and so on to any
number of equations.
Let y be such a function of # that
— 2 mxy + a2 — a2 = 0 (1.)
It is proposed to determine its differential co-efficients.
By a first differentiation
(y — mx) dy — (jny — x) dx — 0,
*    (2.)
(y — mx)
53. Differential equations of all orders hold true simul¬
taneously with the primitive from which they have been
derived, therefore any combination of them will also hold
true ; and whatever number of values the function y has
(in the preceding example it has two), the differential co¬
efficients into which y enters will have the same number.
It has appeared (art 15) that in functions of a certain
form the constants they contain vanish from their diffe¬
rentials. A like remark applies to differential equations.
Thus, if y2 = «# + & be a primitive equation, in which
a and b are constants, the differential equation is
= adx; and this belongs to every particular equation
which can be formed from the primitive, by giving all
possible values to b. The constant a may also be made
to disappear by putting the equation under this form,
— = a + - ;
X X
for this by differentiation gives
2xydy — ifdx — bdx
Dire
Meth:
#2
#2
. dy my
and -f =
dx
M2)| (3.)
(4)
y — mx
Again, by differentiating,
_ (1 — ra2)# dy _ (1 
dy* ~ {y — mxf ‘dx (y—mx)
and, substituting for ^ its value,
cPy ,, 2x y2 — 2 mxy + x2 _ —(1 —m2)«2
dot? ~ ^ (y — mxf (y—mx)3
If we take the differentials of both sides of equation
(3), and consider as functions of #, we shall ob¬
tain
S=pS+«l + R 
Here P, Q, R, denote expressions composed of y and #.
By substituting for ^ and ^ their values as given by
equations (4) and (2), there will be obtained the value of
in terms of # and y.
52. The equations which may be deduced by differen¬
tiation from a proposed equation are called fluxional or
differential equations, and the equation from which they
have been deduced is called the primitive equation. The
equation which gives the value of ^ is said to be of the
jirst order, and that which involves is of the second
order, and so on for the higher orders.
Thus, the primitive equation being
y1 — 2mxy + #2 — a2 = 0,
we have found, for the differential equation of the first
order,,
dy my — # _ Q _
dx y — mx ’
and that of the second order,
<Py  (1 — m2) dy_ (1 — mg)y _ ^
dxi y — mx dx (y — mx)2 ~~ ’
^ dy y2 — b
and 2xydy — (/ — 5)J# = 0; or ^ = -5^--
This equation expresses a relation which subsists be¬
tween the quantities #, y, -p-, independently of any parti¬
es# ’
cular value of the constant a. ( .
The very same equation will be obtained by elimmat-
ing, by the ordinary process (Algebra, sect. 7), a from
the two equations
y2 = ax + b, 2ydy = adx.
If the constant quantity.which is eliminated is not of
the first degree in the proposed equation, the result will
contain powers of the co-efficient ^ higher than the first.
For example, let the equation be
yl — 2ay + #2 = a2;
then, by differentiating,
2ydy — ady + xdx — 0,
yd\) + xdx
hence a — -7 .
dy
This value of a being substituted in the proposed equa¬
tion, we obtain, after due reduction,
dy
an equation that expresses a relation between #, y, ^
which is independent of any particular value of «•
By resolving the equation in respect of a, we find
a — —y V2?/2 + #2;
and hence, the constant a forming a term by itself, it dis¬
appears by differentiation, and we have
, 2ydy + xdx ..
dy z±z J = = 0,
\/2y2 + #
an equation which, being from the radical sign, will
identical with the former. ,
54. Any number of constants whatever may be
to disappear by repeating the process of differentia 1
often as there are quantities to be eliminated;
ample, let the equation be y2 = wi («2 — tf2); by a rs
ferentiation y -^■=. — mx; taking the differentials a
FLUXIONS.
cond time, we get 2/^- + ^= —
657
m. This value of —
w being substituted in the former equation, it becomes
*!L — x%L—Xv-!L-b
fix x XV ,y,„2 — u>
dxl
doc1
a result which is independent of both a and m.
Of Vanishing Fractions.
55. When the numerator and denominator of a fraction
are such functions that, by giving a particular value to
their variable, they both become = 0 at the same time,
the fraction is then called a vanishing fraction. The frac-
%C^ - -- Qp # # #
tion is of this kind; for when x = a, the numera-
x — a
tor and denominator both vanish, and the fraction takes
the form jj, from which we can draw no conclusion as to
its true value, although it be evident that the fraction
has then a determinate value; for
x2- — a2 (x + a) (x — a)
 — — x a ;
x — a x — a
and when # 1= a, its true value is as a + a = 2a.
It appears that the above fraction has taken the pecu¬
liar form ^ when x = a, from the circumstance of its hav¬
ing the factor x— a in the numerator and denominator.
The same is true of this other fraction,
x? — x2a — xa2 +
ax — a2
which takes form - when a; = a. The numerator and deno¬
minator have a common divisor, x — a ; when freed from
x2 ~9
this, it becomes —
; when x — a, this fraction be-
0
comes -, which is truly 0. Again, this fraction
a
ax — a
2ax + a? ^as t^ie same property when x=a,
by reason of the common factor x — a, when freed from
the factor is
Thus when x z= a becomes -, that
x — a
is, the value is infinite. In these cases the common fac¬
tor is obvious ; but it is not so always. Take this as an
, 1 — sin a? + cos x . . ,
example, —^ ; —; when a? is a quadrant, or
sin x + cos x — 1 1
= this fraction becomes jj. For its true value in this
case, see ex. 4 of art. 57.
56. When the terms of the fraction are algebraic func¬
tions, their greatest common measure may be found by an
elementary operation in Algebra (art. 20), and the frac¬
tion disengaged from it by division. A more simple and
general solution may, however, be obtained from the dif¬
ferential calculus.
p
Let — denote a fraction, the terms of which are func¬
tions of x that vanish when x = a, some given quantity.
Suppose now that x becomes x h, then, by Taylor s
theorem, the fraction will become
, #p h? , „
+ -7-TT ci FT +> &C-
By hypothesis, when x = a, then P and Q both vanish ; Direct
therefore, leaving them out of the expression, and putting Method.
P', P", P"', &c. to denote the differential co-efficients of P
in the numerator, and Q', Q", Q'", &c. those of Q, in the
denominator, and dividing the terms by h, the fraction
will be expressed by
P'+ IV"h + £P"'h~ +, &c.
Q' + + £Q"' h2 +, &c.*
p/
When h = 0, this expression becomes ; and when a
is put in this fraction instead of x, the result will be the true
P
value of — ; for it is manifestly the same thing to suppose,
first, that x becomes x + A, and then that x — a and
A = 0, as to suppose at once that x =z a.
If it happen that one of the two quantities, P', Q', be¬
comes = 0 when a is substituted instead of x, then the
P .
fraction will be = 0, or infinite, according as the va¬
nishing quantity is the numerator or denominator ; if both
become = 0 at once, then, leaving them out, the expres¬
sion becomes, by reduction,
P" + £F"A +, &c.
Q" + jLQ"'A +,&c.;
P" .
and making A = 0, it become which, putting a instead
P
of x, will be the value of the fraction -^7-, and so on.
P
57. Hence we have this rule : To find the fraction — in
Q
the particular case of x =z a, supposing that P and Q are
both reduced to 0 by this supposition. Divide the diffe¬
rential co-efficient of the numerator by that of the deno-
p/
minator ; let the result be ^ in which make x = a,• then,
if this expression does not become it is the value sought;
0 . P'
but if it takes the form treat the fraction ^ in all respects
like the original fraction, and deduce from it a new frac-
P"
tion —, and proceed in this way until an expression be
found which does not become ^ when a is put for x ; and
the first expression that is found having this property is
the value sought.
Ex. 1. The sum of the geometrical series
1 -J- x + x2 + x3... -f- x"-1 to n terms
£tl   J
is . Find its value when x = 1.
x— 1
In this case, P = xn — 1, Q = x— 1; hence we deduce
F
dx Q'
dV
— — nx
dx
— = Fi$=l = Q,
F
when x =T, the fraction qT = ”> the value of tIie sum of
the series, as is manifest.
ox* + oc* — 2acx P
Ax2 — 2bcx + Ik? ~ Q’
Ex. 2. Let the fraction be
p + ^A + ^p_il
dx ^ dx2 \ .2
i/x3 1.2.3
p , rfQ d2Q A2 d3Qt A3
tfx + tfx2 1 . 2 tfx3 1.2.3
VOL. ix.
+ , &c.
which becomes ^ when x = c, to find its value. In this
case ^ — 2ax — 2ac = P'; ^ = 2Ax — 2hc — Q';
4 o
658
Direct
Method.
p _ 2ax — Zac _
O' — 2bx — zbc
ax — ac
bx — be
fluxions.
a!, a = a', and a < a'. In the first case, we may write JDi?;
the expression thus:
Me i,
Aha
+ +,&c.
Making x — c, this fraction becomes -j, therefore, pro¬
ceeding as before,
dx? dx* w u
A'+ B# —+,&c.
Under this form, it is manifest that as long as a is greater
than a', the supposition of A = 0 will make the fraction
equal to nothing, and that it will become when a = «';
hence it appears that when x = c, the value of the frac- ^ a ^ we write the expression thus
tion is £-
A + B//-“ +,&c.
Ex. 3. The fraction —
_bX 0 _ A'Aa'-“ + B'//-a+,&c.’
 becomes - when x — 0. an(j ^ t]ie supposition of A z= 0, this result becomes in-
x finite. In all cases the true value depends on the first
Find its value then. In this case,   term alone of each series.
_ 1 _ 59. The following rule extends to all fractions which
— — 0
,p, a can occur under the indeterminate form
When •£ = 0, — becomes 1. (a) 1. (b) _ 1. t the first term of each of the series which express the
required. development of the numerator and denominator when x
1 ’ i sin x + cos x , = a + h; reduce the resulting fraction to its most simple
f = i. («)«*-i.(&) ** = 1"; f
Ex. 4. Let the fraction be
0
sin x + cos
L/UO t*/ -i • -l I  Cl. I 5 » WWW
-j-, wnicn j'orm^ and then make h r= 0.
becomes - when x — Here
The fraction
0*
a2)2
whose value cannot be found
dP
dx
- — — cos X
TV dQ
sin x = rr; -r-
dx
P
Q'
cosx-
sin x
3’
(x — a)2
q,. by differentiation, when x = a becomes by this method
(2ah + A2)2 _ ^ +
A2
cos x — sin a;
When x = a quadrant, then cos x = 0, and sin ar when * is changed \nlox + h; making now * = 0, we
„ , , . , , r — 1 have its true value (2a)2.
= 15the value of the proposed fraction is therefore — This last rule wiU sometimes be preferable to the for-
_ j mer, by differentiation, even when that process is applica¬
ble. For example, four successive differentiations must
aa n — xx ” be performed on the numerator and denominator of this
Ex. 5. Let the fraction be  :   ; to find its fraction>
xz + 4aP -f- 7a2 x — 2a3 — 2a; V 2ax — dl
x1 — 2ax — a2 + 2a /y/ 2ax — a;2
in order to find its true value when x — a; by writing
a + A instead of x, it becomes
2a3 — 2a2 A — aA2 + A3 — 2a2 y/ a2 -j- 2a/
— 2a2 + A2 + 2a y' a2 — A2
and reducing the radical quantities into series, we have
A2 . A3 5A4 , c
2rf’-8T=>+*&C'
.y/ a2 + 2aA — a + A — "f"
A2 A4
a — x
value when x — a. In this case P — aa n — xx n,
«=§=-■•
making x = a, we have aa ~ n -! 1. a +     i for the
I « J
value required.
58. The rule of last article will not apply when Taylor’s By substituting these series in the fraction, and putting
theorem fails to give the developments of the functions P, A =r 0, we obtain — 5a for the value sought.
Q, in the case when x — a. When this happens, we may
, , .7. , „ P Of the greatest and least Values of a Function.
substitute a + A instead of a; in the fraction and ex- . , ,
^ 60. In supposing that a function changes its value, we
pand the numerator and denominator into ascending se- may assume that the variable increases continually from
ries, which proceed by the powers of A ; we shall then 0 to infinity, either positively or negatively. To get dis-
have tinct notions, it may be convenient to suppose that the
AAa + BA13 4- & variable increases or decreases by successive equal difter-
—^—— ences. The function however may not increase or decrease
A'A + B'A -j-, &c. continually along with its variable. It may first increase
instead of the proposed fraction. If in this result we sup- to a certain magnitude, and afterwards decrease; or i
L, may decrease and afterwards increase; or it may an
pose A = 0, we shall have the value of the fraction — nately increase and decrease several times. We maJ r^e
wLon ^ xt i , ^ present the variable x by the abscissa of a curve, and
a. ow there are here three cases; viz. a functiony by the corresponding ordinate. The curve, ro
r
FLUXIONS.
t its nature, may recede continually from its axis, like the pa-
4. rabola and hyperbola; or it may first recede from and af-
^ ^ terwards approach to the axis, like the circle and ellipse; or
it may be sinuous, alternately approaching and receding.
When a variable function, by a continual change in its
magnitude, first increases and afterwards decreases, there
will be one value of the function which will be greater
than those which immediately preceded it, and also great¬
er than those which immediately follow it. In this state
the value of the function is the greatest possible, at least
within certain limits on each side of that extreme value;
and then it is said to be a maximum. On the other hand,
if a function, by a continual change in its value, first de¬
creases, until it be reduced to a certain magnitude, and
afterwards increases, it is said to be a minimum, when it
is just changing from the state of a decreasing to that of
an increasing quantity.
A variable function may have several values, each of
which will be a maximum or minimum, according to the
definition. The essential character of a, maximum consists
in its being greater than the values which preceded and which
follow it; and that of a minimum, in being less than the pre-
' ceding and following values. So that as many changes as
there may be from increase to decrease, or the contrary,
so many maxima and minima there will be.
61. Before proceeding farther, it will be convenient to
establish this principle. In a series of the form
ph + qh2 + r/t3 + sld +, &c.
in which h is indeterminate, and independent of p, q, r,
Sic. such a value may be given to h, that any term shall
exceed the amount of all that follow it. For, putting the
series under this form,
h (p + qh + rh2 + sh3 +, &c.);
by supposing h to decrease, qh + rh2 + sh3 +, &c. may
become less than any assignable quantity, and therefore
less than p ; consequently, qh2 + rid + sld +, &c. may
be less than ph, in any ratio of inequality. In the same
way it will appear that rh + sh2 +, &c. may be less than
q, and rid + sA4 +, &c. less than qh2, and so on. Hence
it follows, that in the series ph + qh2 + rh3 + sld +, &c;
h may have such a value that the amount of all the terms
beginning with any assigned term shall have the sign of
that term, + if it be +, and — if it be —.
62. Let y denote any function which may become a
maximum or minimum when its variable has attained
some particular value ; then, if a? — h and a? + ^ be sub¬
stituted successively in the function instead of x, the two
results must be both less than the maximum value, and
both greater than the minimum value. Denoting now the
value of the function which corresponds to x — h by py,
and the value which corresponds to a: + A by y^, we have,
by Taylor’s theorem,
n-v-Jy-hA- ^ +,&c.
J dx ' dx2 1.2 dx3 1.2.3
659
magnitude between xy and which cannot be, when it Direct
is a maximum or minimum. Therefore, in order that y may ^leth°d-
be a maximum or minimum, we must have = 0, and
dx
then, in the expressions
\V — V J'r
d2y h2 d3y h3
dx? 1.2 dx3 1.2.3
+ , &c.
. dry Id ddy h?
yi~y+dx2 L2 + L2d3 +> &C*
such a value may be given to h as shall make xy and y \
both less than y in the case of a maximum, or both greater
in that of a minimum.
It may, however, happen that the value of x which
makes = 01
»shall also make ^ = 0, so that we have
d3y Id dyy Id
iy~y~lx3 L2.3 + dxd 1.2.3.4
-, &c.
dry h? ddy Id
yi=y^d^3 L2i3 +Tx* 1.2.3.4
Then the function cannot be a maximum or minimum,
dfitj
unless the same value of x make -- — 0, and give a fi-
dSy
nite value for
dx'1
,dy d2y Id . ddy
yi = y + l,h+
h3
+ ,&c.
dx" ' dx~ 1.2 ‘ dx3 1.2.3
Now, it is impossible that xy and yx can at the same
time be both less or both greater than y, if the co-effi¬
cient —— be not zz 0; for if it have some value different
dx
dy ,
from zero, then such a value may be given to ft that ft
shall exceed in any given ratio of inequality all the terms
which follow it, and one of the two series beginning wit i
~ A will be a positive quantity and the other nega¬
tive; and if this were true, y would be of an intermediate
63. On the whole, we have this rule, to determine the
maximum or minimum value of y, a function of x.
dy
Make the differential co-efficient-^ = 0: Find the value
(]2y
of x, and substitute it in j~ ; and if the result be negative,
the function maximum ; but if it be positive, the function
d3y
is a minimum. And if it be — 0, then put = 0, andfind
x, and substitute it in and draw the same conclusions
from the signs as before, and so on.
The rule for determining a maximum or minimum of a
function was first given correctly by Maclaurin, in his
Fluxions, chap. ix. .
64. We shall now apply the theory to the resolution of
problems, of which there may be an endless variety, and
many highly interesting.
Ex. 1. To determine whether the function u — lax
 x2 has a maximum or minimum value.
In this case the differential co-efficient -^ = 2 (a — x),
which being put = 0, we have x=.a. The second differ¬
ential co-efficient ^ = 2, a negative quantity, there¬
fore the function has a maximum value (art. 63), viz.
when x = a; and that value is u = a\ as is indeed evi¬
dent from the nature of the function.
Ex. 2. Let « = a;2 + 3a; + 2; then — = 2a; + 3. I his
put = 0, gives x ■=. — f. Again, ^-2 = 2, a positive
quantity, therefore the function is a minimum when a; =
In that case u — —_ TT
Ex. 3. Let uz=.x3 — 15 a? + 56a; — 60. Here
^ = 3a;2 —30 a;+ 56, —30*
dx aU/
FLUXIONS.
660
Method. The equation ^ = 3*!- 30* + 56 = 0 being resolved,
' yW 15 =t: -v/b? .... 15 =±= V'S? ,
we find* = h • Making*— q , we find
d— = 6* 30 = =±i: 2 Vbl. Hence it appears that the
dx1
function has a minimum, and also a maximum value; the
former corresponding to * = g
15 — -V/57
15 + V57 J ^ .
and the latter
to * =
15 + V57
38 _
If X — — ^ , u — — 30   V57, a minimum.
If x = — « — — 30 + 57, a maximum.
3 y
Ex. 4. Let u = x5 — 5x4 + S*3 + 1;
then ^ = 5x4 — 20*3 + 15x2 = 5*5 (x* — 4* + 3) ;
dx
^ = 20*3 — 60*2 + 30* = 10 * (2** — 6* + 3).
The equation = 5*2 (^r2 — 4* + 3) = 0,
gives four values of *, viz. * =: 3, * = 1, the other two
are = 0.
SPu %
These being substituted in show that the function
has a maximum and minimum:
Fig. 1.
And because trian. ABC = \ab sin *; trian. ADC
= \cf sin v,
therefore, y — -^ab sin x-)r}2ef sin r (2)
This last equation by differentiation gives, by the na¬
ture of a maximum,
U7J (I'D
= cos*+^—cos w = 0 (3)
By differentiating equation (1), we find
abdx sin * — efdv sin v = 0 ;
, , „dv 7 sin *
and hence ef-— — —ab— :
* dx sin v
Therefore, from eq. (3), ab\ cos *+ s^nxcosv 1 = 0;
v y ( sin v )
and hence sin v cos *+cos v sin * = 0;
that is (Algebra, art. 239), sin (*+t?)=0, and *+v=ff.
Thus it appears that the opposite angles B, D must to¬
gether make two right angles ; therefore the figure will
be a maximum when it is inscribed in a circle; and since
in this case
Dire
Metk
when * = 3, u = — 26, a minimum;
* = 1, « = 2, a maximum ;
(jzu
when x = 0, then r- vanishes, therefore there is neither
dx*
maximum or minimum in this case.
Ex. 5. To determine the maxima and minima values of
the function yzzxx; we have found (art. 24, ex. 2),
that
aid hence § =** { j + O+l- *)' };
The function xx cannot be = 0; we must therefore put
1 + 1. * = 0;
hence 1. * = — 1, and * = e 1 — -.
e
This value of x, substituted in the second differential co¬
efficient, makes
d?u (\\e
-fan =: [^) ,e’a positive quantity ;
therefore, when * = i, xx = ^ ^ a
minimum.
Ex. 6. To find the greatest space that can be enclose
by four given straight lines:
Let the given lines be AB = a, BC = b, CD =
A Rrn/;nLet *,= ^gIe ^ angle = the arc
ABLD : Draw the diagonal AC.
By trigonometry, a2+ 62 — 2a5 cos x = AC2,
tt 0, «2+/2 —2efcosv= AC1;
Hence, 2a6 cos x — 2ef cos = a2+5s & p  / ]
cos x = — cos v, sin x = sin u ;
from equations (1) and (2),
2(a6 + e/’) cos * = a2 + 52*—&—/*>
2{ab+ef) sin x = 4y.
By squaring both sides of these equations, and adding,
and observing that cos2 x+sinz x = 1, we have
4(ai+eff = (a2 + 52 — f—f)1 +16/,
and 16/ = 4(«5+ef)z — (a2 + 52 — e2 —^/2)2*
The right-hand side of this formula admits of being re¬
solved into these two factors, viz.
2ab + 2e/+ a2 + fe2 _ e2 _/2 = (a + bf — (e —/)*,
2a5 + 2e/—a2—52+e2+/2 = (e+ff— (a —bf;
and these again admit of this further resolution,
(a + 6+e—■/) (a + b — e+f),
(e+f+a — b) (e+f—a + b);
If we now put s = ^(a + b + e+f),
we have a+b+e—f— 2(5—■/),
a + b — e+f = 2(5 — e),
e+f+ a — 5 = 2(5 — b),
e + /— a+b = 2(5 —a).
Hence 16/ =16(5 — a) (s — b) (s — e) (s —/);
and y=V(s — «) (« — b) (s — e) (5 —f).
We have now found by the calculus an elegant geome¬
trical theorem.
Ex. 7. To determine the dimensions of a cyiindric mea¬
sure, open at top, which shall contain a given quantity of
grain, liquor, &c. under the least internal superficies.
Fig. 2.
Dfc ,
Me
FLUXIONS.
Let a; = AB be the diameter of the base, v — AC its
depth, <r the number 3-1416 (viz. half the circumfe¬
rence of a circle whose rad. = 1), and c the content of
the cylinder. By Geometry, the area of the base
zz -7-, and its circumference = itx, and the internal sur-
661
face of the cylinder = vrx.
cylinder c = -—r-; and therefore v=
4
Now, the content of the
therefore the
internal surface =
4c
cvr2 ’
^ . and putting y for the whole in
side surface of the measure,
y =
irx? , 4c
“4"+V
* ? dy <rx 4><c n
therefore’& = T-^ = 0:
d*y _ 1 8c
dxz ~~ 2 ar5’
The first of these equations gives
■ff.r3 —8c — 2vx?v, and x — 2v;
hence the diameter of the base must be twice the depth :
The second differential co-efficient being a positive quan¬
tity, shows the surface to be a minimum.
Ex. 8. A candle stands on a horizontal table, directly
over a point at a given distance from a small object on the
table ; what ought to be the height of the flame when the
object is illuminated the most possible.
Fig. 3.
Let A be the object on the table, B the point under
the candle, and C the flame, considered as condensed at
a point. The intensity of the illumination on the object
A depends on its distance from C, and on the angle
which the rays make with the surface (supposed to be
horizontal). By the principles of optics, the intensity at
different distances, the angle of obliquity being the same,
will be inversely as the square of the distance; and
with different degrees of obliquity, the distance being the
same, as the sine of the angle which the rays make with
the surface. Therefore the intensity, as depending on both
obliquity and distance, will be expressed by
1 ' BC
AC2 Sin CAB “ AC3*
Put a = AB, x — sin CAB, and let y denote the il¬
luminating power on the surface at A ; then
V =
BC
AC
^ —
AB2
AC*
1
AB2
sin x cos2 x
a?
^ cos3 x — 2 sin2 x cos
hence, 2 sin2 x cos x — cos3 #,
sin2 x 1 — cos 2 x
*}4r = 0:
and
and cos 2 a: r=
cos2 x 1 + cos 2 x
By the trigonometrical tables, 2 x — 70° 32', and
*= 35° 16'; this gives BC = AB X . 71 nearly: so
that the height of the flame must be about of the dis¬
tance AB.
Lx. 9. To find the position of the planet Venus in re2 Direct
spect ot the earth and sun when her light is the greatest. Method.
1 he planet does not appear brightest when her disc is y-*-
perfectly round; she is then too remote to produce that
effect; and besides, she is seen in the direction of the
In her inferior conjunctions her crescent is too nar-
alm/Yof ill • .i . .
sun
row, almost the whole illuminated part being turned to¬
wards the sun. It is therefore in some intermediate po¬
sition, which is to be determined, that she is brightest.
atW- -n tl-'e SUn’ E the earth’ and ACBB> Venus,
ADD its illuminated hemisphere which is turned towards
the sun, and CBD its hemisphere towards the earth • pro¬
duce S V to F. ' v
Fig. 4.
The portion of the illuminated surface turned towards
the earth is contained between two planes DV, BY, per¬
pendicular to the plane EVS ,- and this surface will mani¬
festly be projected into a crescent, the breadth of which
is the versed sine of the angle BVD, which is equal to
EVP, because if BVE be added to both, each is a right
angle. Now the area of the crescent is always as its
breadth ; therefore, the whole disk being taken as an unit,
the illuminated part of it will be expressed by the versed
sine of the angle EVF, or by 1 + cos EVS.
Again, the brightness of the planet at different dis¬
tances is inversely as the square of the distance; therefore
the brightness depending on its position in respect of the
sun and its distance from the earth jointly, will be pro-
.. , 1 + cos EVS
portional to
EV2
Let a — ES the distance of the earth from the sun,
b = VS the distance of Venus from the sun,
x ■=. VE the distance of Venus from the earth;
tr fxre a? + £2 — a2
Then, cos EVS
2 bx
and 1 + cos EVS =
+ 2 fo; + ^ — a2
2 bx
  (x b a) (x b — a)
2 bx
therefore, putting y to denote the brightness of the planet,
— (.x ^ b a) (x + b — a)
^ 2 far*
and this, by differentiation, gives
dy _ (x + b + a) (x + b — a)
a maximum
dx
2 bx?
1
{
# + 6 + a
x b
--2}=0;
a x)
and hence,
■ 4! b x — a?
2bx?
+ 4 = 3 (a2 — b%
- 0;
* = =±1 V3 a2 + 62 — 26.
The negative value of x is not applicable, and we have
x — V3 a2 + 62 — 2 b.
In numbers, a zr 10000, b = 7233, therefore x = 4304,
the angles E = 39° 43' 30", V = 117° 55' 20", S
= 22° 21' 10".
Ex. 10. Let ABDB'A' be a kirb roof supported by
1
662
FLUX
-cl. \n nn DR' B'A', two and two of which are
Direct four rafters = ^ gnd ^ perfectly
Method, equal, viz. AB » • * a r m R' A' as ioints.
' free to turn about the po.nts A, B, D, B, A, as joints.
Sunnose also that AA' the span, and DC the height or
fhe roof, are given, and that AB has to BD a given ratio.
Determine the position of the rafters when by their weight
they form an equilibrium.
Fig. 5.
Suppose the roof to be inverted so as to form a polygon
hanging suspended from the points A, A'; by a nown
principle in statics, when it forms an equilibrium, the
centre of gravity of the mass of matter in the polygon
will be the lowest possible. _ If now the polygon were re¬
versed and placed in its position as a root, without chang¬
ing the angles at the joints, the equilibrium would not
be disturbed, and in this position the centre ot gravity
would be the highest possible.
Draw a line from B to B', which will be parallel to AA ,
and draw the perpendiculars BE, B'E'. Put the angle
BAC r= B'A'C = x, DBF = DB'F = v ; let the given
ratio of AB to BD be that of a given number m to a given
number n ; these numbers may represent the length, also
the weight, of the rafters, which may be supposed placed
in their centres of gravity, or middle of the beams.
By trigonometry, BE — m sin a?, Dh ~ w sin v, there¬
fore =. msm x + n sin v ; and, by statics, the height
of the centre of gravity of AB, also of A'B', above AA
will be | BE = 1 w sin x, and the height of the centre
of gravity of BD, also of B'D, will be ^ (BE + DC) zr m
sin x + i n sin v ; and since the distance of the common
centre of gravity of all the beams from AA' will be found
by multiplying the distance of each centre by the mass,
supposed placed at that centre, and adding the results
into one sum, and dividing by the sum of all the masses;
the height of the centre of gravity of the whole system ot
beams above AA' will be
nP sin a; + « (2 m sin a; + m sin v)
2 {ni + n)
Let this height be denoted by y ; then, rejecting the
constant denominator 2 (m, + ri),
y — (m2 + 2 rmi) sin x ri1 sin v, a maximum ;
and since AC, half the span of the roof, is a given quan¬
tity, we have
m cos x n cos v — AC, a constant.
From the first equation,
~t~ = (»i2 + 2 mn) cos a? + n2 cos u ^ = 0;
dx K ' dx
and from the second,
. . . dv n . dv »? sin a:
w sin a; + w sin v — = 0 ; hence — zr : .
dx dx n sin v
This value of ^ being substituted in the value of —,
dx & dx
we obtain
IONS.
This formula expresses a property of all roofs made of
four beams, which are equal two and two, when by their
position they form an equilibrium.
Join AD, and put y zz angle DAC which is known,
DC
because tan y = The angle BAD -x — y, and BD A
__ y v% Now, in the triangle ABD, sin A : sin D
= DB : BA, that is, sin (a: — y) : sin (y — a>) = n : m;
therefore,
sin (x — y) __ n_  /2 \
sin (y — v) m 
These equations (1), (2), determine the angles x, v,
when the ratio of AB to BD is given; from their form,
the angles may be easily found by trials in the trigono¬
metrical tables. The elimination of one of the angles
would produce an equation of the fourth degree; for this
reason, the method of trials is the best way of proceeding.
When the angles x and v are known, every thing else may
be readily found.
If we suppose the beams AB, BD, to be of equal length,
then m = n, and our two equations become
tan x __ gin ^ _ y) = sin (y — v).
Wj-t
Mek
tan v
In this case, x + v = 2y; then, from the equation
tan x sin x cos v
we get
tan v
sin x cos v
= 3,
cos x sin v
cos x sin v _ sin (x — v) _ j
sin a; cos v + cos x sin v sin (x + v)
and hence sin (x — v)z=. 5 sin (a? + v) zz | sin 2y ;
and putting for v its value 2y — x,
sin 2 (a; — y) zz £ sin 2y.
This determines the angle x, and v — 2y — x.
The theory of equilibriums opens a wide field for the
application of the calculus, as must be evident from the
preceding solution; but our limits will not permit us to
enter on it farther.
Determination of Tangents to Curves.
65. Let HPK be any curve referred to an axis AC;
and let AB zz a; and PB zz y be the co-ordinates of any
point P in the curve ; the point A being the origin ot
the abscisses. Let PT, a tangent to the curve at P, meet
the axis in T; and let SPQ,any straight line drawn through
P, meet the curve in Q and the axis in S. Draw QC per¬
pendicular to the axis, and PR perpendicular to QC ; and
let PR — BC zz h, and QC zz y\ the ordinate correspond¬
ing to the absciss x + h.
Fig. 6.
(m2 + 2 mn) cos x
and from this again,
tan x m . _
= ~ • ^••
mn cos v sin x
sin v
— 0
tan v
By similar triangles, QR : RP = BB : BS, that is,
y—y : A = y : BS.
Now, by Taylor’s theorem (art. 31),
y-» = ^A + 5-^ + &c-
H ^ y u dx dlx ,
hence, dividing the first antecedent and consequent y
FLUXIONS.
i
| + gA+*c.:l=*:BS.
This proposition holds true whatever be the magnitude
of h, the increment of x. But now let us suppose h to de¬
crease continually; the point Q will approach to P, and
the line QPS approaching to coincidence with PT, the
point S will approach to T; and when h vanishes, Q will
be at P, and S at T, and BS will have become BT; our
proportion will now be
dx
BT.
The line BT, between the ordinate PB and tangent
PT, is called the subtangent; from this proportion it ap¬
pears, that x and h being co-ordinates at any point in the
curve,
du doc
BT, the subtangent, =y y-~;.
•(1)
dy
hence the subnormal BD —y-^ (2).
PB
dy
tangent PT = ?/ + ~
(4)
normal PD = y +
dx?
.(5)
66. We shall now apply these general formulae to some
particular curves.
Ex. 1. Let the curve be the parabola, and supposing
AC to be the axis, and A its vertex : by the nature of the
curve, putting a for the parameter, y1 — ax,
hence 2ydy — adx ; ~ — —,
_ dx   2y2   2ax _
subtan. BT = — ?/ =
dyu
~ —— — 2x;
hence if zz ~ {a2 — x?), and ydy — — - XfC ;
a
and sub tan. QT =: —^7— — — (f ^
d>f t?x ~ x ~ \x xy
Fig. 7.
that is, the subtangent is equal to the ordinate divided by
its differential co-efficient; or it is a third proportional
to the differential of the ordinate, the differential of the
abscissa and the ordinate. The subtangent being known,
the position of the tangent is determined.
Let PD, a perpendicular to the tangent at P, and con¬
sequently to the curve, meet the axis in D ; the line PD
is called a normal to the curve; and BD, the segment of
the axis between the ordinate and normal, is called the
subnormal.
The triangles TBP, PBD are similar, therefore
TB : BP = BP : BD, ov dx \ dy z= y : BD ,
Because the tangent of the angle PTB = TjTg-, and the
PB
tangent of the angle PDB = ; therefore,
tan angle T = and tan D = ^ (3).
In the right-angled triangles TBP, PBD, we have PT"
= PB2 + BT2, and PD2 = PB2 + BD2; therefore,
subtan. QT = ^yz
ary*
'Wx
x2 ■
that is, the subtangent is double the absciss AB.
Again, for the subnormal, we have
1 dy adx a
subnor.BDz^zz—= g.
Thus it appears that the subnormal is constant, and
equal to half the parameter.
Ex. 2. Let the curve be an ellipse, of which OA half
the greater axis = a, OB half the lesser axis =zb ; and
supposing the origin of the co-ordinates to be at O the
centre, let OQ = ;r, PQ = y. By the nature of the curve,
a2: i2 = (a -f #) (a — x): f (Conics) ;
663
Direct
Method.
The general formula for the subtangent was found on
the hypothesis that it was on the same side of the ordi¬
nate as the absciss ; in this case they are supposed to be
on opposite sides, and hence its value has the negative
sign ; leaving the direction of the subtangent in respect
of the absciss out of consideration, we have
QT = --—x, and OT = —,
x x
hence it appears that OQ : OA = OA : OT.
When the axes are equal, the ellipse becomes a circle, but
the subtangent is independent of the ratio of the axes.
Fig. 8.
Ex. 3.       .vr   .
a — OA the semitransverse axis, and b = the semiconju¬
gate ; then, putting OQ = x, and PQ = y, we have (by
Conics),
£2 bl
r = -2 (^ — «5)> ydy = -r xdx;
d U>
hence OT — OQ — QT = —.
x
This shows that the tangent always passes between the
centre and the vertex when x has a finite value ; but when
a; becomes infinite, then OT = 0, and the tangent becomes
an asymptote to the hyperbola.
Fig. 9.
IT
B c ° .
Ex. 4. We shall next draw a tangent to the cycloid;
but first the nature of the curve must be expressed ana¬
lytically. Conceive a circle to roll along a straight line,
moving always in the same plane, just as the wheel of a
carriage rolls along a straight road. By this motion any
given point in the circumference of the circle will describe
664 ... V
Direct a continuous curve in that plane, which will meet the line
Method, along which it rolls at intervals equal to its circumference.
’ Let bV be the line along which a circle CD A rolls, be-
sinning its motion from a point of contact b,and co
pletinf a revolution when it has come to B. The point
of the^circumference which was in contact the *1".
at b will then have generated the curve line 6AB. ims
is the cycloid, and the line 6B its fowe.
Let ADC be a fixed circle in the position of the gene¬
rating circle when it has completed half a revoJution,
its centre, and AC its diameter, called the axis of the cy¬
cloid. Let AD be any arc of this circle. Draw the radius
OD. When the generating circle, by rolling along ^
from the position C, has passed over a distance equal to
the arc AD, the centre O will have generated a straight
line OE parallel to CB, and equal to the same arc AD ;
moreover, the moveable radius, which was coincident
with OA, will, by the rotation of the circle, have come
into a position EP, parallel to OD, because the angular
motion of the radius about the moving point E will always
be proportional to the arc of the circle that has been ap¬
plied to the base, that is, by hypothesis, to the arc AD;
and since the lines OD, EP are equal and parallel, a straight
line drawn from P through D, meeting AC in Q, will be pa¬
rallel to EO, and therefore perpendicular to AC ; and since
PD — OE = arc AD, it follows that PQ, any ordinate to
the axis AC, is equal to the sum of the arc AD and its sine
DQ. This is the distinguishing property of a cycloid.
To express it by equations, let the radius of the generat¬
ing circle be a, and the angle AOD = v, then PD 1= arc
AD = av, and DQ = a sin v, so that, putting AQ = x,
and PQ = y, we have for the equations of the curve
x = a{\ — cos v), y = a (v sin v) ;
and from these every property of the curve may be inves¬
tigated. _ . .
To determine the tangent: by differentiation,
^ ^ dx sin r
dx =. a sin v, dy = adv (1 + cos r),
dx (v + sin v) sin v _ PQ . QD
subtan QT= y 35= 1 + cosT- ~ CQ ' ;
hence CQ : DQ = PQ : QT.
But by the nature of the circle CQ: DQ DQ: QA ;
therefore PQ: QT = DQ : QA ; hence the triangles PQT,
DQA are similar, and the tangent PT is parallel to the
chord DA.
Ex. 5. In the logarithmic curve of which the equation
is y =: ax, we have dy = a? .\. a. dx — y\. a .dx ; there¬
fore
=subtangent.
Hence it appears that the subtangent is a line of a con¬
stant given length.
67. To find a formula for the sub tangent and normal of
curves whose nature is expressed by a polar equation.
Fig. 10.
FLUXIONS.
Let HPK be such a curve, generated by the revolution Dire
of a variable radius AP about a given point A in AC, a line Met!|
given in position. Through A draw AT' perpendicular Y
to AP; let a tangent to the curve at P meet this line in
T' and the axis in T ; draw PQ perpendicular to the axis
AC, and draw the normal PD, meeting T'A in D. Then
AT' is the subtangent and AD the subnormal. Let
AQ = x, PQ = y, the revolving radius AP = r, the vari-
able angle PAC = v, and the angle PTA = t. The lines
x, y, r are now to be considered as functions of the an¬
gle r.
The angle T'PA being the supplement of the sum of
PTA and PAT; that is, of r + <, we have (Algebra,
art. 236 and 242),
™ ~. /■ i \ tan v + tan £
tan angle T'PA = - tan (« + <)= tant)tant_i-
v PQ dy
Now tan v = p and tan t = ^
therefore tan T'PA =
dx
xdx
xdy — ydx
xdx + ydy
Again, = d (|) = d (tan v) =
iC2
dv
cos* v
therefore xdy —ydx = dv cog2 v — r^dv ;
and xdx + ydy = %d(x? + y*) = \d (r2) = rdr ;
r~dv rdv
therefore tan T'PA = = -j-;
and since by trigonometry T'A — AP tan TPA, therefore
_ . dv „
subtangent T'A = r ;
also, since T'A : AP = AP : AD; therefore
dr
subnormal AD = —.
Ex. Let the curve PH be the spiral of Archimedes,
the nature of which'is defined by the equation 2«r = av,
where *=2 right angles, and a is a given line, viz. the
value of r when v — 2vr. In this case
dv „ 2*r2
subtangent = ^.r2=—•
68. In some curves the segment of the axis between the
origin of the co-ordinates and the tangent increases with
the variable x, and may exceed any given line. In others
the tangent cuts the axis always at a finite distance fro
the origin ; it is then an asymptote to the curve. If trom
the subtangent QT = ^y (fig. 8) the absciss AQ = * be
subtracted, the remainder ^y — x is the general expres¬
sion for AT. Now if when x is infinite this expression is
finite, we may conclude that the curve has asymp
but if it be infinite, the curve has no asymptotes.
In the conic hyperbola we found (ex. 6, an. /
dx
dy
y—x
a" , c dx  , £L • when x is
_; therefore -j^y a: _ ^ »
infinite, the expression = 0, hence it follows
the hyperbola has an asymptote which passes throug
centre. ,,
dx therefore
In the parabola, ex. 1, we found— ax'
FLUXIONS.
dx %2 o
|, x — “ x — 2# — x — x. Wlien x is infinite
this quantity is also infinite, therefore the parabola has no
asymptote.
The method of drawing tangents to curves is an import¬
ant branch of the theory of curve lines. It serves also to
determine their greatest and least ordinates (which may
also be found by the theory of maxima and minima), and
many other circumstances relating to their figure.
Differential of the Area of a Curvilineal Space, and of the
Arc of a Curve.
69. In curve lines it is convenient to consider x, one of
the co-ordinates, as an independent variable quantity ; and
any area having an arc of the curve for a boundary, also
the arc, and in general every other variable quantity con¬
nected with the curve, as functions of that variable. If
the curve be expressed by a polar equation, the angle
which the revolving radius makes with the variable may
be taken as the independent variable, and the co-ordinates
and other variable quantities related to the curve as
functions of that angle.
We begin by investigating a formula for the area.
Fig. 11.
A "d 5 K ~ B
Let AB be the axis of any curve CP, A and C
given points in the axis and curve, PQ, HK any two va¬
riable ordinates, and CD an ordinate given in position
at the given point C; draw PE and HF perpendiculars
to HK, PQ.
Put AQ rr x, PQ — y, curvilineal space PQDC — s ;
AK z=x',HK = y>, HKDC = s' ;
then QK a?' — a?, and PHKQz=/—s.
The space PHKQ is greater than the rectangle PEKQ,
but less than the rectangle FHKQ (supposing y to in¬
crease from the position PQ to HK), therefore,
s' — s >(af — a?) y, d — s < (a/ — x)f i
and
d — s
<y-
af—x ' x!—x
Hence, since when HK approaches to coincidence with
PQ, y approaches to equality with y, we have
d — s
= y>
ds
-7- — Jim.
dx
xt — x
and ds — ydx (1).
Thus it appears that The differential of a curvilineal area
is the product of the ordinate and the differential of the absciss.
In the formula just found, the ordinates have been sup¬
posed perpendicular to the axis. If they be oblique, let
“be the angle of inclination ; then d — s will be greater
than (pd — x)y . sin a, but less than (a/ — x) f . sin a;
and hence, reasoning as before, we find
ds ~ s\n a . ydx (2).
70. To find a formula applicable when the nature of
e curve is expressed by a polar equation, let B be the
pole, and PB the variable radius,
vox., ix. •
c PUtT3nrvn ^ the PBQ = the curvilineal
space PCDB = s ; also let BQ = a;, PQ - y, then
XT ^ (space CDQP) + d (triangle PQB).
ow c? (space CDQP) — — ydx, which is negative,
because a; decreases when the space increases ; and rf (tri¬
angle PQB) -d(\ xy) ~\ydx + i xdy ; therefore,
ds — ydx + 1 ydx + i xdy - 1 {xdy — i ydx)
- x*d (f) (art. 12).
But in the right-angled triangle PBQ,
BQ
x — r cos v,
y
- — tan v,
x
hence ds — \ rldv.
d{y-
vX
dv .
= ^;(art- 22>’
•(3).
the
Let CPMD be a curve, that between the points P
and M continually approaches to or continually recedes
from an axis AB. Let PQ, MN be ordinates to the axis
at the extremities of the arc PM, and PK, MH tangents
to the curve at the points P, M, meeting the ordinates in
K and H : The length of the arc is always of an inter¬
mediate magnitude between the lengths of the tangents
PK, MH.
Draw the chord PM, and let I be the intersection of
the tangents. It is easy to see that PK, one of the tan¬
gents, meets the parallel ordinates in an angle K more
acute than M, the angle made by the chord PM and
ordinate MN; and the other in an angle H less acute ;
therefore the chord will be less than the former and
greater than the latter. Now the arc is greater than the
chord; therefore MH, the least of the tangents, is less
than the arc PM.
Again, in the two triangles PIH, MIK, it is evident
that the two parts PI, IK, of the longest tangent, are re¬
spectively greater than HI, IM, those of the shorter;
therefore PK is longer than the sum of PI and IM; but
the arc PM is by an axiom of geometry less than the sum
of PI and IN, therefore the tangent PK is greater than
the arc PM.
72. Let A be a given point in the axis, and C in the
curve; draw PE, HF parallel to AB; put AQ — x,
AN = xf, PQ 1= y, CP = z, CM = z>; then PE = x’—x,
and arc PM = z' — z. Because PM = «'-—* is less
than PK, but greater than MH, therefore
4, p
665
Direct
Method.
In this case The differential of the area is half the product
of the square of the revolving radius, and the differential of
the angle ivhich it makes with the axis.
71. We have already found (art. 23) various expressions
for the differential of the arc of one particular curve, viz.
the circle. We shall now investigate general expressions
for the differential of the arc of any curve. For this pur¬
pose it will be convenient to establish the following geo¬
metrical proposition.
Fig. 12.
6G6
FLUXIONS.
Direct
Method.
  <t5f’ and
ad—x PE
x>-
^ HM
^ HF*
Now || and ^ are the secants of the angles KPE
is expressed by a
2/ — 2;
and MHF; therefore the ratio ^
quantity less than the secant of one of these angles, and
greater than the secant of the other angle. Suppose
n0W ^ _ z and a/ — *, the terms of the ratio, to be cont
nually diminished t the angles at H and P w.ll approach
to equality, and at last become equal, therefore the hm.t
of the ratio, viz. is equal to the secant of the angle
KPE ; but it was shown (art. 65) that the tangent of the
angle which a line touching a curve makes with the axis,
or any line parallel to the axis, is equal to and conse-
77
dt/1
dx1 ’
+ 'v-7,; therefore
quently its secant to
* = */] + and dz = Vrfe* + dtf (1)
dx dx1
Hence it appears that The square of the differential of
the arc of a. curve is equal to the sum of the squares of the
differentials of its rectangular co-ordinates.
73. In the case of curves expressed by a polar equation,
let A be the given point about which the variable radius
Fig. 13.
B fi A
AP turns; put v for the variable angle which the line
AP = r makes with AB, a line given in position ; let the
rectangular co-ordinates be AQ = x, PQ —y; then
x — r cos r sin ;
dx
X
- r sin v dv cos v dr — —ydv + — dr;
V
dy — r cos v dv + sin v dr — xdv + — dr ;
r
dxn- — y-dv2 + ~ dr2 — —^ dvdr;
2xy
r2
dy" — x^dv1 + %■ dr1 + —^ dvdr;
^ ft*
Fig. 14.
From the position of the lines in the figure,
HD — FP = HE + ED — (FK + KE — EP)
— PE + ED — FK — (KE —HE).
By trigonometry, FK = AF. tan FAK = p tan (m
— w); and because in the equiangular triangles ArK,
EHK, the angles at A and E are equal, therefore HE
= KE . cos (w — u'); hence the above equation may be
expressed thus,
PE + ED —jt?. tan («'—m)—{1 — cos (m'—?*)/KE:
and dividing by u' — u,
tf — l_PE + ED tan(u’ — u) 1 —cos(z/—m)kf
u'— u u' — u ^ u! — u u' u
Suppose now the point D to approach to coincidence
with P, we have these limits to the ratios :
lim.
lim.
dt
u' — u da ’
tan (ff — u)
ai ..
— —; hm.
PE + ED _ <k
u
- 1;
lim.
%( — u du
\ — CO? («' — u)
u
u!
.. 2 sin2 \ (u' — u) n
: hm. f — u »
1C — u
hence, on the whole,
dz
therefore, dx- + dif — (xz + ?/) (dv'1 +
But dx? + <iy‘l — dz*, and x2 + y- — i2;
therefore, dz1 — rl dv2 + dr1,
and dz zz V r2^2 + dr* (2)
This formula gives the differential of an arc of a curve
in terms of the differential of the variable radius vector,
and the angle which it makes with the axis.
74. We shall now give a method of defining a curve by
a polar equation, which leads to a simple and elegant ex¬
pression for the differential of an arc of the curve.
Let CPD be any curve, and A a given point in AB, a
line given by position; draw a tangent PF at any point
P in the curve, and a perpendicular AF from the given
dt
du
— —p, and dz — dt + pdu,
du
or d (z — t) = pdu.
In the figure from which the formula has been inves i
gated, the arc and tangent lie in the same direction rom
the point of contact. If they had proceeded in con ra y
directions, the formula would have been d(z -t t) —P >
so that, in general,
d (z =+= t) = pdu (3)
The differential of the arc may be expressed indepen¬
dently of t; for
AH — AF = KH + AK — AF;
Now KH = HE . tan HEK = HE tan (v!-- «)>an
AF = AK cos («' — u); therefore, dividing by m
we have
point A on the tangent; if now we know the relation be- bit s
tween the perpendicular AF, and the ang^e FAB, which Meife,
it makes with the line AB, the length of the perpendicu- ^ ^
lar corresponding to any given value of the angle can be
found; thus the position of the tangent will be known;
the calculus gives a general formula for PF, the segment
of the tangent between the point of contact and its inter¬
section with the perpendicular ; thus the point of contact
P is known, and in this way may any number of points in
the curve be determined.
75. Let D be another point in the curve, DEI a tangent,
and AH a perpendicular on the tangent, and let us put
angle FAB = u, perp. AF = p, tan PF = t, arc CP = z;
IIAB = w', ^ API = p\ DH = tf, CD= 2/
V
1)1 ,
Me 'l-
J
— V  tan (V u) I — cos
v! — u~ v! — u vTH^u AK
and, passing to the limits, observing that lim. HE = t.
fluxions.
lto.^“^=1>andlim.L=^
vl
dp
id — u
L’irzjo = o,
we find ^ — t; if the tangent and arc lie in contrary
directions, then — — t, so that, including both cases in
one formula, t =. z±=
du
The sign + is to be taken when the arc and tangent
lie in the same direction, but the sign — when they have
. dlp
du
, therefore
contrary directions; and because dt ~
in every curve
+ S* = {p +  w
This is the formula which was to be found.
Generation of Curves by Evolution: Radius of Curvature:
Evolutes.
76. The method of generating curves by evolution is a
geometrical theory invented by Huygens, and given in
his Horologium Oscillatorium. He explained it upon geo¬
metrical principles, for his work appeared many years
before the calculus was invented.
Fig. 15.
eIe";en, of th<= ‘^ve, and an element of a circle
A \ !?°mentary centre is H and radius HP.
adioim’A A p a Ttain eJXtent the Part of the involute
circle wLsp^’ t.°^ds S’ ,S more incurvated than a
i radius is PH; because, supposing P to nro-
ceed towards C, the variable radius PH m gr?duallyPbe-
from"# tta'T n" “r ot.herh“d. a portion of the curve
rSs is CP he ‘S ^ lncm'™ted <han a circle whose
ly becoming l„„e“r *he generatl"S radius is “"‘»-l-
sidi4nf Phat ,sinfe-^e curyature of the involute on one
side ot 1 and adjoining to it, is less than that of a circle
v lose radius is 1 H, and the curvature on the other side
ot 1 is greater, it follows that at the point P the curva¬
ture of the involute is exactly the same as that of a circle
described with the radius HP. The point H is therefore
called the centre of curvature of the curve CPD in the
point P; and PH, its radius of curvature at that point:
and a circle described with the line PH is the circle of
equal curvature with the curve at the point P. From the
close union of the circle and curve they have been said
to osculate. It must, however, be kept in mind that the
two curves have no common segment; they meet in a
geometrical point at P, and separate on both sides of it.
V e may also infer that the circle of curvature has a more
intimate contact with the curve than any other circle that
passes through that point.
(5.) That the evolute of a curve is the locus of the
centre of curvature of every point in the curve.
/8. We shall now investigate general formulae for the
radius of curvature, and for the evolute of any curve, by
which these may be found when the nature of the curve
is known.
Let AB be the common axis of the involute CPD, and
its evolute EHB, and A the origin of co-ordinates; letH
be the centre, and PH the radius of curvature at P; and
H the centre, and FTP the radius of curvature of ano¬
ther point P', near the former. Let the radii produced,
it necessary, meet the axis in N and N'; and let O be the
point in which they intersect each other.
Put AQ ~ X) PQ —y, arc CP = 2, arc CP'— z',
angle PNA =r v, angle P'N'A — v', rad. of curv. PH = r.
By trigonometry, PG = OG . sin POG ; PG = OG. sin
P'OG ; therefore, OG = PG + FG
Let BHE be a model of a plane curve made of a solid
iiiaterial, having some thickness, and let one end of a
thread HLC be fastened at a point B on the edge of the
roodel, and applied along its convexity, so as to coincide
FP c Ttirely ^,e*:vveen L and E, the remaining portion
ot the thread forming a straight line touching the
curve at E. Suppose now the thread to be gradually un-
apped from the curve BE, keeping it always tight; the
Ail n°W descr‘be another curve CPD.
• All curves, in which the curvature is neither infinitely
great nor infinitely small, may be generated in this way
®vo^u*-*on a thread from another curve.
rPn"’ 16 curve EHB, by means of which the curve
CPTAi Seneratec^ 13 called its Evolute; and the curve
a t lUS gene,'ated by evolution, is called the Involute
01 the other curve.
From the way in which the involute is generated from
us evolute, we may infer,
tli ■' PH, the part of the thread disengaged from
ya*cEE, is a tangent to the evolute at H.
tli ^ Glat ^le ^ne *s Perpcndicular to a tangent to
e curve CPD at P, and that at the same time it de-
sin POG + sin P'OG‘
Suppose now the points P', P to approach continually
towards coincidence, the line GO will manifestly have
for its limit PH, the radius of curvature at P. The li¬
mit of the sum of the tangents PG, FG will be the arc
PP'= z' — z. The limit of the sines of the angles POG,
P'OG will be the arcs which measure the angles, and that
of the sum of the sines will be the measure of the angle
POP = NON = v' — v. Hence it appears that r — limit
of Z-t— and therefore, that
v' — v
dz
r = *• «
This is our first general expression for the radius of
g=i=*-
curvature.
Because (art. 72) dz — Vdjif + dy2 — dx J\ +
therefore dz — dx Vl + p2.
When treating of tangents to curves, we found (art. 65)
that tan v — therefore, tan v = sec v
dy p
_ V1 + p~
667
Direct
Method.
668
Direct
Method.
fluxions.
dp
and d(tan v) z= dv sec* v = — —2;
1 P~  and dv — —
qdx
hence,
~a   pi ’ 1 + PZ
If now the values of dz and dv be substituted in our
first formula for the radius of curvature, there is obtained
1 n , «vf (dx<l + ^2)! (2)
This is a second general formula for the radius of curva-
tULet , denote the normal PN. In the right-angled
triangle PQN, by trigonometry, sin N = ^, that is,
sin ; but since
s
tan
v — — — \ therefore - =
dy p s
1
VI + p1
  , „ yi
and V\ + p2 ■=-, and (1 + p~)z —
y y
•(3)
Referring now to our second formula, we have
$3 s3 dx*
r— qy3- y* ' dy2
This is a third formula for the radius of curvature.
If we suppose the nature of the curve (see fig. 14, art.
74) expressed by an equation between AY = p, a perpen¬
dicular from a given point in the axis on a tangent PF,
and FAP = v, the angle which that perpendicular makes
with the axis, and therefore also equal to the angle
which the normal PN makes with the axis; then, since
dz= (p + > fr°m f°rmu1a C1) we Set als0
r=p+  (4)
This is a fourth formula for the radius of curvature.
79. To determine the nature of the evolute EHB, from
any point H in the curve draw HK perpendicular to AB,
and HI perpendicular to PQ; and assuming A, the origin
of the co-ordinates of the involute also as the origin of
those of the evolute, let AK = a, HK = f3 ; in the tri¬
angle PHI, HI = PH . cos H = r cos v, and PI = r sin v,
therefore
a = x -Y r cos v, P = y — r sin v.
We have found that tan v
cos v —
P
= and therefore
p
1
sin v —
VI + ja2
(l = x—q C1 +P£)>
/3 = 2, + i(]+F)i
or, substituting fory> and q the quantities they denote,
x —
dxl + dy2
$ = y+
dxl + dy1
dx
d?y _ dp _ _
rfx2 * dx~ ^ *
Yx
c dy 1 _ _ d
2 dx ' y2 ~ Yy2'
(1 + p2)^ (c2 + 42/2)'2 _ (c2 + 4cxP
q ~ 2c* ~ 2c2
_ i 7(*+4^.
This is the expression for the radius of curvature by
formula (2). If we put the normal PN = 5, we have, by
formula (3) (art. 78),
^3 4^3 $3 (normal)3
* ~ ~~ qtf~ ~ (ic)2 " (semipar.)2'
Next, to find the evolute, we have
a = x — ^(l + »2) = xJt := 3;r+2c>
1+p2 c2+4/ —Ytf
/3=y + -^- = y-—-^=—*
Hence x = ^ (a — %c), y = —^ J 5
and since, by the nature of the parabola, cx = y2; there¬
fore the equation of the evolute is
VI + j^2’
hence, combining these with the expressions for r, we
have
™ 16 / cW
f3 = 27?(““2j;
d*y ’ u d2y
In these formulae, and in the second and third for the
radius of curvature, x is regarded as the independent va¬
riable, tmd y as a function of a:.
80. From the way in which a curve may be generated
by an evolute, we have a method of finding any number of
curves which may be rectified, that is, whose length may
be assigned in algebraic terms ; for PH, the radius of the
curvature, is the sum of the straight line CE, and the arc
EH of the evolute. Now we can form innumerable curves
whose radius of curvature will be known, therefore, corre¬
sponding to every curve whose radius of curvature can be
found and expressed in algebraic terms, there is a curve Dir
which can be exactly rectified. Met I.
81. We shall now give examples of the application of
the formulae.
Ex. 1. Let the curve be a parabola, of which AC is the
axis : let c denote the parameter, and let AQ = x, and
PQ _ y, be the co-ordinates of P, any point in the curve.
Let CH be the evolute, and let AK = a, HK = /3, be the
co-ordinates of H, the centre of curvature at P, the radius
of curvature being PH — r.
By the nature of the curve, y2 = cx, therefore,
dv c 119 c2+4y2_c+4«
-l = P = iry;l+p = -W~-~^~'
Take AC = ±c, then C is a given point; and CK-
a _ lc. Put CK z= x'; HK = = — y'> and the equa¬
tion of the involute becomes
y'* = ^ x'3.
y 27c
Hence it appears that the evolute is the semicub'cal pa¬
rabola. This is the first curve that was rectified y
infinitesimal calculus. ,-un\—a\s
Ex. 2. Let the curve be an ellipse, of which ,u^ -
the semitransverse axis, and OB = b the semico j g
Let e = VcP—V1 be the eccentricity, and, assuming^
centre as the origin of co-ordinates, let OU. — #> —
HP, the radius of curvature at P, = f-
• a,2_i./_l-or62^ +
The equation of the curve 18 52 "" ’
a2y2 = cPb*: Hence
:ct
od.
FLUXIONS.
Fig. 17.
B
C1 +P2)2 _ —I / 4
^ _ a46 ^
Hence the radius of curvature
A?# =^(J*-:ey/.
=^p-(4*-W
s3
The formula r = — (where s — the normal PN)
gives this other value,
r = wfi-
Now — is half the parameter of the transverse axis;
therefore r=-ft?-r-m-al)°  (2)
paramer)^ v 7
To find the equation of the evolute, let H be any point
in the curve ; OK a, and HK — (3, the co-ordinates.
The values of p, \+p2, and q, being substituted in the
formula (art. 79), we have
IPx
bz a4 —
64
,2„3
o aV
a,
V* — e-y'1
ahf
e^xa
v •
Let us exchange a and [3 for a/ and y', and we have
2. 2
x2 _ /aaA3 ;/2 _ (by'\?
; Is ~ \1F) *
Observing now that in the ellipse = 1, we have
for the equation of the evolute
['?) + (J) = 1; °r (ux'y + m-’ = (a2—i2)y.
The form of this equation is remarkable from its ana¬
logy to that of the ellipse itself. The curve has the form
shown in figure 17.
Ex. 3. Let the curve be the cycloid; of which let
AA' be the base, BC the axis, BDC a circle whose dia¬
meter is BC. From P any point in the curve, draw PDE
perpendicular to the axis, meeting the circle in D; draw
PQ perpendicular to the base, and let PH be the radius
of curvature.
Since all cycloids are similar figures, we may make the
mdius of the generating circle = 1; let CQ — PE = x,
^ 1 CE ~ y, the arc BD = v.
By the nature of the cycloid (art. 66, ex. 4),
^ ^ + sin v, y = 1 — cos v,
therefore dx = dv (1 _|_ cos v), dy r= dv sin v,
dy sin x , 9
dx~ P'
1 + cost?
;1 + P2 =
1 + cos v
> dp —
d2y dp  l
dx1 Tlx ^ (1 + cos v)
3
[2*
669
Direct
Method.
Hencer,therad.of cur. = —CLiL£jw _  r
q —VS (i cosv).
Fig. 18.
Draw the chord CD, and because
1 + cos v — 2 cos2 (Algebra, 249) = 2 sin2 J arc CD
rr ^ chord2 CD.
Therefore, PH = /■ — 2 chord CD.
It was shown (art. 66) that a tangent at P is parallel to
BD, the chord of the supplement of CD; therefore PH,
which is perpendicular to the tangent, is parallel to the
chord CD ; it is therefore determined in position and mag¬
nitude for any given point in the curve.
The evolute AHF may be found by the general formu¬
la (art. 79), or otherwise from the expression for PH, the
radius of curvature, thus :
Draw AL perpendicular to AC, and equal to BC, but
on the opposite side of AC; describe the semicircle
AML, and draw HMR perpendicular to AL, cutting the
semicircle in M; let PH meet AC in N.
Because CA — semicircle CDB, and CN = DP = arc
BD, therefore AN = arc CD. But because PH = 2CD
z= 2PN ; and therefore PN — NH ; the parallels PE, HR
are equally distant from CA ; and hence CE — RA, and
arc CD = arc AM and chord CD = chord AM, also an¬
gle DCA — angle CAM. Now CD = PN = NH : there¬
fore AM = NH ; but AM is parallel to NH ; therefore
MH rr AN = arc CD r= arc AM; and HR — arc AM
-f. sin MR ; thus it appears that H is a point in a semi¬
cycloid having the same base as the cycloid ABA'. In¬
deed LAF is just the semicycloidal space CBA'transferred
to the position AHF, the point B being placed at A, and
A' at F. If the other semicycloidal space AB be trans¬
ferred to the position FA'L', the arc APB in the position
FA' will form another branch of the evolute, exactly simi¬
lar to FA, but turned the contrary way.
From what has been found it appears, that if the semi¬
cycloids FLA, FL'A'were placed in a vertical plane, with
the point F uppermost, and the semi-bases FL, FL' in a
horizontal line; and if a weight were suspended from F
by a thread equal in length to FB, and made to vibrate
in that plane, like a pendulum; the weight would manifest¬
ly vibrate in an arc of a cycloid. This elegant property
of the curve was discovered by Huygens, who also found
that the vibrations would be isochronal, that is, performed
670
Direct in equal time.. This is an important proposition in Ay-
Method, namics.
Contact of Curves.
82. The ancient geometers paid particular attention to
the contact of straight lines, with the few curve lines which
they considered. Apollonius even touched on the con¬
tact of circles and the conic sections; for he treated o
the shortest line that can be drawn from a given point in
the axis to the curve. It is only, however, since the in¬
vention of the differential calculus that this bianch o
geometry has been carried to any considerable extent.
83. The curvature of a circle being the same through¬
out, it serves as the means of comparing the curvature in
different points of a curve. It is, however, easy to under¬
stand, that in like manner we might consider the nature
of the contact of a parabola, or a curve of any kind what¬
ever, with a proposed curve. ,
Let y — f (x) and ^ = F (x) be the equations of two
curves CPD, C'FD', which have a common axis AB, and
the same point A for the origin of co-ordinates. Let x
Fig. 19.
fluxions.
This is the general expression for P'P', the difference Direc:
between the ordinates of the curves CD, C'D', whatever Methc
be the magnitude of KQ = h.
In like manner, the difference between y’, the ordinate
of the first curve, and u', that of the third, will be gene¬
rally expressed by
, (dy du\ 7 , f(Pu (Fn\K
y'—u'-y—U+\dx~Tx) 1 + W dx*) 2
which, on the hypothesis that y ~ u> becomes
(Fu\h2
+ &c.
be a common absciss, and y the corresponding ordinate
of any point in the curve CD ; also v, the like ordinate in
the curve C'D'. Suppose now that when x becomes
x h, y becomes f, and v becomes v1; by Taylor s
theorem,
dy d1]/ 7i2
^-’J + Txh+ di‘T7-.
+ &C.
Now, if it were possible that the third curve, in leaving
the common point H, could pass between the other two,
we should, to a certain extent from the point H, have
y’ — v' greater than y'— u’, that is, after dividing the ex¬
pressions for y — v’ and f — w' by A,
(d?y _d^\h , ('Py + &c.
\<7x2 ~dxl) 2 ^ Veto3 dx3) 6
d£_du (#1 __du\ k + &c_
^ dx dx \dxl dx2)
And this equation ought to hold true, however small the
line KQ z=. hbe taken. But h may be taken so small,
that all the terms in the expression for f — v' shall be
less than any assignable quantity, while those of y' —
continually approach ^ as a limit’ which ^ hy‘
pothesis is not equal to zero. Now these two conclusions
are incompatible with each other ; therefore it is impos¬
sible that the third curve can pass through the point P
, dy . . ^ i du
between the other two, when is not equal to
If, however, —■ zn -j—, then the third curve may pass
’ dx dx
between the other two ; for it will only be necessary that
d2v
^ dx2'
d2y d2v dry
dx2 dx2
dx2
d2u , A. dru
^-thatls’S?
dx dx2 1.2
Suppose now the curves to have a common point H,
dy dv
at which y z=.v ; then, If the curves he such that ^
their contact at P will he of such a nature, that no third
curve can pass between them at that point, unless it has a
like property.
Let HK —y — v, KQ rr h, PQ — y', P'Q z= v'. Also,
let u — HK be the ordinate of a third curve that passes
through H, and u' its value, corresponding to AQ = a; + 4,
then
, , du , , d2u
'2 = u + dih + ^-i
h2
+ &c.
We are to prove it to be impossible for the third curve,
in leaving the point H, to pass between the arcs HP and
HP', unless ~ = ,
dx dx dx
For suppose it possible, then,
because in general
PF=^=y-u+(|_g)A + (g_g)f+&,
and, because at the point H, y — v, and, in this parti¬
cular case, ^ we have
dx dx
(dy <Pv\h2 (dhj d?v\ld>
w-drh +&c-
which is evidently possible.
84. Again, if there be two curves whose equations are
y =f (x), V — F (x), and which have a common ordi¬
nate y — v, and if they be such, that
dy dv dry (Pv
dx ~ dx dx2 ~ dx2 ’
then no third curve of which the equation is w = p (*)>
and which has a common ordinate with the other two,
can pass between them, unless at the same time
dy _ du dfy_ _ dfu
dx^dx dot? ~ dx2'
This proposition is proved exactly in the same way as
that in last article, by means of laylor s theorem. as
are particular cases of a general proposition re atl’1o
the contact of curves which may be stated thus.
curves have a common absciss and ordinate, and i
differential co-efficients of the first order of the or ma
be equal, no third curve passing through their inter2e '
tion can go between them, unless the differentia
cient of its ordinate, corresponding to the same a s ’
be equal to the differential co-efficients of their or in ’
And if, besides their first differential co-efficien s,
second differential co-efficients be equal, then a0
curve passing through their intersection can go ^
them, unless the first and second differential co-e ,
of its ordinate be equal to the first and secon ,jaj
co-efficients of the two curves, and so on to dine
co-efficients of all orders.
!Kt
M id.
In fact, the two curves meet only in the point in which
their ordinates are the same, and the equality of the dif¬
ferential co-efficients merely indicates that no other curve
in which the same equality does not take place can pass
between them. 1
From what has been shown, it appears that the con¬
tacts of curve lines may be distinguished into different
orders. The degree of contact in which the ordinates
and also the first differential co-efficients are equal, may
be called a Contact of the first order ; when, in addition to
these, the second differential co-efficients are equal, it is
a Contact of the second order ; and so on/
_ 85. In illustration of this theory of contacts, let us con¬
sider the nature of the contact of any curve HPK (see
fig. 6), with a straight line PT. Let A be the common ori¬
gin of the co-ordinates. In the curve, let AB i= #, PB — y.
Its nature will be expressed by an equation y — f(x)% In
the straight line, let TA = c, AB — x, PB — r, angle
PTB = a; the equation of the straight line is v = (c +a;)
tan a. The hypothesis that the curve and straight line
have a common point, gives y = v; and the equation of
the straight line, considering that c and a must be regard¬
ed as constants, gives ~ tan cc; now, by our theory, 
dr . dy
— ~dx ^^ere ore ff, — ^an a* This result coincides with
what was found in art. 66; and it gives the sub-tangent
BT - -~y.
tan a dy
It is impossible that any straight line can pass between
the straight line PT and the curve ; for, if possible, let the
straight line PS pass between them, and meet the axis in
S. Put AS z= d, AB = x, PB = u, the angle PSB —
The equation of the straight line PS is w — (e' + x) tan
a'; and hence tan a!. Now, that the line PS may
pass between PT and the curve, we should have —
dx
fluxions.
constants, we have —. —
dx v
dy
dx
a ■— x
The equation of the curve CPD may be expressed ne-
Ta d^ =f^ ^ IH = PI = /-
p, and r'H = r, the equation of the circle will be
(cc — x)- + (v — f3f = rz 
A contact of the first degree requires that ~ — —.
Now, observing that «, /3, and r must be consideredts
x
-g, hence and because^ = v,
y — £ 
The second side of this formula expresses the trio-ono-
metrica! tangent of the angle PHI or PNQ. Hence (art.
b.5/ the line PN is a normal to the curve at P, and the
circle and curve have a common tangent at that point
By a second differentiation
dfi _ I   a — xf + (v—/3)2
dx~ v — /3 (v — fif ’ dx (v. {3/ “•
Now, that the circle and curve may have a contact of
the second degree of closeness, it is necessary that d—
,2 dx*'
d y i
= therefore, observing that v = y, and that (a — *)*
+ (t> — ^)2 = r2, we have
d'y  — r2
dx* ~ (y — /3)3 ft)
The three equations (l), (2), (3) serve to determiner,
the radius of the circle, and a, $ the co-ordinates of its
From the first and second we get
„ _ rdy n rdx
centre.
y — fi =
dv
dx
dy
= dx (art’ t^erefore> tan = tan -a, and a' ~ a;
thus it appears that the lines PS, PT must coincide;
therefore the straight line PT is a tangent to the curve,
in the strictest sense.
86. Let us next consider the nature of the contact of a
circle and any curve. Let CPD be the curve, and C'PD'
a circle referred to the same axis AK, in which A is the
common origin of the co-ordinates. In the curve CPD
let AQ — x, PQ — y. Let H be the centre of the cir¬
cle; draw the radius PH, and produce it to meet the axis
in N, and draw HI, HK perpendicular to PQ and AQ.
Put AQ — x, PQ z= v, these being co-ordinates of P any
point in the circumference of the circle ; and put AK = a,
HK = (3, the co-ordinates of its centre; and PH = r its
radius.
Fig. 20.
(dx* + d'y*) 3 (dx*
and from these, and equation (3), we get
r - _ + dyfi _
dxd/*y ’
+ d?/y
a — x-
dy dx2 + dy*
dx
P= y +
dx? + dy2
dhy 71 ^ ' d*y
These expressions for a, j3, and r determine the position
and magnitude of the circle; they are manifestly identi¬
cal with the radius of the circle of equal curvature, and
the co-ordinates of its centre formerly found (art. 78
and 79). Hence we conclude, that the circle of equal
curvature with a curve in any point, determined by the
theory of evolutes, is identical with a circle, having with
the curve a contact of the second order.
And since it appears that only one circle can have with
a curve a contact of the second order, and that no circle
can pass between that circle and the curve, therefore the
same must be true of the circle of equal curvature, found
by the theory of evolutes.
87. From what has been shown in regard to the de¬
grees of contact of a straight line and circle with a curve,
it appears that these depend on the number of constants
which enter into the equation of the touching line. The
equation of a straight line contains two constants, and it
admits of one order of contact only. The equation of a
circle has three constants, and it admits of a contact of
the second order. It is easy to see that the number of
differential co-efficients that can be made equal in the two
curves will always be one less than the number of con¬
stants in the touching curve. The equation of a parabola
isy =r a + /3a? + yx*. This and the differential equations
which may be deduced from it serve to determine the
three constants a, (3, y, and thence the parabola of equal
curvature ; but since there are only two differential co-ef¬
ficients, the parabola can have a contact of the first and
67i
Direct
Method.
672
fluxions.
Dlr also of the second f
^ "-I °+ rn/^r-evet, have'a contact
ofthe third order, because it involves four constants, and
+
d*u h- ,
■^L2
&c.
so on.
Development and Differentiation of Functions containing
two Variables.
88 Let u be a function of two independent variables, x
and V for example, M + bxy + cy\ and m general
l Jax y). Suppose now that x changes its value, and
becomes x + h, !ind that y becomes y + ^ so that «
bcino- the new value ofthe function, u'=zf{x + h, ?/ + ^>
U ^n oposed to expand uf into a series of terms proceed-
by dm integer powers of h and h In particular cases
the method of proceeding is obvious ^ general formula
mav be found by Taylor’s theorem as follows.
Yt is easy to see that the result will be the same whether
we substitute at once * + A for x, and y + * f°r ^ ‘n *e
function u, and then expand it; or, otherwise, first sub
stitute x + h, then expand the function, aMOrdmg to the
powers of 4, and in this first result put y + k for y, and
afterwards expand it into terms proceeding by the powers
of 7e; or we may reverse this process, beginning with the
expansion according to the powers of k, and ending with
that proceeding by the powers of /«.
Resuming the function u =f{x, y); when a? becomes
a; + £, we have by Taylor’s theorem/O + n, y) —
, du, , d?u dy_ J?_ , &
u + Jxh+~d^T:2 + dx3 1.2.3 '
the differentials being taken upon the supposition that x
is variable, and y a constant. And in this senes y is con¬
tained only in the function u, and the differential co-effi-
. du d2u
Suppose now that y becomes y + k, then, in the series,
the function u becomes
, du , . d2u k2 ,
+ djik + WT3 +
du
<Pu k3
df 1.2.3
+ &c.
the function -y- becomes
dx
jiu
dt~r
dx,
dx + ~~dy
du
d^du
dx
W
dif 1.2
rJ^L
dx hP
„ . dtu.
the function becomes
jd-u
a——
a~u . dxi , .
dF + -dHk +
cPu
d2
/Pu
dx2 k2
+
d3--
dx?
k3
+ &c.
If the substitutions of a: + A for x, and y + ^ for y,
had been made in an inverse order, we would have had
/(y + k,x + h) equal to
“ + ^ + l?F2+&C-
+ Tgk+Shk+&C-
+ ^f2+&C-
The order in which the substitutions are made being
arbitrary, the two developments of/(a? + h, y + k) must
be identical, consequently the terms containing the same
products of h and k must be equal. Thus, passing over
the terms which are the same, we have
du du
j5 = J§.
dy dx
89. This formula proves an important theorem in the
calculus, namely, if a function w of two independent vari¬
ables x and y be twice differentiated, first, on the hypo¬
thesis that x is variable and y constant, and then the re¬
sult on the supposition that y is variable and x constant.
And again, if the order of the differentiations be reversed,
that is, if y be made variable and x constant, and then x
variable and y constant, the final result either way will be
the very same.
ndu
d-r-
The symbol —which expresses the result of two dif¬
ferentiations performed on w, a function of two variables
x and y (the first on the supposition that a; is variable and
7/ constant, and the second on the reverse supposition),
d?u
may conveniently be simplified into ^xdiy
tion the theorem just enunciated in words will be express¬
ed in symbols thus:
dru   d2u
dxdy dydx
By continuing the two developments a term farther, we
would have arrived at the conclusion that (having regard
to the notation just premised),
d3u (Pu cPu
Dire
Metl:
W
dif 1.2 1 dy3 1.2.3
+ &c.;
the function —becomes
dx?
.d3u jfPu
d3u dx3 , , dx3 k2
dx? dy dy2 1.2
d3-—
dx3
k3
dg3 1.2.3 + &C'
du d?u
dxdydx dx?dy
d3u
and that
dydx2 ’
d’“ &c.
dxdy2 dyldx
Suppose, for example, that u — x? y’, then
£=3^’
^ = a*y,
dy
and in the differentiation of the functions u, A-T Sic.,
dx dx?
y is taken as the variable, and a; as a constant. By mak¬
ing the proper substitutions, we have/(a; + ^, y + h) ex¬
pressed by the series
d?u
dxdy
<Pu
= 15 a:2y4>
— 30 ay4,
du
dydx
d3u
— 15 a^y4,
= 30 ay4.
. du.. . (Pu
U + -T-k + •—T
dy dy2
X2 + &c-
dx?dy l/ 7 dydx? __
Adopting now the abbreviated notation, when
/(x, y), we have/(x + A, y + ^) ~
Au
(in dor
+ ^4+ ™ hk + &c.
dx dy
. du , .
M + 3- « +
dx
(Pu h? ,
(h?2 ^
d3u h3
d?u
ihifhr
hk +
dx? 2.3
d?u hk?
dudx2 2
-f &c.
-f- &c
FLUXIONS.
j
Mu k2 Mu Ilk2 .
dy2- 2 dy^dx 2 &C‘
. (Pu k3 ,
+ — + &c.
673
r
^ dx — mxm — 1 yndx, —dy — nxmyn—1 dy,
, du 1 . du ,
m'—-^dx + -j^dy — xn
1 yn—1 (mydx + nxdy).
91. The manner in which the differentials of functions
which depend on more than one variable are written,
gives rise to some important remarks. The expression
du
j^dx must not be confounded with du, which it might be
if» contained only the variable x; the symbol ^ has in
this case a particular meaning, and denotes the differen¬
tial co-efficient taken on the hypothesis of x only being
variable; or it is the quotient of the first term of the de¬
velopment of the difference taken on that supposition divid¬
ed by the increment dx ; and ^ dy signifies the same with
ay
respect to y.
The quantities ^ are commonly called partial dif-
ix/ju a it
ferences of the first order of the function u, and generally
dm+ • ■.
represents one of those of the order w + w, which
arises by differentiating m times in respect of x, and n
times in respect of y.
A function of a single variable has only one differential
co-efficient of any order; but a function of two variaoles
VOL. IX.
has two differential co-efficients for the first order, three Direct
or t le second, &c. Ihese may be deduced from the two Method,
nrst, beginning with
dy3 2. Z
This is the complete development of the function u.
90. Supposing m to be any function ofa?, and that a; becomes
£ + //, by which u becomes u+ph + qh2 + &c., or (consider¬
ing h as the differential of x) u + pdx + qdx2 + &c. We
havedefined the differential of u to be the term/x£r, viz. that
which contains the simple power of h or dx, and called the
functionp, the differential co-efficient, representing it by—.
We may now extend these definitions to ffix, y), a func¬
tion of two variables, and changing h into dx and k into
dy in the development of the function, we shall have
From this it appears that the complete differential of a
function of two variables consists of two parts, viz. ^ dx,
or the differential taken on the supposition that x alone is
du
variable, and — dy, or the differential taken when y only
is variable.
We may also apply to functions of two variables
the rules which have been given (art. 10-23) for those
which depend only on one; and for this purpose we must
differentiate the junction first with respect to one of its vari¬
ables, and then with respect to another ; and take the sum of
the results for the complete differential required. By this
rule
d{x + y) — dx + dy
d (xy) — ydx + xdy,
^ fx\ _ dx xdy ydx—xdy
\y) ~ y ~~ yl ~
Again, let u — xmyn, we have
du ^ , du
7 du , du ,
du = -dx+ -dy;
,du
then, taking the differentials of ^ and which must be
ax dy
treated as functions of two variables, we have
,du
ddi=
d^u d2u .
d^dx + -d^cd»-
d2u
^du 
dy dxdy
, , d‘zu
dx + -d^d»1
and since the second differential is nothing more than
the differential of the first,
d2u — ^ dx1 + 2
dx dxdy
d2u d°u , „
dxdy + ~djfi dy
Here dx and dy are considered as constant quantities,
and the differential co-efficients whose denominators con¬
tain only the products of dx and dy differently arranged,
are considered as identical. By a repetition of this pro¬
cess, an expression may be found for the third differential
co-efficient of the function u, and so on to any differential.
92. What has been explained in respect of a function
of two independent variables, will apply to a function of
any number; thus, \Su—f {t, x, y, z), then,
_ dU y |
du = — dt +
dt
where the symbols
dU , , dU y . dU y
-dx+^dy + ^dz,
du du au du
dt' dx dy dz
denote the differential co-efficients of the function u taken
on the supposition that t ox x ox y ox z alone varies.
This notation owes its origin to Fontaine. Euler fear-
du
ed that the differential co-efficient — might be confound¬
ed with the ratio of the complete differential du to the
differential dx, which is equivalent to
du y . du y . du y , -
— dt + -T- dx + — dy -\- ~r dz
dt dx dy * dz
dx
du
he therefore denoted this ratio by whilst he expresses
the differential co-efficient found by supposing x alone
variable by The nature of the subject, however,
in general shows which of the two is intended, and ren¬
ders this distinction superfluous.
Of Changing the Independent Variable.
93. Supposing y to be any function of x, we have esti¬
mated every change in the magnitude y by that of the
value of which has been supposed to vary in any way
whatever. It is, however, sometimes convenient to re¬
verse the hypothesis, and consider a; as a function of y.
We are now to investigate general rules, by which we
may pass from the differentials of y, regarded as a function
of x, to those of x considered as a function of y.
Let y—f{x), and let us suppose that when a; becomes
x h, y becomes y k. By laylor s theorem,
h-dyhjr<Eyh- +<pyJL
k~dx ^dx* 2 ^dx3 2.
+ &c.
•(I)
4 Q
674
fluxions.
hypothesis, supposing * = F (y) a func- By Taylor’s theorem,
 (2)
Direct On the reverse _.
Method, tion of y, then, similarly,
Let the value of k, as given by the first equation, be
substituted in the second; and, in order to abridge,
mPut^ = y’5l = f’&C'
also J = a/, = rt’', &c.; then we have
h = xf {y'h + y' g + y’" 273 + &c->
+ f (#+/|+V'^8 + &c’) +&C’
Hence, by actually involving the series to the second,
third, powers, &c. and bringing into one term like powers
of h, we find ,2
0 _ (x'y'— I)h + (xy + x"y’2) T2
h3
+ (x'y"' + Sx"yY + 2!*y) 3 + &c.
Now, that this equation may be satisfied, the co-effi¬
cients of the powers of h must be each = 0; thus,
aV — 1=0, x'y” + a/y2 = 0,
Sxf'y'y"+x’y = 0, &c.
These equations give us
y=|. *"=-** r =
15a;''3 , 10aV'
y = f(oc) gives k = (y) h + (y") ^ + &c
y=F(t) gives k = y'i + y"^-^ &c
x= <p (t) gives A = a^i + a^ - + &c
The three increments k, h, i are generated together,
therefore these equations must all hold true at the same
time. Let the value of h, found from the third equation,
be substituted in the first, then, putting the two values of
k equal, we have
00 + +&c.|
r *2 1 2
+ (y') a;'i+ a/' ^ + <^c• j ^c'
= y’i + y" + &c.
Hence, by involution, and making the co-efficients of
like powers off equal to zero, as usual, we find
x'(y') = y, *"(y) + y2 (y') = y"’&c-
y
therefore (y) =
w=y^-}
, &c.
3a;"2
a^3
a/"
As an example, let us take the formula for the ra¬
dius of curvature, which, by the notation just premised,
will be
y
xf1
af6
/y*l »
^,&c.
{i + W}
(i/7
Reversely, we have
l y"
^ =—y3’
*,v_
A  
ya
y4’
By substituting for (y) and (y') their values, it becomes
(af2 + y2)2
rfa;
a/y-
dy
■ y'x" ’
d*x
d?y
y7
yo
r, &C.
and hence, putting ~ fora/, fory, ^ for x", and ^
As an application of these formulae, we may transform the for ^> we Set
expression for the radius of curvature found (art. 78), on
the hypothesis that y is a function of x, into another in
which x is a function of y. Employing the notation of last
article,
o+y8)5
(dx1 + dy'Y
dyd2x— dxd2y
The independent variable t does not appear in the
formula; nevertheless, in its application, we must keep m
mind the hypothesis by which it was found.
1 x"
Now by the formulae ij — and if — — —y
tution being made, we obtain
this substi- °ftlie Method °f Infinitesimals.
95. The ideas which we have of infinity may be embo¬
died in this proposition : A quantity is not infinite so long
as it admits of augmentation. If, therefore, in the quan i
ty x + a, we suppose x to become infinite, ^ieIl ^l118
Q. T * i c • t <. * ii be suppressed, otherwise it would be supposec tia
94, Instead of supposing that one of the two variables • htP£e incr’eased by the quantity a, which is contrary
x, y, is a function of the other, it is sometimes convenient to definition> ToJshow the consistency of the propo-
(1)
r_(^±iy
~ x"
(dx2 + dy2)2
dycPx
to regard both as functions of a third quantity. Thus, . . . ^ „
in geometry, supposing x and y to be the co-ordinates of Sltl0n’ et 1 iere e an e(l
a curve, we may consider the one as a function of the 1 -J- 1 — M 
other; or we may consider both as functions of the angle a x
which a tangent makes with the axis, which angle is then wbich being multiplied by the product ax, becomes
the independent variable. Or x and y denoting the co-or- , _  (2)
dinates of the path of a projectile, both may be consi- 0 x a  , 'f:i i,p™mes infinite;
dered as functions of t, the time of the motion. Suppose now that x increases u
Suppose that when (becomes t + i, * becomes x + /«, the fraction I having reached its last degree of diminu-
and that y becomes y + A; to abridge, put x', x", &c. for x ° •mb
dx d2x / it e r dy d^y c * / j\ / -\ tion, is reduced to 0, and therefore equation ( / e
TP &c- also y, y', &c. for J,&c.and(y),(y),
comes
&c’forl-S-&c’
M = or Ma = 1;
go
FLUXIONS.
5i IS and this value being substituted in equation (2), itbecomes
Jle &• x + a = x. This shows that when x is infinite, « + « is
^ reduced to x.
The quantity a, in respect of which x is infinite, is call¬
ed an infinitesimal in respect of x.
Since we consider here only the ratios of quantities, the
675
s denote the area of a curve, the increment of s or ds will Inverse
oei/dx + \dxdy ; but the second part of this, viz. \dxdy, is Method,
a uitferential of the second order, and therefore infinitely
less than ydx, which is of the first order, therefore we
have simply ds rryefc, agreeing with the formula of art. 69.
In a circle, the infinitely small increments of the cosine,
crease, and may become smaller than any assignable quan¬
tity; and when z is infinite, the fraction is = 0, so that,
in comparison with b, it may be neglected.
The ratios of quantities are altogether independent of
their absolute magnitude. The halves, or any like parts
of quantities, have the same ratios as the wholes. The
symbols we employ in our reasonings are not the repre¬
sentatives of absolute magnitudes, but of numbers, w^hich
have a reference to an unit; they therefore represent
ratios only, and the absolute magnitudes of the terms of
the ratios are never considered. The differentials of quan¬
tities are the ratios to which the ratios of the increments
of the variables continually approach ; these increments
may have any magnitude whatever. Leibnitz supposed
them to be infinitely small quantities. Upon this hypo¬
thesis a theory has been constructed, which, by following
certain ascertained principles, has led to the discovery of
the most recondite truths in geometry and physics.
96. The admission of infinitesimals into the mathema¬
tical sciences, necessarily leads to a succession of differ¬
ent orders of infinitesimals. In a circle the ratio of the
diameter to the chord of an arc is the same as the ratio of
the chord to the versed sine ; therefore, if the chord be in¬
finitely small in respect of the diameter, or an infinitesimal
of the first order, the versed sine will be infinitely small
in respect of the chord; and, consequently, in respect of
the diameter, will be an infinitesimal of the second order.
So also, in a series of continued proportionals, 1, x, x*, x3,
&c. of which the first term is finite, and the second, x, an
infinitesimal of the first order, the third, a;2, will be of the
second order, and the fourth, x3, of the third, and so on.
Upon the same principle, the product ab of two infi¬
nitesimals, a, b of the first order will be an infinitesimal of
the second; for we may consider that \ \ a = b : ab, that
is, ab is a fourth proportional to three quantities 1, a, and
b, of which the first is finite. In like manner, the product
of three infinitesimals of the first order, also the product
of an infinitesimal of the first and of the second order,
will be an infinitesimal of the third order.
97. When the infinitely small increments of quantities
are once taken as their differentials, the different rules
for differentiation are easily found.
Thus, if w ~ xy ; then u, x, and y receiving the infinitely
small augments du, dx, and dy, we have
du — (x dx) (y -|- dy) — xy-\- xdy + ydx + dxdy ;
and, taking from these equals the equals u and xy,
du — xdy -f. ydx -{- dxdy.
Now du, xdy, ydx are infinitesimals of the first order, and
dxdy is an infinitesimal of the second, therefore it is in¬
comparably smaller, and in respect of the others ought to
be rejected, so that we have simply
du — xdy -f- ydx.
98. In this theory a curve is considered as a polygon of an
infinite number of sides, any one of which is the differen-
It is equally manifest, according to the infinitesimal
theory, that the subtangent is a fourth proportional to dx
(the differential of the absciss), dy (the differential of the
ordinate), and y the ordinate; so that, as has been shown,
art. 65,
subtan —
:dy
dx
the positive sign being used if the absciss and ordinate
increase together, otherwise the sign —.
The great facility which the theory of infinitesimals
gives in the applications of the calculus to the higher geo¬
metry, and more especially to the doctrines of physics, is
a high recommendation in its favour. Indeed, whatever
view be taken of the subject, the mathematician will hard¬
ly be restrained from taking the shortest way he can find
to the object he wishes to attain, and that is in general
by the infinitesimal calculus. Accordingly we observe
that M. Poisson, in the second edition of his Traite deMe-
canique, distinctly premises that he will exclusively em¬
ploy the method of infinimentpetits throughout his work.
PART II.
INVERSE METHOD OF FLUXIONS, OR INTEGRAL CALCULUS.
99. The inverse method of fluxions, or integral calculus,
treats of the analytic processes by which a function may be
found, such, that being differentiated, it shall produce a
given differential. This function has been called, by writers
on fluxions, the fluent or flowing quantity ; and by writers
on the differential calculus, the integral of the proposed
differential.
To find the integral of a differential is to integrate that
differential; and the process by which the integral is found
is called integration.
100. When an integral is proposed, its differential may al¬
ways be found by general rules. There is however no direct
rule by which we may return from the differential to the
integral, except the obvious one of retracing the steps by
which the differential has been deduced from the integral.
When these are distinctly indicated, there is no difficulty;
but in general the steps of calculation by which the dif¬
ferential might have been deduced from an integral are
obliterated or unknown ; or the differential may not have
been a direct result of differentiation ; and then there will
be no traces to show how we may pass from it to the in¬
tegral.
101. It is convenient to have a symbol by which the in¬
tegral of a differential may be indicated without regard to
its particular form: for this purpose the lettery (theini¬
tial letter of the word sum) is employed. Thus, the in¬
tegral of the differential Xcfa is expressed by the symbol
fial of the arc, therefore the differential of the arc will
he the hypotenuse of a right-angled triangle, of which f*Xdx.
the sides are the differentials of the co-ordinates; and «/ o\ on
these being denoted by a: and y, and the arc by z, we have 102. We have seen (ar ■ • ) ia ^
&* =: C&2 + dy*. Proceeding on the same principles, if expression of the form X — C, which is the sum or dif-
676
fluxions.
Inverse ference of a variable function and a constant quantity, the
Method, constant disappears; therefore, reverse y, in a ing
integral of any differential, the constant, C, must be added
o make the integral complete. This indeterminate quan-
tity has been called by early English writers ^^rrectwn
of the fluent or integral, but now it is generally called the
arbitrary constant. It may be written either with the sign
, or_l; its value is to be determined, as will appear
hereafter, from the particular problem under considera-
This, when n + 1 z= m = 0 and w = — 1, gives
— a{\. * — 1. i} = a 1. *+C.
X
This result coincides entirely with the expression for
the differential of the logarithm of a number (art. 20).
106. By the rule of art. 104 it is evident that if
dy — axmdx-\-bxn dx + cxpdx,
tion.
Integration of Rational Functions involving one Variable.
103. The general form of a differential of the first order
of a function is Xefo, where X denotes any function of a
single variable *. Now this function may have various
forms, and may be rational or irrational.
The rational forms of the function may be
Kxm + Bxn +Cxp+&c. = U,
Axm + Bx11 +Cxp + &c. _ U
A'xm' +B'xn,+C'xn + &c.~ V’
the first of which is integral and the second fractional.
Irrational functions have the form
m
uv”,
and transcendental functions,
J{\J, 1. U), f(\J, sin v), &c.
104. The simplest case of a rational function is axn, the
differential of which is nax dx; therefore, putting
m ~ n— 1, so that n = m + 1, we have,
when dy — axmdx,
then y ==JaxTdx — —+ 1 + C.
Hence this rule : To integrate a differential of one term,
such as axn dx, we must increase the exponent of the variable
by an unit, and then divide by the new exponent and by
We may give the indeterminate constant C the form
abn+X
then,y —
w+1
bx
n+1
cxp+l
+ —TT-fl-C.
Wi+l ' M+l ‘ p+1
This is true, however many terms there may be in the
differential; the indeterminate constant C represents the
aggregate of all the constants of the integrals of the seve¬
ral terms.
In general, since (art. 15),
d(u-\-v — z) — du-\- dv — dz,
therefore w + u — z —Jdu + Jdv —-J'dz ;
and in general, P, Q, R, being any functions of x,
J'fPdx + Q.dx — Refa?) — J*Pdx + J'Qdx —j'lldx.
107. It has been found that u and v being any func¬
tions of a variable, d(uv) z= udv + vdu, therefore
J\idv — uv -f
vdu.
In like manner, from the differential of a fraction we
find
n dv   u , pdu
JU v1 V J V
Since d(au) — adu, we may conclude that
JaKdx — aJ''Ldx.
108. To integrate the differential
dy — (ax + b)mdx,
we may expand the given power, and integrate the terms
of the result separately; otherwise, make z = or + 6,
then
dx
x —
— b . dz
 , dx — —.
a a
zmdz
and then we shall have
n+1
/W = -+-!!>
n+1
This is the form the integral should have, if it has the
property of vanishing in the particular case o’tx — b.
105. There is a particular case to which the general
rule of last article will not immediately apply; it is that
in which n — — 1 ; in that case it gives
= r**-'cu=g(*0-s°) _ ~ o
J x J o “0—0
From this no conclusion can be drawn, and the integral
has been said to fail. This, however, ,is only in appear¬
ance ; for, putting n + 1 = m, we have (art. 35)
^ = 1 + (1. a:) m+ (1. a:)2^ + &c.
6”* = 1 + (1. b)m + (1. 6)2^+ &c.
= {1. x-lb] m+{(\. xy-(]. bf) ^1 + &c.
m + \
+ C = i!^++^ + C.
n~~l dx may be
By substitution, we have now dy = —, and by inte¬
gration,
^ ~ a(rn + 1) "T" u(rn + 1)
The integral of dy — (axn b)m x
found in the same way, by putting axn + b = z; we thus
get
(axn + b)m + 1
y na(m + 1)
109. We shall next consider fractional functions, and
begin with the simple case of dy —
z = ax b, we find
Axm^L ; making
(ax + b)n
x =
. dz
dx j
a
and consequently
dy —
A(z — b)mdz
am + l 2n
xm 
= 1. a;_ 1. &+ { (1. Xf _ (l. hy ™ + &c.
By expanding (z — &)m into a series, then multiplying
the terms by dz, and dividing by zn, the differential wi e
trflnsfnrmpd into a sprips of terms of the form CZ^dz, which
FLUXIONS.
As a
Invte may be integrated Severally by the rule (art 104).
jlelj-l- particular example, let m zz 3, n z= 2, then
a r i
— — 'J zdz — 3bdz -f- 3b'z dz — IP z “ dz
a4 (
Hence, integrating by the rule,
y=^{y—3fe+3^l.* + &3z-l}+ C.
We now substitute for z its value, and find
A f l(ax + b)2 — 3b(ax + i)
y = +S62 1. (ax + b) + + C’
l. ax + b)
110. All differentials which are rational fractions may
be reduced to this form,
N (a’ + a") + N' (a + a") + N" (a + a') = B,
Na'a" + NW' + N"aa' = C;
which are only of the first degree with respect to the
undetermined quantities N, N', N'. Resolving these equa¬
tions, we find N, N', N", and have
(Aa:2 + B# + C)^
*3 + A'x* + B’x + C'
~Ndx Is'dx , Wdx
+ 7—i ; +
a; -J- a x a' x + a"‘
Making x a — z, vie have dx =. dz, and
Ncfe
{Axn-1 + T>xn-'J + Cx
n — 2
+ T)dx
similarly,
yjte =N, /,_:
*s x -j- a' v J x
So that we have now
Wdx
X»
+ A' xn 1 + B' a:” 2 . . . + T'
The general method of integrating such a differential
consists in decomposing it into others whose denomina¬
tors are more simple, which are called partial fractions.
These are obtained as follows.
Assume the denominator of the proposed fraction equal
to zero, thus forming the equation
xn + A' a”-1 + B'a?w — 2 .... + P = 0.
Let the roots of this equation be
x — — a, x = — a!, x = — a”, x — — d”, &c.
and supposing them all different, the first side of the
equation will be (Algebra, art. 99) the product of n
factors,
x -)r a, x d, x a”, x + d", &c.
We now assume that the proposed fraction is the sum
of the fractions
Ncfa? Wdx Wdx
a; + a’ a; + a” x a"’ C*
of which the denominators are the factors of the proposed
fraction, and the numerators are undetermined constants.
These being reduced to a common denominator, and add¬
ed, the result will be a fraction identical with the proposed
fraction ; and by putting the co-efficients of like powers of
x in their numerators equal to one another, a series of
equations will be had, by which the undetermined con¬
stants N, N', N", &c. may be found.
As an example, suppose the differential to be integrated is
(Ax2 + Bx + C) dx
x3 + A'x2 + B'x + Cy
and that by the resolution of an equation we know that
x3 + A'x2 + B'x + C' = (x + a) (x + d) (x + a"),
setting aside dx, we assume that the fraction is equiva¬
lent to
/
(Ax2 + B x + C)g?x
N
+
N'
+
N"
x -j- « 1 x + a' x + a"’
The sum of these is
N(x+a') (x -f- a") -f- N'(x -f- a)(x + a") + N"(x+a)(xJrd)
(x + a) (x + a') (x + a")
The numerator of this fraction is, by multiplying its
factors,
(N+N' + N")x2 + ( N(a'+a") + N’(a+a") + N'(a+d)}x
+ Na'a" + N'aa" + N"aa';
and as this must be equal to the numerator of the proposed
differential, whatever be the value of x, the co-efficients
°f like powers of x will be equal (art. 18) ; hence we have
these three equations,
N + N' + N' = A.
/
Nc?x   p’Sdz Nz -r
-J ~J~ 1-
(x + a)p
—P + \
P
N
(1—p) (x+ a)p’
/*
These will be all algebraical except the last,J
which will involve a logarithm.
113. If there be imaginary factors, these will occur in
pairs of the form x + a+ fiV — 1, x + a — /3V' — 1,
677
Inverse
Method.
Nrfx
x+a
, the integral of which is N 1. z n N 1. (x + a);
- = N" 1. (x + a").
x3 + A'x2 + B'x + C'
= N 1. (x + a) + N1. (x + a') + N1. (x + a") + const.
1. {(x + a)N> (x + a')N • (x + a")N } + const.
This process, which may be extended to all rational
fractions whose denominators are decomposable into un¬
equal factors of the first degree, has no difficulty, inde¬
pendent of the decomposition of the denominator into its
factors, which, however, requires the numerical resolution
of equations.
111. If some of the factors of the denominator of the
proposed fraction are equal, the process will require to be
modified to suit that case. Suppose the denominator
xn + A'xn_1 +, &c.... + T' to contain a factor (x+a)^»
then, for every such factor, it will be necessary to assume
a partial fraction of the form
(Px^ —1 + Qxp — 2 +, &C....+ Y)dx
(x + a)F
This and the other partial fractions being reduced to a
common denominator, and added, and the terms of the
numerator in the result being put equal to those of the
numerator of the proposed differential, as before, as many
independent equations will be obtained as there are co¬
efficients to be determined.
112. It is not difficult to see that the partial fraction
suited to the case of equal factors may be transformed
into an expression of the form
Ndx N'dx Wdx
(x + a)p "(x + a)p 1 x + a’
therefore we may at once substitute this instead of the
equivalent single fraction. We shall now have to inte¬
grate a series of differentials of the form
Nrfx
(x + a)p
which, by making x + a = z, and therefore dx =z dz, gives
678
fluxions.
, -n u ^2 _l 4- x2 4- B* In this we shall at once make x a — z, and L Ka — L'. inve£
Inverse and their product will be ^ T".fa ^ rp(snive the deno- By this the differential is transformed to Meth
minator ot me prupu&eu u nnssihle
the first and of the second degree, which is always possible
(see Equations). If there be several pa^sotieseima transform the first part, we make z* + (3* = u, so that
Mnarv factors, each pair the same, the denominator or
the proposed differential will have factors of t le orm ^ _ an(j conseqUently,
(X* + 2a* + V + /32)2- rru''" ^ s,'nfTle fact0r
V . _ I Cl I /OO   .
(z2 + ^)q (z2 + /32)3 + ^2)?
-1- za.r -r « -T K / • Then, for the single factor
+ 2ax + a2 + /32, we must assume, in addition to the
pardal fmutionsjfor factors of the first degree, one of this
form,
(K® + L)dx _
x2 + 2ax + «2 + ’
and for factors of the second form, this fraction,
(Qx2q-1 + R.T2g-2 ••• + Y>) dx ;
(x? + 2ax + a2 + ^2)?
or, instead of this, a series effractions,
(Ka; + L)dx , (Kx + U)dx
f-
Y^zdz
K pdit _ K u — ?
2 •/ M? 2 j —
q + 1
(z2 + $l)q ^ V? ~ 1—q
To integrate the second part, we assume the equation
dz Gz - dz
f
(a:2 + 2aa; + a2 +/3‘2)<z
+
+
(x2 + 2aa; + a2 + /32)^ 1
(Kwa; + 3J")dx
x? + 2ax + a2 + /32 ’
the co-efficients to be determined, as before explained.
114. To integrate the fraction
(Ka; + L) dx
x2 + 2aa; + a2 + /32’
we observe that a5 + 2aa; + a2 + /S2 = (a: + a)2 + /S2;
and if we make a; + a =: z, then
(Ka; + TS)dx _ (Kz + L —Ka)^
(^Ta)2 + P ~ ^
Kzdz , 3Jdz
z2 +
+ /32
+ 1*
dv
n
dv
w2 + 1
-5- tan“x v + const.
P
L' . z .
— — tan “1 7s + const.
P £
Adding now these results, we get
|»(Kz + LQrfz
When the value of z and L' are replaced, we have
p (Ka; + L)rfa;
J tfr+ 2ax + a2 + fS2
= K ^ ^ tan -11 + const.
z2 + p2 P B
const.
+ KIV^2 + 2oa; + a2 + /32 +
115. To integrate the differential
(Ka; + L)da;
L —Ka
B
tan
_1ar + a
B *
(x2 + 2aa; + «2 +
(z2 + B2)q + B2)q
3T+H
/i
(z9 + ^2)3
— r
that is, we assume the integral to be equal to an alge¬
braic quantity, together with another integral^whose de¬
nominator is less by an unit than the first. . \\ e now dif¬
ferentiate the terms of the assumed equation, observing
that the removal of /, the sign of an integral, is equiva¬
lent to the differentiation of that integral; we also reject
such factors as are common to all the terms of the result,
and thus have
1 = G (z2 + /S2) —2 (?— 1) Gz2 + H (z2 + ^);
and {(3 —2^)G + H} z2 + (G + H) /32 —1=0.
Now, that z may remain undetermined, we must have
(G +H)/32—1 = 0, (3 —2?)G + H = 0.
From these equations, we find
1 2?-3
~ (2q — 2)j82
G =
Here L' is put for the constant quantity L —- Ka. Now,
the integral of the first of these differentials may be
expressed by a logarithm; for, making z2 = u, we have
zdz = \du, which gives
/'_Kzdz_ K /'du _ K11. M _ k 1. Vzr+~Pi'
J Z2 + B° 2./ u 2
With respect to the second part, we make z = /3v, then,
Ij'dz L' dv
(2q — 2)/32’
The values of G and H being substituted in our as¬
sumed equation, it becomes
dz I 2
[z*+ (3z)q
2q
(2? —2)j32 (z2-W
3 p dz
J-rTTo^a-l
>7-1’
(2q — 2)/32 •/(z2+/32)5"
This formula gives the means of depressing the index
of the denominator of the proposed fraction ; for, putting
q— 1 instead of q, we find
P dz   1
r(z2 + B2)q~
Z2 + B2 B v
dv
But we have found (art. 23) that ^ +-y is the differen¬
tial of the arc whose tangent is v, which is expressed by
tan “1 v, therefore
+
(2^ — 4>)fi2
2q — 5
VZ-2’
(z2 + /32)5
p dz
(2q — 4)(32 '/(z2 + (32)q
and again, putting q — 2 for q, we get
P dz _ 1 2  i
(z2 + /32)3-
+
(2q-6y? (z2+f32)
2q — 7 /» dz
— 6)/32
(2q
+ P2f
In this way the integral £ — is expressed by an
•s (z2 + pry
/» dz
and this last by another algebraic quantity, and the inte
£    ; and so on, until we come to the mtc-
(z2+ (P)q-2
gral f2 ^ ^-2, which is known, and expressible by the arc
of a circle. Here the process must stop; tor the next
gra1/;;
p dx 
transformation would involve the integraly^ fapyt
—with
a an infinite co-efficient, from which no conclusion can be
1 drawn. Here we see the application of a method of in-
tegration at once fertile and elegant.
From what has been explained, it appears that differ¬
entials which are rational fractions may be always inte¬
grated either algebraically or by means of logarithms or
circular arcs; all that is necessary is to decompose them
into partial fractions, whose denominators are either bino¬
mial or trinomial quantities.
FLUXIONS.
/a3 + i
atx —
+ c.
3. Let the differential be —
dx.
x*—6a?+ 8
make +efij"',0 simple factors’ «=
tion t? he 6 + o ~ a"d fiDli the roots of tllis equa-
iiiai wi <■> mv/uiiai 4uau1.11.1es. *-ion to be x — 2, and x =z 4>; therefore, x2 6a; + 8
. 116; yie sha.,,inow, give some examples of the Integra- (« —4). To decompose the fraction, leavino-
ion of differentials which are ratinnnl franrinno out wo now assume °
3a; —5
tion of differentials which are rational fractions.
1. Let the differential be -a^x—#
. x~ — a2
In this case the denominator a^ — a2 = (x «)(* + «);
we therefore assume
 /A B 1
(x—a)(x+a) \X—a~*'x+a)d:C'
We now reduce the second side to a single fraction,
and, leaving out dx, have
« _ (A+'B)a; + (A —B)a
{x — a)(x + a) (x—.a)(x + a) ;
therefore a = (A + B) a; + (A — B)«.
Now, x being indeterminate, according to the principle
of art. 18, we must have
(A — B) a = a, A + B 0;
these equations give A = L, B = —L; the proposed dif¬
ferential is now
dx . dx
(x—2) (x —4) “
+
B
x2dx
x2dx
adx j
'Zi — 2
 JL.
' x + a’
x‘—a1 * x — a
and, by integrating,
/» adx
Jtf~a2 = ^ (-x~ a) — 2 ^ (^ + «) + C,
(x'—a2) (x—a) (x — a)2 (x + a)'
In this case we assume (art. 112),
x2 A . B C
+
= Ll.^+C;=i./^
^ a; + a
x -j- a
2. Let the differential be
a3 + d2x2
dx.
(x —a)2(a;+a) {x—af ' x — a ' x + a
_ A(x + «) + B(a^—a2) -{- C(x—a)*
~ (x — a)2 (x + a)
_ Aa — Ba2 + Ca2 + (A — 2aC) a; + (B + C)x2
(x — a)2 (x + a) *
By equating like terms of the numerators, we have
Aa — Ba2 + Ca2 zr 0, A — 2aC = 0, B + C = 1.
a2 x — x3
The factors of the denominator are x and a2 — x2, which T. , ' 7 ' ^ — 1-
last resolves into (a — x) (a + x) ; therefore, leaving out Hence, by the ordinary process for resolving simple
dx, we assume equations involving three unknown quantities, we find
dx, we assume
a3 + bx* _ A ,
x(a—x) (a + x) — x~ +
B
+
A — Aa, B — 4,
and the transformed differential is
xsdx a dx
c = b
dx
^ dx
4 x + a '
a — x ' a + x*
The second side of this equation, by reducing its terms  —  = Z ZO. j- 2.
to a common denominator, and adding, is (x—a)2 (x + a) 2 (x—a)2 4
Aa2 + q (B + C) x + (B — A — C)x2 By integration we have
x(a — x) (a + x) ’ /* dx _ 1 ^ /*dx _,j /   x (x4-a)-
By equating the co-efficients of the powers of x, we (x a)2 x & Jx ® «/x + a
Aa2 = a3, a(B + C) = 0, B — A — C = 6.
Here there are three unknown quantities, viz. A, B, C,
and three simple equations, therefore they may be found,
as taught in Algebra, sect. viii.; and accordingly we
have
therefore, supplying the co-efficients of the partial frac¬
tions, and, as usual, an indeterminate constant, we have
f. ^ = _?_!_ +aw*_a)
J (x? — a2) (x — a) 2 x — a 4 ^ ^
A=a, B = i(a + 5), C = —i(a + i),
5. Let the differential be
+ ^ 1. (x + a) + const.
x3 + x2 + 2
dx.
a3 + bx2
dx —
adx
+
a + 6
dx
a +
2(a — x) 2(a + x)
axx — x3
an(i> integrating,
, . d+b, , ,
=  g- 1 (a—x)
a + b
dx;
X (x + l)2 (x — l)2
The denominator contains two pairs of equal factors; we
/£»3 | rjgl j ^
tlierefore assume (art. 112) • . '2-r-——7^2 e<luai 10
A B C . D . E
’ 1 i i\o *
+
+
1. (a + x) + C.
(x + l)2 1 (x + 1) (x — l)2 ‘ x—1
By proceeding as in the foregoing examples, uniting the
partial fractions into one fraction, and equating the co-ef-
n •  r 1:1  £„,1
2 " ^ } ' partial fractions into one fraction, and equating the co-
By the nature of logarithms 1. P + 1. Q = 1. (PQ) and ficients of like powers of x, we find
w • P r= 1. p» ; hence the integral may be otherwise ex- A = 2, B = — + C z= — + D zz 1, E zr
prGSSCd thus rw/^rvr^oorl rl lAToronf ia1 ic nnw / ippnmnnfipfi intn tllP
— — 7 — — *
The proposed differential is now decomposed into these,
679
Inverse
Method.
x — 2 r x —~4’
_ (A + B)x—4A — 2B
XT . . ~ (X-2)(^_4) “•
have^’ 6<1Uat;ing the llke terms in the numerators, we
A + B zz 3, — 4A — 2B zr — 5.
From these equations we find A zr B zr -, and
C (Sx~-5)dx __ _ x /» dx 7 r dx
J x2 —6x + 8 V x — 2 + 2i/ x^^4^,
= g B — 4) — 2 B (x — 2) + C.
4. As an example of equal simple factors in the deno¬
minator. let the differential be
680
Inverse Zdx
Method. ~~~~
 5_
— 2^ +1)2
dx
+
dx
flux
_ dx
+ 1 ^ O — l)2
Hence, by integration,
^ + ^ + 2 dx-2\.x+ l
1
A
3-1. (x
2x+l
1) + const
(*+ 1)2(*—i)2
1
— x —~1 — ^
6. As an example of a fract ion, in which one of the fac¬
tors in the denominator is a function of the second de¬
gree, which does not admit of resolution into real factors
of the first degree, let the differential to be integrated be
a fir
^  \a
The denominator x3 — 1 = (x — 1) * + 1)'
The expression ^ + ^ + 1 is of that kind which can¬
not be resolved into real factors, although it may into two
imaginary factors. For, making x? + x +
resolving this quadratic equation, vve find ^ ^ ,
and x2+* + l = (x-)r2-\~2^ 3)(x -{- ^ 3).
To avoid impossible quantities, we assume (art. 113),
a + bx _ A Ba; + C
{x— 1) (x2 + X—1) ~ X — 1 ^ + a; —1'
Reducing now the partial fractions to a common denomi¬
nator, and comparing the co-efficients of like powers, we
find
A £ (a + 6), B = — ^ (a + Z>), C — i (2a — b).
The proposed differential and its equivalent transformed
expression will therefore be
IONS.
117. The method of resolving a rational fraction into InrJ
its component partial fractions, by the theory of indeter- Met.
minate co-efficients (art. 110-113), is the most elemen-^ ^
tary of any; it is however tedious. We shall therefore
now show how the labour may be abridged.
Let ^ be a rational fraction in its lowest terms, the de¬
nominator of which has unequal divisors of the first degree;
let « + a be one of them, and Q the product of all the
other factors, whether of the first or second degree; so
that , . _
V = (a: + a) Q.
In this case we assume
U A
V
   + Z
a: + a Q
a + bx
(x— l) (x2 -F a; + 1)
dx ~
a dr b dx
where A is independent of x, and P and Q, are functions of
x, the latter being supposed known. By reducing to a com¬
mon denominator, and remembering that V = (x + a)Q,
we have the identical equation
U = AQ + P (x + a),
in which, by hypothesis, neither U nor Q are divisible by
£. + Let us make x + a = 0, that is, x rr a, and
upon that hypothesis let u and q denote the values of U
and Q respectively; then the equation becomes u = Aq,
and hence A = -. This determines the numerator of the
^ A
partial fraction ^ +—, and in the same way may the nu¬
merators of all the partial fractions be found.
As an example, let the fraction to be resolved be
U mx + w A . B
x—1
(a + b)x + 2a —b
* x2 + x + 1
The first integral of these differentials is expressible by
a logarithm ; to transform the second, we put x* + x + 1
under the form (x + ^ + f, and make x + ^ rr z ;
then, x rr z — w, dx — dz, (a + 6) x + 2a — 6 rr
(a + &) z + | (a — b), and
, O + h) x + 2a — b j a b zdz
y — : : — “
V “ (x + a) (x — 6) x + a
, mx + n . . B
then, —
+
b'
?rr A+ ———r (x + a),
^ X — o
andmr + » = B +
(x — b).
X2 + X -F 1
^ a — b
+
dz
x + a ’ x + a
Making x rr — a, the first of these gives
— ma + n _ ma — n _
— a — b a -\- b ,
■n mb n
and making x rr + the second gives B = a + y
Hence we have
2 ^ + r
The first of these two is also expressible byr a logarithm.
To simplify the second, we make z2 rr | x2 ; so that dz
mx + 2*
« +
ma — n . mb -F n
- +
r}'
= dv, and
dz
dv
2 z2 -F f </3l + v
the differential prepared for integration by known rules is
(a + bx) dx a b dx a + 6 zdz
(x + a) (x — b) a + b{x + a ' x — b
118. The differential calculus maybe applied to the
determination of the constants A, B, &c. Resuming t e
On the whole, equation V rr (x + a) Q, we have, by differentiation,
x3 — 1
dx
_3 x — 1
a — b dv
z2 +
and, integrating,
/•(a + bx) dx _
</3
a b
1 + x2
1. (x—1).
a b
1. (*? + |)
v/3
tan-1 v + const.
this integral, by putting for z and v their values in terms
of x, will also be
_ q + ^9 (x + a). Suppose that when x = —«>
dx dx
then becomes v’, and, as before, that Q becomes q,
the differential equation will now become v’zzq; and since
A rr -, therefore also A —
In the preceding example, in which V — (x ^ a)
(x — b), we have .
~ = 2x + a —b.
dx
dV
J
>(a + bx) dx a b
x3 — 1
a — b
1.
1
V'S
tan
3 y a,.? + 3. + j
'2x -F - , .
-p const.
The supposition that x rr — a makes
dj_ _ a
— v1, and the supposition that x rr + ^ makes ^ —
+ b = v’; these values of v1 = q give the values of
and B, the same as before.
— —a
dj_
dx
-b
FLUXIONS.
119. Let us now suppose, that in the fraction ™ the
p/ V
denominator V = (a? + a)71 Q, that is, the product of n
equal factors, and Q, the product of all the remaining fac¬
tors ; so that the assumption is ^   —
V Q(x + a)n
681
...+ _E_+P
—2 a; + a Q’
(x + «)” (^+ «)” 1 (#+ a)
where A, B, C, ...E are constant quantities, and P, Q
functions of x. In this case, multiplying all the terms by
(x + «)”, we have
U
Q
= “f" B (a? -|- a) + C (a: + «)'■' ...
+ E (a; + «)” 1 + ^ (^ + a)”-
The supposition that x = — a gives to U and Q parti¬
cular values, which, as before, we denote by u and ^; the
terms which contain a; + a all vanish, and we have A
zr - ; thus A is known.
9
Since • + a) + C (ar + a)2 + &c.
the numerator, U — AQ, of the first side of the equa¬
tion must necessarily be divisible by a; + «, and may be
expressed by U1 {x + a). We have now
-q1 =B + C (a? + «)... + E (a; + «)” ^ + a)”-1.
The quantity U! not being divisible by a; + a, the as¬
sumption that x — a will give it a particular value,
which we shall denote by Mj. This assumption will give
Q the same particular value as before; the terms which
contain (a1 + a) as a factor will all vanish, and we shall
u
have B — -A-. In this way may all the remaining numera¬
tors C, &c. to E be found.
As a particular example of this process, let the fraction
U a?2
f be(r-*)3(r+tt2)- Weassume
X2 _ A B , c , P
(1 + a;2) (1 — a)3 “(1 — a)3 + (1 — 1—1 + a2 5
hence, multiplying by (1 — a)3, we have
x2 . . _ . . P
B lnuhi!i Ca®^LWe may also find the numerators A, Inverse
’ ,c* by the differential calculus. From the equation Method,
ot art. 119 we have
U= A + B (a + c*) + C (a+a)2...
re E(x + a)n~1 + P(a + a)”.
It wre now differentiate this equation (ra — 1) times in
succession, and then make a + a = 0, both in this equa¬
tion and those which we deduce from it, there will arise
U = AQ,
dXJ . tfQ , ^
ji = Adi + BQ’
^ = Ay* + 8B^ + 2ca-
&c.
equations which determine each of the unknown quanti¬
ties A, B, C, &c. by means of those which precede it, it
being well understood that we substitute after each differ¬
entiation — a in the place of a in the differential co-effi¬
cients. In this case the most simple way of determining
Q will be to divide V by (a —a)”. But it may also be
found by differentiation, as in art. 118.
121. Let us now suppose that the fraction to be
decomposed, has a factor of the second degree, viz.
a2 + 2aa + «2 + /32, which cannot be resolved into two
real factors of the first degree.
In this case, V — (a2 + 2aa + a2 + /3s) Q, and we as¬
sume
U _ Aa + B
T
+ a*
a2 + 2aa + a2 + /32
Then, U = (Aa + B) Q + P (a2 + 2aa + a2 + /3!).
If we substitute for a one of the imaginary roots of the,
equation a2 + 2«a + a2-f-/32 — 0, the term containing P
will disappear, and the result will contain two kinds of
terms; one real, and the other imaginary. We must now
put the real quantities equal to each other, and also the
imaginary quantities ; thus two equations will be obtained
by which A and B may be determined.
Let the fraction be
 x   Ax + B P
(x— 1) (x2 + x + 1) x2 + x+l Q"
Then x — (Ax + B) (x — 1) + P (x2 + x + 1).
Now x2 + x + 1=0 gives x = — ^ z±z ± V — 3; there-
   "" 1 ~ . e  u 2 T ” ’ 
t-. f, 1= A + B(l — x)+C(l —x)2H : (1 x)3. fore, by substituting in the last equation, it becomes, after
‘ x 1 + x2 collecting the terms,
— z=±= i V —-3 = — |B z±= (|B — A) V^3.
Hence — f B = — ^ and £ B — A r= £, therefore B z= |-
and A =
Making 1 —xz=0, or x=l, we have A zz L and -p-;—r
1 +xz
2(2r^(i-^)=B(i-*)+c(i-^+rA
— A z=
(1—x)3,
1 + X
in — B + C(1
and 
2(1 +x2)
again, making x z= 1, we find B zz —and
X) + v—^—-
7 1 + X2
(l-*)2;
—   3-
122. In the last place, let us consider the case in which
U
V
Ax + B
the fraction ^ zz
(x2+2ax + a2+/32)” (x2 + 2ax + a2 +/32)”-1  ^Q’
and here V zz (x2 + 2ax + a2 + j32)n Q. We have now
^ zz (Ax + B) + (Cx + D) (x2 + 2ax+a2j82)...
Cx + D
+ .
1 + x
-BW+l-*)=C(1-,)+rT-
'2(1+ X2)
= C +
Sll + x2)'
(1—X)2;
and — x ( . _ ^ ,  
2(1+ x2) 1 + x
Lastly, making x zz 1, we have C = — + and the frac¬
tion
  x2 _ 7 l 1 . 1 . P
(1 +x2)( 1—^)3 - *nx\3
vol. ix
+ -y(x~2uxa2(32)nV.
Q
This case is compounded of the two preceding, and
must be treated in the same manner. In the first place,
we substitute for x, one of the roots of the equation,
l j 1 i 1 _i_ P x2 + 2ax + a2 +132 z= 0, by which all the terms contain-
 x\3 un xy± 41 x ‘ i + ^2‘ jng this quantity disappear, and the equation is reduced
’ K J 4, R
682
Inverse
Method.
to pr = A# + B;
let
fluxions.
and by actually dividing the numerator by the denomi- Inve
and here V and Q are functions of natorj this last may be expressed thus, Metl*
the particular value of a;, which satisfies the above-men¬
tioned equation. As in the last case, we shalThave an
1 — / + sV— 1> r and
— 6(z7 — ze-
whose integral is
z3 -f z4 — zz + l)dz
6dz
1 + z2
equation of the form r sV „ 7 « x
s being composed of constants and the indeterminate   /z z £_ i £ —+ z — tan^z^ + const
quantifies A, B; and these last will be found from the - ^ 8 7 6 + 5 3 ^ " *) ^ COnSt
equations  ^ s — j By replacing the value of z, viz. the integral may be
We now differentiate the preceding equation, and, after expressed in terms of x.
omitting the terms in the result that contain a;2 + 2ax
-f a2 + have
124. We shall now consider those irrational functions
’©
dx
rz A + (2x + 2a) (Cx + D).
which include the radical Va bx ea^ only, and which
appear under one or other of the two forms,
Ydx
YdxV a bx cx2,
V a bx cx2
By substituting in this expression the imaginary va^ue vvjiere p (jenotes any rational function of x. These may,
v.i x, which satisfies the equation 0.“ + 2aa? +a + p — ; however, be included in one ; for if the first be multiplied
and putting the real and imaginary terms on each side ^ ra(hca]5 an(j the sarne quantity written under it as
qual, two equations will be obtained which determine U ^ denominator, it becomes
e
and D
As an example, let the fraction be
We assume it
2ar + a? — 3
Ax + B
+
(a;2 —
Ca; + D
2a? + 2)2
P(a + 6a? + cx~)dx
Va bx c1 *
an expression of the same kind as the second.
2 C + 2(C + D)v'— 1 ;
1, D = 0, and the proposed fraction is equi-
(a?2 — 2a; + 2)2 1 x3 — 2a? + 2
By reducing to a common denominator, we find
x3 — 2a;2 + a; — 3=Aa’ + B -f-(Ca; + D)(a?i — 2a; + 2),
one of the roots of the equation x2 — 2a; + 2 := 0 is
a; — 1 + V — 1 ; this being substituted for x, the equa¬
tion, becomes     
— 4 — V — 1 — A + B + AV' — 1.
Hence, to determine A and B, we have A + B=:—4,
and A = — 1 ; therefore B = — 3. Substituting the
values of A and B, and transposing, we have
x3 — 2ar-f-2a? — (Ca; + D) (a;2 — 2a;+ 2) ;
and, taking the differentials, and dividing by dx,
3xf—4a; + 2 (Ca.’+D) (2a? — 2) + j &c.
By again substituting 1 + V — 1 for x, this equation be¬
comes
_2 + 2V^T =
hence C :
valent to
a* -|- 3 , x
(xl — 2a? -f- 2)2 a4 — 2a; + 2’
There is an extensive class of differentials, rational frac¬
tions, in which the denominator has the form a;2TO=±=2a;n
cos a-j-1; also of this form, xn =±= 1. How these func¬
tions may be resolved into factors of the first and second
degrees has been explained in Algebra, art. 274-278.
This resolution being effected, the integration may be
performed as has been explained.
Integrals of Irrational Fractions.
123. When a differential involves irrational functions,
if by any means these can be transformed into others en¬
tirely rational, their integration may be effected by the
rules already explained.
For example, let the differential be
(1 4- \/x — 3y'a?2) dx
T 4” 3*/x
It is evident, that making x = z6, all the extractions indi¬
cated by the radical signs may be effected; and since dx
= Gz^z, the differential is transformed to
6z5riz(l 4- z3 — z4)
_____  .
We begin with the simple form, fjff
dx
 ; ; =, which,
+ 6* 4- CX2
however, has two cases, according as the sign of c in the
denominator is positive or negative.
dx
125. I. To integrate the differential ^ + fa, +
Assume Va 4~ 6a; 4" cx2 z= py 4* “•
•(1)
Here p and g are indeterminate constant quantities, to
which such values are to be given as shall serve to trans¬
form the proposed differential into another that may be a
rational fraction ; we have now
a1
a 4* bx 4- cxl — fry- 4“ -f- —r-
To make the left-hand side of this equation a perfect
square, we transpose its first term, then multiply both
lr • l
sides by c, and add — to each side of the result; it then
becomes
6- / & Qi\
+ 6ca? 4- c'x2 = c^p'y2 4- 2pq — a + fa + If)'
The second side will also become a square if we make
2pq — a + — = — 2P?>
or 4^7 =
fa
4«c
62
4c
which is evidently always a possible assumption ; by this,
the equation becomes
4- 6ca; 4- c2®2 = c(p2/ — Sp? 4“
and hence, by taking the square roots,
| 4- 0*= Vc{py — ^) 
From this, by differentiation, we obtain
4- bex 4- cV = cip^/ — Spg 4- ;
tin
2).
y!
ren
^ + 2) = |
and hence,
dx
V a -f bx 4- ex2
J_ rhL
Vc v'
(3)
FLUXIONS.
Dividing now both sides of equation (2^ by ^/c, and
inv _ . . s
Meti- adding the results to equation (1), we get
~9/^c + XVc -{■ Va bx CX' — 2py;
and, taking the logarithms,
Va + bx + cA = 1,^ + 1. (2j3)...(4)
Now 1. y = ^1— + C ; here, C being any constant what¬
ever, we may suppose it = C' — 1. (2p), where C'denotes
another indeterminate constant; therefore^
i-</ + i-0)= fdi + c.
*' y
By comparing this last equation with (3) and (4), we
find
, /» dx
• 'Va + bx -j- cx2'
*'/c + Va +ix + c*!) + c’
— 1. (b + 2cx + 2»JcVa + bx + cx^j -f C.
These logarithmic functions differ from each other only
by the constant 1 (2^/c.)
dx
126. II. To integrate the differential 1 ■
assume Vd--\- bx — cx‘l — p sin <f> (1)
p representing here an indeterminate constant, and (p a
variable angle. Then
a-\-bx — cx2 z= p1 sin2 p—pr —p1 cos2 p ;
and hence, proceeding as in last article,
i b2 b2
— hex + dx2 — cp1 cos2 p + — + ac — plc.
The left-hand side of the equation is now a complete
square, and to make the right also a square, we assume
that
We have also
dx
683
.!■
2cx ■
Inverse
Method.
V a bx — cx2
— —7— sin
+ C;
Vc -f- 4ac
for the angle whose cosine is any number v differs from
the angle whose sine is by a right angle, which is a
constant, and therefore the differentials of these angles
will be the same expression.
127. We shall now integrate the formula
xndx
V a -f- bx cx1 *
n being any whole number. We put
X = Va + bx + car, y — xm*S~a-\-bx+cxl — xmX,
then y2 — ax2m + bx2m+1 + cx2m+2,
and differentiating, we have 2ydy —
(2max2m—1 -f (2m + l)bx2m + (2m + 2)cx2m+1)dx;
and hence, dividing by y = xmX,
-V(2m + 1)Z»-
2dy — 2ma
X
X
+ (2rn + 2)c
0,^+1
dx
X
Let us now make m+ 1 =r and therefore m — n — 1,
m—\ — n — 2, 2m — 2n — 2, 2m+l — 2n — \, 2m +
2 — 2n; thus we obtain
2dy=.(2n — 2)a — v — + (2n
X
+ 2«c
1)&'
n—1
dx
X
xndx
~xT
and hence, by proper arrangement of the terms,
xf'ax _dy 2n — 1 b
X nc 2n ' c
dx
a x
c
n—2
dx
nc 2n ‘ c ' X n ‘ c ’ X ’
and, by integration, and putting fory and X the functions
they represent, we have
/;
xndx
V a-\-bx-\- cxr nc
1 „ i
-  ryjl ’ • 1
Va-\-bx + cx2
^2 62 .
c[r — — + oc, or p\/c ~
and thus obtain
V
Vb2 4ac
.(2)
 bex + c^x2 — cp2 cos2
and, taking the square roots,
b _
2 — cx= <y/c p cos p.
 (3)
and hence, differentiating, and dividing by y'c,
dx = p sin a = ~ Va + bx — cx2;
Vc Vc
and hence,
dx ]
--- — — — dp.
V a -4- bx — cx1 aJ c
faking now the integral, we have
P day  1
jVa + bx — cx? = ^<P+ COnSt‘
do determine p, we have, (3) and (2),
b — 2cx b — 2cx
cos p —
Therefore,
Jl
dx
c p
1
— —T—cos
Vi2 + 4ac
b — 2cx
Va + bx — cx2 ~ \/c C0S Vb2 + 4ac
+ C.
 — 1 b j* xn ldx
2n c v Va + bx+cx2
_ n— ^ ® (' x* ^dx
71 c * ' Va-\~ bx-{- cx2
The proposed integral is now expressed by an algebraic
function, and two other integrals of the same form, but
in which the exponents of x are of lower degrees. We have
found its value (art. 125, 126) when n ~ 0, a case to
which the formula just found does not apply, because then,
n entering into the denominators of the fractions, they
become infinite. When n — the last of the two integrals
in the second side of the equation vanishes, because its
coefficient = 0, and we have
P xdx 1    
b p dx
2c p V a-\-bx-\- cx1’
Knowing now the integrals in the cases of« 0 and
» = 1, the preceding general formula gives it in the case
of « rr 2; and in the case of n=zS, it is found from the
cases of w = 1 and n z=2; and so on to any extent, sup¬
posing w to be a positive number.
128. When n is negative, the formula will be better
under another form. Writing — n instead of + «, and
arranging the terms of the result anew, we have
fluxions.
684
Inverse
Method.
A-
_j a — +
Inve f<
_ i
J xV1la + to + ex* (n — l)a x
2w_3 b ,* _dx 
— 2 ' Va + to+cP
2n
n — 2
£ /* 
I ‘ aj xn —
dx
i f
The second of these integrals is obtained from the first
by passing l. (2a) into the arbitrary constant C. It may
yet have another form; for
2adx
~Va + to + cx2
In this formula, n is understood to be positive.
129 This formula of transformation will not apply to
the case of « = 1, because then the fractions which have
n i in the denominator become infinite. It is therefore
xVa? + ex?
_1 (a —Aa2 + cA) [ c
Now — cx* = (a + Va2 + ex*) (a — Va2 + cxi2) ;
therefore, substituting and reducing,
A
adx
a — Va2 + cx*
+ C.
dx
necessary to investigate the integral of-—=== sepa¬
rately.
1 dx — dy
Let x = - ; then — = ——, and
y x y
dx —dy
xVa + to + cxl V c+ by + ay*
This transformed differential has two cases, according as
a is positive or negative; when a is positive, the integral
is, by article 125,
' 1
xV a2 + ca? * a + Vaz + cx*
This example shows that the integral is much modified
by the arbitrary constant which enters it.
131. Corresponding to these logarithmic integrals there
is a set of similar integrals which are expressed by angles
or arcs of a circle. Thus we have, art. 126,
dx . ,x
= sin ~ 1 —|- C,
/;
V a* — x?
dx
f-= ^cos-ifl —2-) + C,
J V ax — x* \ aJ
— ^/a ** + ^e-\-by-\-aif) +C.
and by formula 2 of art. 129,
adx
We are at liberty to give the radical \/a either the
sign + or the sign — ; therefore, giving it the latter, the
integral is
1
sec-1- + C = cos ~1 - + C.
a x
^7a1- + 2Va Vc + % + a^) + C ;
l
and hence, substituting for y its equivalent -, we have
h
dx
xV a + bx + ear
XV x* — a*
132. As an example of the way of proceeding in the
integration of a differential which involves radical quan¬
tities, let it be proposed to integrate the differential
dx /a* _— x*
x V x?.— b2'
By an obvious transformation, we find
dx jed — x* eddx
x /v x2 — b2 ~ x\/{(a2 — x?)(x2
.V)}
 2a + to ■
~ Va'
2 A a v'a + to + cxl
+ C;
xdx
observing, as above stated, that the radical Va may have
the sign -}- and also the sign —.
In the second case we have
 to —dy
| \/(a2 — x:2)(x2 — 62) } '
The first of these differentials may be otherwise ex¬
pressed thus,
xV—a + to + cxl Vc-{-by
Now, by art. 126,
/• — dy
■ay*
-d(-)
x \xj
Vc-\-by — a2y-
1 . 2ay — b . _
— sin-1 — +C
Va V62 + 4ac
1
= — cos
2ay — b
Therefore we have
to la2 — x2
x
— xdx
y'a
V/52 + 4ac
1 .
Therefore, putting - instead of y,
1 fa1 — x _
Jx2— l? ~~ V{(a* — xPXxP—b2)}
-d(~)
a x \xj
/•  to
• ' xV — a 4-1
= —- COS •
2a — to
+ to+cx2 Va
+c-
xV b2 + 4ac
ioi30' Th| investigated from articles 125 to
128 serve for the integration of innumerable differentials.
Thus, from art. 125 we have
p dx  
I-O+Va + ^+C
p dx   
= ]- (^ + * + Vto + ^) + c;
rmula of art. 129,
   j %d~ — 2a Va.~ -J- cxi2 f ^
’ Z —"hC
and it is evident that the two differentials have precisely
the same form.
To integrate the first of these, let us assume
x2 ■=. a2 cos2 <p b2 sin2 <p ;
then xdx — (b2 — a2) sin f cos (p dtp,
a2 — x2 = (b2 — a2) sin2   G)
x2 — bz — (b2 —a2) cos2   (”/
— xdx _ (a2—^2) cos^> sin <pdp __ ^
and, from the first formula of art. 129,
p adx
J xV a'
! + c^
v/|(a2—x2) (x2—52)} (a — b2) cos <p sin <p
Exactly in the same way, if we make
1 1 „ . . 1
cos2 •'h + ■p'81112 ^
FLUXIONS.
we get
xd(x) = (p- rf-) sin + cos W.
i 1 n i \ ,
p-J™ + (3>
^ ^j008'^ (4)
-ld{x) _ (f—g)sintCOsW_ rf,,
y {(y_y)(y-r)} (y-y)5”+c°s+
On the whole, if o and ^ be such angles that
yxP bfi CL
aSL _ cos ^ = - COS 9 ;
then
/<£» / a2 — a:2 ,
TV = P + 4- + const-
Integration of Binomial Differentials.
133. These differentials are represented by the formula
g_
xn ^dx (a -{- bxly,
whose generality will not be affected by supposing that
?» and n are whole numbers. The object we propose is
to find in what case this differential may be made ra¬
tional.
We assume a + bxn— z1, so that (a + bxJ1) ?
we then find
xn __
x^ax^-f-^y ;
and the proposed differential is now transformed into
— — i
an expression which is evidently rational whenever —
is a whole number.
P fe
The differential xsdx (a + bx3) ^ satisfies this condition,
since w» n 9, n =z 3, — — 3, and it is transformed into
n
z1! — a\ 2
np
m H——
sions may be made rational, whenever  ‘L js a wh0le
n
number; or, what is the same thing, whenever - + ^ is
. n q
an integer. *
The differential x* dx {a + J^)3 is 0f this description,
m 5 o 1 m , ® 6
n 3 q 3 n ~ q~ 3 ~
In applying to the differential
™ + ^-l P
x 1 dx (ax ~~n + b) q,
the substitution indicated for the first form of this dif¬
ferential, we shall make ax~n b = zq, and thence de-
duce a-i-zzi x and if we transform immediately the
£
expression x dx (a -{• bxn) 5 by means of the equa¬
tion preceding, we shall evidently obtain the same result
as if we had at first given it the form
m+^-l £
x ? dx(ax~n + bf.
134. Since it is not possible to integrate in every case
£.
the formula xm~l dx (a + bxnf, we may try to change
it into another more simple, as has been done in inte¬
grating a differential (art. 115). We have found that
fudv — uv—fvdu. If therefore we can decompose the
differential into two factors, one of w;hich being inte-
grable, may be represented by dv, and the other by u,
the integration of the proposed differential will be made
to depend on that of vdu, which in some cases will be
more simple than the proposed differential. This method,
which is at once extensive and elegant, is called integra¬
tion by parts.
For the sake of abridging, we shall write simply p in-
ry
stead of supposing p to represent a fractional number.
The formula will then become
xn 1 dx (a -f- bxn K
Among the different ways of resolving this differential
into factors, we choose this :
xni-n xn-1dx(a + bxny.
One of the factors, xl ] dx (a + bxn)p, is integrable,
whatever be the value of p (art. 108); representing it
therefore by dv, we .have
nb(p+\) ’ anU “ ~ *
whence there results
fx—'dx (a + &”> =
•P 710 (p + l)
685
Inverse
Method.
The differential xm~l dx (a + ta”) q admits of ano¬
ther form, by making the index of x between the brack¬
ets negative, or by dividing the quantity a + bxn by xn ;
then we have
>/
m — n — 1
dx (a bxn)p + 1;
P £
<1
*Vl~ldx (a + £^) * = xm 1 dx {(ax~n +b)xn}
np
m+ t
2 dx (ax 11 b)q
and by the process preceding, the last of these expres-
nb (p + 1),
but fxm~n- 1 dx (a + bx»)p + 1
=J'xm~n~l dx (a + b^)p (a + bx") =
a Jxm~n~l dx (a + bx)p +
bj* x Wl”1 dx (a + bxn)p.
686
fluxions.
I°'* . . ,• rnliectina as many units as it contains; and by its application, aW Ini,
Inverse putting tins last in the preceding eq , „ with formula (A), we may make the integral Met ►
the: terms containing the integral/,*” + /l” “ *&(« + bxf depend on ^
we obtain, after reduction,
(A.)
Z*1
r
■ r 11 — 1
dx(a + bx 'f \ rn being the greatest
x l~n {abxn)p+ 1 multiple of m contained in m — 1, and s the greatest
f'xm~~l dx\a + bxn)p =   b ^ whole number contained in p.
a (m — »)
/
m — n — 1
dx(a + bxnf.
   > _ ^ The integral pddx^a + ix3)’2, for example, may bere-
b (pn -\r m) J ' " .
It is obvious that since we may reduce the integration of rfuced by formula (A) successively to
m — 1
dx (a + bxn)p to that of x
m — n — I
dx{a A- bxn)pi
fxAdx(a + 5rf)2, fxdx(a + bx3)* ;
, . r "t — 2« — I »/ "
we may reduce this last to the integration ol a; /» 5
dx (a + bx-y by writing m_K in the place of m in equa- and by formula (B),Jxdx(a + bj?f is reduced to
tion (A); then, by changing »i—n into m — 2/i, we shall s .. I
be able to determine fxm-2n~l dx(a + by J*<Ha + bx>)\ and that again toJxdz(a + W)-
means or./ x ux iM -y- t/x y , ™ —- •“ - ^
In general if r denote the number of reductions, we formulas (A) and (B) would not accomplish the purpose
m general, 11 r denote uie ou jo for which they have been investigated; they would then
shall at last come to,/ xm 111 die (a + &cn) , and jncrease the exponent of x without the parenthesis, as
the last formula will be well as that of the parenthesis itself; but by reversing
r m — (r—l)n— 1 7 / i t n\P tliem we shall find others suited to the case in question.
Jx dx (a + bx ) From formula (A) we deduce
xm-rn(a+bx”)p + l „ tn-n, ,,\P + 1
~ b{pn + m — (r — !>} jxm — w - 1 dx(a + bx f =   ^ ’
a{m — rn) r +
* a(m — n),
of/'.
m — 3m — I
dx (a + bxn)p, and so on.
136. It is evident that if m and n were negative, the
A"1 + fxm - 1 dxla + bxnf.
a(ni — n) J
titute
(C)
b {pn + m — (r— !)»}»
It appears from this formula, that if m be a In this expression, substitute m + nm place of n, and
of n, the integration of the proposed formula x dx ^ becomes
(a + bxn)p may be effected in algebraic terms, since the
last integral of the transformed expression will be multi¬
plied by m — rn — 0. This result agrees with that of
art. 133.
135. There is another way of reduction by which the
exponent of the quantity within the parenthesis may be
diminished by an unit; for this purpose it is only neces¬
sary to observe that
in, . , n.p + 1
xm-ldx(a + bx’‘f=X- (a+„^) —
b(m+n + nP)jm + n-\ ^ + ^
Jxn 1 dx(a + bxnf
fxm 1 dx(a + bxn)P (a + bxn)
This formula diminishes the exponent without the pa¬
renthesis, since m n — 1 becomes — m n 1 when
— m is put instead of + m.
To reverse the formula (B), we take
Sx'
— a ixm ^dx(a + bx* f
dx(a + bx’Y
+ np pjn — 1
xm(a + bx )
pna
pna
V
JX
dx(a + bxnf;
+ b Jxm + n ldx(a + bxn)p / tben we write jo + 1 instead of p, and thus find formula
Formula (A), by changing m into m + n, and p into (D)
— 1, gives ; ’Ll* +
fxm + n~ldx(a + bxy-l= fxm-ldx(a + bxnf = -X +
m, , , mnb pm — 17/ \ i  1 m n np Pm — 1 7,/„ i i,Jl\ ^
x (a + bx y — amjx dx(a bx y   —jx dx(a + bx )
  na(p+ l) . ,,
b(pn + m) This formula answers the proposed purpose, since??
Substituting this value in the preceding equation, we have becomes — p l, wheny? is negative.
^ ^ 137. Let the formula beJ^—=—==-> where wi is a whole
Pm — 1 n p xm(a + bx1l)p . ^ / , 1 w = 2,
Jx dx(a + bx ) _ ^ —— positive number. Making a = 1, & — ’
- pna pm — 1 , nP^i y> =t — we find
pn+~mJX d<a + ^ > • i'xm~ldx xm ~ Vl-x2 , rn-2 fx
J ., . ft — i * m — 1 ^ ^
r  j  jx ax\a -f ox ) . /• vi — i »
pn + mj \ > j lx dx
By this formula we may take away successively from p * V\ — x2
i — 3,
!/;
Writing m in place of — 1, we have
xmdx
fluxions.
687
V'l
xm 1 y'j — ^ m
   r —
' dx
az2
+
m ■
r-
■ + 1
dx
If we give to m successive diiferent values, beginning
with the uneven numbers, we have
Writing —
xdx
fz
m
m instead of
dx
Vl
• m -
Inverse
Method.
1, this becomes
s* dCUdU  —-
/ - = — VI — xl + const.
J V l — xl
f_f dx _ + 2 /* xax
Jvi-Tx* - * x + 3Jsrz-$
xmV[ -
m
+
V1 — a.12
/, x5dx . ,
—^ r = — IxWl
VI — a-2
^4-1
xdx
Vl — xz
t a’3r/x’
m
— 5
*fvT=l?
V1 — a2
We cannot make m - 1, because that value would make
the denominator zero and the co-efficient infinite. We
have already found the integral in this case, viz.
dx
x^dx
fvi — x1
— I xW 1 — a2
x?dx
1
f.
xVl
1 + Vl — a2
4“ const, (art. 130).
&c.
and hence we deduce
x?dx / i on  
fvr^? = - + o)V1 -
1.4
x* x
Proceeding now, making m = 3, m = 5, &c. we have
/* dx   Vl — 3,2 ] i /* dx
J x3V 1 — x2 ~ 2a2 xV\ x-
dx
/»
./v'l — a2 “
J V\ —■ a2
/» C4c(;
^ a5^ 1 — a2
Vl —
(
4a4
VT^'
ux
V a'V 1 — a2’
c/a
.t>
|a6 4- ^ + LM ^
a2
6a6
3.5.7
4-
1.2.4.6
1x5;
&c
•7/
VI
a7Vl -
&c.
Making m — 2, m r= 4, wi — 6, &c. we find
t/a V l   frS ,
4~ const.
J\
x'V 1 — a2
dx
VI
The law of formation of the integrals is evident; an ar¬
bitrary constant is to be annexed to each.
Let us now consider the even values of m. Supposing
m = 2, 4, 6, &c. we have
a4 VI -
dx
3a3
+ */l
dx
a2Vl
VI — a2
p dx
h
X'dx
VI
= — iaVl
a2
+ V\
dx
a6Vl
&c.
a6
5a5
VI
a2
/. oddx
vfx
Vl — a4
xe,dx
l aVl — a2 4- f /V'^.
V Vl — a2
oddx
/» a”«a , ,  5 . , p arax
VVl—a2 VVl —
&c.
Here all the integrals depend on
r - — sin _ 1 a 4" const, (art. 23.)
VVl — a2 V
Let us call A the arc whose sine is a, and we have
dx
From these two series of equations we deduce, as in the
former article, a series of differentials integrated by loga¬
rithms, and another by algebraic formula?.
Integration by Series.
139. The integral f X. dx is easily found when the
function X is expanded into a series, because then we have
only to integrate a series of single terms in succession, to
which the rule of art. 104 immediately applies.
Thus, let X = Ax”+Bxm+tl+Cxm+2n+Dxw!+3wSc.
If both members of this equation be multiplied by dx, and
each term be separately integrated, we have
Ji
Vl — x
addx
A 4“ const.
y X dx —
Ax
+ 1
Bx
m+n+l
4-
Cx
m+2n+l
m 4- 1 m 4- rc 4~ 1
-f- &c. -f c.
E
/• x dx _  1 ^ i/TUT* 4- J- A _i_ rnnst If in the expansion of X any term of the form — occur,
VVl —X2 2 ' * . . , ,.   T71
= - Ux* 4- ^ vrzr^
JV1 — a?2 V4 2.4 )
the integral corresponding to that term will be E 1. a; (art.
20). We shall now give particular examples.
dx
l-3 * ,
4- A 4* const.
Ex. I. To integrate
a + a:
by a series.
x&dx ( 1.5 , . 1.3.5 \   -3
f ______ — — [Tar’ 4- r-^*3 + ruru x jV^I — ^
Jy'l a;2 \ 4.6 2.4.6 /
4"
1.3.5
2.4.6
A 4- const.
We know that the integral comprehends in it Napier’s
logarithm of a 4* # (art. 20). Now, by division,
1 _ 1 x ,x~ x? , x5
a-\-x~a a2 a3 a4 a6
Therefore, multiplying by dx, and integrating,
&c.
138. Let us now consider the formulae which answer
to the case of m negative ; then by formula (C) art. 136,
J‘x_~m 1 Va? x 7Wy i X
f-o
dx
 x x l
a + x ~~ a 2a2 3a3
4a4
4" &c. 4“ C.
Vl
m
This series expresses the general integral, without any
regard to its particular application. It, however, we con¬
sider it as expressing 1. (a + x), then we have
fluxions.
688
1 + | + 2_4 ^ *^* 2.4.6 ^ 2
dx
' , x ^ 4. fi rn + &c* + C.
Inverse ]. (a -r x) a ga2 ' 3a3 4a4
“SwSkwSSwSH    
terms of the series vanish, and we have 1. a _ U
Thus the value of C is determined, and we have
v , , a; ^
1. (a + x) — \-a + a 2a2 "* 3a3
2.4.6^
a* + &c.
lay (*
Metj
. Ijt , , l^-w; j_
*+ 23+ 2AJi+ 2A6T + ^
This result agrees with what we found (art. 86)
Ex. 2. To integrate by a series. By division.
— 1 a;2 + a;4 — a-6 + &c.
1 iXp
Multiplying now both sides of this equation by dx, and
integrating, we have
/• dx _X_*L + =L* + &c. + c.
,/ 1 + a2 3 5 /
As a formula purely analytical, the constant C must
regarded as indeterminate. We know, however, that
dx is the integral of an arc of which x is the tangent.
When the arc = 0, then the sine = 0; therefore both
sides of this equation vanish together, and no constant is
wanted to adjust it to equality. _ _
140. The object of integration by senes being to ob¬
tain approximate values of the integrals when they can-
not be found accurately, it is important to have several
series, so that we may be able to choose one convergent
for a proposed value' of *. Ascending senes, or those
which proceed by positive and increasing powers of x, do
not converge sufficiently unless x be a small fraction, as
happens with the series of Ex. 2; whilst those which
proceed bv the negative powers of x, or descending senes,
converge only so ^s to be of use when x is a large number.
141. In having recourse to series, it is sufficient to find
one, of which the'terms are separately integrable, although
1 + x2
the radius being unity (art. 22, Ex. 3). Therefore, if we
mean to express tan 1 a; by a series, then
a?,#5 x1 ,<> r
tan-1 x-=.x g- + -£ ^ + C.
The constant C has now a precise value, and it may
be found by giving any corresponding known values to
tan-x and x. Now we know that when tan 1 a _ 1, then
x — 0. Therefore, considering that when all the terms
in the series vanish, we have 0 z=0 + C; thus it appears
that C = 0.
dx
Ex. 3. In the last example, the integral of ^ ^ was
expressed by a series of terms formed from the ascend¬
ing powers of x. We may, however, express that inte¬
gral by a descending series. By division
__l +J_,
ar + 1 — ar1
■ &c.
each mav not have the form Ax- dx ; they may have any
form, the integral of which can be expressed by an alge¬
braic quantitv, or a logarithm, or an arc of a circ.e; or,
in short, anv function, the numerical value ot which is
most readily obtained, provided always that the conver-
crency be such as to admit of the sum of all the terms
which are not taken in being rejected, because ot its
smallness in comparison to the sum of the terms taken m.
In the application of the calculus recourse is only to be
had to series as a last resource, when the integral, >rom
its nature, cannot be found in finite terms, or by loganthms
or arcs of a circle, which in fact are the sums of infinite
series. Indeed it would be very convement to have va¬
rious other tables, ready computed, of the value of a func¬
tion corresponding to given successive values ot the van-
able. The labour of their computation, their nece*sary
great extent, and the infrequency of their use, have hither¬
to limited this valuable aid in calculation to a tabled
Napier's Logarithms, in addition to the Tngonometnca
Tables.
And
/:
dx
^n=-^+ ^-i + &c- + c-
If we now regard the integral as the angle or arc whose
tangent is x, we have
tatr>z = -A + + ic- + C-
The value of C cannot now be found by making x = 0,
because then the arc = 0, and the substitution of x z= 0
makes all the terms of the series infinite. If we suppose
the arc to be a quadrant = then x is infinite, and the
Integration of Logarithmic Fandions.
142. Let it be required to integrate Pdx(Lx)-,thatus
the nth power of Napier s logarithm ot * ™ ‘P Z
Ydx. P being an algebraic function of x. Here e PPT
the formula/urfr = .rr-frdu ; and making * =
from which we find du — n (1. x) —* ai*0 ^ —
we have, making in order to abridge^/ ± dx N,
fPdx (Lx)- r= N (1. x>" — O' x>*
terms of the series are each = 0; by this assumption,
-W = C. We have now
. —1
V.
If now we represent the integral ^ N by M>
1 1 1 . 1 1 . o
- + s--^ + &c-
: shall
have
xo- x)'*—1=m 1. jj*-1—(*—1 yf t x * M’
J X ^ rie-
By thU reduction the
Ex. 4. The differential of the arc whose sine is a is
dx
^ It is proposed to integrate this differential by
a series.
vr===(i-*)-i= o-
Isy tms reaucuon use j/iupus*-- e , expone
pend on another of the same kim.. m jjave
of the logarithm is an unit less. Thus, u r — >
, -1
. > ''
By the binomial theorem,
Inv 1 By applying the formula to this last integral, and again
to the result, we find Jxmdx(\. x)n —
FLUXIONS.
689
Inverse
Method.
m +
i S (\.xY
\ m + 1
n(]. x)
n— I
For example, let z = x3 — 1, then ~ - 3x2, and
dx
+
(m + l)2
n(ii—1) (1. x)n — 2
+ C.
f&dx^a? + a:3 — 1) = e* (ar* _ 1) -f C.
145. In other cases we may have recourse to the me-
+ Q3 — &c. | + C. thod of integration by parts (art. 134). Thus, let the dif-
It is evident that this will always terminate when n is ferentialbea;naJ;^’then>bythe formula/^ = «^—/vrfM,
a whole number. making u = xn, dv — a30dx, we find
143. If « be a whole negative number, we must apply /* r axxn n
the formula= uv —fvdu so as to increase the ex- J axxndx =   — laxxn~1dx.
ponent of the logarithm. Thus in the differential L a
Ydx _ Yx / W+Iw] ,—n dx By treating the differential axxn — ldx\n the same way,
O' x)n —n + 1 * « ’ and repeating this as often as necessary, we find faxxndx —
n _n-l
a \
(La
we make Pa? rz u, and (1. x) n — — dv, by which
, n(n— \)xn 2
(l.«)^
(1. x) T"-r a Vdx
Z^+l = V ; f0r then We haVy =
\—«+l
— m + 1
(1. x)*
1.2.3...«
(i.ic)—"+1 + ^/(ur’-^Px).
Let us suppose P = xm, then this formula becomes
+ C.
dx —xm ^ ^ . m l /• xmdx
pxmdx
J (\.x)n (w_l) (I.*)”-1 n—l''(\.x)'
By repetitions of this transformation, we at last make the
+
i T i /» x"'ax
— n-arV*—I’
,(1. a)n+l ,
146. If the exponent n be negative, by following the
same method we may increase the exponent of x. Ac¬
cordingly, from the formula / udv ■=. uv — /vdu, making
u — ax, and dv = we find
xn
/xmdx i v x
——. Now, put xl + 1 By repeating this transformation, we bring the integral
•of dx . , . P ax dx
raxdx _ —ax. L^_ /•
*' m f n — 1) a?" “1 n — ] « /
dx
xn ’
= 2, then 1. * = and = _* therefore / t0 dePend at last on S
m-f-i m l
xmdx
1. x
dz
Tz
1 „
If we make a = z, then x L a = ]. z, and x = —, and
1. a
The integral of this last quantity is a transcendental of dx zz ; hence - , and
a peculiar kind, which cannot be otherwise expressed than L a z x 1. a 1. z
by infinite series. ^ax dx
Integration of Exponential Functions.
/a dx 1 /»z
x — 1. aj 1. z'
f axdx zz -|- C.
«/ 1. a
These two integrals involve the same difficulty, and have
greatly exercised the ingenuity of analysts. It appears
144. It appears from art. 19, that d(ax) — 1. (a) ax dx, they can only be integrated by infinite series. See on this
therefore subject, Lacroix, Trade du Calcul Differentiel, vol. iii. No.
1224.
147. If « be a fraction, either of the preceding methods
will apply to reduce the exponent of x to some fraction
,, between 0 and + 1 or — 1; and then recourse must be
And because dx zz ; therefore, if V be any alge- had t0 the metbod of infinite series.
ax\.a J ° Whatever has been done in regard to the integral of
braic function of ax, then, putting a* = u, we have Vdx wi!1 app,y t0 Pa^’ suPPosing P t0 be any func-
ydu r & tion of x whatever.
= rn,’ an expression which, in respect of u, has an alge- T , <rY. , „
^ “ Integration oj Angular or Circular Functiems.
' 148. There are several ways of integrating expressions
p , ax which contain circular or trigonometrical functions of a
or example, let V — 1 , ——, then, variable.
1 I n
1 +a
Ji
axdx
du
V i +
Method I.—Let x be an arc whose sine or cosine is z ;
for example, let sin x zz z, then
   dz
cos x zz Vl — z2, dx zz —i,
V1 — z
n— 1
2
l.aVl + un
The integral of this last expression may be found by
rues which have been investigated. tfr sin’" * cos” a; = z”* (1 — z2) " dx.
,et 2 be any function of x, then, e being the number of L If n be any odd nuniber, then, in the binomial dif-
which Nap. log = 1, we have d(zex) — exdz + ex zdx, ferential, the radical in the transformed expression dis-
therefore appears.
vol. ix. 4 s
/
690
fluxions.
• 11 ueT ^li0 exponent of* 2-witl^out tlie _____— _^^    ~ _ -
MeThod. parenthesis, when byrenfLTis! bThuronePof By resolving the proposed differential into the twofac
'   ' of z its exponent, witmn oie i differential 172.27 i _ H t 1 inrr ir» 4-V\,
m — 1
cfa sinm ~2 x cosnx.
E£&fi'S & cos ,
-way> we “
^Sxtple. let the differential be <fe tin’ - This
• u Z ~ Now, by art. 137,
by making z ~ sin x, becomes ^^
and cosn—1 x, and proceeding in the
(^)
Jdx sinm x cos" x =
n — 1
sin*71"'’1 x cos” 1 x
m n
   fdx sinm x cos" ~z x.
m + «#/
One of these formulae serves to depress the exponent of
+
f- 1=^ = 1 cos x (2 + sin2 x) + C. UL L1ICOC    , . . , .
JVl—a2 „ , . „n- tLp ttine and the other that of the cosine, and by their
149. Method IL—The powers of the sine or c ^int application the differential may be found when m
may be transformed into series, of wjiich te J d n aPrPe tw0 sitiVe integer numbers. For example,
sines or cosines of the multiples of the arc the te x-—j, sin2 ^ cos3 .r + %fdx sin ai cos2
be integrated will then have the form dx cos kx, dx sin Jdx m ^ ^ ^ sin2 ^ cos ^ + isin ar;
kx. Now '     i nna rr 4- C. after collectine the
/
'dx cos kx = -j^sm hx + C;
"dx sin kxzx — j cos kx + C.
/‘
Ex. 1. Let the differential be dx cos-' x. By the cal¬
culus of sines (Algebra, 258), cos-' x (cos ° x °
cos 3a; + 10 cos x) ; therefore
fdx cos5 x — sin 5a; + ^ sin 3a; + ^ sin ^ + ■
This method is often used, because the sines and co¬
sines of the multiples of an arc are more easily found
than the powers of the sine and cosine.
Ex. 2. Let the differential be dx cos~ x sin x. In the
first place, we have (Algebra, art. 260),
cos2 a; sin3 a; = fjr (— sin 5x ff- sin 3a; + 2 sin x).
Hence, multiplying by dx, and integrating,
fdx cos2 x sin3 x zz cos 5x — fg cos 3a;—-yg- cos a; + L.
150. Method 111.—It lias been found (Algebra, ait.
270), that e being the base of Napier’s logarithms,
„ x v'— 1 _j_ e — ^ ^— 1
thisTst term = -7^ cos , + C, after collecting the
terms, we have fdx sin3 x cos2 x — 2 ^ a. r
cos x (—} sin2 x cos2 x + x2y Sin x — Tj) + C.
152 When m and n are negative, these formula re-
quire "some modification. The first, by changing m into
— w, gives
(7)
fdx sin7” a; _
v cos" X
. m — 1 ^
sin x
ni-
m
±f
(?n —w)cosw_
7 ■ m — 2
'dx sin x
COS X
This makes the integral sought depend on that of
dx sin x dx
cos" x
or    , according as m is odd or even
cos" a;
By
dz
COS X =
sin x —
V— 1 _ aV-
2 V- 1
These exponential expressions for the sine and cosine
enable us to transform differentials containing chcular
functions into others involving exponential and logarithmic
functions, and to integrate by the methods explained (art.
140-145).
151. Method IV.—We may reduce the integration of
making cos z = *, the first of these becomes - ot
which the integral is obvious. The integral of the other
will be shown presently in art. lo3. ^
The second of the two general formulae, by mak „
negative, anS bringing the integral in the second side ofthe
equation to stand alone, and lastly, changing n 1 ’
gives
^(fosin”1# _ sin"1 1 x
7 “ («— l)cosn-1*
f)i — n 2 f* dx sinm x
f
151. Method IV.—We may reduce the integration of «—A /. cos“ " f ,n tl.at of dxmn
such a differential as sin™ x cos" x dx, to that of another By this the integral sought is reduceu 10
in which the indices of the sine or cosine are smaller num- sjnm^ - —11 'tlio first
The first
bers, by the formulaj'udv z= uv —fvdu. tor, making u or to fffff ’ accoltPnh as e
— sinm — 1 x and dv = dx sin x cos" x, we find v = js foun(l by formula (a) (art. 151), the other is p
’ to be noticed.
cos” + 1 a;
« + 1
/dx sin'
+
, and
n x cos" x zz
m — 1
n +
r/“
'dx cos
sin
w + l
n + 2
n + 1
X COS X
x sin
/
/
153. If we make wz or « = 0, wre have
— cosxsin”1-1^ , 1J'dx sin
dx sinm x zz
—1,
dxcosn x zz
sma;cos
m
n-\
m
x .n-
— T
n
Ifdx.
, I T
From this expression, by putting for cos x, its va¬
lue cos” a- (1 — sin2 x), and transposing, we find
O)
r dx _ —cosa; + ^ £ r
J sinmx ~~ (m — 1)sin"’x
/;
sm7'1 x
dx
iy
sin x
+
n — 2
x n ■
Jdx sin"1 x cos” x zz
sin
A x cos” ^ 1 a;
cos” a; («— 1) cos" - * . , ;ne are
154. When the exponents of the sine,^n ^q-sin2*
both negative, we multiply the numera 01 y
= 1, and have
m + n
Inve; P dx _ P 
Methi J sinfflx cos”« ^ sin’
fluxions.
dx
x cos
~x+fs
dx
sinma?cosn ~V
cos i x, therefore,
sin x
dx
sin a;
dx
2 sin | xcos^x
*dx
dxsetf^x 'rf.tani-a:
2 tan ^ x
tan^a; ’
2, we have dx = — dz, cos x ~ sin z,
1
' tan A- z
+ C.
tan
z tan(^ <7! — \x)
dx
Therefore f—— = 1. tan -r + ^ a-) + C.
t/ COS X
This and the preceding integral may be otherwise ex¬
pressed thus,
'dx , , 1 — cosa?
J
sin a;
= 11.
I
'dx
r  + C-
1 + cosa;
1 + sin a:
= 11.
+ C.
'cosa; a 1 — sin a?
n P dx pdxcosx . / . . , _
J tan a? «/ sin a; v 7
. /* - /'dxsmx . 1
4. I dx tan x = I -
cos a;
- h-
cos a;
+ C.
Applications of the Integral Calculus.
Before we proceed farther in the explanation of the
theory of the calculus, we shall apply its principles to
some of the more important problems in Geometry.
Quadrature of Curves.
156. Let AQ = x, PQ y, be the co-ordinates of a
curve, of which AB is the axis ; and let the area CDQP,
comprehended between CD, an ordinate given in posi¬
tion, and PQ any other ordinate, be denoted by s. We
Fig. 21.
have found (art. 69) that ils = ydx; therefore, in any
curve whatever,
area s =f ydx
691
.1 —   ^
fractions with sin x or cos x in the denominator.
If m — n, then because sin .z cos a? = i sin 2x, by
making 2x — z, the fraction takes the form“of the third
of the preceding formulae.
155. We shall conclude this branch of the subject by
integrating four of the more elementary circular func¬
tions.
dx
1. To integrate -j . We observe that sin z = 2 sin i«
. Ex. 1. Let the curve be a parabola, of which p is the Inverse
parameter. By the nature of the curve, if = pX, and Method.
x* dx; therefore, taking the
integral by art. 104, 6
= y*ydx — | jpf
+ c r=
$yx + C.
•(1)
and X ■ zz 1. (tanl^) + C.
c/ sin« v 27
dx
2. To integrate —. Putting ^ to denote an arc of
90°, and x =
and
f—= P=^=-\.Um\z=\.
d CQSX J Sin 2^ tan ^
. T 1 1
Now zz  — = tan + 1
Le/t ~ a’ CD ~ h ; wlien 5 = °’ then x = a,
y — b. Ihese values being substituted in the above ge-
neial expression for the area, it becomes
0 = f + C.
If we now subtract the sides of equation (2) from the
corresponding sides of (1), the indeterminate constant C
will disappear, and we shall have
s zz % (xy — ah).
This is a convenient way of eliminating the indeterminate
constant. If A, the origin of the abscissa z, be the vertex
of the parabola, and if the area s be supposed to begin at
the vertex, then 0, &zr0; and the area comprehended
between the axis, an ordinate, and the curve, is fxy, that
is, f of the circumscribing parallelogram.
Ex. 2. Let the curve be a circle Apa (see fig. 7, art.
66), of which Aa is a diameter. Suppose the origin of co¬
ordinates to be at O, the centre ; let Oh be the radius per¬
pendicular to O A ; put OQ zz a-, pQ - y, OA the radius
= a, the space OQpb = s; by the nature of the circle
hence
a? +
1 = a2, and y zz vVP — xl _
s — Jydx zz Jdx Va°
This integral cannot be expressed in finite algebraic
terms; therefore recourse must be had to an ihfinite series.
By the binomial theorem, Vd1 — x1 zz (a2 — x2)\ zz
l.x* 1.1
1.3
— &c.
2. a2 2.4a3 2.4.6a5
Each term of this series being multiplied by dx, and the
integral taken, we have
, tf3 1.1 tf5 1.1.3 *7 o ,
s~ax 3 • 3a r- 2>4 • 5a, 2A 6 ■ — &c. + C.
To determine C, we consider that when a? zz 0, thenszrO,
these values make both sides of the equation zz 0; there¬
fore C = 0 ; when x = a, then s zz ^ of the area of the
circle; therefore the area of a circle whose radius zz a is
, Jl 11 1.1 1 1.1.3 1 „ \
4° U _ 2 ‘ 3 ~ 2.4'5 ~ 2.4.6'7 _ &Cj’
This series converges slowly, so that a considerable num¬
ber of terms would be required to give its value near the
truth. If we make x zz cos arc 60°, then, drawing the
radius Op, the area OQpb will manifestly be made up of
the sector FOb, which is j1^ of the area of the circle, and
/O
the triangle OQp, which is ^OQ.pQ= —^a2.
Putting ^ for x in the series, it will now converge much
faster, and the sum of seven of its terms will be •4783057a2,
from which subtracting —§ a2 zz *2165063a2, there re-
o
mains -2617994a2 for ^ of the area, and 3-1415928a2 for
the whole area of the circle. We have found this num¬
ber by a less laborious calculation, in Algebra, 273. We
may make A, one end of the diameter (fig. 7, art. 66), the
origin of the co-ordinates, so that AQ zz x, pg — y, seg¬
ment ApQ — s • then, because y = V'2ax — x2, the area
s rzJdxV2ax — oc2 —Jdx V2ax ^1——^ .
The integral of this expression will be had by convert-
692
Inverse
Method.
• „ (i-l-V into a series, then multiplying the terms
senaratelv by dxs/Zax, and integrating. _ a
Ex. 3. To find the area of the elliptic segment APQ,
ffie. 7, art. 66). Let OA, the semitransverse, = U13’
the semiconjugate, —b, AQ=x, PQ=y, the area A Is.
By the nature of the ellipse, 1/=^ V2ax—x2; therefore
the elliptic segment
z=Jydx — f^JdxV2ax — x
Let AP« be a semicircle on the same axis, and let s'
denote the segment cut off by the ordinate />PQ, which
is common to both curves. We found in last example
that s' = Jdx V2ax — x2; therefore s zz - s'. 1 hus it ap¬
pears that the area of APQ, any segment of an ellipse,
has to the area of ApQ the corresponding segment ot the
circumscribing circle, the constant ratio of the lessei axis
to the greater. Neither of the integrals require a con¬
stant, because both vanish when a; = 0.
Ex. 4. To find the area of the hyperbolic sector 1 LA,
C being the centre of the hyperbola, and CA the semi¬
transverse axis.
Fig. 22.
FLUXIONS.
Ex. 5. To find the area of s, the hyperbolic space APQ> inv,
we have s z= triangle CPQ — sector CAP, or Met.
S- 2^ 2 (ail
Ex. 6. Let the curve be an equilateral hyperbola, of
which AX, AY are the asymptotes: To find s, the area
included by the hyperbolic arc CF, the straight lines CE,
FQ, which are parallel to one asymptote, and EQ, the j
segment of the other asymptote between them ; suppose
CE one of the parallels to he given in position. Put
AE = a, EC = &, AQ = x, EQ= y. By the nature of the
curve, xy — ab; hence y — —, and
s ~ ydx — ab*— — ab\. x-{-Q.
Fig. 23.
Draw the ordinate PQ; let the semitransverse axis
CA =. a, the semiconjugate axis = b, CQ = x, PQ = y,
the sector PAC = s.
Because s — triangle CPQ — space APQ = \xy — fydx;
therefore ds — \ xdy + ]2 ydx—ydx = }2 (xdy — ydx).
Now, by the nature of the curve, y z= - Vx? — a2, there-
- a
fore dy
ds—
xdx
a Vat? — a?
b f x2dx
%a\Vx2 — a2
, and
dxVx~—a2 ^ —
Kab
dx
Vat? — a2
Now, by art. 130,^* -- z: 1. (x + Vac2 — a2) + C.
J V x2 — a?
ab
Therefore s r=— 1. (# + Vx2—d1) + C.
Here C denotes an indefinite constant: To determine its
value, we consider that when x= a, then s = 0; therefore
in this particular case,
0=4l.« + C.
Hence, by subtracting equals from equals, and observing
that the difference of two logarithms is the logarithm of
their quotient, we eliminate C, and have
 ab . xJ^*/xl — ct*
^ a
Because therefore also
: = ^1.
2 ^ 6 /
Now, when x — a, then s 0 ; in this case 0 = ai 1. a + C,
or C =r — ab 1. a ; hence, substituting for C its value, and
X
putting 1. for \. x — 1. a, we have
•s = ab 1. -.
a
From this formula wre find 1. ^ Thus it appears
that Napier’s logarithm of any number - may be expressed
by a hyperbolic area ; hence it has happened that the lo¬
garithms of his system have been called hyperbolic.
If M be the 7nodidus of seny system, the log of - in that
system will be M 1. —; therefore, in any system of which
the modulus is M, we have
, x M
log. - — —J s.
° a ao
Thus we see that logarithms of any system may be ex¬
pressed geometrically by hyperbolic areas, and therefore
that the name hyperbolic logarithms cannot with propnety
be given to one kind of logarithms rather than to another.
Ex. 7. Let the curve be the cycloid (fig. 9, art. 66), ot
which AC is the axis, and AH a perpendicular to the axis
at the vertex A. From any point in the curve draw PL
perpendicular to AH : it is proposed to find s, the area o
the external space contained by the straight lines A ,
GP, and the cycloidal arc AP.
Let O be the centre of the generating circle; draw
PDQ perpendicular to AC, meeting the circle in j
and join OD. Put x — AG, y — PG, a = AO,
angle AOD ; then (art. 66) PQ a(v + sin v), AO —
(l — cos v), therefore, \
x r= a(v + sin v), y — a(l — cos v), dx rr 1 t cos ^
ds = a2(l — cos t>)(l + cos v)dv z= ardv sin2 v,
and integrating by 153,
CL*'
s zz djf dv sin2 v — "g" (v — sin v cos v) + C.
When r - 0, then 5 ought to vanish; this requires
C zz 0. Putting now the arc AD for av, and DQ’LU
a? sin v cos v, we have nr)
s = £ AO • arc AD — DQ • OQ = circ. seg. AOU-
FLUXIONS.
Bi
Ex. 8. To find the area contained by AF, a line drawn
from the focus of a parabola to the vertex, FJP a line drawn
to any point of the curve, and the intercepted arc AP.
693
Fig. 24.
Let a denote the parameter — 4AF, u — the angle
AFP, r = FP, s — the parabolic sector APF. Draw PQ
perpendicular to the axis AF. By the nature of the curve,
PF = AQ + AF. Now, supposing PFA to be an obtuse
angle, FQ zr — r cos v, AQ = — r cos v, AF = % a,
therefore, r = £a—r cos v, and r(l+cos v) = ^ a; hence,
since 1 + cos v = 2 cos2 ^v, r = ^ —.
J 4 cos2 ^ v
Now, by formula 3, article 69, ds — \ rldv, therefore
"2 \;dv
ds —
16 cos4
To integrate this differential, we consider that
2dV O , dV 7/. 7 \
—^T- = sec2 ±v-- = d (tan 1 v) ;
and that
1
cos2 ^ V
— sec2 4^=1 + tan2 4 v ;
therefore, multiplying these equations, we get
4 dv
—- = c?(tan }2v)-{- tan2 ^ v <i(tan v) ;
/c
another value — AQ, the lines AD, AQ being supposed Inverse
given in magnitude, and the relation between x and y Method,
known. I he same thing is briefly indicated by this nota-
tion:
area CPQD = fXydx,
«/ a
in which a and x denote the lines AD and AQ.
From what has been shown it appears that an integral
is an indeterminate quantity, the result of a change in the
value of its variable ; and that to know its absolute value
we must know the values of the variable at its commence¬
ment and completion.
158. The analogy between a curvilineal area and an in¬
tegral indicates a general method of finding its numerical
value to any degree of nearness. Supposing y to be any
function of x, let it be proposed to find the integral fydx
between x — a and xz=.b.
Fig. 25.
COS'* 2 V
and hence, integrating by the rule art. 104, we find
1 dv
— = tan 4 v + 4 tan2 hv + C.
cos4 J i
Observing now that when v — 0, then s — 0 ; therefore
0 = 0, and we have
eft
s = — (tan 4^ + 4 tan3 %v).
This integral might have been found by the formula of
art. 153; not so easily, however. The formula here found
is wanted in the astronomy of comets.
157. Since the area of any plane curve is expressed by
an integral fydx, in which y the ordinate is some func¬
tion of x the absciss, so, on the other hand, any integral
may be represented geometrically by the area of a curve.
The geometrical representation of an integral shows dis¬
tinctly wherein it differs from a common analytic func¬
tion, such as a-\-brfl, or ax, or sin#, &c. These last have
determinate values corresponding to any given value of
x, and each is independent of its preceding and follow¬
ing values; but the magnitude of the space represented
by an integral fydx is the increment that a certain area
receives while the variable x passes from one state of mag¬
nitude to another. Thus the absolute magnitude of the
space CDQP (fig. 11), which represents an integral
and which, when the curve is a parabola, is expressed by
|**/ + C, cannot be known before C is determined, or else
eliminated from the expression.
Whatever be the nature of the curve, the integral
fydx — space CPQD is correctly indicated, so as to admit
of being computed, when we say that it is generated
while the variable x increases from any value = AD, to
Let CPD be a curve, of which the co-ordinates are
x and y. In the axis AB, take AQ = a, the least value
of x, and AQ'" = b, its greatest value, and draw the ordi¬
nates PQ, P'"Q'". The area PQQ'"P"' will be the geome¬
trical expression of the integral between the proposed
limits; and by whatever means that area can be found, the
same will apply to the determination of the integral.
Divide QQW into any number of equal parts at the points
Q', Q", &c. and draw the ordinates P'Q', P"Q", &c. These will
divide the whole figure into the spaces PP'Q'Q, P,P"Q"Q',
&c. Let a series of rectangles PQ', P'Q'', P"Q'" be formed,
each having the least of two adjoining ordinates for a
side: these will fall within the curve, supposing it to be
entirely concave or convex towards the axis. Let another
series P'Q, P"Q', P'"Q" be constructed, each having the
longest of two adjoining ordinates for a side : the aggre¬
gate of these will exceed the area of the curve. Ihe
length of the base of each rectangle will be known, and,
from the nature of the curve, its height will also be known ;
hence the areas of all the rectangles may be found. The
sum of the areas of the inscribed rectangles will be less
than the integral, and the sum of the areas of the circum¬
scribing rectangles will be greater. The difference be¬
tween these sums is the rectangle PMSR, which, by sup¬
posing its base PM = QQ' to be sufficiently small, may be
less than any assignable space. Thus an approximate
value of the integral may be found, which shall differ from
the truth by as small a quantity as we please.
Draw the chords PP', P'P", P"?'", thus forming a series
of trapeziums, which will differ from the curvilineal area
by less than the sum of either the inscribed or circum¬
scribing parallelograms, and will be a mean between them.
This will be a nearer approximation than either sum to
the integral. .
As an example of the application of this method, let it
be proposed to approximate to the integral^ ^ -J-^’ t*iat
is, to the arc whose tangent is x, between the values of
# = 0 and # = 1, which arc is of a semicircle, the radius
694
fluxions.
Inverse being supposed = 1. In this case the equation of the curve
_ _L_. Let us suppose the base QQ" to be divided
isy - l4,xi
1, x=’2,
into ten equal parts ; then, making x 0, x
&e. to xz= 1, we obtain eleven equidistant ordinates or
values of y as follows :
The 1st,
2d,
3d,
A>th,
5th,
6th,
1.00000
•99010
•96154;
•91743
•86207
•80000
The 7th,
Sth,
9th,
10 th,
11th,
•73529
•67114
•60975
•55249
•50000
By the elements of geometry, the area of the rectili¬
neal figure formed by the trapeziums is found by adding
together all the ordinates except the first and last, and
half the sum of the first and last, and multiplying the re¬
sult by the common breadth of the trapeziums, which is
T. This gives -784981 for the area or value of the integral
The true value expressed by a series is 1 —
0 11 K c
i. i i + &c, which converges too slowly to be of any
practical use: by other methods the more correct value
of the integral is *7854 nearly^
159. Supposing the ordinates PQ, F'Qf, &c. to go on
continually increasing, the inscribed rectangles will be
constructed on the 1st, 2d, 3d, &c. ordinates, and the cir¬
cumscribing rectangles on the 2d, 4th, 6th, &c.
Observing now that the ordinates are the values of y
corresponding to AQ, AQ', &c. values of x, which differ
by the common interval QQ', we have manifestly the fol¬
lowing rule for approximating to an integral fydx be¬
tween the limits oi x ~ AQ — a and x — AQ!" — b. Di¬
vide the interval QQW = & — « into rc equal parts, each
equal to h.
Find Y, Y', Y", .... Y^ the particular values of Y
corresponding to x a, x z=.a -{• h, x zz a 2h ... .
xzza + nhzz b.
Then, supposing the ordinates to go on increasing,
j'h ydx > h (Y + Y' + Y" ,. . . + Y^1));
ydx < h (Y + Y" + Y". . . . + YW).
The difference of these is h{Y^ — Y), which, by tak¬
ing « sufficiently small, maybe as small as we please. We
may reason in the same way when the ordinates form a
decreasing series. If they first increase and then de¬
crease, the interval b — a may be divided into two or more
portions, such that y increases or decreases continually
from one end of each to the other.
Whatever be the values of y, provided they be always
finite from x—a to xzzb, putting for them Y, Y', Y" . . Y^>
we have
x, y, the differential of the arc, viz. dz, zz Vdx^+dif. We Inversu
are now to apply the calculus to particular curves. Methoci
Ex. 1. Let the curve be a parabola (fig. 16) of which
the parameter — 2a, the absciss AQ = x, the ordinate
PQ = y. The equation of the curve, 2ax zz if, gives
adx zz ydy and dz — Vdx1 + dy~ zz ~dy \/dl + if.
If in formula B, art. 135, we make m zz 1, n zz 2,
p zz j, b = 1, and put y instead of x, and a2 instead of a,
we have
fdy Va°~ + f ~ i y ^ i
The integral in the second side of this equation is, by
the formula of art. 130, 1. (y + V'a2 + y*) + C; there¬
fore z — ^ra + y2 + | 1- (y + v'ci' + f-') + C.
If we suppose z to begin at the vertex, then, when
z zz 0, y zz 0 \ therefore C =
■ ^ 1.«, and
v L,^—r—: . a y -\r + if
z = *£/a + ,J + T ’• <. •
Ex. 2. Let the curve be the second cubic parabola of
which the equation is if zz ax1. In this case the general
formula gives  
dzzzdyJ 1 + ^ and z =: J(l + ^ + C.
This curve is perfectly rectifiable. Indeed it is the
evolute of the parabola (art. 81, ex. I).
Ex. 3. Let the curve be a circle (fig. 7), of which the
radius OA = a. Reckoning the co-ordinates from the
centre, let OQ = x, pQ — y, bV zz z. The equation
of the curve is a;2 + / = «*; kence y zz Va* — x*,
xdx adx
dy — —
and dz zz
~. This integral can-
’ Va2 — i2 Va2 — a2
not be otherwise expressed than by an infinite series. We
have already found it (art. 139, ex. 4) on the supposition
that the radius = 1; when the radius = a, we have only
to put - instead of x, thence we get
1 a
x5
1 x3 . L3
+ ~2'3cP‘^r 2.4 '5a4
1.3.5 x?
—C + &C.
h.
J ydx . zz Yh + Y'h + Y"h ....-{- Yw'
Leibnitz and his followers considered the integral fydx
as the sum of the infinitely little elements Yh, Y'h, &c.
Hence the origin of the terms integral, to integrate, in¬
tegration, &c. When h is infinitely little, and repre¬
sented by dx, the differential of x, then ydx is the dif¬
ferential of the integral.
Rectification of Curves.
160. We have found (art. 72) that z being any arc of
a curve referred to an axis by rectangular co-ordinates
2.4.6 7a6
There is no constant wanted; because, from the nature of
the case, z and x begin together.
From this example, also from ex. 2, art. 156, and ex. 4
art. 139, it appears that the quadrature, also the rectifica¬
tion of the circle, is equivalent to the determination of any
,   /. dx p dx
one of these integrals^ctev 1 — x2,T+Hf’
which is a problem in pure analysis, and which does not
seem to admit of a solution in finite terms. The solution
of that celebrated geometrical problem is therefore hope-
less. r i • i
Ex. 4. Let the curve be an ellipse (fig. 7), of wincn
the semitransverse axis OA = 1, the semiconjugate
— b, the eccentricity, which is VT-—bz, zz e. Lei 0 the
centre be the origin of the co-ordinates OQ = x, PQ — V >
and, reckoning the arc from the extremity of the esser
axis, let BP = z. By the nature of the curve, y —
  — bxdx
V' 1 — x2, therefore dy zz and
dzzzV dx1 + dif zz
dxs/l—(l—V-)x% _ dxfl—^f
Vl—xi
VI—X*
Inrfesi
fluxions.
The integral of this differential is of such a nature as
not to admit of being expressed either by arcs of a circle
i .lu Therefore it can only be expressed by in-
695
or logarithms,
finite series.
By the binominal theorem VT — eixt z=
1.1 , „ 1.1.3 „ „ 1.1.3.5
the tangent, and parallel to it draw the semidiameter CH, Inverse
winch wdl be the conjugate to that drawn from C through Method.
D ; and draw HK perpendicular to the axis. Let CA
1__! e*xl— — eixi-
— e6xr> -
esxs— &c.
2.4 ~ 2.4.6 ” " 2.4.6.B'
The terms of this series must now be multiplied each
dx
by ? and the integrals found, and their sum will
express the length of the arc z.
The integrals, leaving out the numeral co-efficients,
xln(Lv
will all have the form / ^therefore they will be
found by the second formula of article 137. Thus, putting
f for the arc whose sine is x, we have
/» dx
J^f=-5=9,
Vi — V
x^dx
fvi —X
x^dx
~c — x V i
+
1.3
1 <P>
y-. xytx r 1.3 \ 
vr^=-(i^+2T4^1-- +
1.3
274
&c.
These integrals being multiplied by their respective co¬
efficients, we have the elliptic arc z —
1.1.3
272.4.4
1.1.3.3.5
2.2.4.4.6.6 6
&c.)
+ xVl —x2)
. 1.1 4/. , . 1.3
+ irie {ix +2
, 1.1.3
(i^ + O3:3 + aTITe*)''1 ~ ^
2.4.6
“b &c.
Here no constant is wanted, because the functions on
both sides of = vanish when x 0, as they should.
If we make x = 1, then all the terms multiplied by
Vi—x2 vanish ; and as in this case 9 a quadrant rr
we get the elliptic quadrant AB —
, f, 1.1 9 1.1.3 .4 1.1.3.3.5
°*(l 2.26 2.2.4.4C 2.2.4.4.6.6*
This expression converges pretty fast when e is small,
but when e is nearly — 1, it is hardly of any use. To
have a complete solution, we ought to have another series
suited to the case of e rr 1 nearly. Our limits, however,
do not admit of our entering on its investigation here.
&c.^
The integration of the differential
dxV 1 — e2x5
, which,
VI—x2
putting <p for the arc whose sine = x, may be also ex¬
pressed thus, dipVl —e‘z sin2 <p, has greatly engaged the
attention of mathematicians. On this subject consult the
works quoted in the conclusion of our History of Fluxions,
page 640.
The length of a hyperbolic arc may be found exactly in
the same way as that of the ellipse from its equation
!/ = bVx1 — 1.
161. We shall here explain the remarkable property of
the ellipse, first discovered by Fagnano, as has been men¬
tioned, page 640, and which has proved the fertile germ
of some of the finest discoveries in the modern analysis.
In the ellipse ABa, let DE be a tangent at any point
D in the curve, draw CE from the centre perpendicular to
— 1> CB = 6, Vl — 62, the eccentricity, = e. Make the
Fig. 26.
perpendicular CE r= p, the tangent DE = t, the angle
ACE z= CHK — cp, and the arc AD rr z\ By the nature
of the ellipse, CA2-HKZ = CB2 (CA2 — CK2), that is, be¬
cause HK — CH cos 9, and CK = CH sin 9, CH2 cos2 9
= &2(1 — CH2 sin2 9), and hence i2 = CH2 (cos2 9 + Z*2
b
sin2 9) zz CH2 (1 —e2 sin29), and CH — ■ 0
Now, by the nature of the ellipse, CH =
snr 9
CA-CB b
CE
therefore p — Vi —e2 sin2 9. Now it has been shown
(art. 75) that in every curve d(z t) — pd<p, and
therefore z t = f pdp; hence, in the ellipse, z' t
—./ 9^ I — eZ s*n2 9’
In the semi-axis CA take CQ = CA • sin EGA zr sin 9,
draw the ordinate QP, and put z — elliptic arc BP. By
what was shown in last article, dz-=zd<pVi—e2 sin2 9,
and z-= f d<pVi—e~ sin2 9; thence it appears that the
functions P + ^and 2: have the same differential, therefore
they can only differ by a constant, that is, z' + £ zz z + C.
Now when z zz 0, then 9 = 0, and z' — 0, also Z = 0; there¬
fore the variables z, z', and ^ begin together, and the con¬
stant C = 0; thus we have s' + « = z and z — z' = t.
Hence we have this very remarkable property of an
ellipse. At any point D in the curve draw a tangent DE,
and from the centre C draw CE perpendicular to the
tangent. In CA take CQ = CA • sin ECA ; draw the or¬
dinate PQ. The difference of the elliptic arcs BP, AD
{that is, BP — AD), is equal to the tangent DE. This is
in substance Fagnand s theorem. Hence it follows that any
arc of an ellipse being given, another may be found by a
geometrical construction, such, that their difference shall be
an assignable straight line.
—dp
We have found (art. 75) that in all curves t =-^“
In
  dp —e2 sin 9 cos 9
the ellipse p = Vi—e sur 9 and _ —====.
Therefore, without any reference to the length of the
tangent,
e2 sin 9 cos 9
Z — 2} — —  r~^*
VI — e2 sin2 9
There are corresponding properties of the hyperbola,
but our limits forbid our entering on them.
Cubature of Solids.
162. Let AB be the axis of any plane curve APP', and
PQ, FQ' ordinates perpendicular to the axis; draw PH
perpendicular to the ordinate FQ', and PK perpendicular
to PQ. Conceive now the plane figure AFQ' to revolve
about the axis AB; the curve AP will generate a so ld
AFE'j-f, called a solid of revolution ; and the rectangles
696
fluxions.
7 V7
pnrvUT P'Q'QK will generate cylinders whose bases are
Method, cirdes PEP, PW. »"d coramon altitude QQ'’
Fig. 28.
Inve:<
Meth:
bxi
Put AQ = AQ' =x',m = y, P'Q' = y';the j01^
senerated by the space APQ = that generated by
^PQ/ _ y. Let ^ == 3-1416 = the area of a circle whose
radius is 1. The content of the cylinder whose base is
PE/; will be r:(x' — x)y\ and that of the cylinder whose
base is P'E'/f will be x)y • pnr, ,
The solid generated by the curvihneal space i olL
being greater than the cylinder whose base is PE/>, but
less tlian the cylinder whose base is PE'/f, we have
5 > ^ — x)y\ and s'—« < 5
*$ —— 8
therefore —— > ^y~i an(^ ~
dimensions; therefore cz : x* = b : v, hence v = and
/ bx^ vx
ds — ^,ordx, and by integration s = ^ + C + C.
od—x' * X — X
Conceive now the circle PE'// to approach continually
to the circle PE/>; they will ultimately coincide and be
$>   8
equal; therefore tf?/2 is the limit of and conse-
ds
— «yl
and
quenriy ^
ds — mfdx, and s =r rfifdx.
By this formula the content of a solid of revolution gene¬
rated by any given plane curve may be found.
163. Ex. 1. Let the solid be a paraboloid generated by
the revolution of a parabola AP about its axis AQ. By
the nature of the curve, ?/2 ax ; therefore, in this case,
s = irfaxdx ~ + C = ^ wxy- + C.
If the integral begin when x =: 0, then also s — 0 and
C = 0 ; now trxy2 is the content of a cylinder having the
same base as the paraboloid, therefore, a paraboloid is half
a cylinder of the same base and altitude.
From this geometrical theorem we may find the con¬
tent of the solid between two sections of a paraboloid by
planes perpendicular to its axis, which is called a frustum
of a paraboloid. Let A be the area of the base of the frus¬
tum, a the area of its top, h its height, x the segment of
the axis between the vertex of the paraboloid and top
of the frustum. The content of the whole paraboloid
= !(a? + A)A, and th0 content of the part cut off — \xa,
therefore the content of the frustum = ^(a?A + /iA—xa).
If x and s begin together, then C 0 and s = } vx.
Thus it appears that a cone of any kind is \ of its circum¬
scribing cylinder.
To find the content of a frustum of a cone, or space
between the base and a plane parallel to its base; put
A = area of base, a z= area of top, h = height of frus¬
tum, x = height of cone cut off above the frustum.
The content of the whole cone ^ (h x) K, and the
content of the part cut off = | xa, therefore the content
of the frustum = l (hA + xA —xa) - ^ A A + ^
A (x + hf V A _ a? + A
a ar a x
—   h, and a: (A — o) = /fa h.
jf A —
+ Afa) h — (V Aa + «) h. On the whole, the content of
the frustum =^(A + a + VAd) h.
Ex. 3. To find the content of a spheroid generated by
the revolution of an ellipse about either of its axes.
Fig. 29.
(A — a).
hence x
Let FQp be a section of the solid perpendicular to^the
fixed axis AB. Put AB = a, the revolving axis UE-O,
also AQ = x,~PQ = y. From the nature of the ellipse.
x “1“ lx A
Now by the nature of the solid rr —, hence xA—xa
x a
— Kr (ax — x2), hence s f (ax — x^dx _ flJ
—ha, therefore the content of the frustum is |(A + a)A.
Hence it appears that a frustum of a paraboloid is equal
to a cylinder of the same altitude, and whose base is a
mean between the top and bottom of the frustum.
Lx. 2. Let the solid be a cone whose vertex is A, and
base P'E//, a plane figure of any kind.
Let AB be the altitude of the cone, and PE/> a section
parallel to the base, meeting AB in Q. Let b — the area
of the base P'E'/?', v — area of section PE/?, c — AB,
x = AQ, s = content of solid A-PE/?. In this case,
ds — vdx, an expression the same as for a solid of revo¬
lution, and found in the same way. Now, sections of si¬
milar cones are proportional to the squares of their like
(1 aa?2 — i a-*) + C. ^ _ n If we
If we suppose s — 0 when x — 0, then L —
., ah'#  2 x
make x — a, then s, the whole spheroid, — g 5
area of middle section. Hence it appears that t e ?
solid is § of its circumscribing cylinder. This proposi
was discovered by Archimedes. . ,
If the axes a, b, be supposed equal, the solid is a sp
^ ^ CL
hence it appears that the content of a sphere — ga >
case, being the diameter.
3ing me uiameier. . , •
Ex. 4. Let the solid be a parabole sPin^ e^w
nerated by the revolution of APB, an arc of a Pal^ -
about ACB, an ordinate to its axis. From P aay P
FLUXIONS.
InvJj!
Metfi
Fig. 30.
697
the revolving curve, draw PQ perpendicular to the ordi¬
nate AB, and PR perpendicular to the axes of the para¬
bola. Make DC — p, AC = q, CQ = PR - x, PQ
= CR = y, the solid (between the sections DEF, PG/>)
= s. By the nature of the curve, PR2 : AC2 = DR : DC ;
f y>
that is, a?2 : q2
and ?/2 — —
p — y p; hence p x2 ■=. p<f
— 2j2^2 + a;4), and
cular to AB, and draw the chord PP'. Suppose now the
curve to revolve about its axis AB ; the arc APP' will ge¬
nerate a curve surface, to be found; the portion PPr of
the arc will generate an increment of that surface, which,
by an axiom in geometry, will be less than the sum of the
conical surfaces generated by the tangents PE, P'E, but
greater than the conical surface generated by the chord
PP. Put AQ r= AQ; = x', PQ = y, PQ' =/, EF = y",
arc AP — z, arc AP — z', surface generated by arc AP
= v, surface generated by arc AP' = v'.
By the elements of geometry, the surfaces generated
by the tangents PE P'E will be
t(PQ + EF) PE ~^(y + y") PE,
cr ( P'Q' + EF) PE = + y") PE,
and the surface generated by the chord PP' will be
<r (PQ + P'Q') PP' = *(y + T/) PP'.
Therefore v <C ’r{ (3/ + y") PE + {yr + y") P^E],
t/ — 0 > cr(y + y) chord PP',
and rLTL” < ^O + ./jPE+jy + yOP^
2? — z arc P'P
— r chord P'P
Now, the point P being supposed to approach to P',
VOL. IX.
P-
and
these quantities, one of which is greater than
the other less, become ultimately equal; for the lines
y> y"> y become equal, and (y + y”) PE + (7/ + y») PE
becomes (y + y) (P£+ P'E), and the fractions 1-E +FE>
arc P'P
chord PP'
are ultimately each = 1 ; therefore,
Inverse
Method.
arc PP'
.. . t/ — v dv
hmit —g = 2wy, and — = 2<ry ;
s = J ((fdx — 2q~x~dx -f tfdx)
= (<fx — I S'2-*3 + j ^r5) + C.
If the integral begin when a? = 0, then C z= 0. If we
make x — q, we get Y^pP-qv for half the content of the
solid generated by the curve ADB.
Surfaces of Solids.
164. Let AB be the axis of any plane curve APP', and
PQ, P'Q' ordinates to the axis ; draw PE, P'E tangents to
the curve at Pand P', meeting in E; draw EF perpendi-
Fig. 31.
A
hence, dv = 2mjdz — 2wy Vdx~ + dy~.
Now 2<ity expresses the circumference of the section
Pjo; hence it appears that the differential of the surface of
revolution is equal to the differential of the arc of the gene¬
rating curve multiplied by a section of the surface made
by a plane perpendicular to the axis.
165. Ex. 1. Let the solid be a sphere, of which the ra¬
dius is a. Then, making AQ=a?, PQzr y, the arc AP=z,
the surface of the segment cut off by the plane Pp z= v ;
the equation of the curve being y — >>/2ax — a:2, we have
^_adx-xdx + adx _adx
V2ax — a;2 V2ax — a;2 V
dv — 2<Ttydz — 2avdx, and the surface v — 2airx ;
here no constant is wanted, because we suppose that
when a; — 0, then v rz 0.
Since 2a‘jr is the circumference of a circle whose dia¬
meter is a, it follows that the curve surface of a segment of
a sphere is equal to a rectangle contained by a straight line
equal to the circumference of the sphere and the height of the
segment; and hence it follows, that the whole surface of
the sphere is four times the area of one of its great circles.
These conclusions were found by Archimedes.
Ex. 2. To find the surface of a paraboloid. Put AQ = ar,
PQ r: y, arc AP = z, curve surface generated by AP =
v, the parameter = 2a. We found (article 160)
_
a
dz
Vd? -f y2, hence,
2*
dv — 2<itydz — — ydyV dl y2,
and, integrating, v =-^^*yrf7/V'a2+y2=:^(«2+y)2 +C.
When v = 0, then y = 0; therefore, at the vertex we have
n 2‘ffa3 ,n , r 2ira3
3a 3a
therefore, substituting for C, we have
t; = |^{(a2+y2y — a3} = |cr{ya(2x + «)3 —«2}-
Rectification of Curves of Double Curvature.
166. Let CPD be a line of double curvature referred to
three co-ordinate planes YAX, ZAX, ZAY. From every
point in the curve let perpendiculars PF, &c. be drawn to
one of the planes, YAX ; these will all be in the surface of
a cylinder that meets the plane in a curve C'P'D, which will
be the projection of the proposed curve. Again, from P'
draw P'Q, P'R perpendicular to AX, AY. Let AQ = P'R
- All = P'Q = y, P'P - *, the arc CP = t>, its projec¬
tion C'F = vt: Then dd = (art 72). Sup¬
pose now the cylindric surface to be extended into a plane
surface ; the curve CPD will then be changed into a com¬
mon plane curve, and its projection C'P'D' into a straight
line of the same length as before. We may now consider
4 x
698
FLUXIONS.
Inverse
Method.
Fig. 32.
v> and s as co-ordinates of the curve v, and then dv
= Vdvn + dz2; therefore, by substituting for dvn its va¬
lue di? -j- dy1, we find  
dv = Vdx* + dif + dz2.
This is a general formula for the rectification ai^y ^ne
of double curvature. The nature of the line will be ex¬
pressed by two equations/(x, ?/) = 0, F {x, z) _ 0. h rom
these we find dy = Ydx, dz - Qdx, expressions in which
P and Q are functions of x only. Thus we have
dv —dx VI + P2 + Q2 = dxll, R being a function of the
single variable z. The integral v=fRdx may now be
found by the ordinary rules.
Integration of Differential Equations of two Variables.
167. Every differential equation of the first order which
contains only the single powers of dx and dy, has the form
M<£r + = 0, and it expresses the relation which
subsists between the variable x, the function y, and i.s
differential co-efficient The object of inquiry is to
discover, if possible, the primitive equation f (x, y) — 0,
which by differentiation may produce the proposed differ¬
ential equation.
168. The method which first presented itself to analysts
was to endeavour to separate the variables, so as to give
it the form Xcfo -{- Ydy - 0, X being a function of x
alone, and Y a function of y. When this can be done,
the differentials Xcte, Ydy are separately integrable, and
we have f Xdx+J* Ydy = C an arbitrary constant.
Let the equation be mydx -f- nxdy = 0 ; by dividing its
7iicl,cc Tidy
terms by xy, it is changed to j- —^ — 0. Ihe va-
x y
J* mdx /• ndy
riables are now separated, and we have y —jp -j- J
— m\. x n\. y — Q, or 1. (xm) + 1. (?/”) = C, or
1. (xmyn) zz. C. We may suppose C = 1. c, and then xmyn
r= c is the primitive equation.
The variables may be separated when the differential
equation has the form Xdy -j- Ydx 0, X being a func-
dx dy
tion of x, and Y a function of y ; for then -j- — 0.
169. The variables may always be separated in homo¬
geneous equations, the distinguishing property of which is,
that the sum of the exponents of x and y is the same in
each of its terms. For example, axmyndx -j- bxm~lyn+ldy
is a homogeneous equation ; because the sum of the ex¬
ponents of x and y ism -{- n in each term. Let Mdx -j-
NJy = 0 be a homogeneous equation. Make y = xz, then
M will take the form Zxm, and N the form Zxxm, Z and
Z x being functions of z only ; and since dy = zdx 4. xdz,
the equation will be, after dividing by xm, Zdx -j- Z1
(xdz + zdx) = 0, a result which may be put under the
form
dx Zxdz   _
a; Z -J- zZ j
from which we get
+ rjh* = c.
J x J Z + zZl
170. Ex. 1. Let us apply this transformation to the
equation xdx + ydy = nydx or (x — ny) dx + ydy — 0,
which, making y — xz, and therefore dy — xdz + zdx,
becomes # (1 — nz) dx + x2zdz + xz2dx — 0, or (1 —
<dx . p zdz __
— u,
Inveif
Methi
nz + z') dx + zdz = 0,any^+/f_„z + .2
or 1. x +fi ^ —- 1= C. This integral may be sim-
nz + z2
plified by observing that
zdz , 2zdz — ndz
1
I — nz + z2 2 1 — nz -V z2
for it then becomes
ndz
1 — nz + z2'
\.x + j 1. (1 —nz +z2) + i/j"
ndz
-C.
nz + z2
The integral which yet remains to be found will depend
on logarithms, if £ n > 1; on arcs of circles, if | n < 1;
and will be algebraical if ^ = 1. In each case it may
be had by the methods given for integrating rational frac¬
tions.
Ex. 2. Let it be proposed to integrate the equation
xdy — ydx dx Vx2 + x*.
By making y = xz, bringing all the terms to one side
of the equation, and dividing by x, we shall have dx
Vl + zl — xdz rr 0, and hence
dx dz   ^
x Vl + s2 _
and by the separate integration of each term,
  _ x
1. x
■ (z + v' 1 + z2) — 1. C, or
z + Vl +
- C.
and replacing z by its value x, there will result
 /==-= C, or —y + W + / = C;
y + vzs + r . ._f,
and hence again, by transposing y, and squaring, 1 -
+ 2Cy, which is the primitive equation.
The equation
(a 4- mx 4- ny) dx (b 9V) % =
which is not homogeneous in its present form, inay ®
transformed so as to become homogeneous. SSl^I1ti1p
= * 4- a, y = « + ft then dx = dt, dy = du, and the
proposed equation becomes , n
(a-lrmu-\-nfc-Ymt-sfnu)dt-Y(p'\‘Pa'itm9^JrPt'\'clu)
To make the constant terms disappear, we assume T
ma + n[3=0,b+p* + qP = 0, equations which deter
mine a and ft and then there remains the different q
tion
(mt 4- nu) dt 4- (pt 4- qu) du = 0,
which is homogeneous in respect of the new vaj'
and u. This transformation gives no result when 1
— np ~ 0, a case in which a and (3 become
but then q = ~ ; and consequently m (px + ©0 "
p (mx 4- ny). The proposed equation being changed to
adx .+ bdy + (mx + ny) (dx + = °’
Inw
Metl)
FLUXIONS.
we now make mx ny ■=. z, so that dy — — .
n
by substitution and proper reduction our equation now be¬
comes
(hm -j- yz) dz
dx +
= 0.
amn — bm* + m (n —p) z
The integral of this equation will contain logarithms, ex¬
cept in the case where n =. p, when it will be
, 2bmz + pz2 „
x + -—  = C.
tlm (an — bin)
171. The separation of the variables is easily effected
in the equation dy + Vydx =r Qdx, where P and Q de¬
note any functions whatever of x. Substituting Xz and
zdX + Xdz instead of y and dy, it becomes
zdX + Xdz + YXzdx = Qdx.
Here X denotes an indeterminate function of x, to which
we may give such a form as shall conduce to the separa¬
tion of the variables. For this purpose we make Xdz +
FXzdx = 0, which requires that zdX = Qdx. If we di¬
vide the first equation by X, it becomes dz + Pzdx = 0,
# . dz
from which we deduce — -p Pdx == 0, and 1. z + /Px
rr 0; and passing from logarithms to numbers, z—e ^ ^dx
(here e is the base of Napier’s logarithms), we neglect
the arbitrary constant in the mean time, as it will be add¬
ed at the end of the operation. Afterwards, deducing
the value of dX from the second equation, and substitut¬
ing it in the first, we shall have
dX = </Pdx Qdx, X = fJVdx Qdx + C,
and consequently,
y = e-^Pi'{/^P'Q* + C}
Ex. Let the equation be dy + ydx = ax? dx
P = 1, Q = ax?, f Pdx ~ x, efVdx = ex, eSVdx -
JefPdx Qdx = J'aex x?dx— aex (x? — 3a?2 + 6x —
therefore y — e x { aex{x? — 3a;2 -p Gx — 6) + C}
— Ce x -p a (x? — 3a?2 + 6a? — 6).
172. The early writers on the integral calculus classed
differential equations by the number of their terms. In
equations which had but two terms, and whose form is
consequently fiusz*dz — auzddu, the variables are se¬
parated immediately, since we thence deduce fizh~~fdz
z=au gdu. This however is not the case with equa¬
tions of three terms, which are expressed by the formula
yulzk dz -p 3ifzh du — ait z ^du.
This may be simplified by dividing the terms by yulzf,
it then becomes
then
6);
~^dz *p — ug'
Suppose now z
7
*-^z=
^ fdu — - ue ’ du.
7
dy r, , dx
W+l’
%f ldu —
9—i+l'
then we have z^ f ^ — y, ug'
i+1 = x,
and
dy + dx 4t±^>J-,e+ldx.
To abridge, let us put
(9 — i + 1) r’
h—f
n —  y 
~k-f+v
■(9-i+l)p
-/+ 1)*
(ff
i + 1) y
* + r
and the equation will become
dy + byndx — axmdx.
When n — \, the equation belongs to the class treated
of in last article. When ra rz 2, the equation is
dy + by-dx — axmdx,
which was first considered by an Italian geometer, liic-
cati, whose name it bears. When in — 0, the variables
are separable, and we have
d*=-Jnrr
a — by*
Proceeding from this case, analysts have succeeded in se¬
parating the variables when m is any number of the form
Atm
2- , ]» * being supposed an integer number. Riccati’s
equation was first considered by James Bernoulli, who
gave an approximate solution of it. (Jac. Bernoulli Opera,
p. 1053.) The general problem, however, remains yet
unresolved.
173. When a differential equation is the immediate re¬
sult of the differentiation of a known function, then that
function, put equal to C a constant, will be the integral
required. The differential equation xdy+ydx = 0 is of
this class; it is the differential of the product xy, there¬
fore the primitive equation is xy =: C. A differential equa¬
tion may, however, not be the immediate result of the
differentiation of a function of x and ?/; it may be formed
by the elimination of some constant quantity contained
in the function and also in its differential (art. 54); or it
may be the result after the differential of the primitive
has been divided by some factor common to all its terms.
Thus, if the primitive be y = cx, or y — cx z= 0, the dif¬
ferential equation is dy — cdx — 0. If however we elimi¬
nate c by the usual algebraic process, we find xdy—ydx=0,
an expression which is not the immediate result of any
differentiation. The same result will be obtained if the
primitive x = cy be put under the form ^ — c; for then,
by differentiating, ^ — p, and, rejecting the fac¬
tor Ar> ydx — xdy — 0. This expression is not an exact
differential; however, it becomes so by restoring the fac-
tor —, and then it is the differential of
yz y
174. In general let u — f(x, y) be the primitive equa¬
tion, the differential being du = Mcfa; + Ndjy, where M
denotes that is, the differential co-efficient found on
dx
the supposition that x is variable and y constant, and N
denotes the co-efficient taken on the reverse hypo-
dy
thesis of y being variable and x constant; now we have
found that —yr^r (art. 89); therefore, if Mefo + Nrfy
dxdy dydx
be the differential of u — fix, y), then
dM _ dN
dy dx 
Hence, If Mdx + Ndy is an exact differential, the con¬
dition expressed by formula (1) will always be satisfied.
And, conversely, if M and N are such functions of x and y
that — = then Mdx + Ndy shall be an exact dijffer-
dy dx
ential, and in every case its integral may be found. Ibis is
called the Condition of Integrability.
To prove the second part of the proposition, let us sup-
699
•(1)
Inverse
Method.
■00
fluxions.
Inverse pose that the integral of MA is taken on the supposmon
Method, [hat in the function M, x is variable and constant, ant
let the integral be P + Y, where Y is any function of y,
which comes in the place of the indeterminate constant
that enters into every integral, and P is a known func¬
tion of x and y, which results from fMdx relatively to x
, w/r dP
only, so that M z= ^ •
dP
The complete differential of P + Y is (art. 91)
dP
dx + — dy + dY, or Udx + ^ dy + dY. By compar-
dy ay
ms this with the differential Udx+ Nrfy, it appears that
5 dP
if such a value he given to Y that Ncfy = dy + dY, or
that
dY=(N-f)rfy :"(2)
then the integral of Mdx+ my will be P+Y. Now, by
. ^ dP. „ , dYl _ d*P
differentiating M= ^ in respect ofy, we have
rfM rfN , d*P d*P . f eQ.
^fe=&%(art-89>>
. aivi ai-s ,
but by hypothesis and
, „ rfN d2P , dN
therefore —t~ — » unci ,
ax axdy ax
d~p
dxdy
— 0, that is,
d(N — = 0, the differential being taken supposing
dP .
du ~   dx ■
z2 + y2
therefore M =   ,
a? + ?/ ’
N =
x2 + y2
x
idy>
^2 + y2’
y‘
x* —yx
dy ~ (x* + jff’ ~ + y2)2*
Differentiating, and considering the whole as variable, Inver
du;
ydx — xdy
+ dY.
x only to be variable ; therefore N — 's constant *n re"
and therefore ^zSLdZ
x2 + y2
is an exact differential.
To determine the integral, we have
=^=/i^=/I
dx
y
whence u ■=. tan-1 - + Y
y
x2 + y
This, compared with the proposed differential, shows that
d Y = 0, and Y = C a constant.
Ex. 2. To find the integral of the differential
du =( 2y'lx + 3y3) dx + (2x2y + Qxy2 + Sy3) dy.
In this example, M —2y2x + 3y3, N=2xsy + 9xy2+8y3,
f = 4^ + V = f-; .
the proposed function is therefore a complete differential.
Integrating in respect of x, we find
fMdx — y2x2 + 3y3x + Y,
and u = y2x2 + Sy’x + Y.
Differentiating this expression in respect of y,
|‘=2^ + 9^+~
but we had ^ = 2x2y + 9xy2 + 8y3;
ay
dY p
therefore, — By3, andY =J 8y3dy =2^ + 0,
and consequently the integral is
w — y2 x2 + 3y3x + 2y* + C.
175. If in the equation Mt/x + Ncfy — 0, the condition
. dM dN . . , ,
of integrability, viz. 18 not satisfied, we may
Methj
spect of x, and is a function of y only; hence the possibility
of finding Y =/(N-^> is proved, and we have the
integral of Mrfx+Nrfy expressed by P +
and here P r= fMdx, the integral being taken on the sup¬
position that y is constant.
We may begin with finding the integral of Nc?y, sup¬
posing x to be constant, proceeding in all respects as has
been explained. In general we ought to begin with the
term which brings out the integral with least calculation.
Ex. 1. It is proposed to find whether the differential
ydx—xdy .
'——— satisfies the condition of integrability, and, if it
x ~t y
does, to integrate it.
We put the differential under the form
next inquire whether some factor, a function of x andy,
can be found by which the expression Mdx + Nflly can
be rendered a complete differential.
dy
Let the equation be put under the form ^ + K = 0,
M
where K rz —. This equation is the result of the eli¬
mination of a constant quantity c between a primitive
equation, which maybe represented byJ{x,y,c) = 0 and
its immediate differential. Or else c may be eliminated
directly by bringing the primitive equation to the form
F(x, y) — c, which will lead to the same result (art 53).
Put u for F(x, y), also Pdx for the differential of u taken
relatively to x, and Qdy for its differential relatively to y,
du
so that du zz Pdx + Qdy, and — = P + Q
$ = 0,
dx
therefore P + = 0.
Since this equation does not
dy
contain C, it ought to be identical with the equation ^
+ K — 0
i c dy \ v dy i P P<fo + Qdy , . dy
therefore — + — = ’ 111311S’ dx
dx
du
dx Q
Qdx
+ K =: -pffr, and hence
Qax
The condition of integrability is in this case satisfied,
Q(<7y + Kdx) rz du.
Now the second side of the equation is a complete in¬
tegral ; hence it appears that there is always a factor Q.,oy
which, if the differential equation dy + Kdx — b be multi¬
plied, the result will be a complete integral.
Let both sides of the equation be multiplied by L> any
function of U, and we have
\]Ql(dy + Kdx) zz mu.
Now \}du is still a complete differential, and as the fac¬
tor UQ may have an infinite variety of forms, it follows
that there are an infinite number of factors, such that if a
differential equation be multiplied by any one of them, i
will be a complete differential.
F L U X I O N S.
ftflif?
5ie#.
Since it appears that when the equation M«fe+N<^ = 0
does not satisfy the condition of integrability, it is because
differentiation and subsequent elimination of the arbitrary
constant have caused a factor to disappear, which, if it
were known and restored, would render the expression
a complete differential, the discovery of that factor is a
most important problem in the calculus. Its solution, how¬
ever, transcends the present powers of analysis, although
it can be resolved in particular cases. When the func¬
tions M and N are homogeneous, the factor can be found;
but that case can always be integrated as has been ex¬
plained. When the variables can be separated, a multi¬
plier can be found, but then it is not wanted. It can also
be found when the equation has the fovm dy+Yydx=zQ.dx;
but this also can be integrated by other means.
Euler, who has entered deeply into this subject, has
reversed the problem ; and, in his Calculus Integralis, sup¬
posing the integrating factor given, has investigated the
nature of the functions which must enter into a differen¬
tial equation of a given form, in order that it may be in¬
tegrate. These investigations, however, frequently lead
to differential equations, which cannot be integrated by
any known method; and the cases in which they are suc¬
cessful are of no great importance or extent.
176. Let M be any function of a1 and y, and let w = fMdx,
the integral being taken on the supposition that x is va¬
riable and y constant: it is sometimes required that the
du
differential co-efficient — be found; or, in other words,
dy
that the differential of flsldx relatively to y be found
without having actually integrated the expression rela¬
tively to x. Because u — f Wdx, therefore =M, and
dru dM , -d^u d2u , , - d?u
dy ’ dxdy dydx v ' dydx
dx, and kitegrating relatively to x,
dy
701
dxdy
dM , d~u
— 9 cind j
dy dy
du /»c(IVT 7
Ty=JlTidX-
Ex. Let u
=/;
ydx
dM
dy
vy-
. du /»
’“d*=y:
here M —
■ x^dx
Vy~
5*
■ xiy2
V — fXdx ; but if the equation be more easily resolvable Inverse
with respect to x than with respect to the co-efficient Method.
which we will represent by p, and if we have also
•t- — P, a function ofy?, and thence dx ~ c?P; then, since
dy — pdx, therefore dy ~ pd\\ and y — pF—f^dp. The
relation between x and y is now to be found by eliminat¬
ing p by means of the equations
x=P, y — Pp —fPdp.
Let us take as an example xdx + ady = b VTlx1 -{- dy2,
or x -{■ ap — b Vl + pl, by writing join the place of
dx
This last equation gives immediately x = — ap +
bVi + jt?2, and consequently
y = bp V l + pl — \apl ~b f dp Vl -f p\
179. When the primitive equation cannot be deduced
from the differential equation by^any of the known artifices
of analysis, then, as a last resource, recourse must be had
to approximation by infinite series.
Ex. Let the differential equation be dy + ydx z= mxndx,
and suppose it to be known that when x = a, then y — b:
we now make x z= a -p t, y — b + u, the equation
by this transformation becomes du -p (b -p u)dt —
m (a + t)ndt. We now assume that
u — k.ta + P>ta + 1 + QtK + 2 + &c.
and hence, putting instead of u and du their values, and
bringing the terms to one side, we have
akf- 1 + (a + l)B*a+ (a + 2)Cta + 1 + &c. ]
+ b
+
Kta
■ man — m —an~lt-
+ Bf
n(n — 1) „
a + 1
+ &C.
H2
In this equation we must suppose a — 1
shall then find
, , _ mnan ~1 — man + b
A = man _ 1 — b, B = 
[=0.
— &C.J
= 0, and wTe
=, and
C' =
mn(n — \ )an
1.2
miian ~~1 + nian — b
1.2.3
&c.
(y2—x2y (if
The theorem investigated in this article was found by
Leibnitz, and was reckoned an important discovery in the
calculus. (See Bossut, Traite du Calcul Diff. &e. vol. ii.
P- 58.) _ . , . .
177. The elimination of a constant contained in a pri¬
mitive equation may introduce the second or higher powers
of the differentials into the resulting differential equation
c dy
(art. 53): in such cases we must find the values ot ^
by the resolution of an equation.
dy2 , ,
For example, if dy2 — a^dx2 — 0, or — a , we have
z= a and dy + adx — 0, also dy — adx — 0; there¬
fore y-pax-pc — 0 and y — ax-pd — 0 are two primitive
equations, from each of which the differential equation
may be derived ; also from their product (y "P ax 1 c)
(y— ax-pd) z= 0. _
178. When the equation contains only one of tne va¬
riables, x for example, we deduce from = ^ an(^
These values being substituted in the series, we have u
expressed by t and known quantities; we may then put
x a for t, and y — b for u, and the result will express
the relation between x and y.
In the series assumed for the value of u, the expo¬
nents of t form an arithmetical progression, of which
the common difference is 1. In many cases, however,
the common difference will be a fraction, as in this ex¬
ample, (dx -P dy)y — dx. Here we assume
y — Axa+ Bx6+ Ca:c+ &c.
By proceeding as before, there is obtained
A2 ax
— 1 + ABcra;0+6 1 + ACaxa + c ~1 + &c. ^
+ Wbx
— 1
+ ABfia;
+ Ax'
a+&—1 _L Tt2/,-r26—1 + &c. U
+ ACcxa + c—1 + &C. |
+ Bx6 +&cJ
Hence 2a— 1 = 0, a + b—l = a, a + c—1 - b,&c.;
therefore a = p b = 1, c = &c.
Again, A2a = 1, AB (a + ^) + ^ ’ c’
Hence A = \/2, B = — f. C = TV V2’ &c‘
and y — x^ t/2 — § x*-p >/2 - &c.
On the integration of differential equations by series,
consult Euler, Instil. Cal. Integ. vol. 1. sect. 2; Lacroix,
du Calcul Diff. part ii. chap. 6.
1
702
FLUXIONS.
Inverse Differential Equations of the Second and Higher Orders.
> 180. The difficulty of the integrations becomes so much
the greater the higher the order of the differential co¬
efficients which they involve, and we only succeed in ef¬
fecting it in a very small number of very limited equations.
Let the expression
f(x, y, c, d) = 0 (1) _
represent any primitive equation composed of the variables
x, y, and two constant quantities c, d, besides any °the)
constants. By differentiation (as explained art. 48-54,),
there is formed its differential equation of the first order,
which will contain Let this differential co-efficient be
represented by p, and = ’ The dlfferen'
tial of the first order will contain x, y, p, c, dy and may be
represented by
/' (x, y, p, c, £) = 0   (2)
By differentiating this equation we obtain another wnicn
contains also = q, and may be expressed by
/' 0> P< <b c,y) = 0          (3)
Since these three equations must hold true at once, we
may eliminate the constants c, d, and the result will be
a single equation,
Y (x,y,p,q) ■=. Q   
in which c, d are not found. This will be the differential
equation of the second order, deducible from the primi¬
tive (1), and which is independent of the constants c, d.
We may arrive at the very same equation (4) in two
other ways. We may give the primitive (1) these forms:
<p(x,y,c) = d,' (x, y, d) z= c,
from which, by differentiation, two results will be obtain¬
ed, one entirely free from d, and the other from c: these
again may have the forms
<p’ (x, y, p) = c, 4/' (x, y,p) = d.
By taking now the differentials of these equations, we
shall obtain the very same equation from each, which
will be identical with equation (4).
For example, let the primitive equation be
x* — 2ax + 2by — 0,
in which a and b represent the constants c, d; by differ¬
entiation, we find
*-“ + 4=0’ 1 + tg = °-
After eliminating a and b by the three equations, we
have this differential equation,
%
2x%- + x'~1n = 0-
dx dxl
may not be found in the differential equation of the second Im»
order derived from it, so, reversely, in returning from adif- Met
ferential equation of the second order to its absolute pri-
mitive, the latter cannot be complete utiless it contain two ar¬
bitrary constants, which are not in the former ; and as the
same differential equation of the second order may be ob¬
tained from two distinct differential equations of the first
order, it follows that every differential equation of the se¬
cond order has two distinct differential equations of the first
order, each haring its own arbitrary constant; and these
again have one and the same absolute primitive equation.
The properties of differential equations of the third and
higher orders are perfectly analogous to these.
182. The most simple differential equation of the se-
dzy
cond order is = X, a function of x; then J'Mx.
Let P be the variable part of the integral fXdx, and c the
constant, so that ^ =r P + c; hence again dy = Ydx +
cdx, and by a second integration, y — fYdx + c* + d.
Since fYdx — Px — fxdP = xfXdx — fxXdx, therefore,
y — xfXdx — fxXdx ex d.
The primitive of the differential equation d3y — Xdx?
— 0 may be found in the same way. We first put it under
the form
dzy _
dx1
Xdx ; then we have by a first integration
<~-^—JXdx rr P + c; and hence ^ = Pdx + cdx; by
a second integration, — fPdx + car + P z= P' -f
car + c; here P' = fPdx. We have now cfy zr Y'dx +
cxdx + ddx; and lastly, y — fP'dx + |-car2 + dx + d.
The primitive thus containing three arbitrary constants:
a like differential equation of the fourth order would con¬
tain four, and so on.
183. When a differential equation of the second order
involves and and constants; if we put —p,
dx dx2 1 dx
S/'ii dj)
then, regarding dx as constant, ; the equation
will now involve p, dp, dx and constants; and it will be
of the first order, in respect of ja and x. We may thence
find dx — Ydp, P being here put for some function oip;
and since dy — pdx — Ypdp, we have
x — fPdp, y — fPpdp.
These integrals being found, and a constant added to
each, by eliminating p, we find an equation expressing
the relation between x and y.
We may otherwise put the primitive equation under ^x* integrate the equation
these forms:
(dx~ + dy1)2 _
dxd2y
By
x
- 2ax
■. — 2b.
laking now the differentials, and arranging the results
so that the constants may stand alone, and putting p in¬
stead of we have
dx
= 24, g^~J>
= 2a.
pear
y — xp y—xp
By differentiating either of these, the constants disap-
ar, and in each case the result is the same, viz.
181. Since two of the constants in a primitive equation
putting pdx for dy, and dpdx for dfy, the equation is
changed to — = a, from which we deduce
dx = aif 3, iy = fdx = -^t- .
(i + py (i+/)2
The integration gives
ap , a
y = d  
c -f
VI + p1
V\ p2
Hence (c — xf + (y — df — a2.
The proposed differential equation is nothing more than
the general expression of the radius of curvature (art. /
made equal to a constant quantity a. We have resolve
the geometrical problem, to find a curve whose radius o
fluxions.
curvature is a constant, and found it to be a circle, as was
obvious.
184). We may remark, that the equation a; = C+ and
«/ P
dy=U + J'-p-, severally satisfy the differential equa-
tion ^ rr P; and that, by supposing their second mem¬
bers integrated, they will be only of the first order. This
agrees with what was observed, art. 181, viz. that there
are two equations of the first order which satisfy a differ¬
ential equation of the second order.
185. Let us now consider differentials of the form ^ — Y
dx2 ’
Y representing any function of y. If we make dy — pdx,
we thence deduce dx = —, which gives —^
p fo dx2 ~dx~ dy '
Substituting this in the proposed equation, there results
from itpdp = Ydy ; by integrating, we find p~ — 2/Ydy,
C, and hence
VC+T/Y^. and * =/^=^+C-
It is proper to observe that the above integration may
be effected by multiplying the proposed equation by dy,
for thence we find ^ — Ydy ; and since — d^-,
dx dx J dx dx
we have 1%,= jYdy + C, or ^ - V2 C + 2/Ydy.
Ex. Let the equation be d2y Vay ~ dx2; we shall have
d-y 1 dy cPy _ dy
dx2 ~ V ay' dx’ dx ~ V ay *
d2x
703
^ = Q, and in which dy is constant, may be treated in Method6
the same way as that in art. 183, by making ~ = g, and ' ^
cPx   dq ^
~dy2 ~ 'dy 11 may also educed immediately to the
^°rm dx2 ~ Passing by the formula of art. 93, to the
hypothesis of dx being constant, which will be effected by
the substitution of in place of
If the proposed equation had been taken on the suppo¬
sition ofVdx2 + dy2 being constant, and if it involved only
dx, dy, dhy, or dy, dx, dx1, it might still be treated in the
same manner as that of art. 183, after transforming it into
one in which dx was constant.
187. When the equation contains ^ and the
dx2 dx
viable x, it may, as before, be transformed into a differen¬
tial equation of the first order, by-substituting pdx for dy,
and dpdxfor d2y ; then, if the primitive of that differen¬
tial equation, and thence the value ofp in terms of x, can
be found, we may have the value of y from the formula
y —fpdx ; or else, if we have the value of x in terms of
p, then, becausey/Kfa = px —fxdp, we shall have y = px
—fxdp.
Ex. Let the equation be
_ (dx~ + d2yy2 _ v _ (1 +p2)*dx
dxd 2y - A 01
where x denotes a given function of x ; then
-dp and/J+C=^-
va-
= X,
X
and, by integrating,-i
2  
-Vay+ C; changing C into
O+p2)*
Let V represent f^X
V1 pr
V
2c
icpn-sjtm.j -I- C, then p — — ■
Ydx
and
we shall deduce from thence
dy2 4- . , .
= 7^ + c>’
2dx
A\/a
dy
dx1 y'av v ^ J' 4y/a Ve + y'?/
Now, making c + y'y rr z, there will result
(lri>
and finally,
= f 22 — + c'rrf(V'y—a^-v/c + y'y. + c'.
y —jpdx+ C' = ^_ =r + C'; ^ is now expressed by
means of x only. This is the analytical solution of the geo¬
metrical problem to find the nature of a curve whose ra¬
dius of curvature shall be a given function of x, the absciss.
: 2 )dz
If we suppose Xrr^, then
^ -dx2~- a? —(x2 + c2)2
2x
X2 c
— p p2xdx x2 „
 =f-ir=;+c’
(x2+c)dx
VI + P
and y rr ■ *
J Jv{a‘
(tf+c)2}’
here c is put generally for an indeterminate constant.
This is the equation of the elastic curve.
188. If the proposed differential equation is composed
of ^|, and y, we may, as before, put P=^ from
. d2y dp pdp ,
which we get rr — rr ; the equation will now
involve dp, dy’, p and y only. When the primitive equa¬
tion can be found, and thence the value of p in terms of
186. Wehaveseen in the differential calculus, art.93, that
beyond the first order the form of the differentia] equa¬
tions would be changed, according as x or y, or even a
function of these quantities, was assumed as the indepen¬
dent variable ; which comes to the same thing as assuming
that dx, or dy, or a given function of these variables, was
constant. It is therefore necessary, in integrating equa¬
tions which exceed the first degree, to know upon which
of these hypotheses it has been calculated. The preced- y, we may find ^ by the formula x =J ; but when y
Jog examples all correspond to the case of y being a func- "
hon of*, and consequently of dx being constant; but it
j be easy to discover, among relations deduced relative-
fe/0(]0^ler ^yP0^leses> t0 which of them they may bere¬
ft is immediately evident that, if we represent by Q
is expressed by p, we may then employ the formula
, = £ + f'A.
p J p2
189. Differentials of the second order, which have this
form,
any function whatever of every equation of the form
g + rg + Q^K,
704
Inverse
Method.
FLUXIONS.
in which P, Q, R are any functions of z, are called linear,
also equations of the first degree, because y is on!y pf one
dimension. It will easily be understood that the difficul¬
ty of finding the primitive equation will be greater than
in the like equation of the first order; and, indeed, except
in particular cases, there is no known method ot reducing
the5integration to the finding of the differential ol a sin-
<r\e variable; that is, to the quadrature of a curve. I
— o, in which case the equation is
dfi ,
dx- ^ dx
+ Qy — 0,
it may be reduced to a differential equation of the first
degree, by a very simple transformation. Let e, as usual,
denote the base of Napier’s logarithms ; assume y = e-> ,
then, regarding x as constant, we have
dy z= udxefudx, dI 2y = efudx (dudx + u2dx2) :
the value of % and rf2?/being substituted in the equation,
and the common factors rejected, it becomes
du + O2 + P« + Q) <& = 0.
When P and Q are constants, which may be represented
bv A and B, the equation becomes
du + (m2 + Am + B) = 0 ;
in which the variables are separated, if we give it the
form
du +dxzz 0.
and making C -p C' — (c c')V’ 1 — d,
y — eaX (c cos f3x+d sin fix) ;
or, making c — p sin q, d — p cos q,
y — peax sin (fix + x).
When the roots a and ft are equal, the value of y being
reduced to
Ce*x+C'eax = (C + C)eax,
it becomes incomplete. In this case we may proceed, as
in art. 58, by supposing that a and ft differ by a very
small quantity. Let us suppose that ft = a + ft, there
thence results
y - Ceax + C'eax+kx =eax(C + C'ekx) :
developing according to the powers of ft, we have
k2x?
y = eax(C + C'+ Ckx + C' —£- + &c.)
uz -p Am "p B
As it is merely necessary to satisfy this equation, we may
make m = m, m being any constant; then du ■= 0, and ?m2
+ Am + B = 0. This last equation gives, in general,
two values of m; if we represent them by a and ft, we
shall have two values of fudx ; viz. ax + c and bx + d,
and hence we have two values of y, viz.
or, putting C + C' = c and dk — d
y — eax(c -P c'x -p ^ft ^ + &c.)
This last expression, which satisfies the proposed equa¬
tion for all values of ft, agrees with it likewise if ft = 0, oi
bz=a; and, in that case, it becomes
y — ex (c-\-dx).
190. When P and Q are variable quantities, functions
of x, then if v and d are two values of y which each sa¬
tisfy the equation
+ p ^ + cvy = o,
dxL dx
y-e
ax + c
v —
bx -j'd
or, putting C for ec, and C' for e
d
we may take
y = cv + dv
for the complete primitive equation. For then dy = cdv
+ cdv', dry = cdrv + cdrv, and the differential equation
becomes
y - Ceax, y = Oehx
These, however, are only particular values of the func- ]sTow, by hypothesis
tion y, because each contains only a single arbitrary con¬
stant; but by adding them, we get
y ~ Ceax + C ex
as the complete primitive equation.
To prove this, by differentiating, we get
+«'’)+'’(S+s + Qt')=0-
f!! + P^+Q„
dx2 dx
0^-+pl’+Q^=0-
^ - aQeax -p bCex,
dx
^K}= a2 Ceax + ft2 C'e 5r‘
dx*
From these and the above primitive equation, we have,
after eliminating C and C',
dfiy
dx?
+ (‘‘ + 4>t-
■ aby — 0.
This will agree with the proposed equation, if we give a
and ft such values that « -p ft = P, aft := — Q.
If a and ft come out impossible quantities, the exponents
of a and ft in the value of jy will have the form
a in « + /3 V—1, b — a, — fiV — 1;
we have then
y — CeaX + ^ ^ —1 -p C'e**—^XA^ — 1
- eax (c^~ 1 + C'e“^^—1),
This result is rendered real by eliminating the imagi¬
nary quantities, by means of sines and cosines; thus we
have (Algebra, art. 269),
e0X\/ 1__ cog
-fixy1' 1__ cos ^
y — e“r{(C + C') cos fix+(C
I sin fix,
—1 sin fix,
-C)V — 1 sin fix] ;
Therefore the equation is identical, and so the value ofy
is truly determined.
As an example of the integration of a differential equa¬
tion of the second degree, see the article Arch (art. ol).
191. We shall now give an example of the integration
of a differential equation of the first degree and the se¬
cond order.
Let the equation be
d y -p axnydx2 — 0.
If we suppose
y= Axa + Bxa + *+ Cxa + 2 S + &c.
and that the series of exponents is an increasing one,
or that S is positive, we may, when x is supposed very
small, conceive y to reduce itself to its first term, s*nt7
the others are too small to be compared with this tirs •
On this supposition, we may confine ourselves to as
suming
y z= Axa; then cPy = a (u — 1) Axa dx ,
and the proposed equation will become
a(a — 1) A** 3 + aAx* + n = 0.
It is not possible to determine a so as to make the two
exponents a — 2 and a -p w equal, except in t ic P®
cular case of n = — 2; but the exponent ot * De °
greater in the second term than the first, we may n ^ ^
one of these terms in comparison with the other , al\ •
equation may then be verified in two ways ( y apP
logarithmic tangents of half the complements of the lati- Inverse
tudes, a rule easily found from the preceding solution; Method.
ut the difficulty of proving this was then considered so
great, that Mercator offered to wager a sum of money
against any person that should undertake to prove it either
true or false. James Gregory, however, proved it in his
hxercitationes Geometrical, published in 1668; also Bar-
row, in his Geometrical Lectures: their demonstrations,
however, were intricate. Afterwards Dr Wallis and Dr
Halley gave demonstrations which were sufficiently sim¬
ple and elegant.
* mation), viz. by making a = 0, and a 1, since upon
b either hypothesis the term a(a — 1) Aar* — 2 (the great¬
est in the equation) vanishes : A, therefore, remains inde¬
terminate, and we have two series, one beginning with A,
and the other with Ax.
If we take successively
y = A + + cx~^ + &c.
y- A*1 + S+ Ba;1 + 2S + c*1+2S + &c.
and substitute for y these values, and for d?y its corre¬
sponding values, we shall then find, by properly arranging
the terms, that 5 must be = 2; and, in either case, deter¬
mining the values of the co-efficients A, B, C, &c. we ar¬
rive at these two series,
aA*w + 2 a* A*2 M + 4
(rc+l)(rc + 2)+ (n + !)(# -f. 2)(2n + 3)(2» + 4)
 a3As^n + 6
— (» + 1) (rc + 2) (2n + 3) (2n + 4) (3n -j- 5) (3n + 6)
+ &c.
iT aAxn + 3 a*Ax2n + 5
(n + 2)(n+3)+ (n + 2)(n +3)(2n + 4>)(2n + 5)
 a3A3 ” + 7
(» + 2) (n -f 3) (2« + 4) (2n + 5) (3n + 6) (3n + 7)
+ &c.
These developments are only particular cases, since
they contain each but one arbitrary constant A ; but, on
account of the particular form of the proposed example
(189), we shall obtain a general expression for y, by
writing in the latter of them Aj for A, and taking their
sum.
Having now given as full a view of the principles of the
fluxional calculus as we conceive to be compatible with
the nature of our work, we shall conclud with a few
more examples of its application to geometry.
Problem 1.
To find the length of the enlarged meridian in Mer¬
cator s, or rather Wright's projection of the sphere.
In this projection, the meridians and parallels of lati¬
tude are straight lines, which intersect each other at right
angles; and the projection of any small arc of a meridian
(as one minute), reckoned from any parallel, is to the pro¬
jection of a like arc of longitude in that parallel, as radius
to the cosine of the latitude of the parallel, that is, in the
same ratio as the arcs themselves in the sphere. Supposing
the radius of the sphere to be unity, let v be any arc of
latitude reckoned from the equator, z its projection on the
chart, or the enlarged meridian. Let v' and z! be any
small increments of v and z; then, by the principles of the
projection,- — —- ^; therefore, putting the ratio of the
differentials for the limit of the ratio of the increments, —■
dv
—. ^ dv
~ coTw’ ani^ =: ~ s v' Therefore, taking the integral
(art. 155), z~\, (tan (45° -j- ^v)}. Here no correction
panted, because when v — 0, then 2 = 1. (tan 45°)
" • 0) = 0, as it should be.
Henry Bond, in the year 1650, discovered, by chance,
at t‘le enlarged meridian might be expressed by the
Problem 2.
If any number of straight lines are drawn according
to some determinate law, it is required to find the na¬
ture of a curve to which these are tangents.
For example, let AE be a straight line given by posi¬
tion, and K a given point without it; let any number of
lines KD, KD', &c. be drawn to meet AE in D, D', &c.;
and let perpendiculars DC, D'C', &c. be drawn to these
lines; it is required to find the nature of the curve ACC',
to which these perpendiculars are tangents.
Without attending to the particular case, we shall re¬
solve the general problem, and suppose AE to be the axis of
Fig. 33.
the curve, A being the origin of the co-ordinates, and CD
any position of the tangent, which meets the axis in D.
From the point of contact C draw the perpendicular CB;
and, considering C as a point in the curve, put AB = x,
BC = y ; but again considering C as any point whatever
in the tangent, put AB = ^, BC = y’. Then, whatever
be the conditions that determine the position of the tan¬
gent, the relation of a/and y', the co-ordinates of any point
in it, may be expressed by the equation y = Pa/ + Q,
where P and Q are put to denote generally certain func¬
tions of constant quantities, and some quantity p, which
has the same value for any given position of the tangent,
but which changes its value if the tangent changes its
position. For example, p may express the angle which
the tangent makes with the axis, or it may represent the
subtangent BD, &c.
Let us now suppose that the variable quantity p chan¬
ges its value, and becomes p + h, and that C' D' is the
new position of the tangent corresponding to p h;
then, considering P and Q as functions of p, by Taylor’s
theorem (art. 31),
„, „ dP, d?P A2
P becomes Y JL — h + -r-r — + &c.
1 dp 1 dp~ 2
^ u ^ rfQ , <PQlW c
Q becomes Q + — A -4- -— — 4- &c.
‘ dp 1 dp2 2
The relation of xl to y' in the new position of the tangent
will now be expressed by the equation
y = r* + q + (*| *-+!|) a + k + &>,
Where KA2 + &c. is put for all the remaining terms of
the series.
Now, as this equation holds true of every point in the
4 u
706
Inverse
Method.
! '
fluxions.
tangent C' D' and^equation y = »+ VSe
inteSionof the two tangents, botl^equattons must he
true at the same time; therefore at c we ha e
/'£Pa' + ^V‘ + KA,+ &C- = 0;
\dp dp)
and,dividing by*.f^ + f+^+&c. = 0..::;.
Conceive now the two tangents to approach to corn^
dence ■ when C' comes to C, then c will also fall at C , amt
7 and’all the terms into which it enters, vanish ; also _
and y become^ and y.- and, to determine the nature of
the curve, we have these two equations . n\
^ = P* +    
dF dQ  (2)
0 ~ dpX ^ dp  . .
By eliminating p from these, the resulting equation will
express the nature of the cuive. _ « »-p
Ex 1. Let us now recur to the particular case >
a straight line given by position, K a given point, and
KDC a right angle: Draw KA perpendicular to A ;
t -r BC = V, KA = a, and let AD be the varia¬
ble quantity V The triangies KAD, DEC are manifest¬
ly similar; therefore KA : AD _ DB . BC, tha ,
i P •£!
p — x —p :y ; hence ay = px p2? ant d — ax a'
Compare this with equation (1), and it will appear that
« »‘2 . r ^P 1 . hence
P = f»Q = -^’therefore-^==a’
the nature of the curve is expressed by the two equations
P P\
The second of these equations gives p =z ; and hence
the first becomes 2/ = ^ — 4^ therefore ay = x is
the equation of the curve, which is evidently a parabola,
of which AK is the axis, K the focus, and A the vertex.
Ex. 2. Suppose a ray of light RD, coming from the sun,
to fall upon PEG, the concave surface of a sphere, at D,
and to be thence reflected in the direction DH; it is pro¬
posed to find the nature of the curve to which this, and
all rays reflected in the same manner, are tangents.
Fig. 34.
. sin p , cos 2p
Hence x = (AH + BH) _ a + 2/>
sin 2p ' sin 2p
Inva
Metl»
and y —
sin 2p
sin p
■(«)
cos 2p cos 2p
By comparing this with the general formula (1), it ap¬
pears that
sin a
cos 2p ’
P =
2
cos 2p
dQ
rfP 
dp ~~ cos“ 2p’ dp
cos p
; hence,
2 sin 2p sin p
cos 2p
lienee, by formula (2),
2x f cos p 2 sin 2p sin p ( ^
I O-n 1
cos2 2p
cos
,2 2p ~ \ cos 2p 1 cos2 2p
■(13)
From equations (k) and (/3) we leauily find
x = (i cos 2p cos p + sin 2p sin p) a,
y = (^ sin 2p cos p — cos 2p sin p) a ;
and hence, by observing that sin 2p = 2 sin p cos p, and
that cos 2p=2 cos2 p — l= \ —2 sin2 p (Arithmetic of
Sines, Algebra), we have also
x = % cos p (i +2 sin2 p) a; y.Sln pa'
From these equations it is easy to eliminate the trigo¬
nometrical quantities cos p and sin p, and the result will
be the equation of the curve, which is an epicycloid. The
curve in question is the catacaustic curve to a circle.
It is easy to see that the general problem, of which
we have now given two examples, is very comprehensive.
We may evidently find, by the formulae (1) and (2), cata¬
caustic and diacaustic curves in all cases whatever. These,
and an infinite number of other geometrical problems, are
contained in the following more general problem.
Problem 3.
Determine the nature of a curve which touches an in¬
finite number of lines of a given kind, described upon a
plane according to some determinate law. For example,
suppose the lines to be parabolas described by a projec¬
tile thrown from an engine with a given velocity, at every
possible elevation in a vertical plane. _
Let HCD be any one of the lines of a given kind (a nara-
Fig. 35.
Draw AD the radius of the sphere, and AE parallel to
the incident ray RD ; let C be the point in which the re¬
flected ray touches the curve ; let DC meet AE in FI, and
draw CB perpendicular to AE. Put AD = a, AB — x,
BC = y, and let p be the variable angle DAE.
By the principles of optics, AD bisects the angle IIDFI,
which is equal to DHE, that is, to the sum of the angles
DAH, ADH ; therefore the angles ADH, DAFI are equal,
and angle DHE — 2p. Now, by trigonometry,
AH = !i!l45H x AD = 4rajL
sin AHD sin 2p
1-,TT cos CFIB cos 2p
BH = _,TTP x CB zz. -—-~y;
sin CFIB sin 2p J
bola, for example), and suppose it referred to an a^xis AB,
by-the rectangular co-ordinates AB _ x' and b — J'
/denote some quantity belonging to the line 01
HCD, which has always the same value m tie " g_
curve, but which has different values in diffeien .f
Thus, if the curve be a circle, p may be its radiu ,
the curve be a parabola, p may be its Paran' ’ fl.
This quantity p may also by analogy be callet P 0f
meter of the curve HCD. Let us suppose the natu
this cufve to be expressed by the equation
that is, let some function of x\ y’, and p, be suJT?S^gC7nle
If jo now be supposed to change its value, ^
p + h, then the curve HCD will change its figuie> ^
. 1 tiT of A \S — tF 5 a****
FLUXIONS.
lnvJ i = /, be any co-ordinates of this other curve, and as, by
Metp hypothesis, the two curves are expressed by equations of
^ the same form, we must have
f(x", if, /? + /<) = 0 ;
and this expression, by Taylor’s theorem, is equivalent to
(2)
/(a v, p) + ^~lh + K/<2 + &c”
the differential being taken upon the hypothesis that p
alone is variable, and K/t2 + &c. being put for all terms
of the series following the second, each of which is multi¬
plied by a power of /i.
Let the two curves intersect each other in c, and let
Ab = x, and cb = y, be the common co-ordinates ; then,
as equation (1) holds true of every point in the curve
HCD, and equation (2) holds true of every point in
H'C'D', both must hold true at once, if we substitute in
them x and y, the co-ordinates belonging to their common
point c; that is, we must have
/ 0> */> P) — °>
f(x, y, p) + dAl(^lLP)l h + K/,2+&c. = o;
and hence we must also have
d\f(x, y,p)}
dp
f K/z + &c. — 0.
Let C and C' be now supposed the points in which the
curves LIcD, H'cD'touch the curve PCC'Q, whose nature
is required ; then, if we suppose h to decrease continual¬
ly, and at last to vanish, the points C' and c will approach
to C, and at last will coincide with it, so that x and y,
which are co-ordinates of c, the intersection of the two
curves HcD, H'cD', will then become the co-ordinates of
the curve PCQ. As all the terms which contain h will
then vanish, we have evidently this rule.
Let the equation of the given curves be
f(x,y,p) = 0 (a)
zand ?/being the co-ordinates, and p a variable parame¬
ter. From this equation, by taking the differential, sup¬
posing p to be variable, and all the other quantities con¬
stant, we deduce this other equation,
d{f(x,y,p)} _ 0
dp  ^ ^
By these eliminate p, and the result wall be an equa¬
tion, which expresses the nature of the curve that touches
all the given curves.
Ex. Let ACD, AC'D', &c. be parabolas described
by a projectile thrown from a given point A, with a
given velocity, in a given vertical plane. It is proposed
to find the curve PCQ which touches them all. Let EF
he the axis of any one of the curves, AD an ordinate to
the axis, AP = a the height due to the velocity of pro¬
jection, AB — x, BC z= y, the co-ordinates of C, any
point in the curve. Put the parameter of the axis = p,
and considering AD as a function of/?, which is to be re¬
garded as variable, put AD — q.
By the theory of projectiles, EF = a — j/>, and by the
nature of the parabola, AF2 — p Y. EF, and AB X BD
— pY. BC; hence we have these two equations,
qx — a;2 — py, (1) q~ — \ap — p2, (2)
From the first of these,
f (x, y, p) — x- + py y- qx — 0:
and, taking the differentials, considering x and y as con¬
stant, and as a function of the variable quantity p,
d{f(^?J,p)} .. dq
dp
7.07
(2), taking the mZZI
therefore | ^ but from equation
differentials, qdq - 2adp —pdp, and hence^
dp q
and by the first equation — =
x p
2a
-, therefore -—— —
v
-p
, and hence qz qx — 2ap—/?2; and substituting
for ~cp its value given by equation (2), we get qx = 2ap;
hence, and by equation (1),
  x1   2ax
~ 2a — y {J ~ 2a—y
These values of p and q being substituted in the second
equation, and the common denominator rejected, it be¬
comes
4 a2*2 r= (8a2 — 4ay — a2)#2.
Hence 4 a?/ = 4 a2 — a2, and this is the equation of the
curve PCQ, which is evidently a parabola having its fo¬
cus at A, the common intersection of all the parabolas,
its axis perpendicular to the horizon, and its parameter
= 4 a.
The geometrical theory comprehended in the second and
third problems has a corresponding analytical theory re¬
lating to the integrals of certain differential equations.
This is the theory of singular primitive equations, which
are not included in the complete primitive equation. Thus,
the differential equation
dy v/ («2 y2 — h) — ydx — xdx — 0,
has for its complete primitive equation
xz — 2ay — a2 — b — b,
where a is the arbitrary constant quantity; but, besides
this, it has a singular primitive equation,
x~ + if — h — 0,
which does not admit of an arbitrary constant, although
it equally satisfies the differential equation, as is easily
proved by differentiating. The bounds within which it
was proper to confine this treatise have not allowed us to
enter into this branch of the subject, which, although in¬
teresting, is yet not elementary.
Investigation of the Properties of the Catenary.
Suppose a chain or thread of uniform thickness, and
perfectly flexible, but inextensible, to be fastened by its
extremities at two points A, B in a vertical plane ; by the
action of gravity it will take the form of a curve ACPB,
called the catenary.
The curve will evidently be all in one plane, and a hori¬
zontal line CD, in that plane, at C its lowest point, will
manifestly touch the curve, which is retained at rest by a
mutual balancing of the forces produced by the weight of
the particles of the chain.
If we suppose its lowest point to be fixed at C, it is easy
to understand that the part BC will not on that account
change in the least its figure, because the tension of the
chain at C, when it was free, is now replaced by the re¬
action of the force exerted in the horizontal direction
CD.
708
fluxions.
T vao The forces exerted on the points B, C will evidently be
the^same^6quantity and i„ Section, ^er Ae ch™
be considered as flexible, or rigid like a solid wue, hence
it may be regarded as kept at rest by three forces, viz.
its gravity acting vertically, and the re-actions of the ten¬
sions at B and C; the former exerted in the direction of
a tangent to the curve at B, and the latter in the direc¬
tion CD, the tangent at the lowest point C.
In like manner any portion PC between P and its low¬
est point may be considered as kept at rest by the joint
action of the gravity of the mass PC, the tension of he
chain at C, which is constant, and the tension at P, which
is variable ; and by the nature of an equilibrium (Mecha¬
nics), these forces will be to each other as the sides of
any triangle which are parallel to their directions. Draw
a horizontal line OX in the plane of the curve as an axis,
meeting the vertical through C in O, which may be ta¬
ken as an origin of co-ordinates ; draw PQ perpendicular
to OX, and PT touching the curve and meeting the axis
in T. From what has been explained, the tension of the
curve at C will be to the weight of the matter in PC as
TQ to PQ, that is, as radius to the tangent of the angle
which PT makes with any horizontal line.
Put OQ PQ = y, arc CP = z, angle PTQ = <p;
and let a be the tension of the curve at the vertex C : we
have then a: z = 1: tan p; hence
tan ®
r a
•(1)
This is the distinguishing property of the curve, from
which we are to deduce its other properties.
From equation (1), by differentiation,
d<p dz
cos4 <p
Now in all curves,
dx
dz =
cos <p
hence we obtain
dtp
sin <p
rfpsin <p
y =
COS <f>
= a sec <p.
* *
tan ^ + cot •\J/ = e° + e a .
sin >4/ . cos -4/
Now, tan 4< + cot -O' =  r -r ——r>
’ T T cos q/ sin -vj/
2 _ _ 2 _ 2y
sin 2-4/ cos <p~ a '
Invf
Met
w
a.   j,
therefore y — + e a j-
.(3)
This exponential equation expresses the relation be¬
tween x and y by means of e, the base of Napier’s loga¬
rithms. From this last equation, observing that y=.a sec 9,
we get
r 2x — 2x 1
= i W +6^ +2j,
f 2x — 2x ^
sec* 9—4
sec2 9 ■
tan 9 = Vsec2 9 ■
But it was found that z = « tan 9,
*17 —<27
therefore z = ^ ea —e a |-
From formulae (3) and (4) we have
y + z zz aea, y — z = ae a
therefore y‘z — z2 — a2 
hence again,  
y = Va2 + z2, z = Vy2 — a2 
and since from formula (5)
a
dx — a. —■ —, dy — a,
cos 9 cos 9
From these, by integration,
x = a\. tan (45° 1 9) const, (art. 155)
a
y —   + const.
cos 9
If we assume that OC measures the tension at C, which
is a constant quantity, then because when 9 =: 0, a; z= 0,
and y — a, we have the relation of the quantities x, y, 9,
expressed by these equations,
x — a\. tan (45° + ^ 9), )
« }  (2)
1y +z
a ~ a
therefore also, - <
a
1.
- 1.
y — z  
y + Vy2 — a21
.(5)
•(6)
„(7)
•(8)
z + Vzz + a2
.(9)
J
Let s denote the area bounded by the arc PC and the
adip ,
straight lines CO, OQ, PQ ; then, since dx = —> an(1
a
cos p'
, therefore
ds — ydx
ard<p
cos2 9
— adz.
The constant line a is called the parameter of the curve,
also its modulus. From the first of these equations, put¬
ting '4^ for 45° + ^ 9, we have
x_ — *
tan = ea, cot ^ — e a ,
and s =   (10)
Thus it appears that the arc CP is always proportiona
to the conterminous area CPQA. It is evident that tie
catenary, if inverted, would form an equilibrated arc •
From this property it appears that if a wall, whose neig
above the crown of the arch is equal to the line > a
horizontal at the top, the structure thus formed will con¬
stitute an equilibrated arch with a straight roaaw.y
(See on this subject our article Arch.) vrv
FLY
j' FLY, a term usually applied to two-winged insects.
See Diptera, in Entomology, Index.
Fir 4:- Fly, in Mechanics, a cross with leaden weights at its
ends; or rather, a heavy wheel at right angles to the axis
of a windlass, jack, or the like, by means of which the
force of the power, whatever it be, is not only preserved,
but equally distributed in all parts of the revolution of the
machine. See Mechanics.
Fly Island, an island in the South Pacific Ocean, dis¬
covered by De Maire and Schouten in 1616, and so named
from the number of flies which were seen in it. Long.
150. 20. W. Lat. 15. S.
Fly Tree, in Natural History, a name given by the
common people of America to a tree, the leaves of which,
at a certain time of the year, are said to produce Jlies. On
examining these leaves about the middle of summer there
are found on them a sort of bags of a tough matter, of
about the size of a filbert, and of a dusky greenish colour.
On opening one of these bags with a knife, there is usually
found a single full-grown fly, of the gnat kind, and a num¬
ber of small worms, which in a day or two more have wings,
and fly away in the form of their parent. The tree is of
the mulberry kind, and its leaves are for the most part
largely stocked with these insect bags; but they are ge¬
nerally found to contain the insects in their worm state;
and when these become winged, they soon make their way
out. The bags begin to appear when the leaves are young,
and afterwards grow with them ; but they never rumple the
leaf or injure its shape. They are of the kind of leaf-galls,
and partake in all respects, except size, of a species which is
frequent on the large maple, or, as it is called, the sycamore.
FLYERS, the performers in a celebrated exhibition
amongst the Mexicans, made on certain great festivals,
which are described by Clavigero in his history of that
people.
FLYING, the progressive motion of a bird, or other
winged animal, through the air.
The parts of birds chiefly concerned in flying are the
wings and tail; by the former the bird sustains and watts
itself along, and by the latter it is assisted in ascending and
descending, keeping its body poised and upright, and obvi¬
ating vacillations. It is by the size and strength of the
pectoral muscles that birds are so well disposed for quick,
strong, and continued flying. These muscles, which in
men are scarcely a seventieth part of the muscles of the
body, in birds exceed and outweigh all the other muscles
taken together ; so that if it were possible for a man to fly,
his wings must be so contrived and adapted that he may
make use of his legs, and not his arms, in managing them.
The tail is supposed by Willoughby, Ray, and others, to
be principally employed in steering and turning the body in
the air, like a rudder ; but Borelli has put it beyond all doubt
that this is the least use of the tail, which is chiefly intend¬
ed to assist the bird in its ascent and descent in the air,
and to obviate the vacillations of the body and wings; for
as to turning to this or that side, that is performed by the
wings and inclination of the body, with but very little help
from the tail. The flying of a bird is in fact quite a differ¬
ent thing from the rowing of a vessel. Birds do not vi¬
brate their wings towards the tail, as oars are struck to¬
wards the stern, but waft them downwards; nor does the
tail of the bird cut the air at right angles as the rudder
does the water, but is disposed horizontally, and preserves
the same situation whichever way the bird turns. In fact,
as a vessel is turned on a centre of gravity to the right, by
a brisk application of the oars to the left, so a bird, in beat¬
ing the air with its right wing alone towards the tail, wi
turn its fore part to the left. Thus pigeons changing t eir
course to the left, would labour it with their right w ing,
keeping the other almost at rest. Birds of a long nec a ter
F GE T
their course by the inclination of their head and neck; which
altering the course of gravity, enables the bird to proceed
in a new direction.
Artificial Flying, that which is attempted by men, by
means of mechanical contrivances.
I he art of flying has been attempted by various persons
in all ages. Ihe superstitious Leucadians are reported to
have had a custom of precipitating a man from a high cliff
into the sea, first fixing feathers, variously expanded, round
his body, in order to break his fall.
Friar Bacon not only affirms that the art of flying is pos¬
sible, but assures us that he himself knew how to make a
machine in which a man sitting might be able to convey
himself through the air like a bird; and he further adds,
that there was then a person who had tried it with success.
The secret consisted in a couple of large thin hollow cop¬
per globes, exhausted of air ; which being much lighter
than common air, would sustain a chair on which a person
might sit and be buoyed along. Father Francisco Lana,
in his Prodromo, proposes the same thing. He computes,
that a round vessel of plate brass, fourteen feet in diame¬
ter, weighing three ounces the square foot, will only weigh
1848 ounces, whereas a quantity of air of the same bulk
will weigh 2155|| ounces; so that the globe will not only
be sustained in the air, but will carry with it a weight of
373§ ounces; and by increasing the bulk of the globe
without increasing the thickness of the metal, he conceives
that a vessel might be made to carry a much greater weight.
But the fallacy is obvious. A globe of the dimensions he
describes, as shown by Dr Hook, would not sustain the
pressure of the air, but be crushed inwards. Besides, in
whatever ratio the bulk of the globe were increased, in the
same ratio must the thickness of the metal, and consequent¬
ly the weight, be increased ; so that there would be no ad¬
vantage in such augmentation.
The philosophers of the reign of Charles II. were mighti¬
ly busied about this art. The celebrated Bishop Wilkins
was so confident of success in the attempt, that he says he
does not question but in future ages it will be as usual to
hear a man call for his wings when he is going a journey,
as it is now to call for his boots.
Flying Fish, a name given to several species of fishes,
which, by means of long fins, can keep themselves out of
the water for some time. See Ichthyology.
FOAL, or Colt and Filly, the young of the horse
kind. The word colt, among dealers, is understood of the
male, and filly of the female.
FOCHAN, a town of China, near Canton, situated on
the banks of the river on which the city stands, and extend¬
ing three miles along the river in a single row of large well-
built houses. It has a temple and two custom-houses.
FOCUS, in Geometry and Conic Sections, is applied to
certain points in the parabola, ellipsis, and hyperbola, where
the rays reflected from all parts of these curves meet.
Focus, in Optics, a point in which meet any number of
rays, after being reflected or refracted.
FODDER, any kind of meat for horses or other cattle.
In some places, hay and straw mingled together is pecu¬
liarly denominated fodder.
FCENUS Nauticum. Where money was lent to a
merchant to be employed in a beneficial trade, on condi¬
tion of being repaid with extraordinary interest, in case such
voyage was safely performed, the agreement was sometimes
called fewws nauticum, sometimes usura maritima.
FCETOR, in Medicine, foetid effluvia arising from the
body, or any part thereof. . , .
FCETUS, the young of all viviparous animals whilst in
the womb, and of oviparous animals before being hatched.
The name is transferred by botanists to the embryons of
vegetables. See Anatomy.
F O K
FOG or Mist, signifies the gross vapours floating near
the surface of the earth. See Meteorology.
FOGARAS, a market-town situated on the river Alt,
in Hungary, the chief place of a district of the same name,
in the division of the Seven Mountains. It contains a Ga-
tholic, a Lutheran, a Reformed, and two Greek churches,
and 3200 inhabitants. Long. 24. o5. 9. L. Lat. 4o. 4b.
47. N. . 1
FOGGIA, a city of the kingdom of Naples, the capital
of the province Capilanata. It stands on an extensive
plain, where several roads from the interior meet, it 'is
extensive, has broad streets, and is surrounded with walls.
It has several large fairs and markets, upon which the pros¬
perity of the city chiefly depends. There are here several
large magazines for storing corn, which is one of the chief
branches of its trade. It is remarkable for the growth and
preservation of capers, and produces abundance of wine
and oil. It contains 20,680 inhabitants. Long. 15. 38. L.
Lat. 41.25. N. i • i *•
FOHR, or Fora, an island belonging to the kingdom ot
Denmark, in the German Ocean, near the mouth of the
river Illwe. It extends in north latitude from 54. 41. to
54. 46. and in east longitude from 8. 19. to 8. 31. It con¬
tains one market-town, called Westerlandfohr, and sixteen
villages, forming sixteen parishes, and inhabited by o6/0
persons, many of them sailors. A great number of the men
are occupied in taking birds for the down and feathers,
whilst the females make a large quantity of warm hosiery
and gloves. They are said to have been originally a co¬
lony of Frisians, and still speak the language of that people.
FOIBLE, a French term, frequently used in our own
language. It literally signifies weak, and in that sense is
applied to the body and its parts, as foible reins, foible sight,
and the like. It is derived from the Italian Jievole, which
again is the Latin flebilis, to be lamented or pitied. But
it is chiefly used with us substantively, to denote a defect
or flaw in a person or thing.
FOIL, in fencing, denotes a blunt sword, having a but¬
ton at the end covered with leather, which is used in learn¬
ing the art of fencing. See Fencing.
Foil, amongst glass-grinders, a sheet of tin, with quick¬
silver, or the like, laid on the back of a looking-glass, to
make it reflect.
Foil, amongst jewellers, a thin leaf of metal placed un¬
der a precious stone, to make it look transparent, and give
it an agreeable colour, either deep or pale.
FOIX, an arrondissement in the department of Arriege,
in France, extending over 803 square miles. It is divided
into eight cantons and 104 communes, inhabited by 78,280
individuals. The chief place, which gives name to the
circle, is situated in a wide and fruitful valley, on the left
bank of the Arriege. It is old and ill built, has some trade
in hats, stockings, and caps, and contains 3600 inhabitants.
Long. 1. 30. E. Lat. 43. 2. N.
FOKIEN, a large province of China. On the north it
is bounded by the province of Tche-kiang, on the east by
the Chinese Sea, on the south by Quang-tong, and on the
west by Kiang-si. It comprehends under its jurisdiction the
Pang-hon or Piscadore Islands, and also the island of For¬
mosa. It has a fertile soil, and an agreeable, warm, and
salubrious air ; the mountains produce abundance of trees
fit for ship-building; and agriculture is prosecuted with
great skill on the plains, which yield rice in abundance.
The high grounds are disposed in terraces, rising above one
another, and water is conducted to them in pipes made of
bamboo, which grows here in great plenty. The moun¬
tainous parts produce quicksilver, copper, lead, and iron;
and it is even conieotnred that thprp arp o-nlrl mmoa
F O L
implements are made, and also cloth from hemp and cotton, Fokscha-
i • 1   1 rTl^ otllrc? orwl
x l 1^emu nun ,
it is even conjectured that there are gold mines, though
these are not allowed to be worked. Manufactures are
carried on in this province to a considerable extent. Steel
besides paper and pencils. The silks and cloth are of ex- „
traordinary fineness and beauty. The port of Enfouy in Folard;
this province was formerly open to European vessels. The
chief towns are Fou-tchoo, the capital, celebrated both for
commerce and literature ; Tsuen-tchosu, Yeu-ping, and
Tchang-tcheou. The population is computed, though on
very uncertain data, at 15,000,000.
FOKSCHANI, a city of Wallachia, in the circle Slam
Rimnick, situated on the river Milkow. It contains four¬
teen churches and a monastery, with 4000 inhabitants, who
trade in corn and cattle largely, and produce some good
wine. Long. 26. 57. 25. E. Lat. 45. 38. 50. N.
FOLARD, Jean-Charles de, a distinguished French
officer and military writer, descended of a noble but not af¬
fluent family, was born at Avignon on the 13th of February
1669. Even in his infancy he evinced a strong predilec¬
tion for the profession of arms; and this inclination was
confirmed by the perusal of Caesar’s Commentaries, which
he received as a prize at the age of fifteen. In fact, he
had scarcely attained his sixteenth year, when, making his
escape from the paternal roof, he enlisted in a company of
infantry which happened to be passing through Avignon;
and although his father obtained his discharge, and shut
him up in a convent, he again made his escape about two
years thereafter, and shouldered a musket as a common sol¬
dier in the regiment of Berri. But his good conduct, as well
as his birth, having soon brought him into notice, he obtain¬
ed a sub-lieutenancy ; and it wras in this grade, the lowest of
commissioned officers, that he saw service for the first time
in the year 1688. Fortunately for his own improvement,
however, he was employed in a corps of partisans, which,
as all military men know, is the best school of instruction in
great operations. Folard had thus occasion to observe, and
to study with advantage, the most important branches of the
military art. Fie examined all the communications, calculat¬
ed the means of attack and defence, reconnoitred positions,
constructed plans and maps, and thus, in short, prepared the
materials of his voluminous works. It was during this period
that he composed a little treatise entitled De la Guerre de
Partisan, which has never been printed, but which Marshal
de Belleisle long possessed in manuscript. The Marquis ue
Guebriant, colonel of the regiment of Berri, having taken a
great interest in Folard, obtained for him a lieutenancy m
his regiment; and immediately afterwards this corps re¬
ceived orders to proceed to Naples. It wras during t e
long march which ensued that Folard, observing that the
enemy received provisions and ammunition by sea, con¬
ceived the idea of surprising the post of Mesola, which pro¬
tected the landing of the convoys. He accordingly sub¬
mitted his plan to M. de Guebriant, by whom it was ior
warded to the court, and there approved of; but anotnei
officer was charged with its execution, and the author re
mained unknown. The Duke of Vendome, being informe
of this injust ice, appoint ed F'olard his aid-de-camp, and at i£
same time procured for him the rank of captain. After gn
ing him many proofs of confidence and esteem, this prince
reluctantly consented to give up Folard to his biotiei, re
Grand Prior, who then commanded in Lombardy. 1°
latter, Folard, ever zealous and active, rendered impor a
services ; but his talents, and above all his frankness, nia
him many enemies at head-quarters. He was at t ic % ' b
of the posts of Rovero and Ostiglia, and also at the ^ e .
of the Casino della Bulino, where he distinguished lumse
greatly by his talents and his valour. It was by ns a
that the Grand Prior caused this important post to ie o
pied; and Folard had, by the orders of his commander, r -
paired thither to make the necessary dispositions, u ,
numerous corps of the army of Prince Eugene app .
before it, with instructions to carry it at all bazar s.
Foil.
wxtnsrooa uie reiteratea ana furious attacks of the impe
rialists. The latter penetrated several times into the inte¬
rior of the Casino; but by the intrepidity of the French,
directed by Folard, they were each time repulsed, and ulti¬
mately compelled to discontinue their attacks. This bril¬
liant affair, which procured him the cross of St Louis, is jure the best observations.
folard.
defensive preparations were still incomplete, and the garri- ments of the armv, Folard followed them on the man and v , a
son far from numerous; but, encouraged by Folard, they in his imagination, incessantly dream ng of plans Td ope-
withstood the reiterated and furious attacks of the imne. rations, and sending all his ideas to thegenerals. One day
he caused himself be carried on a litter to the quarters of
Marshal Boufflers, to give a piece of advice, which, how-
ever, was disregarded. Such zeal was no donbt indiscreet;
and the manners of Folard were, it seems, calculated to in-
i ., i i t-i i i • .i ii-ii ' the best observations. Ihus M. de Montesouiou re-
desenbed by Folard in the notes to the third volume of his jected the advice which the chevalier gave him respecting-
Polybius; and his relation has been cited by all military the position occupied by him at Douai; and it was onlv after
writers, not only as a model in itself, but also as containing his defeat that this general discovered his error in neelect-
one of the best lessons anywhere to be found on the defence ing the counsels of the uncourtly chevalier. Some months
of held-posts. Having rejoined the Duke of Vendome, Fo- afterwards Folard found Marshal Villars more docile • and
lard rendered himself not less useful to that commander he had the satisfaction of seeing the army put in motion in
than he had previously done to the Grand Prior, and by consequence of a plan which he had transmitted to that ge-
his presence of mind, and the judicious advice which he neral. Having subsequently been sent to M. de Guebriant
gave at the battle of Cassano, fought on the 15th of August who occupied Aire, then threatened with a siege, he was
1705, where he received two severe wounds, he acquitted taken prisoner on the road by the light troops of the enemy,
himself as a brave soldier and skilful officer, ibis battle, who made vain attempts to discover the nature of his in-
remarkable for great efforts on both sides, for movements of structions. Prince Eugene, indeed, had recourse to every
all kinds, and for uncertain results, appears to have made a means of seduction in order to induce him to enter the
strong impression upon the imagination of Folard; and it service of the emperor; but Folard, immovable in his fide-
is even said that amidst the suffering caused by bis wounds lity, resisted all these attempts, and even found an oppor-
he conceived his system of columns and deep formations, tunity during his captivity of serving his sovereign, by mis-
Soon after the battle of Cassano, Vendome was ordered leading the prince as to the operations of the French army,
to proceed to Flanders, whither Folard, who was much at- As soon as "he was exchanged, which the Duke of Bur-
tached to the duke, wished to accompany him; but be was gundy lost no time in effecting, he obtained the command
retained with the army of Italy by the express desire of of the garrison of Burburg, the title and appointment of
the Duke of Orleans, who had just assumed the command, which he retained until his death.
711
The confidence which this prince reposed in him, and the
freedom with which Folard continued to express his opi¬
nions, careless whom they might offend, once more made
him dangerous enemies amongst the staff. From a note to
The peace of 1712 having left him without active profes¬
sional employment, Folard commenced his commentaries;
but being still of an age not to remain long in a state of in¬
action, he profited by the alarms which the Ottomans occa-
Polybius it appears, indeed, that it was entirely owing to sioned to the knights of Malta in 1714, and, with the permis-
their insinuations that he received orders to shut himself up sion of the court, repaired to that island. The grand mas-
in Modena. It had become evident that this city would be ter received him with much cordiality ; but Folard soon gave
attacked ; and as the command was then in the hands of a way to bis characteristic vanity and indiscretion towards the
person named Bar, upon whom no reliance could be placed, French engineers, who, like himself, had come to offer the
and who, in fact, had resolved to surrender the place at knights their best services for the defence of the island,
the first summons, the chevalier, firmly resolved to do his Dissatisfied because his opinion had not prevailed, he re¬
duty, soon found himself involved in serious disputes with fused the cross of the order, which was offered him, accord-
this cowardly superior in command. In his Traite de la ing to the ordinary usage in such cases, and immediately
Defense des Places, he has given a long recital of the indig- returned into France. But his warlike activity was not yet
nities he experienced at the hands of this miscreant, who exhausted. The fame of the exploits of Charles XII. then
even attempted his life ; but although Folard unveiled his resounded throughout all Europe, and Folard eagerly de¬
proceedings without reserve, the traitor escaped with im- sired to witness the achievements of so celebrated a hero,
punity. Soon after the capitulation of Modena, the cheva- Accordingly he embarked for Sweden on board a vessel,
her, to his great joy, received orders to join the Duke of which was shipwrecked almost at the moment of landing;
Vendome, who had in fact reclaimed his former aid-de- and having been saved in a sloop, he reached Stockholm
camp; and having taken Versailles in his way, he was destitute of every thing. The king, however, received him
there presented to the king, who received him graciously, favourably, and listened to his discourses upon tactics with
and granted him a pension of four hundred francs. Upon extreme complaisance. Nothing could possibly be more
his arrival in Flanders, Folard induced the Duke of Bur- agreeable to Folard, who, delighted with his royal pupil, at
gundy, then in command of the army, to attack the isle of once preferred Sweden to Franee as a place of residence for
Cadsand. The enterprise succeeded beyond all calcula- a soldier. Nevertheless he soon afterwards returned inU)
tion, and its author was appointed commandant of the fort his own country, for the purpose of promoting the plans of
of Lettingen. But the young prince, who had at first ap- the Baron de Goertz. But the project with which the
preciated the advice of the chevalier, afterwards paid as baron was entrusted having been overthrown by his arrest,
little regard to his opinions as to those of Vendome; and, Folard returned to Stockholm, and accompanied the king
in spite of their joint remonstrances, he persisted in re- of Sweden in his expedition to Norway. Immediately
maining inactive in presence of the allies, whilst Prince after the death of Charles before Fredenckshall, he re-
Eugene was engap’ed in taking Lille. The counsels which turned to France, and was promoted to t it ran o co one
Folard gave to Marshal Villars for the relief of Mons were in the regiment of Picardy. In this capacity he served his
also disregarded. But his services were nevertheless recog- last campaign in 1719, under the Duke of Berwick, in the
Used and appreciated at court; and it was about this time short war which France had then to maintain in bpam. A
that the minister conferred on him a second pension of general peace speedily ensue , an o ai icn mw i
six hundred francs; a new favour, which was the more self condemned to a state of repose, which as jet he had
considerate, as he had been once more severely wounded never known or enjoyed. . , i • i;,. _v
at the battle of Malplaquet. Redoubling his zeal and ac- From this time he devoted himselfcineytolusheiary
tivity, though no longer able to take part in the move- pursuits, and was ere long in a condition to present
712
Folard.
F O L
Duke of Orleans, then regent, his book entitled
Decouvertes sur la Guerre, published at Pans in 1724. His
next aim was to find a subject with which it might be pos¬
sible for him to connect the results of his lengthened ob¬
servations, and also to combine the explanation of his new
system. And with this view he made choice of the his¬
tory of Polybius. That work is, without any doubt, the
most exact, and at the same time the most judicious, in a
military point of view, of all the historical writings of an¬
tiquity; and hence Folard could not possibly have made a
better choice. But not being acquainted with Greek, he
was obliged to entrust the translation to Dorn Thuilher,
whilst he simultaneously laboured at his commentaries,
which he placed in the form of notes at the end of each
chapter of Polybius. These commentaries are of an un¬
exampled prolixity, and the style frequently descends to
triviality ; in the same page things the most incoherent are
often jumbled together ; and he makes continual efforts to
connect everything with his system of columns and deep
formations. But however imperfect the work of Folard
may be considered in a literary point of view, military men
will find it in many respects eminently useful; for, besides
judicious remarks and learned researches respecting the
wars of the ancients, we meet with much valuable informa¬
tion, which we cannot help regretting that the historians
of this period should not have oftener referred to. He ex¬
plains the causes and the results of these events with a frank¬
ness which was often hurtful to himself, but which will al¬
ways be useful to posterity. This frankness, indeed, which
had raised up so many obstacles to his advancement whilst
he had arms in his hands, also created opposition to his pro¬
jects after he became author. When he had reached the
sixth volume of his Polybius he was ordered to refrain from
indulging in the same sort of discussions as in the preced¬
ing portion of the work. Of this injunction he complains
bitterly in the preface to the volume in question, and says
that he has been restrained precisely at the place where
his author became more interesting, and where he felt
himself inspired by events more worthy of remark and an¬
notation.
Folard has prefixed to this immense work his Treatise on
Columns, and the deep order, which he regards as the basis
A R D.
U '
of all good tactics. His opinion in favour of deep forma- Folard jp(
tions encountered much opposition at the time when it
was first promulgated, and the controversy which it then j (
occasioned has not yet been altogether set to rest. The j ,
most judicious of his critics was General Savornin, a Swiss * }
officer in the service of Holland, who published anony¬
mously Les Sentiments dun Homme de Gutrre sur le nou¬
veau Systeme de Folard. Of all his adversaries this author ,
is the one whom he treats with the greatest respect in
the prefaces to his volumes, which, as is well known, he
converted into a sort of field of battle, where he attacked
d outrance those who had ventured to dispute his opinions. j
But the best part of the commentaries on Polybius is un¬
doubtedly that where Folard treats of the tactics of the
ancients, and particularly of their manner of attacking and t
defending strong places. This is a subject which he had
maturely considered, with reference to the instruments of
war in use amongst the ancients. He had even caused to be
constructed a catapult, the experiments made with which
transported him with admiration ; and he did not hesitate to
affirm, that if it were possible for him, with the machines and
means of the ancients, to attack a place defended by the
artillery of the moderns, he would make sure of taking it in
a very short time. Such an assertion, it may very easily be
imagined, was much better calculated to astonish than con- ,
vince. His ideas on strategics were scarcely, if at all, less
extraordinary; and his system of columns and deep forma¬
tions will be sufficiently appreciated if we consider that, in
the numerous wars which have occurred since its publica¬
tion, there is no sovereign nor general who has deigned to
put it fully in practice. It must be admitted, however, that
attacks in close columns, which have been so generally and
so successfully employed in our time, are in some sort an
imitation of Folard’s system. This method no doubt proves
that the deep order is sometimes the best; but attacks in
close columns, by platoons, divisions, or battalions, such as
have latterly been practised, present advantages which Fo¬
lard had never dreamed of, namely, the power of deploying
if necessary, of changing the front and direction of the mass
with extreme facility, and of passing rapidly from the deep
to the extended, and from the extended to the deep for¬
mation.1 Folard, if we may be allowed the expression,
1 “ In general the formations of a good military nation are extended, whilst those of a bad one are deep.” So says Count von Bis-
mark {Tactics of Cavalry, p. 200, Engl, transh); and the remark is undoubtedly well founded. At the same time, the diminution o
depth in the formation of modern armies has been a natural consequence of the constantly augmenting power of artillery and ol sma
arms. In ancient times battles were generally decided by bodily strength; and as armies had then no concentric fire to apprenen ,
they could with safety assume that deep formation which was calculated to overwhelm the enemy by impulsion alone. But the in¬
vention of gunpowder, and the destructive effects of cannon fire, arising from the improvement of artillery, necessitated in mo ern
times a departure from the dense formations of antiquity. This was strongly felt by Gustavus Adolphus, who, whilst his opponen s,
Tilly and Wallenstein, formed their infantry in solid masses, drew up his men six deep, and, in this extended formation, overwhe rn-
ed the columns of his adversaries. If we may judge from recent examples, however, deep formations are not even now so inappropri¬
ate as may be imagined; and, absurd as the columns of Folard may appear, it was by the employment of analogous masses, direce
with a celerity which at once increased their momentum and diminished the ravages of cannon fire, that Napoleon proved so o en
successful. In the order of battle laid down by Jomini as combining in the greatest degree mobility with solidity, the corps destine^
for the attack are arranged in two lines of battalions, each battalion being formed in column of grand divisions. “ La troupe d’attaque,
says he, “ aussi bien que la reserve, ne sauraient etre mieux disposees qu’en colonn.es d’attaque par la centre; car la reserve, devan
etre prete a tomber sur 1’ennemi au moment decisif, doit la faire avec force et vivacite, c’est-k-dire, en colonnes.” {Traitc dcs Gran cs
Operations Militaires, tom. iii. c. 35, p. 357.) The Duke of Wellington, it is true, generally attacked with deployed lines; but these,
it is to be observed, were sometimes of deep formation. The body of English guards which so successfully attacked the columns o
the imperial guard at the close of the battle of Waterloo was formed four deep ; and the final charge en muraille executed by the ri
tish line on that day was also made in the same formation. It is to be observed, however, that the columns of the imperial guar
were torn up and shattered by a close concentric fire of artillery, before the English guards advanced to the attack. To this m oe
columnar formations are always more or less exposed ; for though the evil may be lessened by celerity of movement, it cannot be avoi
ed, and a rapid advance is always of itself productive of some confusion and disorder. Hence the attack in column has by no mean
been attended with the results which the Chevalier Folard expected from it. The Duke of Wellington always deployed before yH ’
and at Waterloo defeated an army drawn up in columns of attack, this being one of the few instances where his lines excee e
usual formation of two deep. The French lost the battle of Essling by attacking the centre of the Austrian line in column. 1
sena s columns failed at Busaco ; Victor’s were baffled at Barossa ; and even the Spaniards broke two columns of the French arnjy.
St Marcial. At Waterloo, again, the repeated advances of Napoleon’s columns proved unavailing against the linear formation o
■“nt j ’ and although at the close of the day the chosen columns of the imperial guard advanced with a determined bravery w it
wou c have done honour to the troops of any nation, they had no better success. ' These facts naturally shake our faith m co u >
and serve to confirm the remark of Bismark, that the formations of the best militarv nations are not deep, but extended. An una
crpiined multitude suddenly drawn together, or an army possessing little moral force, may be appalled by the imposing appearance o
F O L A R D.
was so deeply infected with his system and his discoveries
^ that he saw everywhere the deep order and columns of
attack. He had read little of the Bible; but happening
one day to take up that sacred book, he exclaimed on
reading the first page, “ Do you know that Moses must
have been a great captain. He has discovered my column.”
Count Saxe, who had known Folard in Sweden, appears
to have attached much importance to his opinions. The
esteem which that able commander entertained for him may
be judged of from his letters, some of which are subjoined
to the work entitled Memoires pour servir a I'Histoire de
M.le Chevalier de Folard, Paris, 1753. Folard was a good
engineer, and excelled both in drawing and in the construc¬
tion of military plans. It was from designs by him that the
Abbe Gedoyn was enabled to give the plans of the different
battles in his translation of Pausanias. Folard has been de¬
nominated the French Vegetius ; but he himself would not
have been much flattered by this title, as he often speaks
with contempt of Vegetius. As he cites a great number of
ancient authors, he has often rectified their text, which had
been altered by the copyists; and he has also sometimes
indicated mistakes in the translations of their works. The
publication of his Polybius procured him a great reputation
in Europe, and was soon followed by his admission into the
Royal Society of London. The king of Prussia, Frederick
the Great, having desired to make trial of his system, the
chevalier was invited to repair to Berlin, to be a witness of
the experiment; but his advanced age prevented him from
undertaking so long a journey. Nevertheless this warlike
monarch attached but little importance to the writings of
Folard, which he has even treated as visionary and extrava¬
gant in several passages of his correspondence, and parti¬
cularly in the volume which he caused to be printed in 1761,
under the title of L'Esprit du Chevalier de Folard, in 8vo.
In the preface to this compilation, Frederick says, “ II (Fo¬
lard) avait enfoui des diamants, au milieu du fumier ; nous
les avons retires. On a fait main basse sur le systeme des
colonnes: on n’a conserve que les manoeuvres de guerre,
dont il donne une description juste; la critique sage qu’il
emploie sur la conduite de quelques generaux Franqais,
certaines regies de tactique, des exemples de defenses sin-
, gulieres et ingenieuses, et quelques projets qui fournissent
matiere a des reflexions plus utiles encores que ces projets
^ memes.” Such was the opinion of the greatest captain of
1 his time respecting the writings of Folard. The literary
labours of this tactician impaired his health more rapidly
than the fatigues of war, which, indeed, appear to have made
little or no impression on his constitution. Wishing once
more to visit his native city, Folard repaired to Avignon in
1750, and died there on the 23d of March 1752, at the ad¬
vanced age of eighty-three.
This able warrior failed to attain the first rank in the
army, though he had eagerly aspired to it; nevertheless he
snmp °ntei-t !ot ’ an^ w*t^1 a small patrimony, and
foimdPmpS1°n! Wi1Ch Ui,d been "ranted him by the king, he
DerfecTvT e°, g0,°^ His last ^ been
renitv bl PPy ^ 0t recklessly disturbed their se-
controvor,! I108 h;mSe!f> corPs Perdu into an imprudent
self W hi’ I Y f great irascibi% and excessive
self-love, he often furnished arms against himself. Another
circumstance also served to embitter his declining days.
. "f allowed himself to be drawn into the party of the
ppellants, as they were called, he was represented by the
pamphleteers of the time as one of those who had given
themselves up to visionary convulsions upon the tomb of
Deacon Pans. The new sect was of course delighted to
he able to refer to such evidence in support of its absurd
pretensions ; and it is easy to conceive the ridicule which
this must have drawn down on the old chevalier. The Car¬
dinal de Fleury was in fact so much displeased with him that
ie ordered Folard to quit Paris; and it was only at the
earnest entreaty of several generals, who bore testimony
to his numerous and important services, that this order was
recalled. During his whole life Folard had enjoyed the
most robust health. But a single infirmity afflicted him
fiom his youth, and increased with his age; we mean, a
natural deafness, which had often nearly proved fatal to
him in the field of battle. In his old age he was almost
entirely destitute of the sense of hearing.
Folards military opinions, which had excited so much
discussion during his lifetime, occasioned a great deal more
long after his death. His system of columns, warmly at¬
tacked in the Memoires Militaires of Colonel Guischardt
in 1/58, and also in the Memoires Critiques of the same
author in 1774, was defended with much heat in the Re-
cherches d’Antiquites Militaires of the Chevalier de La-
looz, Paris, 1770, and likewise in another volume published
by the same author in 1776, under the title of Defense du
Chevalier Folard. The history of Polybius, with the com¬
mentaries, was first printed at Paris in six vols. 4to, 1727-
1730, and next at Amsterdam, 1753, in seven vols. 4to.
The seventh volume, which is a supplement, is not found
in the Paris edition. It contains, 1. Les Nouvelles Decou-
vertes sur la Guerre ; 2. Lettre Critique d'un Officier Hol~
landais (Terson) ; 3. Sentiments d'un Homme de Guerre
(Savornin) sur le Systeme Militaire du Chevalier de Fo¬
lard ; 4. Answer of Folard to his critics. The commen¬
taries on Polybius have been abridged and printed sepa¬
rately by Chabot, Paris, 1757, in three vols. 4to. There
are two German translations, one printed at Berlin, and
the other at Vienna. The observations on the battle of
Zama, and on the history of Epaminondas, which had been
published separately in 1738 and 1739, form part of the
commentaries on Polybius ; and, as already stated, the au¬
thor has also combined with these commentaries his Trade
de la Colonne, as well as that on the attack and defence
713
Folard.
a column advancing to the attack, and give way from apprehension ; hut no such effect can be produced where courage and discipline
are found united. This was signally exemplified at Albuera, where, in the attack on the key of the position, the French columns,
though momentarily successful, found it impossible to deploy, under the incessant and dreadful vollies, which swept away the head
of every formation, and, after a desperate and unavailing struggle, were driven headlong down the ascent. Every order is good
against troops who do not defend themselves ; in that case it is only necessary to march. But against troops who do defend them¬
selves, and who to natural courage unite that discipline which teaches them to preserve unshaken the stability of their order, the
attack in column will seldom prevail, unless combined with extended formations. As much, however, may be said on both sides,
many writers have been led to maintain extreme opinions on the subject, as the following passage, extracted from a very ingenious
essay on tactics, will abundantly testify. “ The victories gained by the natural gallantry and intelligence of the French soldiers, in
spite of the system under which they were supposed to fight, gave military opinion a bias in favour of masses and solid formations,
simply disgraceful to human understanding, at a time when hundreds of pieces of artillery already frowned destruction over every
held of battle. Nothing but the most profound ignorance of every principle of professional science, as well as the most callous in¬
difference to the lives and sufferings of men, could for a moment have tolerated a system that tended to eradicate from the heart
every feeling of humanity, and to stifle military genius in the bud. It was well calculated for ignorant, grasping, and ambitious lead-
5 it enabled such men, in the absence of military talents, to gain battles by quenching with the blood of their own soldiers the
! fires of the enemy, and literally to overwhelm the Toe with the mangled bodies of the human victims so lavishly placed at their dis-
posal by ruthless ukases and conscriptions.” (Mitchell’s Essay on Tactics, part iv. United Service Journal, July, 1834.)
VOL. IX. 4 x
714
Folclands Officer de Cavahrie,
^FOLCLANDsTor Fo.k^kds. Copyhold land, were
iiri-TthP time of the Saxons, as charter lands were
Slied Won*. Falkland was terra vulgi or termpopulans,
Sand of the common people, who had no certain estate
the land ot tne co ^ ^ sertlces accus.
therein, but he t ^ on of their lorll the thane;
andlt was fherefore not put in writing, but accounted pne-
“cMotITf^kmote (Saxon, Folc^ote, that is,
coleus PoPuli), is composed of/o»,
or gemote, convenire, and originally signihe g c
sembly of the people called together to consider of and
order matters of the commonwealth. Accoiding to , [
man, the folcmote was a sort of annual parliament or conven¬
tion of the bishops, thanes, aldermen, and freemen, which
assembled upon every May-day, and in w^ich *e ^ eto
were sworn to defend one another and the king, and to
preserve the laws of the kingdom, after which they c^‘
sulted of the common safety. But, from the laws of t
Saxon kings of England, Dr Brady infers that it was an in¬
ferior court, held before the king’s reeve or steward every
month, to do folk right, or compose smal er differences; and
that from it there lay an appeal to the superior courts.
(Gloss p. 48.) Squire seems to think that the folkmote
was not essentially distinct from the .Ataote, or common
general meeting of the county. (See Ins Angl Sax. Gov.
155, n.) Manwood mentions folcmote as a court holden in
London, in which all the folk and people of the city did
complain of the mayor and aldermen for misgovernment
within the said city; and this word is still in use, denoting
celebrem ex iota civitate conventum. According to Kennet,
the folcmote was a common council of all the inhabitants ot
a city, town, or borough, convened by sound of bell, or
otherwise, to the Mote Hall or House; or it was applied
to a larger congress of the freemen within a county, called
the shiremote, where formerly all knights and military ten¬
ants did homage to the king, and elected the annual she¬
riff on the first of October, until 1315, when, to avoid
tumults and riots, this popular form of election was, by
3 Edward I. merged in nomination by the king. After this
time the city folkmote was swallowed up in a select com¬
mittee or common council, and the county folkmote in the
sheriff’s tourn and assizes.
The word folkmote was also used to signify any kind ot
popular or public meetings, as those of the tenants at the
court leet or court baron, in which signification it was of
a less extent than that above explained. (Paroch. Antiq.
120.)
FOLENGO, Theophilus, better known by his assumed
name of Merlin Cocaio, an eccentric genius, and burlesque
poet, was descended of a noble family of Mantua, and born at
a place called Cipada, beyond the suburb of St George on
the lower lake, in the year 1491.1 From his infancy he show¬
ed great quickness and vivacity of mind, a decided taste for
poetry, and a singular facility of turning everything which
occurred into verse. According to Tomasini and others, he
completed his studies at Bologna, and at the age of sixteen
entered the order of Benedictines of the congregation of
Monte Cassino, near Brescia, where his elder brother had
taken the vows about three months before. He then assumed
F O L
Folard is likewise the author of a tract.
F O L
the name of Theophilus instead of Jerome, which was his Folen.
baptismal name, and eighteen months afterwards he made
profession as Benedictine. At first his life was regular;
but a new superior of the monastery of Brescia, where he
had become professed, having permitted or introduced great
disorders there, Folengo, led away by bad example, forgot
his vows, and ended by quitting the monastery and his ha¬
bit together, to stroll about with a pretty woman who had
captivated his fancy. This young person, who is said to have
been well born, is not directly mentioned by him in his
works; but as he has put the letters of her name to a
species of canzone or ode, consisting of thirteen verses, we
thence collect that she was called Girolama Dieda. With
this female he wandered about for ten years, having, as
appears, no other resource for procuring a livelihood than
his talents and his verses. He had commenced a poem in
Latin, which, as far as it went, displayed much elegance;
but he soon quitted serious poetry, in which he could at
most only hope to obtain a secondary rank, for a kind which
he called Macaronic, and in which he conceived himself
qualified to occupy the first place. The basis of the lan¬
guage employed by him is Latin, mixed with Italian words,
and&still more with the Mantuan patois, which was his mo¬
ther tongue, and to which he gave Latin terminations. In
his poem he recounts the ridiculous adventures of a hero
called Baldus, among which are several which had happened
to himself; and under the mask of burlesque and buffoon¬
ery may be found thoughts and maxims instinct with good
sense, not to mention original and piquant touches of satire
on the conduct of the great, the vanity of titles, and the
different pursuits of men. It has been alleged that he gave
the name of Macaronic to this strange species of composition,
in which Latin is intermixed with Italian and Mantuan,
because macaroni is seasoned w ith a mixture of flour, but¬
ter, and cheese; and in fact, to a mind like his, this fanci¬
ful and grotesque resemblance was sufficient. Instead ot
dividing his poem into books or cantos, he accordingly di¬
vided it into macaronis {macaronea prima, macaronea se-
cunda, etc.), of which there were seventeen in the first edi¬
tion and twenty-five in the subsequent ones; and hepublisn-
ed the whole under the name of Merlinus Chcq;MS, which af¬
terwards became famous. In a few years several editions
were published; but the success of these facetious protec¬
tions did not prevent their being bitterly criticised, me
author was severely censured, both for the style in w )c
he wrote, and the license of ideas and expressions in wmcn
he indulged; a circumstance which irritated him so mucn
that, changing his style, or rather language and name, ne
composed in three months a satirical Italian poem, in
cantos, on the infancy of Roland, to which he gave t e i
of Orlandino, and affixed the name of Limerno PitWO,
Limerno being the anagram of Merlino, and i occ
mendicant being significative of the state to whic
occasionally reduced. He had nevertheless mac e
friends in the world by the reputation which he a _
quired, the ..extent of his knowledge, and the agr ‘
qualities of his mind; and he had even retame s
the cloister, into which, when tired of a wandering
miserable life, he was received back with open arms,
signalized his return by a work on the subject o ^
version, entitled II Chaos del Triperuno, oi The ia
Three for One, meaning himself, who had be^n *
sively Theophilus Folengo, Merlin Cocaio, am
Folengo, in his verses, has several times mentioned the place of his birth in his own peculiar vein:
Magna suo veniat Merlino parva Cipada—
Mantua Virgilio gaudet, Verona Catulio,
Dante suo florens urbs Tusca, Cipada Cocajo—
Nec Merlinus ego, laus, gloria, fama Cipadse, etc.
IT
fl
1* a
«
ol
e
d
FoliatiS
y
Folk-
F O L F O L 715
Pitocco. The work is a medley of verses, songs, and nar- tics ; and when only twenty-three years of age he was Folking-
rations, in Latin, Italian, and the Macaronic dialect, in short, chosen a fellow of the Iloyal Society. His ingenious com- ham
a veritable chaos, divided into three parts, called, after Sta- munications acquired him so much applause that he was-p, ^
tius, Sylvee. He then applied himself to correct his other frequently chosen into its council. He was in habits of
works, and the Orlandino appeared in seven cantos instead friendship with the illustrious Newton, at that time presi-
of eight, with corrections and considerable suppressions, dent; and by his influence was elected one of the vice-
especially in the seventh canto. He also undertook to presidents in the year 1723. Mr Folkes became a candi-
chasten the Macaronics; and having completed this labour, date for the chair "on the death of Sir Isaac Newton ; but
he entrusted the publication of the purified edition to his the superior interest of Sir Hans Sloane rendered his ap-
brother Francisco Folengo. But although these two works plication ineffectual. In 1733, and the two subsequent
were thus rendered less exceptionable and more orthodox, years, he resided for the most part in Italy, with the view
the corrected editions have fallen into oblivion. Folengo of improving himself in the knowledge of classical antiqui-
appears to have remained during several years at Capri, a ty. To ascertain the weight and value of ancient coins,
country-house belonging to his order, between Brescia and he carefully consulted the cabinets of the curious; and on
Bergamo, and, in fact, to have divided his time between his return home he presented to the Antiquarian Society,
this retreat and Brescia till 1536 or 1537, in one or other of which he was a member, a dissertation on the subject,
of which years he composed his Italian poem on the Huma- He read before the same learned body a dissertation on the
nity of the Son of God, the most orthodox of all his works, measurement of Trajan’s and Antoninus’ pillars, together
and which would be the most edifying if one could really with other remains of antiquity. The fruits of his obser-
be edified by that which is unreadable. He was then sent vations he presented to the Royal Society, particularly
into Sicily to the monastery of St Martin delle Scale, where Remarks on the Standard Measure preserved in the Capi-
he appears to have remained till 154)3, when he returned tol of Rome, and the model of an ancient globe in the Far-
into Italy, and retired to the convent of the Holy Cross of nese palace. He visited Paris in 1739, where he was re-
Campesa, near Bassano, on the banks of the Brenta, where ceived with great respect, and admitted into the society of
he died in little more than a year afterwards, 9th December the most distinguished literary characters of that metropolis.
1544, in the fifty-third year of his age. The following is a This respect indeed he was entitled to by his unwearied
list of his works: 1. Merlini Cocaji Poetce Mantuani Ma- application to many branches of knowledge alike curious
caronices libri xvii. Venice, 1517, in 8vo ; 2. Orlandino, and useful. His valuable work upon English Silver Coins
per Limerno Pitocco da Mantova composto, Venice, 1526, was printed in the year 1745. Amongst the many honours
in 8vo; 3. Chaos del Triperuno, con privilegio, Venice, conferred upon Mr Folkes, was that of being created doctor
1527, in 8vo; 4. La Humanitd del Figliuolo di Dio, in of laws by both universities, and chosen president of the
ottava rirna, per Theophilo Folengo Mantovano, Venice, Antiquarian Society. He continued to furnish the Phdo-
1533, in 8vo ; 5. Joannis Bapt. Chrysogoni Folengii Man- sophical Transactions with many learned papers, tdl his
tuani anchoretce dialogi quos Pomiliones vocat, 1533, in career was cut short by a paralytic stroke, which termi-
8vo; 6. Several Poems, the greater part on subjects of de- nated his useful life in the year 1654. He was a man ot
votion, and some also in the Macaronic vein, which have extensive knowledge and approved accuracy ; but the chiel
not been printed. (A-) benefit to science which resulted from Ins labours was his
FOLIATING of Looking-Glasses, the spreading the treatise on the intricate subject of coins, weights, and mea-
plates over with quicksilver, after they have been polished, in sures. His cabinet and library, which were large and va-
order to reflect the image. The mode in which it is per- luable, were exposed to pubhc sale after his death,
formed may be shortly described. A thin blotting paper private character was distinguished for politeness, gene
is snread on the table, and sprinkled with fine chalk, and a sity, and friendship. >
Kamla or leaTof tik Jed foil, is laid over it; upon FOLKINGHAM, a market-town of the county of Lm-
this is poured mercury, which is to be distributed equally coin, in the hun re o ye an n the ascent of a
over the leaf; a clean paper is then laid upon the mercury, from London. It is beautifufly situated on the
and over that the glass plate, which is pressed down with hill, which affords a fine ^Jif^^at a Jeai
the right hand, and the paper gently drawn out with the The church has a the
left. This being done, the plate is covered with a thicker distance. coun y jai K ^ here. The mar-
paper, and loaded with a greater weight, that the super- quarter-hcssions or .. i tjon am0unted in
fluous mercury maybe driven out, and the tin adhere more ^et is e t on ur V 759 an(j jn 1331
closely to the glass ; and when it is dried, the weight is re- 1801 to 531, m 1811 to 659, in 1821 to 759,
moved, and the looking-glass complete. .... . r( 11 Pt-tTONF a market-town of the county of Kent,
FOLIGNO, a city of the delegation Perugia, in the papal tte tandred of its own name, of the
minion, in Italy. It is situated in a rich and fertile plain, o"*e fa-shore, in tnehundreaji^^ ^ Lon<j0I1. It j,
near the river Topino, whence it receives the waters
Maroggia. It contains eight churches, twelve monasteries,
eight nunneries, and a magnificent state-house, in which is
a museum of antiquities. The inhabitants, amounting to
15,102, are employed in bleaching wax and making tapers,
in woollen manufactures, in making paper, and vanous
conserves. Long. 12. 35. 40. E. Lat. 45. 6. 46. N. s
FOLIO, among printers and booksellers, the larges
form of books, wThen each sheet is so printed that it may
be bound up in two leaves only.
FOLKES, Martin, a philosopher and antiquary ot con-
dominion, in Italy. It is situated in a rich and fertile pkuh gh_'wayj Seventy.two miies from London.
a member of the Cinque Ports under Dover, but returns
no members to parliament. It is built on the ascent ot a
steep hill, the foot of which forms the sea beach, the
chief employments are fishing, and the contraband trade m
articles charged with heavy duties. The market is held
on Thursday, and well supplied. The population amounted
in 1801 to 3257, in 1811 to 3697, in 1821 to 4o41, and m
1831 to 4296. ^ ,
FOLKLAND, and Folkmote. See Folclands and
FOLCMOTE. , . . r-
 L - . wm T iriTT ITS tfrom follis, a bag), a species ot seea-
siderable eminence, was born at Westminster, in tie jear first mentioned by Linnaeus in his Delineatio Planta-
1090. A Mr Cappel, once professor of Hebrew a. Saumur, of one valve, which opens from
was his private tutor. When about seventee J hottom to ton on one side, and has no suture for fastening
age he was sent to Clare-haU, Cambridge where he ap- within it.
pled himself to the study of philosophy and the mathema- or attaching the
716
Folliculi
Fontaine.
F O N
FOLLICULI are likewise defined by the same author
to be small glandular vessels distended with air, which ap¬
pear on the surface of some plants, as at the foot of water-
milfoil, and on the leaves of aldrovanda. In the former
the leaves in question are roundish, and furnished with an
appearance like two horns; in the latter, pot-shaped and
semicircular.
FOLLIS anciently signified a little bag or purse, and
hence it came to be used for a sum of money; nay, dif¬
ferent sums were called by the same name. Thus the
scholiast on the Basilics mentions a follis of copper which
was worth but the twenty-fourth part ot the miliarensis ;
the glossce nomiccB, quoted by Gronovius and others,
were, one of 125 miliarenses, and another of 250 denarii,
which was the ancient sestertium ; and three different sums
of eight, four, and two pounds of gold were each called
follis. According to the account of the scholiast, the ounce
of silver, which contained live miliarenses of sixty to the
pound, was worth 120 folks of copper. The glossographer,
describing & follis of 250 denarii, says it was equal to 312
pounds six ounces of copper ; and as the denarius of that
age was the eighth part of an ounce, an ounce of silver
must have been worth 120 ounces of copper; therefore the
scholiast’s follis was an ounce of copper, and equal to the
glossograpiier’s nummus. But as Constantine’s copper
money weighed a quarter of a Roman ounce, the scholiast’s
follis and the glossographer’s nummus contained four of
them, as the ancient nummus contained four asses.
FOMAHAUT, in Astronomy, a star of the first magni¬
tude, in the constellation Aquarius.
FOMENTATION, in Medicine, is a fluid externally
applied, usually as warm as the patient can bear it. The
degree of heat should never exceed that of producing a
pleasant sensation ; great heat produces effects very dif¬
ferent from those intended by the use of fomentation.
FONG-HOA-TCHING, a large, populous, and com¬
mercial town of Chinese Tartary, on the borders of Corea.
It has manufactures of white and transparent paper, fabri¬
cated from cotton, which is used in windows instead of
glass. Long. 143. 42. E. Lat. 40. 31. N.
FONG-TCHING, a town of China, of the third rank, in
the province of Pe-tche-li. It is situated on the banks of
the Grand Canal, in a fine and fertile country, and is said to
be rather in a state of decay. It is twelve miles north of
Kiang.
FONG-YANG, a city of China, of the first rank, in the
province of Kiang-nang. It is situated on a mountain,
near the Yellow River; and being the birth-place of one
of the Chinese emperors, he resolved to embellish the city,
and render it the seat of government. But he afterwards
transferred the seat of government to Nanking, and the
few works which had been completed were abandoned.
This city comprehends eighteen towns under its jurisdic¬
tion. It is 340 miles south of Pekin. Long. 117. E. Lat.
32. 52. N. &
FONT, among ecclesiastical writers, a large basin, in
which watei is kept for baptizing infants or other persons.
Font, in the art of printing, denotes a complete assort¬
ment of letters, accents, &c. used in printing. See Fount.
FONTAINE, Jean de La, a celebrated French poet,
was born at Chateau-Thierry, in Champagne, on the 8th
of July 1621. At the age of nineteen he entered into the
congregation of the Oratory, but quitted it about eighteen
months afterwards. He was twentv-two years of age be¬
fore he knew his own talents for poetry ; but hearing read
an ode ot Malherbe, upon the assassination of Henri IV
he was so seized with admiration of it, that the poetical
hie, which had before lain dormant within him, seemed to
be kindled from that of the other great poet. La Fontaine
therefore applied himself to read, to meditate, to repeat, in
F O N
fine to imitate, the works of Malherbe. The first essays Fong
of his pen he confined to one of his relations, who made y!
him read the best Latin authors, and then the best com- ,
positions in French and Italian. He applied himself like¬
wise to the study of the Greek authors, particularly Plato
and Plutarch. Some time afterwards his parents induced
him to marry a daughter of a lieutenant-general, a relation
of the great Racine. This young lady, besides possessing
great beauty, was remarkable for the delicacy of her wit,
and La Fontaine never composed any work without con¬
sulting her. But as her temper was none of the best, the
poet, to avoid dissension, separated himself from her com¬
pany as often as he well could. The celebrated Duchess of
Bouillon, niece of Cardinal Mazarin, being exiled to Cha¬
teau-Thierry, took particular notice of La Fontaine; and
on her recal he followed her to Paris, where, by the inte¬
rest of one of his relations, a pension was settled upon him.
He met with friends and protectors amongst the most dis¬
tinguished persons of the court, but Madame de la Sabliere
was the most prominent. She took him to live at her house;
and there Fontaine, divested of domestic concerns, led a
life conformable to his disposition, and cultivated an ac¬
quaintance with all the great men of the age. It was his
custom, after he had fixed at Paris, to go every year, during
the month of September, to his native place of Chateau-
Thierry, and pay a visit to his wife, carrying with him Ra¬
cine, Despreaux, Chapelle, or some other celebrated wri¬
ters. After the death of Madame de la Sabliere, he was
invited into England, particularly by Madame Mazarin, and
by St Evremond, who promised to secure him all the
comforts of life ; but the difficulty of learning the English
language, and the liberality of the Duke of Burgundy, pre¬
vented his crossing the Channel.
About the end of the year 1692 he fell dangerously ill,
and, as is customary upon these occasions in the Catholic
church, he made a general confession of his whole life to
Father Poguet of the Oratory ; and, before he received the
sacrament, he sent for the gentlemen of the French Aca¬
demy, and in their presence declared his sincere compunc¬
tion for having composed his Tales, a work he could not
reflect upon without the greatest repentance and detesta¬
tion ; promising that if it should please God to restore him
to health, he would employ his talents only in writing upon
matters of morality or piety. He survived this illness two
years, living in the most exemplary and edifying manner,
and died on the 13th of March 1695, at the age of seventy-
four. When his body was stripped they found next his
skin a hair shirt, which gave room for the following ex¬
pression of the younger Racine :
Et Tauteur de Jaconde est orne d’un cilice.
La Fontaine has been justly regarded as the prince ot fa¬
bulists. In his hands the apologue, which had hitherto
been extremely confined, became a little poem, in which all
the shades, varieties, and qualities of the other kinds ot poe¬
try were intermingled with inimitable ai't and simplicity.
Epic poetry there recognised its recitals and its characters;
dramatic poetry its actors, dialogues, and passions ; didac¬
tic poetry its lessons and instruction. We there find sim¬
plicity united with vigour and dignity, and great naivete
with exquisite wit and refinement. Nothing can exceed
the freshness and grace with which he paints gentle,
amiable, and smiling objects ; whilst, besides the other
charms of the picture, the reader is agreeably surprised by
those strokes of genuine comic humour in which he so
greatly excelled. There is no doubt much art in all this,
and it is indubitable that La Fontaine carefully elaborated
his fables; but as the perfection of art is to conceal it,
and simplicity is the joint result of genius and labour, so,
by the union of these eminent qualities, La Fontaine, with-
F O N
S out having almost invented any thing, is nevertheless re¬
garded as one of the most original of the French poets.
• He invented nothing, said Laharpe, but his style; and the
v' secret remained with him. In imitating others he became
inimitable ; and he is perhaps the only poet of whom this
may with truth be said. For the numerous editions of his
works we must refer our readers to Brunet’s Manuel du
Libraire. The best edition of the Fables de La Fontaine
is that of Charles Nodier, with a new literary and gram¬
matical Commentary, Paris, 1818, in 2 vols. 8vo. Of the
Oeuvres CompUtes de La Fontaine there are only four edi¬
tions, all of which were published at Paris in 1813, 1814,
1817, and 1818 respectively. These editions alone contain
the ballad commencing with the verse
C’est a bon droit que I’on condamne a Rome,
and Ragotin, a metrical comedy, in five acts, discovered by
Barbier in 1811. (See Histoire de la Vie et des Ouvraqes
de M. de La Fontaine, 1811.)
FONTAINES, Piekre-Francois Gyot Des, a French
critic, the son of a councillor in the parliament of Rouen,
was born in that city on the 18th December 1685, and ter¬
minated his career at Paris on the 16th December 1745.
At the age of fifteen he entered into the society of the Je¬
suits, where he received orders ; and at thirty quitted it to
return to the world. He was a priest, and had a cure in
Normandy, which he soon left, and, as a man of wit and let¬
ters, lived for a time with the Cardinal d’Auvergne. Having
excited some attention at Paris by certain critical produc¬
tions, Desfontaines was, in 1724, employed to conduct the
Journal des Spavans. He acquitted himself well in this de¬
partment, and was peaceably enjoying the applause of the
public, when his enemies, exasperated by critical strictures
in his journal, caused him to be accused of an abominable
crime, and procured his imprisonment. By the credit of
powerful friends, however, he was set at liberty in fifteen
days: the magistrate of the police took upon himself the
trouble of justifying him, in a letter addressed to the Abbe
Bignon; and this letter having been read amidst his fel¬
low-labourers in the journal, he was unanimously re-esta¬
blished in his former credit. This happened in 1725. But
with whatever reputation he acquitted himself in conduct¬
ing his journal, frequent disgusts induced him at length to
abandon it. Meanwhile he laboured in some new periodi¬
cal works, from which he derived his greatest fame. In
1731 he commenced one under the title of Le Nouvelliste
du Parnasse, ou Reflexions sur les Ouvrages Nouveaux;
hut it only extended to two volumes, the work having been
suppressed by authority, from the incessant complaints of
the authors ridiculed therein. About three years after, in
1735, he obtained a new privilege for a periodical produc¬
tion entitled Observations sur les Ecrits Modernes, which,
atter extending to thirty-three volumes, was suppressed in
D4-3. Yet the year following, 1744, he published another
weekly paper called Jugemens sur les Ecrits Nouveaux,
wmch proceeded to eleven volumes ; the last two having
been executed by other hands. In 1745 he was attacked
"ith a disorder in the chest, which ended in a dropsy that
proved fatal in five weeks. “ He was born a sentimental
person,” says Freron ; “ a •philosopher in conduct as well
in principle; exempt from ambition ; and of a noble,
rm spirit, which would not submit to sue for preferments
or titles. In common conversation he appeared only a com-
nion man ; but when subjects of literature, or any thing
uut of the ordinary way, were agitated, he discovered great
°rp>e jma"ination and wit.”
ONPANA, Felix, a distinguished physiologist and
experimental philosopher, was born at Pomarolo, a little
town in the Tyrol, on the 15th April 1730.
Be began his studies at the neighbouring city of Rove-
F o N
717
pS^a^d in the scho°is °f Ver»na =>“>
’ “"“afterwards m the universities of Padua and Bo-
g • He then visited Rome, and went to Florence
rt 4at tL0br”ed/^the Eml)CTOT Francis I Who w2
Professor of nb?11 n ^ Tuscany> the appointment of
1 ofessor of philosophy at Pisa ; but the Grand Duke Peter
settle°u FIh° ^ a S!5 afterTards emPeror, invited him to
ed with hk h" F nd g££e him an establishment connect-
nf th? • 1TSceh° d’ af f'SlC° or naturalist, and as director
of the cabinet of natural history, which was afterwards ren-
fhe’dty of Florene^”8 °ne °f 1116 ‘"'“P3* “moments of
Fontana became the author of many well-known works
on physiology, natural philosophy, and chemistry. In 1757
he was engaged in an investigation tending to confirm the
doctrines of Haller respecting the irritability of the mus¬
cles, considered as a distinct quality inherent in those or-
gans. Haller has published several of his letters as a part
ot his own Memoires sur les parties sensibles et irritables;
and the subject afforded Fontana the materials of several
successive essays. 1. De Irritabilitaiis legibus nunc pri-
mum sancitis, Atti di Sienna, vol. iii. p. 209, 1767. 2.
Ilicerche jilosojichc sopra la Fisica animate, 4. Flor. 1775.
J his volume contains only the Essay on the Laws of Irri¬
tability, stating, first, the general outline of the doctrine,
then entering into the different intensity of the property of
irritability, and its loss by exhaustion or by inactivity, and
discussing the action of the heart, and the peculiarities of
the death occasioned by electricity. 3. Another link of
the same chain of investigation is found in the earlier pub¬
lication De' moti dell' iride, 8. Lucca, 1765; showing that
the contraction of the pupil depends on the effect of light
falling on the retina, and not on the iris itself, and esta¬
blishing an analogy between the motions of the uvea, and
the semi-voluntary actions of the muscles of respiration. 4.
One of the most important of Fontana’s works is his Ri-
cerche fisiche sopra 'l veneno della viper a, Lucca, 1767;
containing an immense multitude of experiments calcu¬
lated to show that the poison of the viper acts by mixing
with the blood, and destroying the irritability of the mus¬
cles to which it is conveyed; but that the bite of the Euro¬
pean viper, though fatal to small animals, is scarcely ever
capable of producing any immediately dangerous effects on
the human frame. 5. The same matter was republished,
with many additions, in the Trade sur le Venin de la Vi-
pere, sur les Poisons Americains, sur le Laurier-cerise, et sur
quelques autres Poisons, Berlin, 1787; together with some
observations on the primitive structure of the animal
body, experiments on the reproduction of the nerves, and
remarks on the anatomy of the eye. 6. In 1766 our author
published an essay entitled Nuove Osservazioni sopra i glo-
betti rossi del sangue, Lucca; confuting the assertions which
had lately been advanced by Della Torre, respecting the
complicated structure and changes of form of the globules
of the blood. 7. In the next year appeared Osservazioni
sopra la ruggine del grano, Lucca, 1767; describing an
animalcule like- an eel, to which he attributes the rust of
coin, but which has not always been found by subsequent
observers in similar cases, perhaps for want of accurate
distinction. 8. There is also a Lettre sur VErgot, Journ.
Phys. vii. p. 42. 9. The Lettera sopra le Idiatidi e le
Tenie, Opuscoli Scelti. vi. p. 108, Milan, 1783, contains an
account of the hydatids which produce the symptoms of
vertigo in sheep. 10. A Lettre d M. * * *, Journ. Phys.
vii. p. 285, contains some remarks on the circulation of the
sap in plants. 11. In an essay Sur le Tremella, Journ.
Phys. vii. p. 47, a zoophyte of a green colour, described by
Adanson and others as a plant, is shown to consist of a
multitude of little animals in continual motion.
12. Mr Fontana entered also very minutely, but with
718
Fontana.
^ tvt F O N
TT O N
„ . „ • tn lection of his works, translated into French by Gibelin, Fontaf
more industry than accuracy or dos™f8 f^XaTOntion was published at Paris in 178S, entitled Observations Phy- W
the chemical novelties which occupied century, siques et Cldmiques.
throughout Europe in the latter half of the last ce y /Fontana had become aCq„ainted with a great number of
He seems, however, to have had the mer‘‘'Sf f the contemporary men of science, by having travelled in vari-
the discoveries of Priestley respecting the eltects ^ of Europe for the pu pose of ennching the cab-
nitric oxide to the examination of the qualities ot tn net ^ wMch he was superintendent: the same official situ,
sphere by means of the eudiometer, which is tne suuj adon brou„ht him into contact with all foreigners of dis-
1ns Deserizione e usi di alcum ftrommti per- nmur l tinction who passed through Florence in their travels; and
lubrita dell aria, 8. Flor. 1774, 4to, W /h, ana is ^ seeras to have enjoyed a more extensive reputation than
illustrated in his (13.) Recherches physiques sur l ^ many philosophers of deeper research and more irresistible
de I’air dephlogistique et de air mtreux \ ar. i * tration. He wore the habit of an ecclesiastic, and was
also observed the remarkable property that charcoa p uncommonly called abbe. He was well received in the
sesses of absorbing severa times J^ulk of " -
the*acidity of the fixed air is not essential to jb oui tunn- when the took possession of Tuscany in 1799, and
dentally derived from the stronger add employed ^ the object of S0I„e suspicion upon the
npllino-it from the earth or alkali. 15. I he l naosop ocrycr>;c»llv with the insurffents of
& . /■ . tnna „ i Q7 contain his Experiments
Transactions for 1779, p. 187,
and Observations on the Inflammable Jtr % ran
ous Animals, consisting of a repetition of Scheele s attemp
to breathe hydrogen gas, which did not always create a
sensation of immediate uneasiness, though it was sometimes
productive of alarming consequences. 16. In the same
volume, p. 432, we find an interesting Account of the Airs
extracted from different hinds of Waters, with ihoaglds on
the Salubrity of the Air at different places, showing that the
air afforded by water is very different under different cir¬
cumstances, but that the quality of the atmosphere itself
return of the Austrians, especially with the insurgents of
Arezzo, who preceded them, and by whom he was for a
short time imprisoned. His last illness was occasioned by
an accidental fall in the street, on the 11th of January 1805,
and he died the 9th of March 1806, at the age of seventy-
five He was buried in the church ot the Holy Cross, not
far from the tomb of Galileo. His Eloge was pronounced
by Professor Mangili, in the university of Pavia, on the
12th November 1812. (Cuvier, in Biographic Umverselk,
vol. XV. 8. Par. 1816.) . . (L- H
Fontana, Gregory, a profound mathematician and na-
cumstances, but that the quality ot the atmospnere useu philoso’plier, younger brother of Felix Fontana, was
scarcely ever exhibits any vanations which can be rendered tura P near R„veredo, on the 7th Do
LUJLTti   
born at Villa de Nogarola, near Roveredo, on the /th De
cember 1735. . _
He received the first rudiments of his education at Ko-
veredo, and continued his studies at Rome, where he en¬
tered into the Scuole Pie, and soon distinguished himseit
by his talents and assiduity. He was entrusted with the
care of a part of the public instruction in the school called
the Collegio Nazareno, and was soon afterwards sent as a
professor to Sinigaglia. It was here that he formed an in¬
timacy with the Marquis Fagnani, whose example and as¬
sistance contributed very much to the advancement of his
mathematical studies, to which he very soon in a greatmea-
sure confined his attention. He was then removed by
superiors to Bologna; but his co-operation was found more
necessary for the pious schools which had lately been est
blished at Milan, and he there obtained the patronage and
silica as their internal parts. Our author remarks, how- friendship of the Count ^ first
ever, that his attention had of late been much distracted day, who grea y encour g P so rauch credit, that
from chemical pursuits by the attention required for the works. From t ese wor ,pLmv the chair of logic and
completion of his collection of wax models of anatomical he was summoned in 0 „„ 1) ,,  „„rvn;nt-
subjects, and for the duplicates which he was preparing for
the cabinet of Vienna at the request of the emperor. At
a subsequent period another series of copies of these models
was ordered by Bonaparte to be sent to Paris; but it was
there judged inferior to the preparations already existing
in the Ecole de Medecine, which had been made under the
direction of Laumonier, and Fontana’s collection was sent
to the university of Montpellier. He was latterly engaged
for some time in the preparation of a colossal model of a
man, built up anatomically of all his component parts, which
were accurately represented in wood; but this elaborate
design was never completed.
20. He wras also the author of a few other chemical and
sensible by chemical tests. _
17. To the Memoirs of the Italian Society Fontana con¬
tributed several short essays; the first, entitled Principi
qenerali della solidita e della fluidita dei corpi, vol. i. p. 89,
Verona, 1782, containing the prevalent theories of the day
respecting the change in the forms of aggregation of the
same substance, together with experiments on the elasticity
of different gases. 18. The second is a collection of defi¬
nitions, entitled Sopra la luce, la flamma, il calore e ilflo-
gisto, p. 104, characterizing these supposed elementary prin¬
ciples according to the ideas of Bergman, Scheele, and
others. 19. In a later volume, v. p. 581 (1790), we find a
Lettera del Cavaliere F. Fontana al Sign, de Morveau, in
which it is conjectured that inflammable air may be a com¬
pound of phlogiston and wrater, and it is observed that the
white crusts of flints contain as great a proportion of pure
silica as their internal parts. Our author remarks, how
he was summoned in noo to occupy me ^ ^
metaphysics in the university of Pavia; and e was TP
ed by Firmian director of the public library whic
founded about the same time for the university. w .
afterwards he was advanced to the professorship ^
higher mathematics, which had become vacant y on
of the celebrated Boscovich, and he filled this f
with high reputation for thirty years. He was . the
of a great variety of memoirs, and did not even ^
labour of a translator, when he thought tha en.
useful to his pupils or his countrymen ; but ^ "V n0t.
gaged in any single original work of great extent,
withstanding his habitual industry, to any
volatile to allow him to confine himself long g
20. He wras also the author ot a tew other chemical and volatile to auow min iu L-unqiit o ^ com,
mineralogical papers of less importance ; for instance, of an one object to effect any striking mnova io jqewasassi-
Analyse de la Malachite, Journ. Phys. xi. p. 509; and, 21. plexion of the sciences which he cu tiva e . ^ ^ pergonal
■A T.et.tre sur du vitriol de Mami.psretrrmvp rlnns rtes mrripres rluous in the duties of his professorship , his
   ™   7 5 ~
A Lettre sur du vitriol de Magnesie trouve dans des carrieres
de gypse, en Piernont, Journ. Phys. xxxiii. p. 309. 22.
His last work is entitled Principes raisonnes de la Genera¬
tion. He was also meditating an essay on the revivifica¬
tion of animals, but he did not live to complete it. A col- books that he read;
plexion oi uie suiemmo   . , , • ^pr-gonai
duous in the duties of his professorship; an P , h;s
intercourse with society was extremely hnn > jje
correspondence with men ^^^^^argin of the
correspunueuuc win*    n „ n ot uiC
was in the habit of writing many notes in 11 ‘ S d hi8
, i _ v.„ . and the volumes which compose
Fonts.
v*tr
F O N
library acquired a double value from this circumstance. In
April 1795 he was elected a foreign member of the Royal
Society of London. About this time his health began to
decline, and his physicians considered him as having suf¬
fered from too great application to his studies. In 1796
he received great marks of respect from Bonaparte, then
commanding the French army in Italy; and he was made
a member of the legislative body of the newly erected Cis¬
alpine republic. In 1800, having resigned the professor¬
ship at Pavia, he came to Milan, and was afterwards nomi¬
nated one of the Electoral College of the Dotti. He was
still occupied in a variety of literary pursuits, when he was
attacked by a violent fever, which caused his death at Mi¬
lan, on the 24th August 1803. He left his manuscripts to
his brother Felix, who died soon after him. An unmarried
sister survived them both, and inherited the little property
of her brothers, which was soon exhausted, and she was re¬
duced to the extremity of distress. At last, finding no pro¬
tection in a country to which her family had done so much
honour, she became desperate, and drowned herself in the
canal of Milan.
1—7. Fontana’s principal publications were, first, seven
Academical Dissertations on various departments of ma¬
thematical and mechanical science, among which are the
Analyseos Sublimioris Opuscula, 4. Yen. 1763, and the
Memorie Matematiche, 4. Pavia, 1796. 8—23. There are
sixteen short memoirs in the Atti dell’ Accademia di Sienna.
Their subjects are, Astronomical Problems, vol. v. 1774,
p. 55. 9. Theorems relating to the Integral Calculus, p. 69.
10. Remarks on Incommensurable Quantities, p. 71. 11. On
the Quantity of Air in the Atmosphere, p. 76. 12. On the
Area of a Spherical Triangle, p. 83. 13. On the Binomial
Theorem, p. 88. 14. On Accelerated Motion, p. 92. 15.
On Projectiles, p. 97. 16. On a Phenomenon of Vision, p.
103, attempting to explain the comparative brightness of
an object seen by one and by both eyes. 17. On the Ef¬
fect of the Solar and lunar Attraction upon the Height of the
Barometer, p. 116. 18. On the Mathematical Discoveries
of Cardani and Cavalieri. 19. An Essay on the Gradual
Renewal of the Blood of an Animal, and on the Principles
of Compound Interest and Discount, vol. v. 1781, p. 161.
20. On the Axis of Equilibrium, p. 173. 21. On Curves
described by the Centre of Gravity, p. 177. 22. On the
Centres of Gravity of Hyperbolic Spaces or Figures, p. 180.
23. On Indefinite Equations, and on the Method of Inde-
terminates, p. 184.
24—40. There are also a great variety of papers in the
Memorie della Societd Italiana delle Scienze. Among
them we have, 24. An Essay on the descent of a Body on
a Convex Surface, vol. i. Verona, 1782, p. 94. 25. Re¬
marks on the Measurement of Light, p. Ill, in which the
elegant experiments of Lambert are applied to the expla¬
nation of the uniformity of the light of the sun’s disk ; an
essay which would have saved a great Parisian astronomer
some useless labour and calculation, if it had excited his-
attention. 26. On the Logarithms of Negative Quantities,
p. 183. 27. On the Equation of a Curve on Two False
Theorems and on Harmonic Series, vol. ii. 1784, p* 423.
28. On the Pressure of Fluids, p. 192. 29. On Centri¬
fugal Force, p. 325. 30. On Series, p. 326. 31. On
Converging Series formed by the Products of the odd and
even numbers, vol. iii. 1786, p. 174. 32. Analytical Re¬
searches on Refraction, on Perpetual Motion, on the Inte¬
gration of Equations, on Collision, on the Resolution of
Forces, and on the Pressure of Beams. There is also an
Essay on Bufforis Combination of Mirrors, and anothei
on the Quantity of Light Reflected by a Mirror in a given
Direction. 41—51. Five papers of Fontana appear in the
Memoirs of the Academy of Turin for 1804, five in the dfb-
lioteca Fisica d Europa, and four in the Physico-medical
F O N
Journal oj Pavia. Of these, one of the most interesting
relates to the Magnifying Power of Telescopes, and is re¬
printed in the fifteenth volume of the Raccolta di Opuscoli,
published at Milan.
55. Of his translations, the principal are La Dottrina
degli azzardi di Abram Moivre, Pavia, 1776, with additions,
said to be a piratical publication. 56. Saggio di una di-
fesa della Divina Revelazione, di L. Eulero, Pavia, 1777.
57. Dissertazione di Mosheim sopra Vopera di Origene con-
tro Celso, Pavia, 17/8, with notes. 58. The Hydrodyna¬
mics, and other Mathematical Works of Bossut, Sienna,
1779. 59. Compendia di un corso di Fisica del Sign. G.
Atwood, Pavia, 1781. 60. Saggio sopra. i principi della
composizione storica, del Sign. Hill, Pavia, 1789, with an
appendix. 61. Discorso Preliminare agli atti della So-
cieta Linneana di Londra, del Sign. J. O. Smith, Pavia,
1792. 62. Sermone sid Martirio del re Carlo 1. dal Dr G.
Swift, Pavia, 1798. 63. EEsempio della Francia, avviso
especchioall Inghilterra,di A. Young, Pavia, 1794. (Guil-
lion in Biographie Universelle, vol. xv. Paris, 1816.) (l.l.)
FONTENAY, an arrondissement of the department of
Vendee, in France, extending 1116 square miles. It is
divided into eleven cantons, and subdivided into 161 com¬
munes, and contains 117,524 houses. The capital is a city
called Fontenay Le Comte, situated in a valley through
which the Vendee runs. It is an ill-built, old-fashioned
town, distinguished only by its lofty tower on the mother
church, which is 294 feet in height, and very beautiful. It
contains 1485 houses, and 6615 inhabitants. It has some
trade in linen and woollen goods. It has not yet recovered
from the effects of the revolution. Long. 2. 3. W. Lat. 36.
40. N.
FONTENELLE, Bernard le Bovier de, was born
at Rouen on the 11th February 1657, and died at Paris on
the 9th January 1757. It was during this interval of time,
comprehending an entire century, that the greatest writers
France has produced commenced or terminated their ca¬
reer ; and amongst these illustrious men, who were all either
the friends, the enemies, or the rivals of Fontenelle, none
was more remarkable whilst living, or has been more cele¬
brated since his death. For this advantage he has been
principally indebted to the variety of his acquirements, the
fineness of his genius, and the versatility and grace of a
talent peculiarly French, which seems to have acquired its
greatest perfection, and displayed itself in the happiest
manner, in the country which gave him birth, and in the
age when he flourished. Fontenelle received his education
in the college of Jesuits at Rouen, where the quickness
and aptitude of his powers became conspicuous at a very
early period. When only thirteen years of age he com¬
menced the study of rhetoric; and so rapid was his progress,
that in a note opposite his name on the register of the col¬
lege, he is described as adolescens omnibus partibus absolu-
tus, et inter discipulos princeps. At the desire of his father
he studied the law ; but as he lost the very first cause in
which he was employed as an advocate, he became disgust¬
ed with his profession, and devoted himself entirely to lite¬
rature and philosophy. He composed a considerable part
of the operas of Psyche and Bellerophon, which were print¬
ed under the name of his uncle Thomas Corneille; and he
also wrote a tragedy called Aspar, but as it did not suc¬
ceed, he consigned the manuscript to the flames, and nevei
afterwards attempted that species of composition. Hus
Dialogues des Marts were published in the year 1683, and
well received as a specimen of elegant composition, com¬
bining morality with the charms of literature ; in fact, this
work laid the foundation of the great reputation of ron-
tenelle. His Lettres du Chevalier dHer, published in
1685, without his name, discovered much wit and ingenuity,
but at the same time no small share of aflectation, and oo-
720
Fonte-
nelle
H
Food.
F O O
tained only moderate success. But his Entretkns sur la
Plurality des Mondes has been regarded as one of his ablest
performances, combining science and philosophy with vi-
r vacitv and humour, a talent which may be said to belon0
almost exclusively to the French nation. It was univer¬
sally read, and translated into several foreign languages.
In his Histoire des Oracles he supported the opinion that
oracles were forgeries, in opposition to those who contend¬
ed that they were supernatural operations ot evil spirits,
put to silence by the appearance of Christ, and consequent¬
ly exposed himself to much clerical animadversion. Fe
Tellier denounced the book, and the Jesuit Baltus attempt¬
ed to refute it; whilst others, again, wrote as warmly in its
defence, contending that the opinion therein maintained
was conformable to that of the most renowned theologians.
Fontenelle took no part in the dispute, but contented him¬
self with writing to M. Leclerc, “ It belongs rather to M.
Yan-Daale than to me to answer on this occasion ; he is
my guarantee, I am only his interpreter; and I have no
objection that the Devil should be a prophet since the ba¬
ther Jesuit wishes it so, and considers it the more ortho¬
dox opinion.” His Pastoral Poems, which appeared in the
year 1688, with a discourse on the nature of the eclogue,
were very much admired for their delicacy of sentiment,
as was also his opera of Thetis and Peleus ; but his fEneas
and Lavinia was not so successful. In the year 1699 Fon¬
tenelle was chosen secretary of the Academy of Sciences,
which office he held during the long period of forty-two
years. Whilst in this office he published annually a volume
of the history of that learned body, entitled Histoire de
VAcademic des Sciences, filled with analyses of memoirs,
and eloges on deceased members. Besides his labours as
secretary, he also made his contribution as an academician,
by composing his Geometric de Tlnfini, a work of which he
jocularly observed that there were only eight men in Eu¬
rope in a condition to understand it, and that the author
was not one of the number. It appears, however, that Fon¬
tenelle was by no means profound in the mathematics ; and
hence, with the exception of a preface to the Analyse des
Infiniments Petits of L’Hopital, and a memoir on the ex¬
tension of the property of the number nine, he produced
no other works on the subject. As a poet, Fontenelle did
not rise above elegance and ingenuity ; as a man of science,
he excelled in throwing light on the inventions of others,
rather than in discovering new truths himself; and as a ge¬
neral writer, he united solid sense with the delicacy and
refinement of a man of wit. He studied his own comfort
as much as most men, but never sacrificed to selfish grati¬
fication the duties of a man of honour and of virtue. He
had many friends, and towards the close of his life scarce¬
ly a single enemy. He was never married, and, for a man
of letters, had acquired considerable affluence. Although
of a delicate constitution, he reached the age of ninety
without any complaint except deafness ; and died, as already
F O O
mentioned, on the 9th of January 1757, being within a few Fonu
days of a hundred years of age. When asked by a certain |j
person how he could pass so easily through the world, he Foe
replied, by virtue of two axioms, namely, that all is possi-
ble, and that every one is in the right.
There are only two complete editions of the works of
Fontenelle ; one in eleven volumes 12mo, Paris, 1758,
1760 ; and the other in eight volumes 8vo, Paris, Bastien,
] 790. In these editions are found the Prefaces and Eloges
which form part of the History of the Academy of Sciences;
but they contain neither the Analyses nor the Geometric
de Tlnfini, which first appeared in 1727, 4<to. The edition
of the CEuvres Diverses, published at the Hague, 1728,
1729, is much sought after on account of the engravings
of Bernard Picard. But the work of Fontenelle which
has been most frequently reprinted is his Entretien sur la
Pluralite des Mondes. The first edition appeared in the
year 1686 ; but the sixth conversation, composed long af¬
terwards, was only printed in the edition of 1719. The
principal other editions are that of Dijon, Causse, 1793, in
8vo ; that of Didot, 1796, in 4to ; and that printed in 1800,
with the notes of Lalande, which is the best. In 1730 there
appeared at Leipsic, in 8vo, a German translation by Gott-
sched ; in 1751, an Italian translation by Yestrini, publish¬
ed at Arezzo ; and there are three English translations, the
best of which was published in 1760, in 8vo.
FONTENOY, a village of the Netherlands, in the pro¬
vince of Hennegau, and circle of Tournay, containing 580
inhabitants. It is memorable for the battle fought there
in 1745, in which the allies commanded by the Duke of
Cumberland were defeated by the French under Marshal
Saxe.
FONTEVRAUD, or Fontevraux, Order of, in Eccle¬
siastical History, a religious order, instituted about the
latter end of the eleventh century, and taken under the
protection of the holy see by Pope Pascal II. in 1106, con¬
firmed by a bull in 1113, and invested by his successors
with very extraordinary privileges. The chief of this order
was a female, appointed to inspect both the monks and nuns.
The order was divided into four provinces, which were
those of France, Aquitaine, Auvergne, and Bretagne, in
each of which they had formerly several priories.
FONTINALIA, or Frontanalia, in Antiquity, % tcX\-
gious feast held amongst the Romans in honour ot the
deities who presided over fountains or springs. Varro ob¬
serves that it was the custom to visit the wells on certain
days, and to cast crowns into fountains. Scaliger, in his
conjectures on Varro, supposes that this was not a feast
of fountains in general, as Festus insinuates, but of the
fountain which had a temple at Rome, near the Porta
Capena, called also Porta Fontinalis ; and he adds, that it
is of this fountain Cicero speaks in his second book e
Legibus. The Fontinalia were celebrated on the 13th ot
October.
FOOD.
Our observations upon this subject may be convenient¬
ly arranged as relating to the Selection, Preservation, and
Preparation of the various substances which are common¬
ly used for food.
SELECTION.
General Animal matters in general are safe articles of food. In
observa- regard to the higher classes, the mammalia and birds, this
tiona. js universally true of those in a state of health. A few
exceptions occur among the fishes, depending either upon
the constitution of certain persons, who are injurious y
fected by substances generally alimentary,^ or upon some
singularity in the nature of the individual fish, by w ic j •
becomes poisonous, although the species is generally nu r
tious and wholesome. As we descend still lower in
scale, these exceptions occur more frequently, an m
species are absolutely and universally unwholesome, or
nish poisons hurtful to every constitution. In tie v g
table kingdom, the alimentary vegetables form but a s
proportion of the whole, and almost an equal nunl e , en
absolutely poisonous, or at least injurious, excep
F O
Select) i
ofFojt
Quadn
peds.
Size.
given in small quantities, to counteract some existing dis¬
ease.
Although quadrupeds, without exception, furnish articles
which may be safely used as food, their flesh differs much
in palatability, and probably in its nutritious qualities.
There is also no part of this class of animals that may not
be, and indeed is not occasionally used as food, although
the flesh, or voluntary muscles upon the limbs, trunk, and
head, is by far the most considerable and important. The
heart, the largest of the involuntary muscles, is also com¬
monly eaten ; and the brain and spinal marrow or pith ; all
the glands, the kidneys, liver, udder, and sweetbread ; the
compound internal organs, the lungs, stomach, and intes¬
tines, the uterus, placenta, and even the contents of the
stomach, the fat and marrow of the bones, the blood and
skin, are all nutritious, and some of them highly prized; and
even the bones themselves can be made to furnish much
wholesome nutriment. The milk of all quadrupeds is also
alimentary, and generally agreeable.
These various organs, although each of them contains
several immediate principles, considered chemically, are
characterized by some difference in their composition.
The muscular flesh consists principally of fibrine, combin¬
ed with some gelatinous mucus and osmazome ; the ten¬
dons of the muscles, on the contrary, are little else than
gelatine in a very dense form. This is likewise the case
with the skin, the membranes in general, and the ligaments.
Brain and medullary nervous matter consist chiefly of coa¬
gulated albumen, which also, perhaps, enters largely into
the composition of glands. The fat, suet, and marrow of
the bones, are different forms of concrete animal oil. All
these principles are digestible and nutritious, but in what
comparative degree is far from being ascertained. Accord¬
ing to popular opinion, it is nearly inversely as their solu¬
bility in water, muscular flesh being considered to furnish
the strongest aliment, and gelatinous organs the lightest.
But these substances are not exactly similar in all animals,
nor even in the same animal at different periods of life.
In general the flesh and other parts are coarser in pro¬
portion to the size of the animal, not only when different
in kind, but in different varieties of the same species, al¬
though well-grown individuals of the same variety are al¬
ways better than those which have not been sufficiently
nourished. Thus the flesh of the elephant and rhinoceros
have been found to be very coarse and unpalatable, whilst
that of the rat and smaller quadrupeds is very delicate.
The larger varieties of the ox and sheep, also, are inferior
to the smaller, as the kyloes of the Western Islands, and
the sheep of Wales and the Highlands of Scotland.
The whole organs of young animals are much more ge¬
latinous than those of the adult and aged, whilst these con¬
tain more fibrine and extract. Hence the flesh of young
animals is more bland and tender, and yields most to the
action of boiling water ; whilst that of aged animals is more
savoury, even to rankness, and is firm to toughness.
The flesh of very young animals is to our palates un¬
pleasantly soft and flabby, qualities of which every one is
a judge; but it is at no period of life, not even in the foetal
state, actually unwholesome ; and therefore there was no
rational ground for that enactment which provided that no
butcher shall kill any calf to sell being under five weeks old.
The fact is, that cows large with calf are frequently killed,
and the foetus is always sold as very^ young veal, and pre¬
ferred by some people. By our butchers, calves are killed
at from six to sixteen weeks ; but they are reckoned best
at ten or twelve. Lambs are generally killed at from eight
weeks to half a year.
O D.
721
The flesh of quadrupeds in the vigour of life is more
Stringy, and again becomes shorter as it advances to old
age, when it becomes dry and unnutritious. Young animals
also differ from those that are aged, in the distribution of
the tat, which in the latter is chiefly collected in masses or
ayers external to the muscles, and in the former is more
interspersed among the muscular fibres, giving the flesh a
maibled appeal ance, which is always a desirable property
in butcher-meat.
Selection
of Food.
The beef of the larger breeds of oxen is in perfection
when the animal is about seven years old, that of the
smaller breeds a year or two sooner. Cow beef, on the
contrary, can scarcely be too young. The flesh of a young
heifer is highly esteemed ; that of an old fattened cow is
very bad. Wedder mutton is in perfection at five years.
Ewe mutton is best when about two years old. Sucking
pigs are killed about three weeks old; but pork differs
from other kinds of butcher-meat in not requiring age to
mellow it; so that swine for pork are killed at from six to
twelve months old; but for brawn, age is an advantage, or
rather necessary. The buck of the fallow-deer may be kill¬
ed at six, but is better at eight years of age. The female
in general being naturally more tender, and getting tough
rather than mellowing by age, is sooner in perfection.
The sex also greatly influences the quality of the flesh, Sex.
that of the female being always more delicate and finely
grained than that of the entire male, of which the fibres
are stronger and the taste more rank. Indeed the influ¬
ence of the genital organs on the flesh of animals is very
remarkable. The delicacy of the flesh, even of the female,
is greatly improved by removing the ovaries, or “ spaying”
them as it is called. Every day the testes are permitted
to remain, even though totally inactive as to their proper
function, injures the delicacy of the veal of the bull-calf;
and an animal which is not castrated until after puberty al¬
ways retains much of the rankness and coarseness of the
entire male. Daubenton1 directs that the male lambs
should be castrated at from eight to fifteen days after their
birth, although it is not usual to perform the operation
until the age of three weeks, or even five or six months.
But their flesh is never so good as when they are castrat¬
ed at eight days. Huzard goes farther, and recommends
it to be performed in a day or two after their birth, or as
soon as the testes descend into the scrotum. The female
lambs are also spayed occasionally in France, to render their
flesh more delicate, and to improve the wool; but the ope¬
ration cannot be performed until the ovaries have acquired
a sufficient size to be brought out with the finger, when
about three weeks old. In this country the sow pigs which
are not reserved for breeding are all spayed when about
four weeks old; the boar pigs are castrated a week sooner.
On the other hand, the males of those races in which the
testes are active only at certain seasons, as the deer tribe,
have the coarse rank'flesh of entire males only when rutting,
and at all other times they much more resemble the castrated
individuals of those animals, such as the bull, which are al¬
ways capable of procreating their species. Even with the
ram there is a short period when the flesh is less rank, and
during the rutting season it is intolerable. Buck venison
is highly esteemed, and the boar is preferred for making
brawn.
The manner in which the animal has been fed has also Food,
considerable influence on the quality of the flesh. Gene¬
rally the lean of fat animals is better than that of those
that are poor, and perhaps an animal in a state of na¬
ture can never be too fat. Artificial fattening may, how¬
ever, be carried too far ; and the practice of feeding oxen
1 Daubenton, Instruction pour les Bergers, publiee par
Paris, 1810.
VOL. XX.
ordredu Gduvernement, avec des notes par J. B. Huzard, 4me ed. augmentee, 8\o.
4 Y
722
FOOD.
Season.
Selection on oil-cake for the market is now almost laid aside, ® the
of Food, beef acquires from it an unpleasant ranc dity.
wholesome fatness, such as that which takes place in the
first stage of the rot, and which, it is said upon ver> go
authority, some butchers induce artificially, is certainly no
desirable. “ Several graziers and butchers having obser -
ed that sheep are much disposed to feed during the
stage, or four weeks after being tainted, omit no opportu¬
nity of producing it to increase their profits. But it is
not only”in regard to fatness that the flesh of animals is
affected by the nature of their food, for its flavour is mate¬
rially altered by it, and an epicure will readily distinguish
by the taste, whether mutton of the same race has been fed
upon turnips, or upon the natural grasses of a Highland
fa The effect of the food is more apparent in pork than in
any other kind of butcher-meat. The fat of pigs fed on
skimmed milk, though sour, is firmer, and vastly superior to
that of hogs fed upon peas or meal. And Mr Jackson says
we have no pork in England or Ireland equal to that oi oar -
dinia, where the hogs are almost wild, and fattened upon
chestnuts. , ,, . _ . i
The season of the year has considerable influence on the
quality of butcher-meat, though less than upon other kinds
of aliment. Its influence depends upon the more or less
plentiful supply of food, upon the periodical change which
takes place in the body of the animal, and upon tempera¬
ture. In season and out of season are words often vaguely
applied, meaning, most commonly and correctly, the period
of the year in which the substance in question is naturally
best and worst, but also occasionally expressing the good
or bad condition of the individual animal, without any re¬
gard to the state of the species in general; and lastly and
most improperly, meaning that it is at that time desired
or rejected by the higher classes of society as being rare or
common. The flesh of most full-grown quadrupeds is in
highest season during the first months of winter, after hav¬
ing enjoyed the advantage of the abundance of fresh sum¬
mer food. Its flavour then begins to be injured by the
turnips given as winter food, and in spring it gets lean from
deficiency of food. Although beef and mutton are never
absolutely out of season, or unfit for the table, they are
best in November, December, and January. Pork is ab¬
solutely bad or out of season during the summer months,
and is only good in those of winter. The males of the deer
tribe are in highest season from the middle of June to the
beginning of September, when they begin to rut, after
which they become thin and exhausted. Females in general
are out of condition when they are suckling, or have late¬
ly suckled or given milk. Does which have had no kids, or
were soon deprived of them, follow the general rule of cas¬
trated animals, and are in season from the middle of Novem¬
ber to the middle of February. Their condition is not much
affected during the first months of pregnancy. The sea¬
son of the year when the young of quadrupeds have acquir¬
ed the proper age for being used as aliment is the period
when they are in season. This is naturally in the summer
months, when lamb, veal, kid, and fawms are most abun¬
dant. But breeders continue to furnish the tables of the
wealthy with the first two of these at almost every season
of the year, by selecting certain breeds, such as the Dor¬
setshire sheep, which lamb very early, or by treating them
in such a way as to cause the female to come in heat at an
unnatural time. In this way lamb is procured as an arti¬
cle of luxury as early as November and December; and,
on the contrary, by keeping the ewe on a cold and poor Seta tie
hill pasture, the lambing season is retarded. of Foo
The mode of killing has considerable effect on the flesh
of the animal. Most of those slaughtered for food areM“.deoli
either bled to death, or are bled profusely immediately after l ln£'
being deprived of life in some other wray.
The common mode of killing cattle in this kingdom is
by sti’iking them on the forehead with a pole-axe, and then
cutting their throats to bleed them. But this method is
cruel, and not free from danger. The animal is not always
brought down by the first blow, and the repetition is diffi¬
cult and uncertain ; and if the animal be not very well se¬
cured, accidents may happen. Lord Somerville,2 therefore,
endeavoured to introduce the method of pithing or laying
cattle, by dividing the spinal marrow above the origin of
the phrenic nerves, as is commonly practised in Barbary,
Spain, Portugal, Jamaica, and in some parts of England;
and Mr Jackson says, that “ the best method of killing a
bullock is by thrusting a sharp-pointed knife into the spinal
marrow, when the bullock will immediately fall without
any struggle ; then cut the arteries about the heart.”3 Al¬
though the operation of pithing is not so difficult but it
may, after some practice, be performed with tolerable cer¬
tainty, and although Lord Somerville took a man with him
to Portugal to be instructed in the method, and made it
a condition that the prize cattle should be pithed instead
of being knocked dowrn, still pithing is not becoming ge¬
neral in Britain. This may be partly owing to prejudice;
but we have been told that the flesh of the cattle killed in
this way in Portugal is very dark, and becomes soon putrid,
probably from the animal not bleeding well, in consequence
of the action of the heart being interrupted before the
vessels of the neck are divided. It therefore seems pre¬
ferable to bleed the animal to death directly, as is prac¬
tised by the Jew butchers.
The Mosaic law so strictly prohibits the eating of blood,
that the Talmud contains a body of regulations concerning
the killing of animals ; and the Jews, as a point of religion,
will not eat the flesh of any animal not killed by a butcher
of their own persuasion. Their method is to tie all the
four feet of the animal together, bring it to the ground, and,
turning its head back, to cut the throat at once down to the
bone with a long, very sharp, but not pointed knife, divid¬
ing all the large vessels of the neck. In this way the blood
is discharged quickly and completely. The effect is indee
said to be so obvious, that some Christians wall eat no meat
but what has been killed by a Jew butcher.
Calves, pigs, sheep, and lambs, are all killed by dividing
at once the large vessels of the neck. Animals which are
killed by accident, as by being drowned, hanged, or frozen,
or by a fall or ravenous animal, are not absolutely unwhole¬
some. Indeed they only differ from those killed metho¬
dically in not being bled, which is also the case with am
mals that are snared, and in those killed by hounds. Ani¬
mals which die a natural death should never be eaten, as
there are undeniable instances of disease, and even eat i,
being the consequence. . -
Animals frequently undergo some preparation be or ^
they are killed. They are commonly kept without too
for some time, as, if killed with full stomachs, their es is
considered not to keep well. Oxen are commonly as e
two or three days, smaller animals a day; but it is evi en
that the practice must not be carried too far, as the °PP
site effect will be produced by the animal falling o or ge
ting feverish. It is generally understood that, in or er
y.tb
f^CC
cc
s fn Iniluiry into the Rot in Sheep and other Animals, By Edward Harrison, M.D. F. It. A. S. Ed. &c. 8vo. London, 1804-
- General Survey of the Agriculture of Shropshire. By Joseph Plymley, M. A. 8vo. London, 1803, p. 243.
Reflections on the Commerce of the Mediterranean. By John Jackson, Esq. F. S. A. 8vo. London, 1804, p. 91.
FOOD.
Select: have veal very white, the calf is repeatedly bled largely be-
0f FoJ fore it is killed. But the practice does not seem to be very
common. It is altogether denied by the feeders, and not
confessed by the butchers. We are not, therefore, able to
say what its effects would be ; but Dr Lister has stated
that nothing contributes more to the whiteness and tender¬
ness of the flesh of calves than often bleeding them, by
which the colouring matter of the blood is exhausted, and
nothing but colourless serum remains. A much more cruel
method of preparation for slaughter used to be practised,
though now much less frequently, in regard to the bull.
By some ancient municipal laws, no butcher was allowed
to expose any bull-beef for sale, unless it had been previ¬
ously baited. The reason of this regulation probably was,
that baiting had the effect of rendering the flesh or mus¬
cular fibre much more tender; for it is a universal law
of the animal economy that, when animals have under¬
gone excessive fatigue immediately before death, or have
suffered from a lingering death, their flesh, though it be¬
comes sooner rigid, also becomes sooner tender than when
suddenly deprived of life in a state of health. The flesh
of hunted animals also is soon tender and soon spoils ;*
and it is upon this principle only that the quality of pigs’
flesh could be improved by the horrid cruelty, said to be
practised by the Germans, of whipping the animal to death.
Another part of the same receipt, to roast a pig wild-boar
fashion, consists in making him swallow, some hours before
death, a quantity of vine.gar aromatised with herbs. We
notice this, because we think the action of vinegar given
to animals some hours before death, in rendering the fibre
mellow, deserves to be examined. It is a common prac¬
tice in the country to give poultry a spoonful or two of
vinegar some time before they are killed, when they are to
be dressed immediately. Popular practices are seldom
without some foundation, and with this, the fact that ace¬
tic acid or vinegar has a peculiar chemical action upon fib-
rine connects itself. The Moors in West Barbary, before
they kill a hedgehog, which is esteemed a princely dish
I among them, “ rub his back against the ground, by hold-
ing his feet betwixt two, as men do a saw that saws stones,
till it has done squeaking, and then they cut its throat.”
I (Mr Jones, Phil. Trans. No. 254.)
Eirds. There is no bird, and no part of any bird, nor any bird’s
| egg, which may not be safely used as food. Gmelin quotes
a singular instance of some persons having been much af¬
fected after eating larks ; and suspects that the flesh of the
birds may have been rendered poisonous by their having
fed upon hemlock-seed, which they eat with impunity. But
there can be no doubt that this must be a mistake, for larks
are a common and favourite food in the very country where
this accident is said to have happened.
The flesh of birds differs very much in its sensible pro¬
perties, not only in different kinds, but even in the differ¬
ent muscles of the same bird. The pectoral muscles which
move the wings are whiter, drier, and more tender than
j those which move the legs. The tendons of the legs aie
also very strong, and at a certain age become bony; but
the flesh of the legs, when sufficiently tender, either from
tlie bird being young, or from long keeping, or sufficient
cookery, is more juicy and savoury than that of the wings.
Of a few birds, especially the woodcock and snipe, the legs
are at all times preferred to the breast. In the black-coc ,
the outer layer of the pectoral muscles is of a dark-brown
colour, while the inner is white. A similar difference is
observed in many other birds, and perhaps it is 111
a slight degree. The muscular organs of birds differ trom
723
those of quadrupeds in their flesh never being marbled, or Selection
having fat mixed with the muscular fibres. of Food.
I here is a great diversity in the flesh of the different
classes of birds; but no very accurate distribution of them
in this respect can be made, as, though the extremes are
sufficiently marked, they run insensibly into each other.
We may, however, notice, as sufficiently distinct, 1. the
white-fleshed, exemplified in the common fowl and turkey ;
2. dark-fleshed, game, grouse, black-cock; 3. aquatic, goose,
duck ; and, 4. rapacious, hawks and owls. Several species
of the first and third classes are domesticated, and reared
in great numbers as esteemed articles of food. The white-
fleshed birds are very generally liked, when good of their
kind, and by many are preferred to game, which, however,
when sufficiently kept, is one of the greatest luxuries of an
epicure’s table. It has then acquired a peculiar odour,
called fumet, and an aromatic bitter taste, most sensible in
the back. The aquatic birds, both swimmers and waders,
are generally eaten, and many of them are very delicate ;
but in general they are disposed to become very fat, and
often acquire a rancid and fishy taste. This is chiefly con¬
nected with the fat, and may be somewhat avoided by skin¬
ning the bird, and removing the inside fat, before cooking.
Of the rapacious birds none are eaten, partly perhaps from
prejudice, and partly because those which touch carrion ac¬
quire a cadaverous smell.
The muscular fibre is coarser in the larger than in the
smaller birds of the same class, and it becomes less tender
as they get older. It is also much influenced by sex, al¬
though of some birds the young cock is preferred, chiefly,
we apprehend, on account of its greater size and handsome
appearance. By removing the sexual organs at an early
age, both sexes are much improved for the use of the ta¬
ble, becoming larger, fatter, and more tender, as we see in
the capon and poulard. The manner in which birds are fed
affects both their fatness and their flavour. Birds seldom
get very fat in their wild state, or when domesticated, if
allowed to go at large. The art of fattening poultry con¬
sists in supplying them with abundance of healthy food,
and confining them. Aquatic birds, ducks and geese in
particular, must be prevented from going into the wrater,
both because they never get fat, but also acquire a rancid
fishy taste.
The fattening of fowls for the London market is a con- Modes of
siderable branch of rural economy in some convenient fattening,
situations. “ They are put up in a dark place, and crammed
with a paste made of barley-meal, mutton-suet, and some
treacle or coarse sugar, mixed with milk, and are found to
be completely ripe in a fortnight. If kept longer, the fever
that is induced by this continued state of repletion renders
them red and unsaleable, and frequently kills them. 2 But
fowls brought to this state of artificial obesity are never so
well flavoured in the flesh, and probably not so salubrious,
as those of the same species fattened in a more natural
way. The great secret of having fine pullets is cleanliness,
and high keeping with the best corn.
Epicures in all ages have been exceedingly whimsical
in the selection of certain parts of particular birds as dain¬
ties, and the ancients more so than the moderns ; for al¬
though we still prize the combs of the common fowl, the
trail of the woodcock, and even collect with care the dreg
which drops from it in the process of roasting, the guts of
the bustard, the gizzard and liver of the goose, and the feet
of the duck; we find that Roman epicures delighted in the
brains of ostriches and parrots, the tongue of^ the flamin¬
go, and the enlarged liver of the goose. I he last still
724
F O
Selection continues among our continental neighbours to be m great
of Food, request, and the providing them is a considerable branch
w-yW 0f rurai economy in some provinces. It is said that, at
Strasburg, it is effected by actually sewing up the anus ot
the tortured animal, after a4 certain preparation ; but we
have not met with the barbarity set down in print, and it
is perhaps not true, otherwise so striking an exemplification
of Sir E. Home’s doctrine, that the fatness of animals de¬
pended upon the length of their intestinal canal, and the
length of time the faeces were retained in it, would not have
escaped his notice. The process followed in different parts
of France is described at length by Sonnini r1 “ The object
of the third method is to enlarge the liver. Nobody is igno¬
rant of the endeavours of sensuality to cause the whole vital
forces to be determined towards this part of the animal, by
giving it a kind of hepatic cachexy. In Alsace, the indi¬
vidual buys a lean goose, which he shuts up in a small box
of fir, so tight that it cannot turn in it. The bottom is
furnished with a wide grating of rods, for the passage ot the
dung. In the fore part there is a hole for the head, and
below it a small trough is kept always full of water, in which
some pieces of wood charcoal are left to steep. A bushel
of maize is sufficient to feed it during a month, at the end
of which time the goose is sufficiently fattened. A thirtieth
part is soaked in water each night, and crammed down its
throat next day, morning and evening. The rest of the time
it drinks and guggles in the water. Towards the twenty-
second day they mix with the maize some poppy oil, and at the
end of the month it is known by a lump of fat under each
wing, or rather by the difficulty of breathing, that it is time
to kill it, otherwise it will die of fat. The liver is then
found weighing one or two pounds, and besides, the animal
is excellent for the table, and furnishes, during its roasting,
from three to five pounds of fat, which is used in the cook¬
ery of vegetables. Of six geese, there are commonly only
four, and these are the youngest, which answer the ex¬
pectation of the fattener. They are kept in a cellar, or
place with little light; and the Roman epicures, who prized
their livers, had already observed, that darkness was favour¬
able to this kind of education, no doubt because it prevents
all distraction, and directs* the whole powers towards the
digestive organs. The want of motion, and the difficulty
of respiration, may be also taken into consideration; the
first by diminishing the waste of the system, and both by
retarding the circulation in the vena portarum, of which
the blood ought to become hydrogenated, in proportion as
its carbon unites itself to the oxygen, which that liquid ab-
sorbe. This favours the formation of the oily juice, which,
after having filled the cellular system of the body, enters
into the biliary system and substance of the liver, and gives
it that fatness and size which is so delightful to the palates
of true gourmands. The liver thus only becomes enlarged
consecutively, and the difficulty of respiration does not ap¬
pear till the end, when its size prevents the action of the
diaphragm.”
“ The leanness of geese subjected to this treatment is
often mentioned; but it can only occur in those whose eyes
are put out, and feet nailed down to a board, as the conse¬
quence of this barbarous treatment. Among a hundred
fatteners, there are scarcely two who adopt this practice,
and even these do not put out their eyes till a day or two
before they are killed. And therefore the geese of Alsace,
which are free from these cruel operations, acquire a prodigi¬
ous fatness, which may be called an oleaginous dropsy, the
effect of a general atony of the absorbents, caused by want
ot exercise, combined with succulent food crammed down
their throats, and in an under oxygenated atmosphere.”
O D.
There are certain months in which each kind of bird is Selec „
considered to be in season, and which are determined by the of Fr.
time of their breeding, the abundance of food, or their migra- V'~‘v J
tion. Some birds do not remain with us all the year, and are
therefore to be valued when we can get them. The migrat¬
ing birds go farther south in winter, and north in summer.
They are, therefore, with us in winter or summer, according
to their habits in regard to temperature and the supply of
food. Those birds which remain during summer breed
here, and their young may be obtained before they fly, and
whilst they are still delicate, as the gannet or solan goose;
others, as the woodcock, rarely breed in this country, and
are only got in their adult state.
There is but little diversity in the mode of killing birds.
Game is almost always shot, as hawking is entirely out of
fashion, although formerly birds killed in this way were
more esteemed, as, indeed, their flesh would be sooner
tender. Larks are caught in winter in traps and nets, and
then killed. The heads are twisted off young pigeons; but
domestic birds, in general, are killed in a very unskilful and
barbarous manner. The common fowl has its neck drawn,
by which the spine is torn asunder at an uncertain place;
and if the spinal cord be not divided, or be divided too
low, the animal dies slowly, and is sometimes alive after its
feathers have been plucked off. The large blood-vessels are
sometimes also torn across. This is an advantage, both from
shortening the sufferings of the animal, and rendering its
flesh whiter in consequence of the loss of blood. Turkeys
are bled to death by dividing the vessels under the tongue.
The only objection to this is that it is tedious, for probably
it is not attended with much pain. Geese are killed by
splitting the skull with a knife. This is sometimes very
awkwardly performed, and neither any large vessels are di¬
vided, nor the nervous energy destroyed. Domestic birds
are generally kept confined and fed upon choice food for
some time before they are killed, and sometimes they are
crammed, or forced to eat more than they would voluntarily.
They should always be kept a day without food at the last,
that their crops may be empty, as food left in them is apt
to taint the flesh.
Of the reptiles, very few are used as food, though proba- Reptil
bly rather on account of their disgusting appearance, than
of their being hurtful, or even unpalatable, as some of the
greatest luxuries of the table belong to this class of animals.
Besides the green turtle, several other species of Testudo
are eaten, especially the Grceca, Europcea, and ferox. Of the
lizards, the Dracaena, Amboinensis, agilis, and Iguana, are
eaten. The flesh of the last is said to be delicious, but un¬
wholesome, especially to those persons affected with syphi¬
lis, which, however, is probably a vulgar prejudice. The La-
certa scincus is held in estimation by the natives of the east
as aphrodisiac. The eggs of the Iguana and of most spe¬
cies of Testudo, even of those whose flesh is said to be bad,
as of the Imbricata, are nutritious and agreeable- The
flesh of the Coluber nalrix is eaten in some places; and
even the viper, whose bite is poisonous, furnishes a nutriti¬
ous broth to invalids. Of the frogs, the Rana esculenta is
a favourite article of food with our continental neighbours.
The Rana taurina, or bull-frog, rivals the turtle in the opi¬
nion of our Transatlantic descendants. The Rana bornbi-
na, though a toad, is also eaten in some places as a fish. We
have no doubt that many other reptiles are used as food in
some countries ; and we are not aware of a single instance
where injurious effects have been produced by any that have
been tried. Their flesh seems in general to be delicate
and gelatinous ; the fibre resembles that of chicken or
veal; and what is called the green fat of turtle is in reality
1 Nouveau Dictionnaire d'Hiitoire Naturelle, art. Ok.
FOOD.
gel ion gelatinous, like the skin of calf’s head, or the tendons of
of i d. ox-heel, which are employed to make an imitation of it.
^W we know little of the circumstances which influence the
quality of reptiles as esculent; but the modem Apicius
says, the best size of a turtle for taste is sixty pounds to
eighty pounds, which is scarcely a tenth part of the size
they sometimes reach ; and we may presume that, like most
other oviparous animals, they are best before they begin to
lay their eggs, and out of season for some time afterwards.
Turtles often become emaciated and sickly before they
reach this country, in which case the soup would be incom-
parably improved by leaving out the turtle, and substi¬
tuting a good calf’s head.
In some places fish constitutes the sole or chief food of
the people, hence called Ichthyophagi, and almost every¬
where it is in request. In Siberia, dried fish is used in¬
stead of bread. The Laplanders make a b?ead of fish bones,
and the Negroes of the western coast of Africa dry a species
of sprat, and beat it in wooden mortars to a paste, which keeps
all the year, and is eaten with rice or corn. Putrid fish is
even the favourite and ordinary food of some tribes. Fish,
however, is not so universally a safe aliment as the two
preceding classes of animals; for although no species is
generally unwholesome, yet, in some situations, individuals
of many different species are absolutely poisonous, whilst
others of the same species, and not to be distinguished by
any certain external characters, at the same place, and in
the same season, are innocent and nutritious, which render
the eating of fish in such countries not free of danger.
The subject of poisonous fishes is still involved in great
obscurity, although so important to those who are exposed
to suffer from them. It is not peculiar to any genus, species,
or distinct variety, but occurs in individuals only, and those
of several genera of very different classes, such as Clupea,
Perea, Boracinus, Sparus, Coryphcena, Scomber, Murcena,
Balistes, Tetrodon, and Cancer. Except the Bogmarus
hlandicus, which is reputed poisonous by the Icelanders,
because the crows refuse to eat it, poisonous fish occur
chiefly in tropical seas. It is only at certain seasons, how¬
ever, that any poisonous fish occur; as in the Carribbean
Sea in May, June, and July, after having spawned. Their
deleterious effects are ascribed by some to the fish feeding
on poisonous substances, as on copper banks, medusae, and
holothuriae, or the manchineel apple. The poison is sup¬
posed to exist in the gall; and it is said that if the peri¬
toneum and all the entrails be speedily and dexterously re¬
moved, the flesh may always be eaten without danger. A
fish is suspected w hen it is of an unusually large size, or is
destitute of the natural fishy smell, or has black teeth, or
when silver or an onion boiled along with it becomes black ;
but all these tests are uncertain. The poisonous quality
is also said to be destroyed by salting the fish, or drinking
along with it sea water, or the ripe juice of the lime, sugar
cane, or sweet potato.
Some ancient, as well as modern naturalists and physi¬
cians, consider the roe of the barbel as unwholesome wdien
eaten; others think it is hurtful only at certain seasons to
certain individuals, and when eaten in excess ; and, lastly,
some declare the whole allegations to be erroneous and un¬
founded. Bloch, the great ichthyologist, and Bose, both
assert that they and others have eaten it without any incon¬
venience ; but Dr Crevelt of Bonn has published cases
which leave little doubt that in some cases the roe is actu¬
ally injurious, although the flesh of the same individual was
eaten with impunity.
Jhe ancients had many prejudices in regard to the
wholesomeness or unwholesomeness of certain fishes. The
725
Egyptian priests were forbidden to eat fish of any kind, Selection
under the idea that it increased the sexual appetite, or that of Food,
it was a cause of the leprosy. For the latter reason the ^—'
peopJe were forbidden to eat any fish not covered with
sea es. Moses adopted the same principle : “ Whatsoever
hath fins and scales m the waters, in the seas, and in the
rivers, them shall ye eat.” “ Whatsoever hath no fins or
sea es in the waters, that shall be an abomination unto
jou. Numa made a law for the Romans much to the
same effect; but it did not continue in force, as we find the
lamprey and sturgeon among the luxuries of the emperors;
and such fish now form the chief support of the people in
some districts, without being followed by any bad effect.
Fishes, however, present an infinite variety in regard to
their fitness as articles of food, in the colour and texture
of their muscles, and in being more or less gelatinous,
fibrous, or oily. The muscles of many fish, with the ex¬
ception of the heart, are quite white, and in general, when
the fish is good, they become opaque when cooked. When
they remain semitransparent and bluish after sufficient
boiling, they are not in season. Of some fishes the flesh
is a pale red at certain seasons, and the higher the colour
of these kinds the more are they esteemed. Of most fishes
the muscles are disposed in flakes, and when in perfec¬
tion, there is, when cooked, a layer of white curdy matter
between them, resembling coagulated albumen. Some
other fishes, chiefly those that are flat, or eel-shaped, or
without scales, have a fibrous flesh, not divisible into flakes.
The liver of the fish tribe abounds with oil, and of many
species the flesh is mixed or covered with oil or fat, as the
eel or salmon ; but of many others the flesh seems to be
totally free from it, as all the varieties of the cod, had¬
dock, whiting, and the flat fish.
Almost every soft part of fishes is nutritious, and oc¬
casionally eaten. The great bulk of the animal consists
of the muscles of voluntary motion, covering the spine and
its appendages ; but of some fishes, as turbot, ling, &c. the
pulpy gelatinous skin is esteemed. Cod-sounds are the
swimming bladders of the large cod, and they are pre¬
served separately, and transmitted to the capital for the
gratification of our epicures. In the fresh fish, the tongue,
palate, and lips, although too soft for most people, are pre¬
ferred by some. The roe of most fishes is eaten, and that
of some constitutes a principal article of national food.
Caviare is the preserved roe of the sturgeon. The melt
or soft roe of the herring is eaten by many. The liver of
the burbot is very large* and is much esteemed. The
enormous vas deferens of the male cod fried is one of the
best garnishes for that fish ; and some of the smaller and
more delicate fishes are eaten whole, with the exception
of the head.
So far as we have knowledge of the effect of sex upon
the nutritive qualities of fish, the male or melter is much
preferred, as in the herring and salmon. In spring the
male only of the lump-fish or cock-padle, Cyclopterus lum-
pus, is eaten.2 Later in the year the female is nearly of
equal quality.
The castration and spaying of fish was at one period Castra-
practised, but only to a very limited extent, and is now lion,
entirely laid aside. It was first performed by Mr Tull of
Edmonton, who seems to have been a fishmonger. The
earliest notice of his discovery is in the History oj the Royal
Academy of Sciences of Paris for 1742, in the extract from
a letter to M. Geofffoy, from Sir Hans Sloane, in which
he states that he had seen the operation performed on two
small carps. A more detailed account of an improved pro¬
cess was afterwards published in the Philosophical Trans-
1 Levit. ch. xi. 9, 12.
2 Neill, Wernerian Transactions, vol. i. p. 548.
726
FOOD.
Selection actions
of Food.
.. nipTsant earthy taste by keeping them for some time in Selectia
actions for rm- Mr Tull’s object at first was to preve Pj,nds of clear water with a gravelly bottom. Clw,
STexissive increase of fish in so™ of h.s ponds, w ^ P ^ of the year has the m™tnmvkedeftc upon ^
not o?lv prevented, but the castrateai.su 8^" n (,rin t0 spawn, and areunlittor toou some tune a.te. u.ey
ue than their usual size, were more fat, and, ^at 'vas ^ wned. This> however, is not sufficient to prevent
frifling consideration, were always in season. J he op« those ^,ho have an easy opportunity, from catching and eat-
„Bas performed by making a longitudind incision tro flsh in thu state; and the legislature has found it ne-
; . almost to the anus ot tne n»x, & , nprinfls durinsr which salmon fishing is
Age of
fish.
between Se two fore-fins almost to the a™s ot th^nsn, ^ ^ fix ^ ^ duri g which salmon fishing is
X oviduct or vas de- ^1- When the salmon ' '
IhroIhrindVvSg transversely the oviduct or vas de ^ « ofTpS ^ i^iffia
The wound in ^«s,Xfo? «h“ t- parasitical insect, which adheres to every part of the body,
ferens. The wound in tne imeguinC»- - — parasitical insect, wtucn aaneres 10 evoi y ^, u*
up, and, without further attention, few fisI* of th p dieg &nd drops off after the has been fo
ration. The operation was most easi y p ^ France time in fresh water. In this ^ ^
for a short
ration, inn   — . * , „ Tn F e time in tresh water, m mis state ^ highest per-
when the ovaries and spermatic vessels are full. fection, the flesh is firm, red, and delicious the form ele-
Baron de la Tour operated so successfu Y d . gantj and the colours beautiful. On first entering the
... . i— It was also tneu & ., , 4-v,o cnrlpc isvprv slurhtlv marked
Baron de la Tour operated ^ „ko tried in gant, and the colours Deaumui. yn — & —
hundred carps he did not lose four, h »'f“0"Cd river> the silvery colour of the sides is very slightly marked
Germany, and it was observed tl,a . th°ts.eJ the mhers; with spots ; but when it has remained long m fresh water
in spring were in autumn still smaller than “e otne , ^ d and the spots become much larger,
but that in the following spring they were laige and rat, ^ ^ coloure(1> and more 0bvi0us. At the time of spawn-
 nnt CO well tastea. . , . 1 P  4. r*nlnnr. and when
but mat 111 U1C X O | 4-r»ofCid 1 UclIlVCl      J* U
but, some people thought, not so well tasted. the sides of the fish get of a very red colour, and when
In regard to the age of fish as affe^ng tor ^ ing is over the white colour entirely disappears,
food, we are inclined to think that the adafa belly becomes livid, and the sides are streaked all over
fish than none,” implying that the larger they are the y  —  
better,-is not always correct • f™ although a well-grown
„„„„   . 11 wiin n cnotv or black colour ; and in this state the salmon
better,-is not always correct ; for although a we -grown ^ termed in the acts of parliament red and black fish,
and well-nourished individual is always than one not The of their fins are all at this time jagged or torn a
in so good condition, and although some fishes, naturally f heir gcales rubbed off, and their gills infested
in so good condition, ana amiuugu — ‘ n ^ t partof their scales rubbed ott, ana tneir gins imc^cu
soft, may become firmer as they grow jider yet xnany ^ 1 worms_ In Maud, where great freedom
fishes are certainly more delicate when of a smaller size, . ^ ^ An^rnv-n(r saimnn during and alter spawning
    n ot a smaller size’ • uJd in destroying salmon during and after spawning
probably from being younger. Cod is generaUy preferred ^ of the fish a(. that time has been often,
large, but we have seen large cod exceedingly coarse. T found to be productive of much disease
haddock is certainly better when it does not exceed a ^ 1 anJ the same is probably sometimes the
middling size
n-tainly better when it does not exceed a ^ mortabty ; and the same is probably sometimes the
; and the whole skate tribe are apt to g^ ^ .n Srntl^nd> although not so much observed as to be
coarse* and strong as they get large. Ausonius says
bream is the only animal which improves by old age .
Tu melior pejore eevo, tibi contigit uni,
Spirantum ex numero, non inlaudata senectus.
The flavour of fish is very much influenced by the na
ture of their food, independently of their apparent conch-
cUlAl II1U1 Lanej J   A -I 1 14. Urx
case in Scotland, although not so much observed as to be
generally known ; but a very marked instance is mentioned
by Dr Walker.2
' Other fish are probably unwholesome after spawning,
but they are seldom caught in that state. Young fish, not
come to the age of spawning, are in season all the year.
In regard to their habitat, or the situation where they
^ ,fe . i• ^ j 3 • fowunco • l.«/. Those
of their food, independently ot tneir apparein, cunui- au icgaiu ^ f . u/ Those
; and hence there is the greatest difference of the fish live, fishes may be divided into three famil e . >
lifferent coasts, or in different rivers and lakes. In ge- which live enttrely m sa water ™
tion
on different coasts, or in amerent rivers mm m^es. -t 7 ~Z-r*Ur in freAi water as various
ncral, sea-fish are best where the water is deep, and strong 2d, those which live entirely “ fr?* Hse alter-
or salt, and where the shore is bold and rocky. Hence the species of the cyprtnns “f’ ^ Tf ^,mon st„r-
cod and ling caught near the shores, estuaries, and bays, nately in salt and fresh water, as the sal de_
are greatly inferior in quality to fish caught off headlands, geon. The comparative esculent qualities ‘
hr sfrong currents and deep water. Of the river fish, those pend upon a great variety o circu™stanCne for
which are found in clear, rapid streams, with a rocky class it may be remarked, "Sion
or gravelly bottom, in a mountainous country, are indeed the purpose of spawning, they are m great' V out
less fat, but better tasted ; and hence the salmon of the when they are proceeding up the nvers, a fl
Elbe and Rhine are more valued than those of the other
continental rivers. The Thames salmon, however, is pre¬
ferred in the London market to all other, and some epi¬
cures pretend to be able to distinguish by the taste when
it comes from a favourite reach of the river. Certain, how¬
ever, it is, that fish caught in slow-running waters, with a
muddy bottom, such as occur in flat countries with a rich
1
f'l
of season when returning to the sea. _
Fish seldom undergo any preparation for killing,
there any attention paid to the mode of depriv ing tieia
life. Most commonly they are killed as soon as caug b
and frequently by merely taking them out ot t"a
Sometimes, when large, the fishermen strike 7^ p)u|ch
muddy oottom, suen as occur in nai countries wiui a nun the head, or tear asunder the branchial \ esse ». ia
soil, though generally larger and fatter, are very infe- carry all their fresh fish alive to market, an " jifferent
rior in the more essential points of flavour and firmness, die previous to being sold, they are expose in a
Also the fish of large deep lakes, with a gravelly bottom, manner, and at an inferior price. Inis prac ice
is much preferable to that of small, shallow, and muddy insures fresh fish, but if certainly fresh, t ie) _ dian
ponds or tanks. The had qualities of fish in stagnant wa- greater perfection it killed immediately vv
ters, into which the filth of cities was emptied, did not es- preserved alive for any time in an unnatura si ua 1 ^
cape the notice of Galen. Fresh-water fish bred in muddy To improve the quality of fish, they are same/nen exa_
bottoms or foul wrater are sometimes freed from the un- jected to the process called crimping. It as
1 Account of Mr Samuel Tull's Method of Castrating Fish, Philosophical Transactions, vol. xlviii. 4to, London, l/5o, })• i
Krunitz, Ockonomiseh-tcchnicologische Encyclopadie, 13ter Th. 8vo, Berlin, 1786, p. 491. . gaimon by
2 Prize Essays and Transactions of the Highland Society of Scotland, vol. ii. Edin. 1803. Essays on the Natural Hftforw V »
the Reverend Dr Walker, Professor of Nat. Hist. Univers. of Edin. A. Drummond, Esq. and Messrs Mackenzie an ^
Selei fn
of 1*1
Moll i,
iJbles,
FOOD.
mined by Mr Carlisle, to whom we are indebted for the and r™ . .
following facts Whenever the rigid contractions of death donna f ’ fW® f;lectionof vegetable food, when we
have not taken place, this process^my be pracM w^h £e mofe°di£ t "a f and kno™’ is th—
success. The sea-fish destined for crimping are usually however a ™ , subJect to uncertainty. There is,
struck on the head when caught, which it is said protracts mal economy amll1 analoSy between the action on the ani-
the term of this capability, and the muscles wE, S
tain this property longest are those about the head. Many arrangement therefore of veirptnhT10^ ,cbaracter,s- 1116
transverse sections of the muscles being made, and the fish or families is mlrnlateH 1 veSeftables ^nt0 natural groups
immersed in cold water, the contractions called crimping medicinal — —i— ^ ° as*is^ usin judging of the uses,
take place in about five minutes ; but if the mass be larce,
Zi. -A.™ : xi.* .i. • . i . o /
PRESERVATION.
absolutely hurtful. The bivalves, in like manner, are ge
nerally wholesome, and some of them have long been among
the delicia gulosorum. The Romans sent to Britain for
oysters, and the British epicures delight in the Pholas dac-
tylus of the Italian shores.
The crustaceous shell-fish of sufficient size are very ge¬
nerally esculent, and some of them are greatly esteemed,
and others abundant. These chiefly belong to the family
of Cancer, and comprehend both short-tailed and long¬
tailed species; the velvet crab, one of the most esteemed
in France; the C. mamas, eaten by the poor in London ;
C.pagurus, the black-toed crab ; C. ruricola, the land crab
of our Transatlantic islands ; C. gammarus, the lobster ; C.
astacus, the craw-fish; C. crangon, the shrimp; and C.
squilla, the prawn; besides others not known in this coun¬
try.
Few insects are used in food. The locust is, however,
consumed in great quantities, both fresh and salted, so as
to afford some compensation for the ravages it commits.
The Moors in West Barbary esteem as delicious, honey¬
comb with the young bees in it; but Mr Jones says that
eminent vegetable physiologist.
In general, organic substances, as soon as they are de¬
prived of life, begin to undergo certain chemical changes,
more or less rapidly, and of different kinds, according to
their nature. Although the modes of change, especially
in the first stages, are almost as numerous as the substances
themselves, yet ultimately they terminate in one or more
of the principal kinds of fermentation described by che¬
mists. To each of these, besides the presence of an orga¬
nic substance capable of undergoing it, several conditions
are requisite, of which the principal are a certain tempera¬
ture, a certain degree of moisture, and the access of air ;
and it is by obviating or modifying these conditions that
we are enabled to prevent or regulate the natural fermen¬
tation. The kind of fermentation which substances un¬
dergo depends upon their composition, and it may be ge¬
nerally remarked, that those which do not contain a consi¬
derable proportion of azote are incapable of the putrefac¬
tive fermentation, but pass through the vinous, acetous, and
On the other hand, those which
727
Preserva¬
tion of
Pood.
or esculent, of untried vegetables.2
All parts of vegetables are used As food; roots, stalks,
The crimping of fieshWfches is
water, and the London fishmongers usually employ it. Mr furnish the most important part of our food in almost everv
Carlisle found that, by being crimped the muscles subjected climate. Their mucilaginous shoots also support that 2
to the process have both their absolute weight and their of animals hence called graminivorous, whose flesh is mo
specific gravity increased ; so that it appears that water is generally eaten ; and the abundance of different speciSTn
absorbed, and condensation takes, placeJ It was also ob- all varieties of climate, and the absolute identity of their
served that the effect was greater in proportion to the viva- nature, is the cause, as De Candolle well observes, that
ciousness of the fish.. From these observations it appears these animals may be transported and naturalized from one
that the object of crimping is first to retard the natural end of the world to the other,
stiffening of the muscles, and then, by the sudden applica¬
tion of cold water, to excite it in the greatest possible de¬
gree, by which means it both acquires the desired firm¬
ness, and keeps longer. We may also here observe, that
rigidity is a certain mark that the fish is perfectly fresh,
As the supply of food is always subject to irregularities,
the preservation of the excess obtained at one time to meet
and as not begun to spoil. . the deficiency of another would soon engage the attention
I he Mollusct do not furnish a very extensive source of of mankind. At first this method would be simple and
human iood, and they are not without danger. Of those natural, and derived from a very limited observation ; but
without shells, only the sepia and some ascidea are eaten, in the progress of society the wants and occupations of
but not generally. The limpet, Patella vulgata, the peri- mankind would lead them to invent means by which the
winkle, Turbo littoreus, and welk, Murex antiquus, are more perishable alimentary substances of one season might
eaten boiled by the common people in this country ; and be reserved for consumption at another, or the superfluous
the Helix pomatia is reared and fattened with great care productions of distant countries might be transported to
in some cantons of Switzerland, as an article ofluxury, and others where they are more needed. The principles of
exported pickled. Many other snails are eaten by the this most important art have been nowhere better explained
poor in various districts, and we do not know that any is than in the 45th number of the Edinburgh Review, by an
destructive, successively
contain a large proportion of azote are capable only of the
they seemed insipid to his palate, and sometimes gave him putrefactive and destructive ; but there are many sub-
the heartburn. stances containing a small proportion of azote, in which
Although the vegetable kingdom furnishes the human both kinds of fermentation are combined. .
race, even those who eat flesh most freely, with the greater A great proportion of vegetables are used in a recent mserya-
part of their food, yet there are many more exceptions to state, and, in this case, the sooner after they ai e gathered
the fitness for human food in the vegetable than in the the better. Vegetables, in general, should be kept apart
animal kingdom, both from mere indigestibility or defect for, if laid in contact, in a very short time t ley impart
of nutritious qualities, and from being directly deleterious their peculiar flavours to each other. Leeks or celery will
1 The Croonian Lectures on Muscular Motion, by Anthony Carlisle, Esq. F. It. S. Philosophical Transactions for 1805, 4to, London,
1805, p. 23.
J Essai sur les Proprietes Mldicaks des Plantes, comparers avec Icurs formes exterieures et leur classification naturelk. Par M. A. 1. Be
Candolle, 8vo, Paris, 1816*.
728
FOOD.
Preserva¬
tion of
Food.
ano-nr is formed at the expense of the other principle of the Ereserv;:
nuicklv spoil a whole basketful of cauliflower or it p -t -phe maturation of fruits is intimately con- tionofl
Retail?, Another general rule is, that they should no un Pe frutt. a ^ of decay> as exempUh?ed ta
be kept in water, nor even washed or refreshed by spnnk_ ^ xhe rotten ^ 0f many pears is re- 
ling them with water, till they are J? b t markably sweet, and the saccharine matter does not begin
vour is thereby greatly injured ; but if, by having been cut ma^ ^ the medlar until its decomposition be far
or gathered some time, they have become tiacci , , advanCed. In other instances, as in the apple, the decay-
solutely necessary to restore their crispness befo k g intensely bitter ; and the softer juicy fruits grow
them, otherwise they will be tough ^d unpleasant 1 hi ^ P offensfve. The art of preserving fruits consists
is to be done when the size of ” off Tn being able to prevent and retard these changes A cer-
cauliflower, salad, celery, and the hl-e, by c S tain roportion 0f moisture seems to be necessary for their
a piece of the stalk and setting the fresh surface^ ^ e^^ ^^p _ hence? bv carefui exsiccation, grapes are con-
as
a piece of the stalk and setting the fresh surface, u ^ . and hcnce? by carefui exsiccation, grapes are con-
posed, in water, which will be absorbed , m ot * - verteyd into raisins, plums into prunes, and figs are dried.
whole’ vegetable must be immersed in water
hole vegetaoie must uc —r<rnr iP,, SUcculent, But by carefully excluding them from the air, they may
Most vegetable substances being more or less s > . , i- _•—..i 
.  flulrla is npoessarv for their retam-
iviosi vegeittuic y 0 t even be preserved without dissipating their natural mois-
their full proportion of fluids is necessary for te ture_ Xhas currants, cherries, and damsons, gathered per-
ing that state of crispness or plumpness which > f , , d d may be put into bottles, closed with
when growing On being cut corkand^osin, and buried in a trench, with the cork down-
from their surfaces continues, while, fiom the op wards. Fine bunches of grapes may also be preserved in
of the cut surface, there is often great exudatio p ‘ * closing the cut end of the stalk with wax, which
ration, and thus their natural mmsture the escape of moisture, or they may be packed in
the tender leaves become flaccid, and the t e , !, e|.v dry bran or sand. Some may even be preserved by be-
or roots lose their plumpness. This is not o y P . •. yt im]nerSed in water. This is constantly practised in
sant to the eye, but is a real mjury to the nutrit o p re|ard'to the cranberry, and sometimes succeeds with apples,
of the vegetable ; for in this flaccid and shrivelled state its ™ 05f’fruit is in many countries an object
fibres are less easily divided ,n chewing and the water i 1 e preservahon o y ^ ^ t()
which exists in vegetable substances, m he form »f thmr natural a’state°as possible. This is
respective natural juices, is directly nut • mrticularlv the case in regard to winter apples, and pears,
care in the preservation of succident vegetables, therefore particularly t^ case m reg ^jP d ^
is to prevent them from losing their na ural moisture. In /rapes, ^i^tinm ^ ^
regard to the tender succulent vegetables t is is no a < tbpir keening After having prepared the fruit-room,
gether possible, because there is a constant exhalation from ences their keeping Pgsibl after tw0 or
their suWace, while the supply of moisture is cut off The ^‘“^“rdTy’wele/and ab^ut two in the
and from heat. Even growing vegetables become ^ it| A, the summer
flaccid In ahot sun, because the exhalation is then greater spoils the sound fruit m contact with it. As the summer
than the supply ; and exposure to the sun is absolutely fruits ripen more quic y a er P ^ b y which
ruinous to all the more delicate vegetables. The opera- days consumption _ahoi t(l be, f1^ ter leno.t’h time,
tion of heat and air is slower, but similar. Succulent vege- means we can enJ()y ^ !'ld leMitljeredeiriit davs
tables should therefore be kept in a cool, shady, and damp Autumn apples and pears should g n^er b'e.
place. They should also be kept in a heap, and not spread before they are ripe ; and, indeed, neces_
out, which greatly influences their shrivelling. But when come fit for eating on the tree. I Y morning,
accumulated in too large heaps for any length of time, they sarily gathered in wet weather, or ear y ^ theSy
are injured in another way, by their heating, as it is call- they should be exposed a ay ^ otf ’the bloom
ed, which is the commencement, in them, of a chemical should on no account be wipe , ffuitS)
change, or fermentation, which altogether alters their na- as it is called, which, when allowed t y ^
ture. In many cases the chief business is to prevent eva- constitutes a natural varnish, closi g P I ^ be
poration. Potatoes, turnips, carrots, and similar roots, in- venting the evaporation of the juices. ^ . undergo a
tended to be stored up, should never be cleaned from the laid in heaps, which causes them to sue , d not
earth adhering to them, because the little fibres by which slight fermentation ; for fruit thus tiea e , ^
 —,1 .— t-iwv rwrorv/wotinn- c11ctpIs Hrv and mealv ; and hence, in tnis com .p
eartn actnermg to tnem, oecause me nine nures uy wmcn sugut , -y - . rnimtrv
it is retained are thus wounded, and the evaporating sur- spoil, gets dry and mealy ; and hence, in fontinent
face is increased. They should also be wounded as little ordinary apples imported from Fnglanc an for a
as possible, and the tops of turnips and carrots should be are inferior to our own. Ihe pnncipa re4 tempe-
cut off close to, but above, the root. The next thing to be good fruit-room are great dryness, and equa ' Y curious
attended to is to protect them from the action of the air rature, and the power of excluding hg i • 0 through
and of frost. This is done by laying them in heaps, bury- persons preserve fine pears by passing a ue, f geai.
ing them in sand or in earth, immersing them in water, the stalk, of which they seal up the end w it i a i I ^
or covering them with straw or mats. The action of frost ing-wax, enclose each separately in a cone o P I ^
is most destructive, as, if it be considerable, the life of the hang them up by the thread brought throug ^ ^
vegetable is destroyed, and it speedily rots. A less degree Experience has also proved that grapes keep ^ gboUjj
of frost induces a singular but hurtful change upon the hanging than when laid upon a table. I he cu e
novf wF Uo   u whioh nrevents exhalation, ou
ot trost induces a singular out mirttui change upon the hanging than wnen laiu upon a tame. " “ . gome
potato, by converting part of its starch, or mucilage, into be closed with wax, which prevents exha a buncj1(
sugar. The germination of seeds also converts their starch hang them by the stalk, others by the point o^ _ bul;
Fruits.
into sugar, as is exemplified in the malting of barley. But,
even after this change has been induced, if the substance
be thoroughly dried in a kiln or otherwise, it will still re¬
main a long time without decay.
The maturation of fruits, although not thoroughly ex¬
amined, seems to be a change of the same kind, that is,
hang them by tne staiK, ointjib uy i i but
as the grapes are thus less pressed against eac 1 drne)
it is in both cases necessary to visit them from i -s
and cut off, with a pair of scissors, every er y
louldy or spoiled. C„rculent
More artificial modes of preserving grapes i tbe,r
slate are sometimes used, and become necess y
F O
transportation to distant countries. They are often pack¬
ed with bran and saw-dust; and Apicius says they may be
preserved in barley. The same classical gourmand was
well acquainted with the use of water in preserving the
grapes in their natural state. “ Take grapes from the vine
without wounding them. Boil rain water down to a third,
and put it into a vessel, into which you also put the grapes.
Close the vessel with pitch and gypsum, and place it in a
cool situation, to which the sun has not access, and when
you please you will have green grapes. The water may be
given to sick persons as hydromel.” The boiling of the
water so long is unnecessary, as a much shorter time would
be sufficient to expel the air, which is probably the manner
in which it has some effect. The water will acquire a
slight acidity from the grapes; and hence it was given,
sweetened with honey, as a pleasant drink to the sick.
Animal substances in general, when deprived of life,
"have a natural tendency to undergo the putrefactive fer¬
mentation. Before this is established they pass through a
series of successive changes, which are intimately connect¬
ed with our subject. After death the bodies of animals
cool more or less rapidly, according to the temperature and
conducting power of the air, or other substances with
which they are in contact. In fact they do not differ in
this respect from an equal mass of any other matter, heat¬
ed artificially to the same temperature, and having the
same conducting power. As this, however, is very weak,
the bodies of animals cool very slowly after death.
For some time after death the muscular parts of animals
continue to suffer contraction, followed by relaxation, when
stimulated, as by the point of a needle, or the application
of galvanism. But this irritability, or organic contractility
as it is termed by some modern physiologists, gradually
disappears in the different organs, and commonly in the
muscles of the trunk before those of the limbs. It is also
observed, that, in the different classes of animals, the du¬
ration of the irritability is inversely as the energy of mus¬
cular action which they exhibit during life. It is strong¬
est and most durable in animals which are suddenly killed
when in high health, and is weak and evanescent in those
which die of lingering diseases, or from fatigue.
After the irritability has entirely ceased, the muscles be¬
gin to become rigid, first those of the trunk, and then those
of the limbs. Its duration is inversely as the time of its
commencement; and it is longest of beginning, but is
greatest and lasts longest, in those animals which are sud¬
denly killed when in high health. It appears very quick¬
ly, and lasts a short time only, in animals which die of ex¬
haustion or from fatigue. In whatever attitude the limbs
are placed at its commencement, they continue ; and hence
butchers take care to dress properly the carcasses of animals
while yet supple. For after rigidity has commenced, if
the position of the limb be forcibly changed, it is destroy¬
ed, and the joint becomes permanently supple. Also
muscles which are frozen when rigid, are extremely sup¬
ple as soon as they are thawed. Rigidity is perhaps never
developed in animals frozen to death.1
While this rigidity continues, the flesh of animals is hard
and stringy, and, so far as the palate is concerned, not yet
fit for the table, although fully nutritious, and in perfection
for making soup. After the rigidity has totally ceased,
animal flesh is not long of experiencing the commence¬
ment of those chemical changes which terminate in putre¬
faction ; and it is of the utmost importance, in domestic
economy, to take care that all large joints be in this inter¬
mediate state when they are cooked; for no skill in the
culinary art will compensate for negligence in this point,
O D.
as every one must have often experienced to his great dis¬
appointment. Meat in which we are able to detect the
s ightest trace of putrescency has reached its greatest de-
gi ee of tenderness, and should be used without delay ; but
before this period, which in some kinds of meat is offen¬
sive, the degree of inteneration may be known by its yield¬
ing readily to the pressure of the finger, and by its oppos¬
ing little resistance to an attempt to bend the joint. Poul¬
try also thus part readily with their feathers, and it would
be advisable to leave a few when the bird is plucked, in
older to assist in determining their state. No man who
understands good living will say, on such a day will I eat
that turkey; but let him hang it up by four of the large
tail feathers, and when, on paying his morning visit to the
larder, he finds it lying upon a cloth prepared to receive it
when it falls, that day let it be cooked.” But as we can¬
not always choose our time for eating the joints in our
larder, we must, in providing them for a particular day, es¬
timate that they will then be in a proper state, or, if ne¬
cessary, endeavour to hasten or retard it. By experience
we acquire some knowledge of the length of time for which
the different kinds of meat should be kept, although it is
subject to great variations, depending upon the tempera¬
ture, moisture, and ventilation of the place where it is
kept, upon the kind of meat, the age of the animal, and
upon peculiarities in the individual not understood.
The chief means of preventing the fermentation of or¬
ganic substances are, reduction of temperature, desiccation,
exclusion of air, and the action of certain substances called
antiseptic. Although most commonly employed in com¬
bination with each other, we shall briefly explain the prin¬
ciples upon which they act singly, and then notice their
practical application in reference to the animal and vege¬
table kingdoms.
A moderate reduction of temperature acts by retarding
vital and chemical action, and a reduction, capable of
freezing the juices and fluids of organized bodies, by de¬
stroying vitality, and converting the water present into
ice, and thus removing a condition essential to chemical
action. Many vegetable, and some animal substances,
such as eggs, possess what may be called latent life, and
so long as this continues they resist fermentation. Avery
low temperature puts an end to it, while a high tempera¬
ture calls it into action, after which it cannot be suspended
without destroying it altogether, and thus it is longest pre¬
served in a temperature just a little higher than the formec.
An egg which has been frozen is killed, and rots soon af¬
ter being thawed. On the other hand, by incubation, or
an equal degree of heat, the life of the chick becomes ac¬
tive, and cannot again be checked with impunity ; while,
at a moderately low temperature, the latent life of an egg
continues a great length of time, ready to be excited into
action when placed in favourable circumstances, and re¬
sisting the natural tendency to chemical change. The
same observation nearly applies to vegetables. Succulent
roots, for example, can be long preserved in a moderately
low temperature ; but if it be raised they begin to shoot,
or if it be reduced too much they die, and soon rot.
On dead organic substances a reduced temperature acts
by retarding or preventing chemical change.
The preservative effects of cold are of the utmost im¬
portance to the northern nations, by enabling them to store up
a sufficient stock of all manner of provisions for their winter
consumption, and to receive supplies from a great distance.
It is thus that veal frozen at Archangel is brought to Pe¬
tersburg, and the markets of Moscow present immense
stocks of hogs, sheep, and fish. The same advantage is
729
Preserva¬
tion of
Food.
4 z
VOL. IX.
1 Recherches de Physiologic etChimie Pathologiques, par P. N. Nysten, 8vo, Pans, 1811.
730
FOOD.
Preserve, token of the cold in Canada, and all other countries where
tion of the frost is sufficiently steady. nrnhublv
Food. Substances, so long as they are hard fr°zen, probab y
undergo no chemical change, of which the most striking
proof was afforded by the body of an animal, probably an¬
tediluvian, being found imbedded m a mass of ice at
mouth of the Lena ; but in the act of freezing, or 01 the
subsequent thawing, some alteration is produced, which
affects the nature of the substance. This may be either
merely mechanical, from the particles of ice, during their
formation, tearing asunder and separating the fibrcs ; *))
chemical, by destroying the intimate union of the con¬
stituents of the fluids, as in wine injured by having been
frozen; or by causing new combinations, of which we
have an example in the sweetness acquired by the potato.
Captain Scoresby, contrary to popular belief, states that
“ the most surprising action of the frost on fresh provision
is in preserving it a long time from putrefaction, even
after it is thawed and returns into a warm climate, i have,
says he, “ eaten unsalted mutton and beef nearly five
months old, which has been constantly exposed to a tem¬
perature above the freezing point for four or five weeks m
the outset, and occasionally assailed by the septical influ¬
ences of rain, fog, heat, and electricity, and yet it has
proved perfectly sweet. It may be remarked that unsalt¬
ed meat that has been preserved four or five months m a
cold climate, and then brought back to the British coasts
during the warmth of summer, must be consumed very
speedily after it is cut into, or it will fail in a day or two.
It will seldom, indeed, keep sweet after being cooked above
twenty or thirty hours.”
In freezing animal substances for the purpose of pre¬
serving them, no other precaution is necessary than ex¬
posing them to a sufficient degree of cold. “ Animal sub¬
stances,” says Captain Scoresby, “ requisite as food, of all
descriptions (fish excepted), may be taken to Greenland
and there preserved any length of time, without being
smoked, dried, or salted. No preparation of any kind is
necessary for their preservation, nor is any other precau¬
tion requisite, excepting suspending them in the air when
taken on shipboard, shielding them a little from the sun
and wet, and immersing them occasionally in sea-water,
or throwing sea-water over them after heavy rains, which
will effectually prevent putrescency on the outward pas¬
sage, and in Greenland the cold becomes a sufficient pre¬
servation, by freezing them as hard as blocks of wood.”
“ The moisture is well preserved by freezing, a little from
the surface only evaporating, so that if cooked when three,
four, or five months old, meat will frequently appear as
profuse of gravy as if it had been but recently killed.”
Captain Scoresby has not informed us why fish cannot be
taken to Greenland in a frozen state, though this is a vnode
of preservation much used in Russia and Germany, and
even in our own country.
Some attention is necessary for thawing provisions which
have been frozen. “ When used, the beef cannot be di¬
vided but by an axe or a saw ; the latter instrument is ge¬
nerally preferred. It is then put into cold water, from which
it derives heat by the formation of ice around it, and soon
thaws; but if put into hot water, much of the gravy is ex¬
tracted, and the meat is injured without being thawed more
readily. If an attempt be made to cook it before it is
thawed, it may be burnt on the outside, while the centre
remains raw, or actually in a frozen state.” These observa¬
tions, which we have transcribed from Captain Scoresby,1
an excellent observer, agree with the directions of earlier
writers. Thus Kriinitz says, “ when fish taken under the Present
ice are frozen, lay them in cold water, which thus draws tion oi
the ice out of the fish, so that it can be scraped off their food,
scales. They taste much better afterwards than when they
are allowed to thaw in a warm room.”2 We do not know
whether it be ignorance or inattention to this direction on
the part of the London fishmongers which causes the sal¬
mon sent from Scotland in ice to be little esteemed.
The second general method of preventing fermentation
is desiccation, or the removal of that degree of moisture
which is an essential condition to this kind of chemical ac¬
tion. Desiccation takes place in consequence of the air
absorbing the moisture of bodies exposed to its action. It
is therefore promoted by the size of surface exposed, by
the dry state of the atmosphere, increased temperature, and
by the constant change of the air in contact with the body
to be dried, or, in other words, by exposing it to a free cur¬
rent of air. This mode of checking fermentation is assisted
by dividing or cutting the bodies to be dried, especially
across the grain, which acts not only by increasing the
surface, but perhaps still more by dividing the vessels con¬
taining the moisture or fluids, and thus allowing them to
be freely acted upon by the air, to which the skin or epi¬
dermis, when entire, frequently exposes a very great ob¬
stacle. In pharmacy, where exsiccation is often necessary,
this is well understood, and expressed in the collegiate di¬
rections for drying squills, and other succulent roots. In
domestic economy it is also practised in drying artichoke
bottoms, and guarded against when vegetables are required
to be kept succulent, which are or ought to be trimmed or
wounded as little as possible till they are to be used. Ani¬
mal substances also dry much more slowly so long as the
surface is entire ; and hence some country butchers, skin
veal joint by joint only, as it is required. The influ¬
ence of extent of surface is a matter of constant obser¬
vation. A little water, which would require days to eva¬
porate out of a wine glass, disappears in a few minutes
when spread over a China plate. Also solid substances
dry more quickly in proportion to the smallness of their
size, as the surface exposed is proportionably greater. But
none of the agents in accelerating exsiccation has so great
an influence as the dry state of the air by which it is e -
fected. ,. , ,
Mr Hearne3 gives an account of the manner in which the
Indians of North America preserve, by means of mere ex¬
siccation, the flesh of musk oxen, deer, or any other animal.
To prepare meat in this manner, no farther operation is
required than cutting the lean parts of the animal into thin
slices, and drying it in the sun, or by exposing it to the heat
of a fire, when it is reduced to powder by beating it e
tween two stones. Meat prepared in this way is veiy port
able, and always ready for use, and it is very substantial;
for Mr Hearne found that he could always travel longer
without victuals after making a meal of it, than after any
other kind of food. The northern Indians dry their meat
by the heat of a very slow fire, or by fastening it to the tops
of the women’s bundles, and allowing it to dry by the sun
and wind as they walk along. But the southern in ian
expose it to the heat of a very large fire, which, in
Hearne’s opinion, exhausts its juices, renders it as hard a
horn, and gives it a bitter taste, whereas the other is so
and mellow in the mouth, and entirely free from ®m0 ‘
Fish is also dried by them in the sun, and pounded tor
sake of carriage. . :s
The third general means of preventing fermentation
the total exclusion of atmospheric air, or rather o oxyg
1 See his Account of the Arctic Regions, with a History and Description of the Northern Whale Fishery, 2 vols. 8vo, Edinb. 1819.
* Encyclop. vol. x. p. 586. s journey to the Northern Ocean,
F O
rresfli i- The truth of this is not so obvious to common observation
tioi -' as that of the others ; for, on the contrary, we every day
Fof^ see substances spoiled by being apparently excluded from
^ the air, but in reality by being shut up in confined air;
and we are taught to consider free ventilation as a power¬
ful means of preservation. The manner in which the lat¬
ter acts we have shown to be by removing moisture, espe¬
cially when contaminated by the exhalation of the perish¬
able substance. The rationale of the former is more ob¬
scure, but has been ingeniously attempted by Gay-Lussac,
and the Edinburgh Review (No. xlv.), in order to explain
the processes of M. Appert. Gay-Lussac found that nei¬
ther fresh vegetable juices nor animal matter fermented so
long as oxygen gas was perfectly excluded; and that the
fermentation, in both cases, commenced as soon as any
portion of oxygen was admitted. When oxygen gas is
confined in contact with a fermentable substance," it is
changed into an equal bulk of carbonic acid gas, and all
farther action ceases. Methods of preserving fermentable
substances, illustrative of this principle, have long been
practised imperfectly by housewives. Nothing can be
simpler than Mr Raffald’s receipt for preserving green peas,
cranberries, currants, &c. “ Put them into dry clean
bottles, cork them close, and tie them with a bladder;
keep them in a cool dry place.” A variation of this pro¬
cess was to fill the bottles previously with sulphurous acid
vapour, by holding in them for some time a lighted sulphur
match. One effect of this is to remove all uncombined
oxygen. Other methods of excluding air were also em¬
ployed, as filling up the interstices with water or melted
suet. The success of this process was greatly promoted
by subjecting the substances to the action of a certain
degree of heat, after being put into the bottles or jars in
which they were to be preserved ; and then we are desired
“ to set them in a copper of hot water till they are hot
, quite through,” or to “ put them in an oven when the
bread is drawn, and let them stand till shrunk a quarter
' part.”
: In these cases the heat seems to act by coagulating and
I rendering insoluble and inactive a kind of gluten, which
seems to be a principal agent in beginning fermentation.
In general, in the old processes, we were directed not to
cork or tie up the vessels until they vrere quite cool, by
which it now appears a very great advantage was lost.
But Mr Saddington obtained, in 1817, a premium from
’ the Society of Arts for a method of preserving fruit with¬
out sugar, for house or sea stores; the chief peculiarity of
which consisted in filling the bottles, as soon as they are
taken out of the bath, with boiling water to within an inch
of the cork, and immediately corking them very tight and
laying them on their sides, that the cork may swell and
effectually exclude the air. Animal substances have also
long been occasionally preserved by the mere exclusion of
air. The most familiar example is the buttering of eggs,
which has the effect of closing the pores in the shell by
which the communication of the embryo with the external
air takes place. It is best performed by rubbing over the
shell with butter while it is still warm after being laid ;
and an egg in this way retains the curdy milk, and pos¬
sesses all the properties of a new-laid egg for a great length
of time ; but at whatever period after being laid the egg is
buttered over, its progress to decay seems to be arrested.
|lhe same effect is produced, though not so perfectly, by
immersing eggs in water. From an experiment of Reau-
° D- 731
mur s, it appears that the cutting off the access of air to Preserva-
the embryo in the egg does not kill it or prevent it from tion ot
being hatched, but, on the contrary, preserves it alive for a Food,
much greater time than if it had not been treated in this l'—-'y'-*-'
manner. He covered over eggs with spirit varnish, and
he found them capable of producing chickens after two
years, when the varnish was carefully removed.
Although, however, the preservation of alimentary mat¬
ters by the total exclusion of air, assisted by subjecting
them to a certain degree of heat, has long been practised
in some degree, we are certainly indebted to M. Appert,1
who first published in 1810, for the regular and scientific
application of these principles upon a large scale. From
extensive experience and long perseverance he became
convinced,
“ Lvi?, That fire has the peculiar property, not only of
changing the combination of the constituent parts of vege¬
table and animal productions, but also of retarding, for
many years at least, if not of destroying, the natural ten¬
dency of those same productions to decomposition.
“ 2dly, That the application of fire in a manner various¬
ly adapted to various substances, after having, with the ut¬
most care, and as completely as possible, deprived them of
all contact with the air, effects a perfect preservation of
those same productions, with all their natural qualities.”
Upon these principles he invented many processes
adapted to the different natures of the substances to be
preserved; but the fundamental conditions consist, ls£, In
enclosing in bottles the substances to be preserved. 2dly,
In corking the bottles with the utmost care; for it is
chiefly on the corking that the success of the process de¬
pends. odly, In submitting these enclosed cases to the
action of boiling water in a water-bath {Balneum Marioe),
for a greater or less length of time, according to their na¬
ture, and in the manner pointed out with respect to each
several kind of substance. Wdy, In withdrawing the
bottles from the water-bath at the period described.
M. Appert employed at first bottles made of glass, which
it was difficult to close exactly, especially when their mouths
were large; but he now uses cylinders of tin plate, which
are soldered up after they are filled. This is especially an
improvement for animal substances, which require much
more attention than vegetables. Tin cases or canisters
seem to have been first used in London by Messrs Don¬
kin and Gamble, by whom a very ingenious method of
testing the provisions put up by them was also invented
as early as 1813.2 The substances to be preserved are
first parboiled, or somewhat more. The vegetables and
meat, the bones being removed, are then put into tin cy¬
linders, which are filled up with the broth, and the lid sol¬
dered down. It now undergoes the remainder of the cook¬
ing, when a small hole is opened at the top ot the cylinder,
and immediately closed with solder while still hot. 1 he
whole is now allowed to cool, and from the diminution ot
volume in the contents, in consequence of the reduction ot
temperature, both ends of the cylinder are pressed inwards
and become concave. The cases thus hermetically sealed
are exposed in a test-chamber, for at least a month, to a
temperature above what they are ever likely to encounter ;
from 90° to 110° Fahrenheit. If the process has failed,
putrefaction takes place, and gas is evolved, which in pro¬
cess of time will bulge out both ends ot the case, so as to
render them convex instead of concave. But the contents
of whatever cases stand this test will infallibly keep per-
1 Le Lixire de tous les Manages ; on ['art de conserver pendant plusicurs annces toutes les substances animates et vegetables, 3me edit. Pans
1813.
are
steam.
In a patent granted in 1819 to Mr .Eneas Morrison of Glasgow for preserving food upon P™P^S’
perforated by a tin tube, which is hermetically sealed by driving down a tm plug whilst the vessel is st.Ii quite hot ana tinea
I
732
Preserva¬
tion of
Food.
food.
fertlv sweet and good in any climate, and for any length
of time. Another advantage is, that if there be ^ny T
about the meat when put up, it inevitably ferments, and
deAn kinds of akmentary matters may be preserved m this
way,-beef, mutton, veal, and poultry, boiled and roasted
soups, broths and vegetables, creams and custards. Ihe
testimonies in favour of the success of the process are o
the most unexceptionable kind. The meat is put up m ca¬
nisters of from four pounds to twenty pounds wmght eac ,
and the milk and soups in quart or pint bottles. The meat
is charged from Is. 8d. to 3s. a pound; roast hj,gber than
boiled, and veal dearer than mutton or beef. l he ml1
24s. per dozen for quarts, 15s. for pints, and 10s. for half
pints; and soups from 30s. to 60s. per dozen for quarts.
The weight of the canister is deducted, and nothing
charged for canisters or bottles; and it should be observed,
that the patent provisions being cooked, and without bone,
render them nearly equivalent to double the weight of
meat in the raw state; for, by experiment, the patentees
found, that the waste in cooking, and weight of bone, are
about one half. Captain Neish took a quantity to India;
not one canister spoiled ; and one which he brought home
contained beef in the highest state of preservation after
two years, and having been carried upwards of 35,UUU
miles in the warmest climates. The commissioners for
victualling the navy also examined some nearly four years
old, which had been in the Mediterranean and Uuebec,
and found it as sound, sweet, and fresh, as if it had been
only yesterday boiled. We are also enabled to add the
testimony of Captain Basil Hall, who has liberally commu¬
nicated to us the result of his personal experience and ob¬
servation : “ I can answer for the perfect preservation of a
great number of cases which were in my possession duiing
the voyage to China. I had L.88 worth, and not one fail¬
ure. At that time milk was preserved in bottles corked ;
but tin cases have been substituted with very great effect,
as I have myself tried. It is really astonishing how excel¬
lent the milk is ; and, indeed, every thing preserved in this
way is good.
“ You must, on examining the lists of prices, bear in
mind that meat thus preserved eats nothing, nor drinks
is not apt to get the rot, or to die—does not tumble over
board, nor get its legs broken or its flesh, worn off its
bones by knocking about the decks of a ship in bad wea¬
ther—it takes no care in the keeping—it is always ready,
may be eat cold or hot, and thus enables you to toss
into a boat in a minute as many days’ cooked provisions as
you choose—it is not exposed to the vicissitudes of mar¬
kets, nor is it scourged up to a monstrous price, as at St
Helena, because there is no alternative. Besides these
advantages, it enables one to indulge in a number of luxu¬
ries which no care or expense could procure.”
The property of salt to preserve animal substances from
putrefaction is of most essential importance to the empire
in general, and to the remote grazing districts in particu¬
lar. It enables the latter to dispose of their live stock, and
distant navigation is wholly dependent upon it. All kinds
of animal substances may be preserved by salt, but beef
and pork are the only staple articles of this kind. In ge¬
neral, the pieces of the animal best fitted for being salted
are those which contain fewest large blood-vessels, and are
most solid. Some recommend all the glands to be cut out,
and say, that without this precaution meat cannot be pre¬
served ; but that this is a mistake, the salt udder, and
glands of the tongue, every day’s experience shows.
The salting may be performed either by dry rubbing, or
by immersing the meat in pickle. Cured in the former Presen¬
way the meat wall keep longer, but it is more altered in tion oi
its valuable properties; in the latter way it is more deli- fwdi
cate and nutritious. Six pounds of salt, one pound of su- WY>'
gar, and four ounces of saltpetre, boiled with four gallons
of water, skimmed and allowed to cool, forms a very strong
pickle, which will preserve any meat completely immersed
in it. To effect this, which is essential, either a heavy
board, or flat stone, must be laid upon the meat. The
same pickle may be used repeatedly, provided it be boiled
up occasionally with additional salt to restore its strength,
diminished by the combination of part of the salt with the
meat, and by the dilution of the pickle by the juices of
the meat extracted. By boiling, the albumen, which would
cause the pickle to spoil, is coagulated, and rises in the
form of scum, which must be carefully removed.
Dry salting is performed by rubbing the surface of the
meat all over with salt; and it is generally believed that
the process of salting is promoted if the salt be rubbed in
with a heavy hand. On the contrary, it is said, that in very
hot countries, for example, Jamaica, where it is so necessary
that the action of the salt should take place as quickly as
possible, the mode of salting a round of beef is to place it
on two sticks over a tub of water, with the small end up¬
permost, and to cover it with a heap of salt, which pene¬
trates through the veins and arteries, and among the fibres,
in the state of a saturated solution. However this may be,
it is almost certain that very little salt penetrates, except
through the cut surfaces, to which it should therefore be
chiefly applied; and all holes, whether natural or artificial,
should be particularly attended to. For each twenty-five
pounds of meat, about a pound of coarse-grained salt (St
Ubes’ is the best) should be allowed, and the whole, pre¬
viously heated, rubbed in at once. When laid in the pick¬
ling tub, a brine is soon formed by the salt dissolved in the
juice of the meat which it extracts, and with this the meat
should be rubbed every day, and a different side turned
down. In ten or twelve days it will be sufficiently cured.
For domestic use, the meat should not be salted as soon
as it comes from the market, but kept until its fibre has
become short and tender, as these changes do not take
place after it has been acted upon by the salt. But in the
provision trade, the expedition with which the animals
are slaughtered, the meat cut up and salted, and afterwards
packed, is astonishing.”1 By salting the meat while still
warm, and before the fluids are coagulated, the salt pene¬
trates immediately, by means of the vessels, through the
whole substance of the meat; and hence meat is admira¬
bly cured at Tunis, even in the hottest season ; so that Mr
Jackson, in his Rejlections on the Tirade of the Mediterra¬
nean, recommends ships being supplied there with their
provisions. * j f
14 Take half a pound of black pepper, half a pound of red
or kyan pepper, and half a pound of the best saltpetre, a
beat or ground very fine; mix these three well toget er,
then mix them with about three quarts of very fine salt :
this mixture is sufficient for eight hundredweight of bee .
As the pieces are brought from the person cutting up, rs
sprinkle the pieces with the spice, and introduce a htt e
into all the thickest parts; if it cannot be done otherwise,
make a small incision with a knife. I he first salter, a er
rubbing salt and spice well into the meat, should take an
mould the piece, the same as washing a shirt upon a boar ,
this may be very easily done, and the meat being a e y
killed, is soft and pliable; this moulding opens the §rai”
of the meat, which will make it imbibe the spice an sa
much quicker than the common method of salting. e r
1 Wakefield’s Ireland, vol. i. p. 750.
F O
pre3M- fealter hands his piece over to the second salter, who moulds
tion and rubs the salt well into the meat, and, if he observes
Fo occasion, introduces the spice ; when the second salter has
^ J finished his piece, he folds it up as close as possible, and
hands it to the packer at the harness tubs, who must be
stationed near him: the packer must be careful to pack
his harness tubs as close as possible.
“ All the work must be carried on in the shade, but,
where there is a strong current of air, the harness tubs in
particular; this being a very material point in curing the
meat in a hot climate. Meat may be cured in this manner
with the greatest safety when the thermometer, in the
shade, is at 110°, the extreme heat assisting the curing.
“ A good sized bullock, of six or seven hundredweight,
may be killed and salted within the hour.
“ The person who attends with the spice near the first
salter has the greatest trust imposed upon him; besides
the spice, he should be well satisfied that the piece is suffi¬
ciently salted before he permits the first salter to hand the
piece over to the second salter.
“ All the salt should be very fine, and the packer, be¬
sides sprinkling the bottom of his harness tubs, should be
careful to put plenty of salt between each tier of meat,
which is very soon turned into the finest pickle. The pic¬
kle will nearly cover the meat as fast as the packer can
stow it away. It is always a good sign that the meat is
very safe when the packer begins to complain that his
hands are aching with cold.
“ By this method, there is no doubt but that the meat is
perfectly cured in three hours from the time of killing the
bullock. The saltpetre in a very little time strikes through
the meat: however, it is always better to let it lie in the
harness tubs till the following morning, when it will have
an exceeding pleasant smell on opening the harness tubs;
then take it out and pack it in tight barrels, with its own
pickle.”
Beef and pork, in a less degree, properly salted with salt
alone, acquire a green colour; but if an ounce of saltpetre
be added to each five pounds of salt employed, the muscu-
i lar fibre acquires a fine red colour ; but this improvement
in appearance is more than compensated by its becoming
harder and harsher to the taste; to correct which, a pro-
i portion of sugar or molasses is often added. But the red
colour may be given if desired, without hardening the
meat, by the addition of a little cochineal.
Meat, when salted, is either preserved immersed in pic¬
kle, in close vessels, or dried, when it gets the name of ba¬
con, ham, or hung beef.
Meat kept immersed in pickle rather gains weight. In
one experiment by Messrs Donkin and Gamble, there was
a gain of three per cent., and in another of two and a half;
but in the common way of salting, when the meat is not
immersed in pickle, there is a loss of about one pound or
one and a half in sixteen.
I _ The drying of salt meat is effected either by hanging it
! in a dry and well-aired place, or by exposing it at the same
! time to wood smoke, which gives it a peculiar flavour,
much admired in Westphalia hams and Hamburg beef,
and also, perhaps, tends to preserve it, by the antiseptic
action of the pyrolignic acid. When meat is to be hung,
it need not be so highly salted.
Fish, in like manner, may be preserved either by dry
salting or in pickle. The former method is employed to a
great extent on the banks of Newfoundland and in Shet¬
land. For information on this important subject, the ar¬
ticle Fishery may be consulted.
O D. -33
thinks that the cod-fish prepared in Shetland Preserva-
wm always maintain its pre-eminence over the cod of other tion of
p aces. n ISew foundland the fish are said to be exposed, Food,
a ei eing salted, on standing flakes, made by a slight
wattle, and supported by poles, often twenty feet from the
ground But the humidity is not nearly so well extracted
trom the fish as when, according to the Shetland method,
they are carefully laid out upon dry beaches, the stones of
which have been during winter exposed to the abrading
action ot the ocean, and are thus cleared from animal and
vegetable matter.1
The Dutch derive great national advantages from the
preference given to the herrings caught upon our own
coasts, when cured by them. They use no other than the
Spanish or Portuguese salt, preserve no fish that they are
not able to cure between sunrise, when the nets are drawn,
and sunset, when they are again shot, and pay particular
attention in giping, sorting, and packing each kind by it¬
self. They fill up the barrels with fish of the same kind
and night’s catching, and are exceedingly careful of the
pickle, as they use no other in filling of the barrels.2
Flerrings and salmon are also often cured by drying them
in wood smoke after being slightly salted, and are called
red herrings or Yarmouth herrings, and kipper or smoked
salmon.
Butter is commonly preserved by working into each
pound one or two ounces of salt, until they be thoroughly
incorporated. The best salt for the purpose is in large
crystals, and it should be thoroughly dried and coarsely
powdered. But Dr Anderson recommends for the curing
of butter, a mixture of two parts of the best great salt, one
of sugar, and one of saltpetre, beat into a fine powder.
One ounce of this mixture is sufficient for a pound of but¬
ter. He says that butter cured in this way does not taste
well till it has stood at least a fortnight after being salted;
but after that period it has a rich marrowy taste, that no
other butter ever acquires, and tastes so little salt, that one
would imagine it would not keep; and yet Dr Anderson
has seen it perfectly sound and sweet when two years old.
Butter spoils and becomes rancid, chiefly from the milk,
which is not entirely expressed from it, and in consequence
of the albumen, which is constantly present. These may
be separated by melting the butter and keeping it over the
fire until all the water be evaporated, when the albumen
will also be coagulated, and sink to the bottom. To pre¬
vent all risk of producing an empyreumatic taste, the vessel
containing the butter should not be exposed directly to the
fire, but placed in a larger vessel filled with water, which
is made to boil, forming what the chemists call a water-bath.
While the butter remains fluid, it resembles a perfectly trans¬
parent oil, and on cooling it becomes opaque, and is firmer
and a little paler than the butter before it was clarified. It
will keep for a considerable time without salt; but if it be
salted as common butter, it will continue much longer sweet
in hot climates, than if it had been cured in its original
state.3
The natives of Hindustan never use butter, but prefer
what is called ghee, because it keeps better, and has more
taste and smell. Their butter is prepared from coagulated
acid milk; and in order to collect a sufficient quantity, it is
often kept two or three days, by which time it is highly
rancid. It is melted in an earthen pot, and boiled until all
the water be evaporated. After being taken from the fire,
a little coagulated acid milk and salt, or betel leaf and
reddle, are added. It is kept in pots, and eaten when even
a year old.4
Edinburgh Philosophical Journal, No. iii. p. 148.
Highland Society's Transactions, vol ii. p. 321.
Anderson’s Recreations, vol. iv. p. 87-
Buchanan’s Journey from Madras, vol. ii. p. 15.
734
food.
Preserva¬
tion of
Food.
Vinegar, in itself a very destructible substance when ex-
posed to the ait, tends greatly to P7s,0"efr3^nS"t
stances when both are carefully excluded from it. In g
neral, however, the vegetable is previously salted. Aftei
the Pickles are prepared, the bottles are to be carefully
corked, tied up with bladder, and sealed over with wax or
rosin. For the making of pickles, the vinegar now distil¬
led from wood, as in itself containing no principles of de¬
cay, must be preferable to common vinegar.
‘M. Parmentier has given a minute description of the
process of making sour krout on the great scale. I ie
heads of winter cabbages, after removing the miter leaves,
are to be cut into fine shreds, by means of an instrument
made on purpose, and then spread out to dry upon a cloth
in the shade. A cask is to be set on end, with the head
taken out. If it formerly contained vinegar or wine, so
much the better, as it will promote the fermentation, and
give the cabbage a more vinous taste; if not, the inside
may be rubbed over with some krout barm. Caraway
seeds are to be mixed with the shreds of cabbage, a good
laver of salt placed at the bottom of the cask, and then cab¬
bage shreds to be evenly packed, to the depth of six inches.
A man having on strong boots, well washed and nicely
clean, must now get into the cask, and tread down the
shreds to half their original bulk. The same process is to
be repeated, with additional layers of salt and shreds, till
the whole be packed. They are then to be covered with
a layer of salt, or till the barrel be filled within two inches
of the top, over which the outside leaves of the cabbages
are to be spread. About two pounds of salt aie required
for twenty cabbages.
The head of the barrel, which should have been previ¬
ously well fastened together, is lastly to be put within the
barrel above the leaves, and loaded with stones, to prevent
the mixture from rising during the fermentation. The mass
thus compressed subsides, and the cabbages give out theii
juice, which rises to the surface, is green, muddy, and fetid.
It is to be drawn off by a spigot placed two or three inches
down, and replaced bv fresh brine every day, until it come
off clear, which will take twelve or fifteen days, according
to the temperature of the place. The essential point for
keeping sour krout good, is to take care that it be always
covered at least an inch with pickle. For home consump¬
tion enough may be made at one time to serve the year,
and the pickle is then renewed at the beginning of spring,
and at midsummer. When intended as ship provision for
long voyages, the sour krout must be repacked very firmly
into other casks, which are then to be filled with fresh pickle,
and closed as accurately as possible. When well made and
preserved, it has a very pleasant acidity, and is not only
very healthy, but agrees with many persons who cannot use
fresh cabbages. It is also considered to be a very excellent
antiscorbutic; and Captain Cook attributed his success in
preserving the health of his crew in his voyage partly to
its use.
Vinegar is never used for the preservation of butcher
meat, but salmon is often pickled in it, with the addition of
salt and spices.
Pryolignic acid has lately been much extolled, as having
a specific powder in preserving animal matters. It consists
of acetic acid, impregnated with an empyreumatic oil. The
acid is in general very strong, and being free from the mu¬
cilage which promotes the spoiling of common vinegar, it
is so far a better antiseptic; but the empyreumatic oil may
also add to its powers, either by keeping away insects, to
which it is very offensive, or by a direct antiseptic power
not understood. Professor Jorg of Leipsic is said to have
recovered tainted flesh by rubbing it with the oil separated Preser,. f
from the acid; and there is no doubt that the smoking of lira 6
beef, hams, salmon, and herrings, makes them keep longer
Fooc;
Deer, nams, siumui., ai.«     —-r -—p- ,
than the mere drying, and the degree of previous salting, ^
would lead us to expect.
Sugar has also the power of preserving vegetable sub¬
stances from decay, but, on account of its expense, it is
only used for fine fruits and aromatic substances. The
preservation of these by means of sugar constitutes a prin¬
cipal part of the art of confectionary, and attention to many
minutiae is necessary for the success of each preparation.
The most general principles only can be noticed here.
Vegetable substances may be either preserved in syrup
or candied; or their juices may be employed in making
syrups, jellies, or fruit-cakes. The art of confectionary is
very difficult, and, to attain perfect success, requiies atten¬
tion to many particulars, which at first seem frivolous and
even improper, but which have been found by experience
to be essential. The clarification and boiling of the sugar
to its proper degree is of primary importance, and has not
perhaps been sufficiently examined by scientific men.
A weak syrup has a tendency to ferment, and quickly
becomes sour if kept in a temperate degree of heat; it is
therefore not calculated to prevent the natural fermentation
of vegetable juices, which always increase its tendency to
corrupt. Pharmaceutists have ascertained that a solution,
prepared by dissolving two parts of double-refined sugar
in one of water, or any watery fluid, and boiling the solu¬
tion a little, forms a syrup, which neither ferments nor crys¬
tallizes ; and the proportion may be considered as the basis
of all syrups, and seems to be the degree of boiling syrup
called smooth by the confectioners, as exemplified in their
Syrops de Capillaire, Orgeat, and others.
Sugar is equally powerful in preserving animal substan¬
ces from putrefaction. As a novelty to modern artists, we
translate from their great precursor, Caelius Apicius, a me¬
thod of preserving meat at any time without salt: “ Let
fresh meat of any kind be covered with honey ; but hang
up the vessel, and use it when you please. This succeeds
better in winter; but will last a few days in summer. I he
same mav be done with meat that has been cooked..
Other "methods of preserving food have been tried, but
rather as a matter of curiosity than utility.
The property of charcoal to restore sweetness to flesh
beginning to be tainted, was first pointed out by M. Lowitz
in Petersburg, in 1786,1 who made numerous experiments
upon the subject. For their success, it is necessary that the
charcoal have been recently burnt, and that it be app ie
in a certain quantity. Too little fails in its effect, an
too much affects the nature of the substance upon which it
acts. By some it has been supposed to act merely mecha¬
nically, by absorbing fluid and putrescent exudations, u
it is more probable that it acts chemically, by absorbing
oxygen gas from the air in contact with the meat, n
fourth volume of the Journal of Science (p. 36 ), e
is an account of some successful experiments, in w ic i a
ternate layers of meat and charcoal were packed in can ¬
ters, previously filled with carbonic gas, and then care y
luted up and covered with bladder. ^
In the Journal de Pharmacie for September lot > •
Raymond, professor of chemistry at Lyons, has re
some experiments which he made upon the antisep 1£jP
perties of chlorine. Beef exposed to the action o
gas for a few minutes underwent no change m t e co
of six months, except becoming dry from the action o
and time. A Guinea pig, suffocated in the same g* ’ ,
afterwards immersed for a few minutes in water sa
1 Crell’s Annals.
: , F O
Preiji- with chlorine, and then exposed to the air for four months
tioi! without having its entrails removed, showed no sio-n of nu-
JjL/ trefaction in four months. He also found that tainted meat
^ recovered the smell and appearance of fresh meat by beimy
immersed in liquid chlorine. b
PREPARATION.
Alimentary matters are used either in their crude or raw
state, or after having undergone some kind of preparation.
Fruits and salads, although they admit of various forms
of cookery, are most frequently eaten in as fresh and natu¬
ral a state as possible.
Cookery is either necessary to destroy some deleterious
property, or to render food more palatable and nutritious.
Of the former effect the most remarkable example is fur¬
nished by various species of arum, which in their crude
state are acrid, or even poisonous, but by being cooked
become mild and wholesome. The acrimony resides in a
very volatile principle, which is easily dissipated by heat.
A more familiar example in this country is furnished by the
onion tribe, the acrimony and flavour of which are entirely
destroyed by being long subjected to the action of heat.
Numerous as the receipts are, the processes of cookery
are but few. In some, the chief object is to extract the
fluid or soluble parts of the substance cooked ; in others,
to alter the nature of the substance itself, and often to com¬
bine both purposes. Fire is a principal agent in almost all
the processes of cookery, and the most economical mode
of applying it has engaged the attention of many philoso¬
phers and artists.1
Convenience and economy are the objects proposed by
all alleged improvements. The nature of the fuel is of no
little importance, and is different in different countries.
Pit coal has the advantage of forming a lasting fire, and
producing an intense degree of heat, which renders it al¬
most indispensable for roasting ; but its smoke is very de¬
trimental, both by the unpleasant flavour it imparts, and by
the inconvenience arising from the flame, and from the
I soot deposited upon the vessels and in the chimney. Wood
and turf evolve less smoke, but their flavour is more pene¬
trating, and they give less heat, and are less durable. The
j cleanest and most generally useful fuel is charcoal of wood,
or coke, neither giving out any smoke, or imparting any
, flavour. Charcoal is more easily kindled, but coke lasts
longer, and gives out more heat. Well burnt cinders are
an excellent substitute for coke, which in every family
ought to be carefully preserved for the purposes of cookery.
I The heat, from whatever fuel produced, is applied in va¬
rious ways to the substances to be cooked, either directly
or indirectly. Heat is applied directly, as radiant heat in
the process of roasting, in which the effects are produced
entirely by the rays of heat impinging directly upon sub¬
stances placed at a short distance before it. For this pur¬
pose a clear glowing fire is necessary, and the bars of a
good roasting grate should impede as little as possible the
radiation of its heat. Another very direct mode of apply¬
ing heat, is by placing the substance over the fire by sus¬
pending it in the stream of heated air ascending from it,
or laying it directly on the burning fuel, or on bars, or
a plate of iron, or other substance capable of supporting
the heat. Broiling is the result of this mode of applying
heat. Heat is also often applied through the intervention
of fluids, chiefly of water or steam, as in boiling or stew-
nrg; or of some oily substance, as in frying. The pecu¬
liarity of baking consists in the substance being heated in
a confined space, which does not permit the escape of the
fumes arising from it.
To understand the theory of cookery, we must attend to
O D.
the action of heat upon the various constituents of alimen-
th?nwrtailCe+S’ aS aPPhed directly and indirectly through
SLT X ° S°me fluid- In the former way, as exem-
p td in the processes of roasting and broiling, the chief
constituents of animal substances undergo the following
changes . the hbnne is corrugated, the albumen coagulat-
eu, the gelatine and osmazome rendered more soluble in
water, the nit liquefied, and the water evaporated. If the
heat exceed a certain degree, the surface becomes first
brown, and then scorched. In consequence of these
changes, the muscular fibre becomes opaque, shorter,
firmer, and drier ; the tendons less opaque, softer, and
g uey; the fat is either melted out, or rendered Semitrans¬
parent. Animal fluids become more transparent; the al¬
bumen is coagulated and separated, and they dissolve ge¬
latine and osmazome. Lastly, and what is the most im¬
portant change, and the immediate object of all cookery,
the meat loses the vapid nauseous smell and taste peculiar
to its raw state, and it becomes savoury and grateful. Heat
applied through the intervention of boiling oil or melted
fat, as in frying, produces nearly the same changes, as the
heat is sufficient to evaporate the water, and to induce a
degree of scorching. But when water is the medium
through which heat is applied, as in boiling, stewing, and
baking, the effects are somewhat different, as the heat
never exceeds 212°, which is not sufficient to commence
the process of browning or decomposition, and the soluble
constituents are removed by being dissolved in the water,
forming soup or broth ; or, if the direct contact of the wa¬
ter be prevented, they are dissolved in the juices of the
meat, and separate in the form of gravy.
It is evident, that whether the heat be applied directly
or indirectly, there must be a considerable loss in the cook¬
ing of animal substances in public institutions, where the
allowance of meat is generally weighed out in its,raw state,
and includes bones, and is served out cooked, and some¬
times without bone; and it is a matter of importance to as¬
certain nearly their relative proportions. Much, no doubt,
depends upon the piece of the meat cooked, and the de¬
gree of cookery, and the attention bestowed upon it. We
have been informed by persons who salt rounds of beef to
sell by retail after they are boiled, that they are able to
get 19 lb. of cold boiled beef from 25 lb. raw; but the
meat, it must be confessed, is always rather under-done.
Messrs Donkin and Gamble boiled in steam 56 lb. of Cap¬
tain’s salt beef; the meat, when cold, without the bones,
which amounted to 5 lb. 6 oz. weighed only 35 lb. In an¬
other experiment, 113 lb. of prime mess beef gave 9 lb. 10
oz. of bones, and 47 lb. 8 oz. meat; and in a third, 213 lb.
mess beef gave 13 lb. 8 oz. bones, and 103 lb. 10 oz. meat;
or, taken in the aggregate, 372 lb. of salt beef, including
bones, furnish, when boiled, 186 lb. 2 oz. without bone,
being about 50 per cent.; or, disregarding the bone alto¬
gether, salt meat loses, by boiling, about 44*2 per cwt. We
are indebted to Professor Wallace, of the University of
Edinburgh, for the detail of a' very accurate and extensive
experiment in a public establishment, of which the results
were, that, in pieces of 10 lbs. weight, each 100 lbs. of
beef lost, on an average, by boiling, 26*4 ; baking, 30-2;
and roasting, 32‘2 : mutton, the leg, by boiling, 21*4; by
roasting, the shoulder 31T, the neck 32’4, the loin 35’9.
Hence, generally speaking, mutton loses, by boiling, about
one fifth of its original weight, and beef about one fourth ;
again, mutton and beef lose, by roasting, about one third
of their original weight.
The loss arises in roasting from the melting out of the
fat and evaporating the water, but the nutritious matters
remain condensed in the cooked solid ; but in boiling, the
•'O —
/ ')>
Prepara¬
tion of
Food.
1 See Rumford’s Essays ; Fournier, sur
les Substances Alimentaires ; Repertory of Arts ; Archives des Decouvertes.
F O O
inooarUpsoartlv from fat melted out, but chieflyfrom gelatine
lossansespa Y , , water in which the meat is
riTthereis therefore a real loss of nourishment unless
the brotlf'be'used, when this mode of cooking becomes the
m VeXblesShtnces aremostcommonlyboiled or baked;
or if apparently fried or roasted, there is always much wa¬
re; present! which prevents the greater action of the fire
fem penetmting below the surface. The universal effect
of cookery upon vegetable substances, is to dissolve the
warer sle of their constituents, such as the mucilage and
starch, and to render those that are not properly soluble,
as the gluten and fibre, softer and more pulpy.
TOO
We cannot pretend to enter into the details of the vari¬
ous processes, nor explain the many precautions requisite
to ensure success. For practical receipts we recommend Foote.
IJArt de Cuisinier, par A. Beauvilliers ; A New System
of Domestic Cookery, by a Lady; and, lastly and chiefly,
Apicius Redivivus, or the Cook's Oracle, in which, along
vv,th the plainest directions, there is more of the philoso¬
phy, and, if we may so speak, of the literature, of gastro¬
nomic, than in any work we have seen. The reader is also
referred to a very curious volume by Mr Accum, on Adul¬
terations of Food, and to a German work on the same in¬
teresting subject by Knoblauch. The unprecedented suc¬
cess of the Almanack des Gourmands, and of the Manuel
des Amphytrions, shows how much may be made of the
subject by a man of talents; nor do the writings of M.
Grimod de la Reyniere surpass in wit the entertaining ar¬
ticles in the Edinburgh Review, No. xi. and in the Quar¬
terly Review, No. xlv. (z-)
FOOSHT, an island in the Red Sea, sit^te^’a^ord'
ine to the observations of Mr Bruce, in lat. 1 . o • •
ItAs described by him as about five miles in length from
north to south; and it is low and sandy in the southern
part, but in the north rises a black hill of inconsiderable
FOOT, a part of the body of certain animals, on which
they stand, walk, or run. See Anatomy.
Foot, in the Latin and Greek poetry, a metre or mea¬
sure, which is composed of a certain number of long and
short syllables. . .
Of metrical feet, which are commonly reckoned twenty-
eight, some are simple, consisting of two or three syllables,
and therefore called dissyllabic or trisyllabic feet; and others
are compound, consisting of four syllables, from which cir¬
cumstance they are called tetrasyllabic feet.
The dissyllabic feet are four in number; the pyrrichms,
spondeus, iambus, and trocheus. The trisyllabic feet are
eight in number ; the dactylus, anapaestus, tribrach^ s,. mo-
lossus, amphibrachys, amphimacer, bacchius, and antibac-
chius. The tetrasyllabic are sixteen in number ; the pro-
celeusmaticus, dispondeus, choriambus, antispastus, diam¬
bus, dichoreus, ionicus a majore, ionicus a minore, epitri-
tus primus, epitritus secundus, epitritus tertius, epitritus
quartus, paeon primus, paeon secundus, paeon tertius, and
paeon quartus.
Foot is also a long measure consisting of twelve inches.
Geometricians divide the foot into ten digits, and the digit
again into ten lines.
Foot Square is the same measure both in breadth and
length, containing 144 square superficial inches.
Cubic or Solid Foot, is the same measure in all the
three dimensions of length, breadth, and depth or thick¬
ness, containing 1728 cubic inches.
FOOTE, Samuel, was born at Truro, in Cornwall, and
descended from an ancient and respectable family. His
father was member of parliament for Tiverton in Devon¬
shire, and enjoyed the post of commissioner of the prize
office ; his mother was heiress of the Dinely and Goodere
families. Foote was educated at Worcester College, Ox¬
ford, which owed its foundation to Sir Thomas Cookes
Windford. On leaving the university he commenced stu¬
dent of law in the Temple; but as the dryness of this study
did not suit the liveliness of his genius, he soon relinquish¬
ed it. He then married a young lady of a good family and
some fortune ; but their tempers not agreeing, harmony did
not long subsist between them. He now launched into all
the fashionable follies of the age, gambling not excepted,
and in a few years squandered away his whole fortune.
His necessities led him to the stage, and he made his first
appearance in the character of Othello. He next perform¬
ed Fondlewife with much greater applause; and this, in¬
deed, was ever afterwards one of his capital parts. He
likewise attempted Lord Foppington, but afterwards gave
it up as unsuitable to his talents. In 1747 he opened the
little theatre in the Haymarket, taking upon himself the
double character of author and performer ; and he appear¬
ed in a dramatic piece of his own composition, called the
Diversions of the Morning. The piece consisted of nothing
more than the exhibition of several characters well known
in real life, whose style and manner of conversation and ex¬
pression the author had very happily hit off in the diction of
his drama, and still more happily represented on the stage,
by an exact and indeed amazing imitation, not only of the
manner and tone of voice, but even of the very persons of
those whom he intended to take off. This performance at
first met with some opposition from the civil magistrates ot
Westminster, under the sanction of the act of parliament
for limiting the number of playhouses, as well as from the
jealousy of one of the managers of Drury Lane theatre.
But the author being patronized by many of the principal
nobility, and other persons of distinction, this opposition
was overruled ; and having altered the title of his perfor¬
mance, Mr Foote proceeded, without further molestation,
to give Tea in a Morning to his friends, and represente
it through a run of forty mornings to crowded and splen¬
did audiences. In the ensuing season he produced another
piece of the same kind, which he called An Auction oj
Pictures. Into this performance he introduced several new
and popular characters ; particularly Sir Thomas de ei,
then the acting justice of peace for Westminster, Mr Lock
the celebrated auctioneer, and the equally famous ran
Henley. The Auction had also a very great run. tu>
Knights, which was the production of the ensuing season,
exhibited somewhat more of dramatic regularity. u s’
although his plot and characters seemed less immediate y
personal, it was apparent that in the performance ie I
some real persons strongly in his eye ; and the t0^
it upon themselves to fix these where the resem ‘ _
appeared most striking. Thus Mr I oote contmuec
time to time to select, for the entertainment o _ ’
such public characters as seemed most likely to eng »
their attention. But his dramatic pieces, exc usiv
the interlude called Piety in Pattens, are only o _
ed among the petites pieces of the theatre. n ® ..
tion they are somewhat loose, negligent, and un ’
the plots are often irregular, and the catastrophes eq
ly inconclusive ; but, with all these deficiencies, they ^
tain more strength of character, more strokes o ^
tire, and more touches of temporary humour, jgt(
be found in the writings of any other modern as
Even the language spoken by his characters, in
tf ra
vbi
FOR
For
ll'
Forbtt
'-'YT
it may sometimes seem, will on a closer examination be
found altogether dramatical: abounding with those natu¬
ral minutiae of expression which frequently form the very
basis of character, and which render it the truest mirror of
the conversation of the times to which it applies.
In the year 1766, being on a party of pleasure with the
Duke of York, Lord Mexborough, and Sir Francis Delaval,
Mr Foote had the misfortune to break his leg by a fall from
his horse, in consequence of which he was compelled to
undergo an amputation. This accident so sensibly affect¬
ed the duke, that he made a point of obtaining for Mr
Foote a patent for life, by which he was allowed to perform,
at the little theatre in the Haymarket, from the 15th of
May to the 15th of September every year.
Mr Foote, finding his health declining, entered into an
agreement with Mr Colman, for his patent of the theatre,
according to which he was to receive from Mr Colman
L.1600 per annum, besides a stipulated sum whenever he
chose to perform. Mr Foote made his appearance two or
three times in some of the most admired characters; but
being suddenly affected with a paralytic stroke one night
whilst upon the stage, he was compelled to retire. He
was advised to bathe ; and accordingly retired to Brighton,
where he apparently recovered his former health and spirits,
and continued what is called the cock of the company who
resorted to that agreeable place of amusement. A few
weeks before his death he returned to London ; but, by
the advice of his physicians, set out with an intention to
spend the winter at Paris and in the south of France. He
had got no farther than Dover, when he was suddenly at¬
tacked by another stroke of the palsy, which in a few hours
terminated his existence. He died on the 21st of October
1777, in the fifty-sixth year of his age, and was privately
interred in the cloisters of Westminster Abbey. Foote’s
published dramas, twenty in number, were written in the
following order: 1. Taste, a comedy, in 1752; 2. The
Englishman in Paris, 1753; 3. The Knights, 1754 ; 4.
The Englishman returned from Paris, 1756; 5. The Au¬
thor, 1757 ; 6. The Minor, 1760 ; 7. The Lyar, 1761 ; 8.
The Orators, 1762 ; 9. The Mayor of Garrat, 1763; 10.
The Patron, 1764 ; 11. The Commissary ; 12. Prelude on
opening the Theatre, 1767 ; 13. The Devil upon Two
Sticks, 1768 ; 14. The Lame Lover, 1770; 15. The Maid
of Bath, 1771; 16. The Nabob, 1772 ; 17. The Bankrupt,
1772; 18. The Cozeners, 1774; 19. A Trip to Calais,
1776 ; 20. The Capuchin, altered from the former, but pro¬
hibited. Piety in Pattens, and The Diversions of a Morn¬
ing, altered from Taste, were never published. The ano¬
nymous mock tragedy entitled The Tailors is usually print¬
ed with Foote’s works, being generally thought to be his
composition. Foote borrowed liberally from Moliere and
others; but what he took without ceremony he generally
contrived to make his own by a certain originality in the
manner of employing it; and his own humour was so pe¬
culiar and effective, that no player has since been equally
successfid in the parts which he himself performed.
FOP, probably derived from the of Horace, applied
in the first satire of his first book to the wild and extrava¬
gant Naevius, is used amongst us to denoteaperson who culti¬
vates to excess a regard to adventitious ornament and beauty.
FORAGE, in the military art, denotes hay, oats, barley,
wheat, grass, clover, and the like, brought into the camp
by the troopers for the sustenance of their horses.
FORBES, Duncan, an eminent Scottish lawyer, and
Lord President of the Court of Session, was born at Cullo-
den, Inverness-shire, in the year 1685. His natural dispo¬
sition inclined him to the army ; but, as he early discover¬
ed a superior genius, he was induced by the advice ol
friends to apply himself to learning. Having completed his
studies at the university of Edinburgh, he removed thence
VOL. IX.
FOR • 737
to Utrecht, and afterwards to Paris, where he directed his Forbes,
attention particularly to the civil law, in which he made
great progress. He returned to Scotland in 1710, and was
the same year called to the bar, where his abilities soon
attracted notice, and procured him extensive practice. In
1717 he was appointed solicitor-general of Scotland; in
1/22 he was returned member of parliament for the county
of Inverness ; in 1725 he was made King’s Advocate ; and
in 1742 he attained the highest judicial dignity in Scotland,
that of Lord President of the Court of Session. During
the rebellion in 1745 and 1746, he was mainly instrumental
in preventing a general rising of the Highlanders in favour
of the pretender to the crown, and he even mortgaged his
estate in support of the government. But the glory he ac¬
quired in checking the spread of the insurrection, by pre¬
venting some of the most powerful chiefs from joining the
standard of Prince Charles Edward, and in afterwards con¬
tributing to re-establish peace and order, was the only re¬
ward of his services. Although he had impaired, nay al¬
most ruined, his private fortune in the cause of the public,
government declined to make him the smallest recompense.
The minister of the day, with the meanness for which it is
difficult to account, desired to have a state of his disburse¬
ments ; an incivility which so much shocked the proud
spirit of the patriotic president that he withdrew without
deigning to make any reply. He had saved the country,
yet they wished to huckster with him about pence. His
services had been too great to be requited by any ordinary
recompense, and hence they repaid him with ingratitude. It
seems, also, that he had displeased the government of the
day by the freedom and boldness with which he censured
the barbarous system pursued, after the battle of Culloden,
in a spirit of vindictive ferocity to which there has been
no parallel in modern times, excepting, perhaps, in the wars
of La Vendee. The ungrateful treatment which he expe¬
rienced at the hands of the government he had saved is
understood to have preyed on the spirits of President Forbes,
and to have produced the fever of which he died in 1747,
in the sixty-second year of his age. Throughout the whole
course of his life he entertained a lively sense of religion,
without the least taint of superstition ; and his charity was
indiscriminately extended to every sect and denomination of
religionists. He was well versed in the Hebrew language;
and wrote in a flowing style concerning theology and phi¬
losophy, particularly respecting the sources of incredulity.
His writings, which had no reference to his profession, were,
1. Thoughts on Religion ; 2. A Letter to a Bishop; and,
3. Reflections on Incredulity, 1750, in 2 vols. 12mo.
Forbes, William, bishop of Edinburgh, was born at
Aberdeen in the year 1585, being the son of Thomas Forbes,
a respectable citizen descended from Forbes of Corsinday,
whose ancestor was the second son of the same Lord h orbes
from whom Forbes of Corse derived his lineage. His mo¬
ther was Janet the sister of Dr Cargill, an eminent physi¬
cian. From the grammar school, where he had made un¬
common progress, he was at the early age of twelve re¬
moved to Marischal College, and after the usual period ot
four years he took the degree of A. M. The principal,
Gilbert Gray, was so much pleased with his scholarship and
modesty, that he procured his appointment to the profes¬
sorship of logic. It was his duty to teach the logic of
Aristotle, whom he very strenuously defended against the
attacks of Ramus. This office he resigned at the expira¬
tion of four years, and afterwards prosecuted his theologi¬
cal studies on the continent. Having landed at Dantzig,
he travelled through a great part of Prussia and Poland.
He studied in several of the universities, particularly those
of Helmstiidt and Heidelberg. Diligently resorting to the
public libraries, he rendered himself familiar with the writ¬
ings of the fathers and schoolmen ; and in the Hebrew lan-
5 A
738
Forbes.
FORBES.
guage he became a great ,0/’
expression of bis biographer, equalled the skill ot any J
AfterTending fonr° years in Germany, he wen, to Hol¬
land and "isitfd the university of Leyden, where Ins rela-
tion Dr Jack was then a professor of philosophy. He was
anxious to extend his travels to 1-ranee and My, bu^
being deterred by the delicate state of his health, he salted
for England. From London he proceeded to Oxford,
where his learning was held in so much estimation that he
was offered the professorship of Hebrew verity .
but his countryman Dr Craig, physician to the king, act
vised him to consult his health by returning to his native
air.; and he accordingly arrived at Aberdeen, after an ab¬
sence of five years, when, according to an obvious calcu¬
lation, he must have attained the age ot twenty-five. i.
corporation immediately conferred upon him the freedon
of the city. When his health was in some measure restoi -
ed, he was appointed minister of Alford, and was a ter-
wards removed to Monymusk. He speedily acquired the
reputation of a most eloquent preacher, and after a shoit
interval he became one of the ministers of Aberdeen.
During the king’s visit to St Andrews in the year IbiV,
Forbes was created D. D. As the state of his health was
still very infirm, he was willing to exchange his cure tor
an academical office. He was nominated principal of a-
rischal College, and discharged his duty with learning and
zeal: he not only read lectures in divinity, but likewise
taught the Hebrew language. After retaining the office
for two years, he was induced to accept of a pastoral charge
in Edinburgh, where however he soon discovered that his
character and doctrines were held in much less estimation
than in his native city. Aberdeen was the strong-hold ot
episcopacy, and its clergy were among the most learned
and respectable of the episcopalians ; but in Edinburgh the
lumes. Twenty-four years after the author’s death, Thomas Forfe
Sydserf, bishop of Galloway,2 published “ Considerationes
modestae et pacificae Controversiarum de Justificatione,
Purgatorio, Xnvocatione Sanctorum et Christo IVfediatore,
Eucharistia, per Gulielmum Forbesium, S. T. D. et Epis-
copum Edinburgensem primum. Opus posthumum, diu
desideratum.” Lond. 1658, 8vo. The preface, subscribed
T. G., that is, Thomas Gallovidiensis, is followed by an ac¬
count of the author’s life. This volume, which was reprint¬
ed at Helmstiidt in the year 1704, attracted a very con¬
siderable degree of attention, and is mentioned by many of
the continental writers.3 Any honest plan for promoting
peace may seem to merit praise; but it is a veiy indiffer¬
ent method of securing the peace of the church, by offer¬
ing to meet the papists half-way. This is reforming back¬
wards. The character of the learned author has thus been
drawn by Bishop Burnet: “ He was a grave and eminent
divine : my father, that knew him long, and being of coun¬
cil for him in his law-matters, had occasion to know him
well, has often told me, that he never saw him but he
thought his heart was in heaven, and he was never alone
with him but he felt within himself a commentary on these
words of the apostles, ‘ Did not our hearts burn within us,
while he yet talked with us, and opened to us the Scrip¬
tures?’ He preached with a zeal and vehemence, that
made him forget all the measures of time, two or three
hours was no extraordinary thing for him ; those sermons
wasted his strength so fast, and his ascetical course of life
was such, that he supplyed it so scantly that he dyed within
a year after his promotion ; so that he only appeared there
long enough to be known, but not long enough to do what
might have been otherwise expected from so great a pre¬
late. That little remnant of his that is in print shews how
learned he was. I do not deny but his earnest deshe of a
and respectable ot the episcopalians ; dul in xl<uuiuuiui t g t , . nrrirhrirr nii Phri^tians has made
presbyterians were the predominant party, and Dr horbes geneia peace an um ‘ corruntions in the church
L S r- j , • li-m far frnm no-rpp- him too favourable to many ot the corruptions in me umiui
therefore found himself placed in a situation far from agiee
able. When he already thought of resigning his living,
his old friends at Aberdeen invited him to resume his spi¬
ritual labours among them, and there he continued to re¬
side till near the close of his life. When King Charles
visited Edinburgh in the year 1633, Forbes was one of
those who preached before him ; and the king was so much
struck with his eloquence, that when he erected the new
see, he spontaneously nominated him as the first bishop.
His patent bears the date of January 26, 1634. He was
consecrated in the month of February, and soon afterwards
removed his wife and children to Edinburgh,1 but he was
not long permitted to enjoy his new dignity : he died on
the 11th of April, before he had completed the third month
of his episcopate, and when he had only attained the forty-
ninth year of his age. His remains were interred in the
cathedral church of St Giles.
Bishop Forbes was a man of very extensive reading, but
he did not himself publish any work. He wrote copious
animadversions on the works of Cardinal Bellarmin, and,
after his death, these papers came into the possession of
Dr Baron, who intended to prepare them for the press ;
but the national commotions speedily ensued, and this de¬
sign was never executed, nor has their subsequent fate
been ascertained. These animadversions, which his bio¬
grapher describes as elaborate and nervous, filled the mar¬
gin of the cardinal’s works, printed at Paris in three vo-
him too favourable to many of the corruptions in the church
of Rome : but tho’ a charity that is not well ballanced may
carry one to very indiscreet things, yet the principle from
whence they flowed in him was so truly good, that the er¬
rors to which it carried him ought to be either excused, or
at least to be very gently censured.”4 (x-)
Forbes, Jo/m, one of the most learned divines whom
Scotland has produced, was born on the second of May 1593.
He was the descendant of an ancient and opulent family :
his father was Patrick Forbes, bishop of Aberdeen, his
mother was Lucretia the daughter of David Spence ot
Wormiston. His paternal ancestor was a younger son ot
Lord Forbes, and he was thus connected with some ot the
principal families in his native district. _ f
Patrick Forbes was the eldest son of William Forbes ot
Corse and Oneill in the county of Aberdeen. W ilham,
the second son, bequeathed to his posterity the estates ot
Craigievar and Fintray. John, the third son, became mi
nister of Alford, and, adhering with great zeal to the pres-
byterian discipline, was at length driven into exile on ac¬
count of his having acted as moderator of the Aberdeen
assembly. He settled in Holland, and successively om-
ciated as a clergyman at Middelburg and Deltt. Is ^
Patrick Forbes "quitted the presbyterians, and became
bishop of Caithness in the year 1662. \\ illiam s our i
was Sir Arthur Forbes of Castle Forbes in the king
Ireland, whose son was created earl of Granard: the a
1 Spalding’s History of the Troubles in Scotland, vol. i. p. 24. Edinb. 1828-9, 2 vols. 4to—“ Mr Andrew Forbes, 0"e
youngest sons to the bishop of Edinburgh, was professor of humanity in the town of St Jean d’Angel, near the town ot Ea o
(Catalogues of Scotish Writers, p. 124. Edinb. 1833, 8vo.)
2 Baillie’s Letters and Journals, vol. ii. p. 426.
8 Bibliotheque Choisie, tom. v. p. 396. Bayle, Dictionaire Historique et Critique, tom. ii. p< 1194. found
4 Burnet’s Life of William Bedell, D.D. Bishop of Kilmore, pref. Lond. 1685, 8vo A portrait of Bishop Forbes may oe
in Pinkerton’s Iconographia Scotica, or Portraits of illustrious Persons of Scotland. Lond. 1797, 4to.
Foil'
^-vj
FOR
followed the profession of arms, and after quitting the Swe¬
dish service, had obeyed the call of fortune in Ireland, where
he acquired an ample estate. The bishop of Aberdeen had
other three brothers, of whom no particular notices have
been preserved. He was himself educated at Stirling school,
under Thomas Buchanan, an eminent classical master, and
afterwards became a student in the university of Glasgow,
where he was committed to the care of his distinguished
kinsman Andrew Melville. When this learned man re¬
moved to St Andrews, in the year 1580, he was accompa¬
nied by Forbes, who applied himself to the study of the
Hebrew language and of divinity with so much assiduity
and success, and was so conspicuous for the propriety and
gravity of his deportment, that a design was entertained of
appointing him to a professorship in St Mary’s College ;
but his father, who was already advanced in years, was
anxious to see the heir of his estates otherwise settled, and,
in compliance with this wish, the son relinquished his aca¬
demic life. After his marriage, he fixed his residence near
Montrose, and gained the respect of all his neighbours.
Nor were his religious exercises confined to his own fami¬
ly : several of the churches in that vicinity were deprived
of their pastors, and in one of these he regularly officiated
for some time, till he was strongly urged by the bishop of
the diocese, as well as by many other clergymen, to enter
into holy orders. He was however unwilling to comply
with this requisition, and the archbishop of St Andrews,
who did not approve of lay-preaching, enjoined him to de¬
sist from the discharge of clerical functions. After a cer¬
tain interval, which is not clearly defined, he consented to
take orders, and was appointed parson of Keith, in the dio¬
cese of Moray. In the year 1618, he was elected bishop
of Aberdeen, and he appears to have been one of the most
exemplary prelates of that age. He was, says Bishop Bur¬
net, “ a gentleman of quality and estate, but much more
eminent by his learning and piety, than his birth or fortune
could make him. He had a most terrible calamity on him
in his family, which needs not be named : I do not know
whether that or a more early principle determined him to
enter into orders: he undertook the labour of a private
cure in the country, upon the most earnest invitations of his
bishop, when he was forty-eight years old, and discharged
his duty there so worthily, that within a few years he was pro¬
moted to be bishop of Aberdeen ; in which see he sat about
seventeen years. It was not easie for King James to per-
swade him to accept of that dignity, and many months pass¬
ed before he could be induced to it, for he had intended to
have lived and dyed in a more obscure corner. It soon ap¬
peared how well he deserved his promotion, and that his
unwillingness to it was not feigned, but the real effect of
his humility. He was in all things an apostolical man; he
used to go round his diocess without noise, and but with
one servant, that so he might be rightly informed of all
matters. When he heard reports of the weakness of any
of his clergy, his custome was to go and lodge unknown
near their church on the Saturday night, and next day,
when the minister w as got into the pulpit, he would come
to church, that so he might observe what his ordinary ser¬
mons were, and accordingly he admonished or encouraged
them. He took such care of the two colledges in his dio¬
cess, that they became quickly distinguished from all the
rest of Scotland : so that when the troubles in that church
broke out, the doctors there were the only persons that
could maintain the cause of the church ; as appears by the
papers that past between them and the covenanters. An
though they begun first to manage that argument in pi mt,
there has nothing appeared since more perfect than w nat
B E S.
739
they writ. They were an honour to the church both by their
lives and by their learning, and with that excellent temper
they seasoned that whole diocess, both clergy and laity, that
it continues to this day very much distinguished from all the
rest of Scotland, both for learning, loyalty and peaceable¬
ness.” Bishop Forbes is the author of several works, which
deserve to be mentioned. The most considerable of them
appear in a volume bearing the subsequent title : “ An
learned Commentarie vpon the Revelation of Saint lohn,
wdierein both the covrse of the whole booke, as also the more
abstruse and hard places thereof, are more cleerly and eui-
dently explaned then heretofore they haue bene. Newly
corrected, and the defectes and errors of the first edition
supplied and amended. By Patrick Forbes of Cotharis.
Wherevnto is added an profitable Treatise of the author, in
defence of the lawful! Calling of the Ministers of Reformed
Churches, against the Cauillations of Romanistes : and an
Epistle to a Recusant, cleering and maintayning some
pointes of the said Treatise, chalenged by a Roman Ely mas
Bar-Iesus-it.” Middelburg, 1614, 4to. Of these different
works a Latin translation was long afterwards published by
his son Dr Forbes : “ Commentarius in Apocalypsin, cum
Appendice,” &c. Amstelodami, 1646, 4to. Another work
of the bishop is entitled “ Eubulus, or a Dialogve, where¬
in a rugged Romish Ryme (inscrybed, Catholicke Questions
to the Protestant) is confuted, and the Questions there-of
answered. By P. A.” Aberdene, 1627, 4to.
Of this worthy father, John Forbes was the second son.
After having studied at Aberdeen, he was sent to the uni¬
versity of Heidelberg, where he was placed under the care
of David Pareus, an eminent professor of divinity. He
likewise prosecuted his studies at Sedan, and in some other
universities which are not specified. Having devoted much
time and labour to the acquisition of the Greek and He¬
brew languages, and of all the variegated knowledge requi¬
site for a theologian, he returned to his native country in
1619, being then in the twenty-sixth year of his age, and
on the 27th of April he was admitted professor of divinity
in King’s College, Aberdeen. In this important vocation
he laboured with great diligence, and speedily acquired the
character of a most able and useful teacher. He was pro¬
foundly skilled in ecclesiastical antiquity ; and, not content¬
ed with delivering what is called a system ot divinity, he
exhibited a very elaborate deduction of the progress of
Christian doctrine in various ages of the church. Of the
value of his instructions in this department, a very adequate
opinion may be formed from the inspection of a work which
he published in the maturity of his learning and judgment.
Nor did he neglect to instruct his students in practical re¬
ligion : one division of his lectures related to moral theo¬
logy, another to the pastoral, care and to residence.
While he was engaged in these useful and honourable
labours, the kingdom w as agitated by religious dissensions.
Episcopacy, commonly described by the more odious name
of prelacy, was no favourite with the great body of the
people; and the five articles of Perth, passed in 1618, and
relating to kneeling at the communion, the observance of
festivals, confirmation, private baptism, and private com¬
munion, had excited a violence of opposition with which it
was found very difficult to contend. Dr I orbes, who was as
much distinguished by his piety as by his learning, endea¬
voured to promote peaceable measures ; and with this view,
he published his earliest work, bearing the title of “ Ire-
nicum AmatoribusVeritatis et Pacisin Ecclesia Scoticana.
Aberdonise, 1629, 4to. Of this work he sent a copy to
Archbishop Usher, who received it with much cordia¬
lity.1 The bishop of Aberdeen did not live to witness the
Forbea.
See the Letters (p. 456.) subjoined to Dr Parr’s Life of Usher. Lond. 1686, fol.
740
FORBES.
Forbes.
subversion of episcopacy : he died on the 28th of M^-ch
in the seventy-first year of his age. A
son had died ten years before, the professor of divinity suc¬
ceeded to the family-estates. This prelate be^ng regard
as the restorer of the university, and as a great pdlai ot the
church, his death was sincerely lamented by the adherents
of his own party. Soon after his decease, a volume, co -
sisting of 429 pages, and including a portrait, was pub¬
lished under the following title : “ Funerals of a Right
Reverend Father in God, Patrick Forbes of C^se, Bishop
of Aberdeen. Tov h ay Ion Reverendissinn in Christo
Patris, Patricii Forbesii a Corse, Episcopi Abredomensis,
Tumulus, a multis omnium ordinum collachrymantibus va-
riegato opere exornatus.” Aberdene, 1635, 4to. Among
other contributions, this volume includes English serm«
by Dr Baron, Dr Scrogie, Dr Guild, Dr Sibbald, and Dr
Ross, and a funeral oration in Latin by David Leitc ,
sub-principal of King’s College. Besides Latin verses Dr
Forbes contributed a Latin sermon, and a Dissertatio de
Visione Beatifica.” Among the contributors of Latin verses
we find Robert Gordon of Straloch, Arthur Johnston, David
Wedderburn, Patrick Panter, George Wishart, and Andrew
Ramsay. The Latin and English or Scotish verses are
numerous; and there is a Greek tetrastich by Robert
Downie, the librarian of King’s College.
Dr Forbes, who was naturally disposed to think that no¬
thing is better than peace,1 2 next published “ A peaceable
Warning to the Subjects in Scotland; given in the yeare
of God 1638.” Aberdene, 4to. It was speedily answered
in a tract ascribed to Calderwood, the most strenuous de¬
fender of the presbyterian cause. The introduction of the
covenant involved the most conscientious of the episcopa¬
lians in inextricable difficulties. The professors and minis¬
ters of Aberdeen, who had recourse to argument and re¬
monstrance, printed a paper containing “ Generali De¬
mands concerning the late Covenant.” I o this paper, which
was subscribed by six doctors of divinity, Forbes, Scrogie,
Lesley, Baron, Sibbald, and Ross, an answer was returned
under the names of Alexander Henderson, David Dickson,
and Andrew Cant, three individuals of no small influence
among the covenanters. The doctors of Aberdeen sub¬
joined replies to the answers ; which produced further an¬
swers from Henderson and Dickson. The doctors pub¬
lished a rejoinder, and had the advantage of the last word
but this was the chief advantage which they obtained, for
all of them were deprived of their offices in the church and
university, for their refusal to subscribe the covenant.
William Lesley was principal of King’s College, and ap¬
pears to have been a man of erudition.3 Robert Baron, a
younger son of Baron of Kinnaird in the county of Fife,4 5
was professor of divinity in Marischal College, and one of the
city clergy. Being a great master of scholastic philosophy
and theology, he published various wmrks which procured
him a high reputation, and he is described as “ a person
of incomparable worth and learning.”3 He was elected
bishop of Orkney, but he died at Berwick in 1639, before Forbe
he could be consecrated. Like Dr Lesley, he had been ,v
deprived of his office, and had been obliged to fly from
Aberdeen. His brother Dr John Baron, professor of divi¬
nity at St Andrews, was finally induced to subscribe the
covenant. Dr Forbes was treated with some degree of
tenderness; and the covenanters being solicitous to gain
such a convert, the proceedings against him in the ecclesi¬
astical courts were protracted for several years. After some
preliminary steps, he was in 1640 cited to appear at Aber¬
deen before a delegation of the general assembly. He was
declared to be free from the taint of popery and Arminian-
ism ; but as he still adhered to episcopacy, and declined to
subscribe the covenant, his case, through the influence of
Baillie, was remitted to the presbytery of Edinburgh. He
was allowed a month to yield satisfaction to this judicatory,
and as he failed to do so, sentence of deprivation was pro¬
nounced against him. In 1643 he moved the synod of
Aberdeen to make application to the general assembly, that
he might be permitted to retain his professorship without
subscription ; but it was there determined that his depriva- .
tion was valid from the beginning.6 He had purchased
two houses adjoining to the college, and had assigned one
of them to the professor of divinity, and the other to the
cantor, a person on the foundation. In the deed of con¬
veyance, lie neglected to reserve to himself a life-rent in
the professor’s house ; nor can it be mentioned without re¬
gret and indignation that he was obliged to vacate it for his
successor in office.7
He was anxious to continue his residence in the univer¬
sity, for the benefit of prosecuting his researches in the pub¬
lic libraries ; but he found that he must either subscribe the
solemn league and covenant, or abandon his native coun¬
try. Preferring the latter alternative, he embarked for
Holland on the 5th of April 1644, and, after a voyage of
five days, landed at Campvere. He travelled through the
different provinces, and frequently preached in the Scotish
and English churches. He had formerly married a lady
of Middelburg, named Soete Roos-boom, who died on the
19th of January 1640. She was the mother of nine chil¬
dren ; but only one of them, a son named George, was alive
at the time of the father’s exile. Dr Forbes chiefly resid¬
ed at Amsterdam, and occupied himself in preparing for
the press a work of great research and value. It appeared
under the title of “ Instructiones Historico-Theologicae de
Doctrina Christiana, et vario Rerum Statu, ortisque Errori-
bus et Controversiis, jam inde a temporibus Apostolicis ad
tempora usque seculi decimi-septimi priora.” Amst. 1645,
fol. A second edition followed after a considerable interval.
Genevae, 1680, fol. And an abridgement of the work was
published by ArnoldusMontanus, under the title of Forbesius
contractus. Amst. 1663, 8vo. Forbes wras enabled to prefix
to his ample volume the favourable judgment of the theolo¬
gical faculties of Leyden, Utrecht, and Franeker, as well as
that of Rivet, Maresius, and Vossius. This book established
1 oJSsv iiTTiv sijsiv,!?. (S. Tgnatii Epistoljg genuinse, p. 17-edit Smith.) _ , i* r
2 The generall Demands of the reverend Doctors of Divinitie, and Ministers of the Gospell in Aberdene, concerning the late o-
venant in Scotland ; together with the Answeres, lleplyes, and Duplyes that followed thereupon, in the year 1638. lieprinted m one
book, by order of Parliament. Aberdene, 1663, 4to. ’ ,
3 See Garden, Vita J. Forbesii, p. 25.—In a letter dated in 1702, Bishop Sage conveys the following information : “ The deman s,
replys, and duplys of the Doctors of Aberdeen, as I was informed when there, though subscribed by six, wer all formed and diges e
by Dr Lesley.” (Catalogues of Scotish Writers, p. 131.) Middleton has however stated that Dr Baron “ bare the greatest s are
in that famous debate.”
4 Sibbald’s History of Fife and Kinross, append. Edinb. 1710, fol. . . ,
5 Middleton’s Appendix to Spotswood’s History, p. 20 Baillie, vol. i. p’ 185, characterizes him as good Dr Baron. He subjo ns,
u I had great hopes, if he had lived a little, he should have quit them, and been glad to embrace the covenant of his mother c llirc ’
as his learned.brother now has done.” Middleton speaks of John Baron as “ a person of great worth and learning, and of great candou -
He died in the time of our late combustions.”
* Baillie’s Letters and Journals, vol. i. p. 383.
r Spalding’s Hist, of the Troubles in Scotland, vol. ii. p. 161. 190. Orem’s Description of King’s College, p. 84. 142.
FOR
I the reputation of the author as a theologian of a very high
p rank. Bishop Burnet speaks of it as “ a work which if
he had finished it, and had been suffered to enjoy the pri¬
vacies of his retirement and study, to give us the second
volume, had been the greatest treasure of theological learn¬
ing that perhaps the world has yet seen.”1 Dr Cave has
likewise mentioned it as a work of great value,2 and it has
received similar commendation from writers of many differ¬
ent nations.
After having resided upwards of two years in Holland,
Forbes embarked at Campvere on the 8th, and arrived at
Aberdeen on the 14th of Jxdy 1G46. He immediately re¬
tired to his country-seat at Corse, and was permitted to
spend the remainder of his days in learned and devout se¬
clusion. He died on the 29th of April 1648, having com¬
pleted the fifty-fifth year of his age. A short time before
his death, he made application to the presbytery for per¬
mission to have his bones deposited in Bishop Dunbar’s
aisle in the cathedral church, beside those of his father and
wife ; but even this last favour was denied to a learned and
excellent man, whose fault was a difference of opinion on
the subject, not of Christian doctrine, but of ecclesiastical
polity. He then directed his body to be interred in the
churchyard of Leochel, where no monument was erected
to his memory.3 He left an only son, who is described by
Dr Garden as the heir of his father’s estates, but not of his
virtues.
Dr Forbes was small in stature, and of a somewhat swar¬
thy complexion. A person who had acquired such ample
stores of erudition must have been an ardent and indefati¬
gable student; and, with respect to his habits of study, we
are informed that he always read and wrote in a standing
posture. One of the few relaxations in which he indulged
was the Scotish game of golf. With his extensive learn¬
ing he united fervid and habitual piety. His conduct was
upright and consistent in times of no small difficulty and
distress.
An honourable monument was at length erected to his
( memory, in a collective edition of his Latin works. “ Re-
! verendi viri Johannis Forbesii a Corse, Presbyteri et SS.
Theologiae Doctoris, ejusdemque ProfessoVis in Academia
j Aberdonensi, Opera omnia, inter quae plurima posthuma,
reliqua ab ipso auctore interpolata, emendata atque aucta.”
Amstelaedami, 1703, 2 tom. fol. The second volume bears
the date of 1702. The edition is introduced by two dedi¬
cations, written by George Garden, D.D., an advertise¬
ment by Wetstein the printer, and a preface by Dr Giirt-
ler, professor of divinity at Deventer. A copious life of
the author, by Dr Garden, is next subjoined. The biogra¬
pher, who appears to have been a very amiable man, was
a regent, in King’s College, and afterwrards minister of St
Machar’s, but was ejected from his living on the: restora¬
tion of the presbyterian discipline. Under the title of “ J.
Forbesii Vita interior,” he has added an abstract of For¬
bes’s diary, which was written in English. One of the
posthumous works is an ample treatise, entitled “ Theolo¬
giae Moralis libri decern ; in quibus Praecepta Decalogi
exponuntur, et variae circa Dei Legem, et specialia ejus-
dem Praecepta, Controversiae dissolvuntur, et Casus Con-
scientiae explicantur.” (x.)
FORCE, in Philosophy, denotes the cause of the change
in the state of a body, when, from being at rest, it begins to
move, or has a motion which is either not uniform or not
direct. Whilst a body remains in the same state, either of
mst or of uniform and rectilinear motion, the cause of its
remaining in such a state is in the nature of the body, and
FOR
it cannot be said that any extrinsic force has acted on it.
itus internal cause or principle is called inertia. See Me¬
chanics and Physics.
F1?R19EP^’in Surgery, a pair of scissors for cutting; off,
or dividing, the fleshy membranous parts of the body, as
occasion requires. J
FORCER, m Mechanics, is properly a piston, without a
valve. For by drawing up such a piston, the air is drawn
up, and the water follows ; and by pushing the piston down
again, the water, being prevented from descending by the
lower valve, is forced up to any height by means of a side
branch.
FORCHEI1VI, a bailiwick of the circle of the Upper
Maine, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending over eighty-
eight square miles. It contains one city, one market-town,
and forty-one villages, with 11,500 inhabitants. It is an
undulating country, productive in corn and pasture, and
yielding some wine. The capital, of the same name, is a
city situated on the river Regnitz, and containing 396
houses, with 3230 inhabitants, who have large breweries,
paper-mills, glass-houses, tanneries, and iron forges at work.
F ORDINGBRIDGE, a market-town of Hampshire, in
the hundred of its own name, ninety-two miles from Lon¬
don. ^ It is situated on the river Avon, on the borders of
the New Forest. There are some manufactures of printed
linen and calico. The market is held on Friday. The
population amounted in 1801 to 2335, in 1811 to 2259, in
1821 to 2444, and in 1831 to 2611.
FORDUN, John, the venerable father of Scotish his¬
tory, apparently derives his surname from a village in the
county of Kincardine, where he is supposed to have been
born. He was not, as he has sometimes been represented,
a monk, but a secular priest; and in some manuscripts of
his history, he is described as a chaplain of the cathedral
of Aberdeen; a title which Goodall seems to have con¬
sidered as equivalent to canon. Bower describes him as a
simple man, who had never graduated in the schools. He
was engaged in the composition of his work towards the
close of the fourteenth century. The first five books, and
twenty-three chapters of the sixth book of the Scotichro-
nicon, are the composition of Fordun : for the remainder
of the work in its present form, we are indebted to Walter
Bowei’, who was born at Haddington in the year 1385, and
was unanimously elected abbot of St Colm in the year
1418. This monastery, situated in a small island in the
Firth of Forth, belonged to the canons regular of St Au¬
gustin. The abbot is sometimes called Bowmaker, which
is equivalent in signification to Bower. From 1395 to
1399 John Bowmaker appears as the deputy of the bailies
or of the customars of Haddington, at the presentation of
their accounts.4 As the first of these dates is only ten
years subsequent to the abbot’s birth, and as he was a na¬
tive of that town, this individual might possibly be his fa¬
ther or other relation. At the request of Sir David Stewart
of Rossyth,he undertook to transcribe the papers of Fordun ;
but instead of executing a mere transcript, he inserted
large interpolations, and continued the narrative to the
death of James the First, having thus extended the work to
sixteen books. Of this continuation the principal mate¬
rials had however been collected by his predecessor. Bower
professes to have been careful to distinguish what belonged
to each ; but as the negligence of subsequent copyists has
omitted all his marks, we must chiefly be guided by the
internal evidence in adjusting their respective claims. The
Latinity of the Scotichronicon, though certainly far from
being classical, is less barbarous than that of many other
741
Forceps
II
Fordun.
1 Burnet’s Life of Bedell, pref. , .. 2 Cave, Histona Liteiaria, p. xxx.
s Orem’s Description of King’s College, Abeideen, p. 8o.
■* Accounts of the Great Chamberlains ot Scotland, vol. n. p. 290. 314. 300. 426.
742
for
Fordun.
chronicles of the middle ages. Winton, the author of a
chronicle in Scotish verse, is perhaps a more judicious wri¬
ter than either Fordun or Bower, though his share of cre¬
dulity and superstition is by no means inconsiderable. Be¬
yond this period we have scarcely any records professed y
historical, except the Chronicle of Melrose, and a few other
fragments, neither considerable for their value nor exten .
It would be endless, as Nicolson has remarked, to
compute into how many several chronicles this of Fordon s
has been multiply’d: for, being in every monastery of the
kingdom under the anonymous title of Scoto-chromcon, it
commonly borrowed a sirname from the place to which it
belong’d.”1 The Black Book of Scone, and the Black Book
of Paisley, were copies which obtained no small celebrity,
and which seem to have been commonly regarded as two
distinct chronicles compiled in those two monasteries.
Thus, the Book of Pluscardine was a copy belonging to
the priory of that name. Magnus Macculloch and Patrick
Russell, who are sometimes mentioned as continuators, were
in all probability little more than transcribers of Fordun.
Some portions of the Scotichronicon were inserted m the
collection of Dr Gale,2 who obtained a defective copy, which
he supposed to have belonged to Hector Boyce. In the
year 1719, Richard Hay, a canon regular of St Augustin,
issued “ Proposals for Printing the Chronicle of John hor-
dun, with the Additions and Continuation of Walter Bow-
maker, Abbot of Inch-Colm, containing the memorable
things which happened in every year, since our fiist rise,
to King Janies the First’s death ; conform to an authen-
tick manuscript, belonging of old to one of our decay’d mo¬
nasteries : with several notes, for clearing the dark paits
of our history.” The manuscript, “ a large folio, written
in old, but in glorious characters,” belonged to the Cister-
tian monastery of St Mary at Cupar in Angus: it after¬
wards came into the possession of Hay, and is now depo¬
sited in the Advocates Library. He concludes his Propo¬
sals in the following manner : “ Many persons of an emi¬
nent character have appeared desirous to have it printed,
because what copies thereof were carried to England,
France, Flanders," Italy, and elsewhere, during the heat of
the Reformation, or our late disturbances, are properly lost
for us. And what remain in the country, in private hands
or in particular libraries, are of no use to the publick, whilst
they are shut up, and as if it were hidden in obscure places,
where scarce any number of men of an ordinar capacity are
allowed access. Therefor I have been willing to publish
this manuscript, with several notes, for the greater intelli¬
gence of our history, and a large preface, where I shall give
an exact account of the fate and fortune of the most part of
the others, transcribed by different hands, in former ages,
with whom I have compared this original. The charges and
expences of publishing this book will be certainly consider¬
able. So those that are pleased to further and incourage
this enterprize, are desired to pay ten shillings sterling at
subscribing, and as much at the delivery of the printed copy,
which will prove a good folio, on fine paper, and in good
caracters, and will consist of 160 sheet and above. Their
names and designations shall be insert in the front, and
their respective houses or families shall be kindly remem¬
bered in the notes. As to the subscriptions, they are to
be taken by the author, at his lodging in Howison’s Land
in the Potterraw; by Mr John Mackenzie of Delvin, at
his lodging in the Parliament Close ; by Mr Henry Massie,
merchant, near the foot of Blackfriar-Wynd ; by Mr Wil¬
liam Adams, printer, over against the Trone-Church; by
Mr Ruddiman in the Advocates Library; who shall deli¬
ver to the persons concerned the author’s obligation to have
the compleat copy remitted to them about the end of the
F O R
following year, 1720, they paying ten shillings more at the Fordj*
time appointed.” I his plan was never carried into execu-
tion ; but a valuable edition was soon afterwards published
by Hearne, under the title of “ Johannis de Fordun Sco¬
tichronicon genuinum, una cum ejusdem Supplemento ac
Continuatione.” Oxon. 1722, 5 tom. 8vo. The editor
proceeds upon the plan of separating the interpolations of
Bower from the text of Fordun. After an interval of nearly
forty years, another edition was published by Walter
Goodall, assistant-keeper of the Advocates Library : “ Jo-
annis de Fordun Scotichronicon, cum Supplementis et Con¬
tinuatione Walteri Boweri, Insulae Sancti Columbae Abba-
Edinb. 1759, 2 tom. fob Goodall chiefly adheres to
tis.
an excellent manuscript, written on vellum, and preserved
in the library of the university of Edinburgh. (x.)
FORDYCE, David, professor of moral philosophy in
Marischal College, Aberdeen, was born in that city in
1711. Having received the early part of his education at
the grammar school, he, at the age of thirteen, entered the
Greek class in Marischal College, Aberdeen ; in 1728 he
took the degree of master of arts, and in 1742 he was ad¬
mitted professor of philosophy in the same college. Being
originally designed for the church, he applied himself with
great ardour to the study of divinity, in which he made
great progress, though he never became a settled minister
in the establishment of his native country, lhat he was
well qualified to be such, however, appears from his Theo-
dorus, a dialogue concerning the art of preaching, which
he afterwards published. In 1750 he went abroad on his
travels, in order to obtain fresh stores of knowledge; but
after a successful tour through several parts of Europe, he
was, on his return home, unfortunately cast away in a
storm on the coast of Holland, in the forty-first year of his
age. Besides the above work, he wrote Dialogues on
Education, 8vo, and a Treatise on Moral Philosophy, pub¬
lished in the Preceptor. The third edition of his Iheodo-
rus was published in London, after his death, by his bro¬
ther James, the subject of the following article.
Fordyce, James, a Scottish clergyman of considerable
eminence, was born at Aberdeen in the year 1720. He
received his classical education at the public grammar
school, and afterwards entered Marischal College, where
he went through the course of studies necessary to qualify
him for being a minister of the gospel. His natural abili¬
ties were excellent, and having improved to the utmost
the favourable opportunities he enjoyed at the university,
he w as considered as qualified for becoming a pieac er o
the gospel at an early period of life. His first appointmen
was that of second minister of Brechin, in the county o
Angus, after which he accepted of a call to Alloa, near
Stirling. The people of this parish were prepossessed in
favour of another, and prejudiced against Mr lordyce,
which could not fail to prove an unpleasant circumstance;
yet by his impressive delivery, and indefatigable attention
to every part of his ministerial duty, he soon overcame
their prejudice, and acquired their esteem and admna ion.
During his residence at Alloa, he attracted the notice o
the public by three sermons ; the first on the eloquence o
the pulpit, the second on the method of promoting e
tion by public institutions, and the third on the de usi
and sanguinary spirit of popery, preached before the s)n
of Perth and Stirling. But still greater admiration w
excited by his sermon on the folly, infamy, and nnS®ry -
unlawful jileasure, preached before the general assem y
the church of Scotland in 1760. About this time ®
versity of Glasgow conferred upon him the degree o
tor of divinity, probably on account of the fame he a
quired by this sermon.
1 Niculson’s Scottish Historical Library, p. 92.
3 Historias Britannicae Scriptores XV. vol. i. p- 565.
FOR
pis-
FOR
vietmi to an irregular gout, and water in the chest, on the Forecastle
The friends of Dr Fordyce being mostly in the metropo¬
lis, he was invited to become the colleague of Dr Lawrence, 25th of June 1802, inlhe sixty-sixth year of Ids'age. it
minister of a respectable congregation in Monkwell Street, his lectures wanted the charms of an eloquent deliv^; he
London, on whose death, which happened a few months af- made amends by the originality of hi* idL nnd 2
743
if
ii'wx'i i “ , , , „  — by the originality of his ideas and the extent
terwards, Dr Fordyce became once more celebrated for his of his scientific information. His works are, 1. Elemems
pulpt eloquence, generally preach,ng to overflowing an- of Agriculture and Vegetation ; 2. Elements of the Prac-
diences. 1 he best specimen of pulpit eloquence which tice of Physick ; 3. A Treatise on the Digestion of Food •
perhaps proceeded from his pen was delivered at the or- 4. Four Dissertations on Fever, to which has been added a
dination of Mr James Lindsay, who, after he declined offi-     ~
dating as a minister, became his successor.
der of his life he spent chiefly in retirement in Ilamp
shire, in the vicinity of the residence of Lord Bute, with
whom he lived in the greatest intimacy, and to whose va¬
luable library he had unlimited access. He afterwards
went to Bath, where he suffered much from an asthmatic
affection, which he bore with the fortitude of a Christian,
and expired without a groan on the first of October 1796,
in the seventy-sixth year of his age.
The doctor’s writings discover much genius and a cor
fifth, published from his manuscript since his death. His
The remain- other works appeared in the Philosophical Transactions, to
rect taste, extensive knowdedge of the world, and a happy are disqualified from bearing any office in government, being
method of engaging the attention. He was the author of of the privy council, or members of parliament, &c. This
1. Sermons to Young Women, 1765, in 2 vols. 12mo ; 2.
A sermon on the Character and Conduct of the Female
Sex; 3. Addresses to Young Men, 1777, in 2 vols. 12mo ;
4. Addresses to the Deity, 1785, in 12mo; 5. A volume of
Poems ; 6. A discourse on Pain, 1791; and Additions to his
brother’s Temple of Virtue.
Fordyce, George, a wwiter and lecturer on medicine,
was born at Aberdeen in 1736, and studied at the univer¬
sity of that city, where he took the degree of master of port of London, which is thereby extended north in a right
arts at the early age of fourteen, perhaps not altogether
owung to the superiority of his genius, or the extent of his
acquirements, which could not be very extraordinary in a boy
of his years. He became apprentice to an uncle who prac¬
tised surgery at Uppingham in Rutlandshire, when he was
only fifteen ; and afterwards went to the university of Edin¬
burgh, where his diligence and progress attracted the at¬
tention of Dr Cullen, at that time professor of chemistry,
who very generously promoted his improvement. He gra¬
duated in 1758, when only twenty-two years of age; after
which he resided during one winter at Leyden. The greater
part of his patrimony having been spent on his education,
lie resolved to try his fortune in London, where he settled
in the year 1759. He commenced with a course of lec¬
tures on chemistry; and although his encouragement at
first was by no means flattering, yet he steadily and dili¬
gently persevered, notwithstanding unfavourable appear¬
ances, till his literary merit began gradually to be discover¬
ed and appreciated. A number of young men who came
to study in London did not think that their medical course
was complete without availing themselves of the benefit of
his course of lectures. In the year 1768 he published his
Elements of the Practice of Physic, which formed the text¬
book of his medical course, and were much read as a va¬
luable epitome of medicine. His private practice was very
respectable; and in the year 1770 his medical reputation
was so great that he was chosen physician to the hospital
of St Thomas, although he had to contend against a gentle¬
man wdth very powerful interest; whilst his merit as a man
of science procured him admission as a member of the
Royal Society in 1776. In 1787 he was chosen a fellow
of the College of Physicians ; and his chemical knowledge
was of much importance to that body in preparing a new
edition of their Pharmacopceia. By the influence of his
connections, but probably more so by his literary reputa- — ——  »- ~r—-- Others
- ' 1 ' - -mJ •’ f krout, foris restat, by reason forests are out ot towns, u mers
line to the point called the Nase on the coast of Essex, and
forms what is properly called the Mouth of the Thames.
A sea-mark was erected here by the Trinity-house corpora¬
tion, at the public expense. All vessels which pass on the
south side of this head-land are said to enter the Channel;
and all the towns or harbours between London and this
place, whether on the Kentish or Essex shore, are called
members of the port of London.
South Foreland, in Kent, a head-land forming the east¬
ern point of the Kentish shore ; and called South, in respect
to its bearing from the North Foreland, which is about six
miles to the north. Its situation is a great security to the
Downs, the road between both, which would be very dan¬
gerous for ships, did not this point break oft' the sea, which
would otherwise come rolling up from the west to the 1 lats ;
so that these two capes breaking all the force of the sea on
the south-east and south-west, make the Downs be ac¬
counted a good road, excepting when the wind blows ex¬
cessively hard from south-east, east-by-north, or east-north-
east, when ships in the Downs are driven from their anchors,
and often run ashore, or are forced on the sands, or into
Sandwich Bay, or Ramsgate Pier.
FORE-LOCKS, in nautical language, little flat wedges
made of iron, used at the end of bolts, to keep them from
flying out of their holes.
FOREMAST of a Ship, a large round piece of timber,
placed in her fore part or forecastle, and carrying the fore¬
sail and fore-top-sail yards. Its length is usually eight
ninths of the main-mast, and the fore-top-gallant mast is
half the length of the fore-top.
FOREST, in Geography, a large extent of ground co¬
vered with trees. The word is formed from the Latin ^/o-
resta, which first occurs in the capitulars of Charlemagne,
and which is itself derived from the German frost, signify¬
ing the same thing. Spelman derives it from the^Latin
hon, he was appointed to furnish the navy with sour jy - ■ mind <tif tuta sta¬
nch we believe he executed with advantage both to him- derive/oresta from fens, u > bode for wild beasts.
*lf and t„ the public. By this time, however his constitu- HtcyniS faeSe taous in ht
tion had discovered symptoms of premature decay; yet he former was a celebrated retreat of the ancient
continued to discharge his professional duties till he fell a tory.
H
Forest.
which he contributed eight papers, and on the Medical and
ChirurgicalTransactions, to which he contributed three.
FORECASTLE of a Ship, that part where the fore¬
mast stands. It is divided from the rest by a bulkhead.
FOREIGN, something extraneous, or that comes from
abroad. The word is formed from the 1/dim fores, doors ;
or foris, out of doors; or forum, the market-place.
FOREIGNER, the natural-born subject of some foreign
prince. Foreigners, though made denizens, or naturalized,
is by the acts of the settlement of the crown.
FOREJUDGER, in Law, signifies a judgment by which
one is deprived or put by a thing in question.
FORELAND, or Foreness, in Navigation, a point of
land jutting out into the sea.
North Foreland, in the Isle of Thanet, Kent^pf which
it is the north-eastern point, is the promontory ascertained
by act of parliament to be the most southern part of the
'U
F O F
• ■ orl tiiot o preat wart of thoir gods lesided tliorein.
Temples were frequently built in the thickest forests, the
JS and silence^f which naturally inspire -nti^ents of
devotion. For a similar reason the Druids made forests
the place of their residence, performing sacrifices, mstruct-
inp youth and giving laws in their umbrageous recesses.
Forest, in Law, is defined, by Manwood, a certain ter¬
ritory of woody grounds and fruitful pastures, privileged
for wVd beasts^and fowls of forest, chase, and warren, to
rest and abide under the protection ot the king, for
princely delight; bounded with unremoveable marks and
meres, either known by matter of record or prescription ,
replenished with wild beasts of venery or chase, with great
coverts of vert for the said beasts; and for preservation
and continuance whereof, the vert and venison, there are
certain particular laws, privileges, and officers, b orest
are of such antiquity in England that, excepting the New
Forest in Hampshire, erected by William the Conqueror,
and Hampton Court, erected by Henry VIII. it is said
that there is no record or history which makes any certain
mention of their erection, though they are mentioned by
several writers and in several of our laws and statutes. An¬
cient historians tell us that New Forest was raised by the de¬
struction of twenty-two parish churches, and many villages,
chapels, and manors, for the space of thirty miles together,
which was attended with divers judgments on the poste¬
rity of William I. who erected it: for William Rufus was
there shot with an arrow, and before him Richard the bro¬
ther of Henry I.; and Henry, nephew to Robert, the eldest
son of the conqueror, was, like Absalom, suspended by t re
hair of the head in the boughs of the forest.
A forest in the hands of a subject is properly the same
thing as a chase, being subject to the common law, and not to
the forest laws. But a chase differs from a forest in this,
that it is not enclosed, and likewise, that a man may have a
chase in another man’s ground as well as his own, that is,
the liberty of keeping beasts of chase or royal game there¬
in, protected even from the owner of the land, with a
power of hunting them thereon.
The manner of erecting a forest is this : Certain commis¬
sioners are appointed under the great seal, who view the
ground intended for a forest, and fence it round ; and this
commission being returned into chancery, the king causes
it to be proclaimed throughout the country where the
land lies, that it is a forest, prohibiting all persons from
hunting therein without his leave. Though the king may
erect a forest on his own ground and waste, he may not
do it on the ground of other persons without their consent;
and agreements with them for that purpose ought to be
confirmed by parliament.
A forest, strictly speaking, cannot be in the hands of any
but the king ; for no person except the king has power to
grant a commission to be justice in eyre of the forest. Yet,
if he grants a forest to a subject, and that on request made in
the chancery, such subject and his heirs shall have justices
of the forest; in which case the subject has a forest in law.
FoREST-Laws, are peculiar laws, different from the com¬
mon law of England. Before the making of the Charta de
Foresta, offences committed therein were punished at the
pleasure of the king in the severest manner. By this char¬
ter many forests were disforested and stripped of their op¬
pressive privileges, and regulations were made for the go¬
vernment of those which remained ; in particular, killing
the king’s deer was declared to be no longer a capital of¬
fence, but only punishable by fine, imprisonment, or abju¬
ration of the realm. Yet even in this charter there were
FOR
some grievous articles, which the clemency of later princes
has since thought fit to alter per assisas forestae. And to
this day, in trespasses relating to the forest, voluntas repu-
tabitur pro facto ; so that if a man be taken hunting a deer,
he may be arrested as if he had taken a deer.
FORESTALLING, in Law, buying or bargaining for
any corn, cattle, victuals, or merchandise, when on the way
to fairs or markets to be sold, before they get thither, with
an intent to sell the same again at a higher price.
FORESTER, a sworn officer of the forest, appointed
by the king’s letters patent, to walk the forest at all hours,
and watch over the vert and venison ; also to make attach¬
ments and true presentments of all trespasses committed
within the forest.
FORFAR, a county in Scotland, bounded by the shires
of Aberdeen and Kincardine on the north, the German
Ocean on the east, the Frith of Tay, which separates it
from Fife, on the south, and the county of Perth on the
west. It is situated between 56° 27' and 5/° north lati¬
tude, and between 2° 28' and 3° 22' west longitude from
Greenwich, and extends from north to south fiom twenty-
six to thirty-four miles, and twenty-three to thirty from
west to east. It contains, by the lowest computation, 832
square miles, or 532,480 English acres, without including
portions of the parishes of Lundie, Cupar, and Alyth, the
greater part of which belongs to the county7 of Perth.
More than a third of its area is occupied by the Gram¬
pians, here called the Binchinnin Hills, on which it meets
the Braes of Mar in Aberdeenshire. The surface of this
northern division of the county, or the Braes of Angus,
with the exception of the mountains at the head of Glen
Clova, is not in general so bold and abrupt as many other
alpine districts of Scotland; the hills are for the most part
rounded, and rather tame, and covered with a thin coat of
moorish soil, carrying stunted heath. Catlaw, the highest,
is 2264 feet above the level of the sea. There are several
considerable valleys in this district, the principal of which
are Glen Isla, Glen Prosen, Clova, Lethnot, and Glen Lsk,
which are watered by streams that rise in the west an
north, and commonly flow south-east, receiving innumera
ble torrents from the mountains in their progress. ou
from the Grampians, and parallel to them, is another u
lower range, called the Siedlaw Hills, supposed to be a con
tinuation of the Ochils; some of these hills are 14 ee in
height. Between these two grand divisions lies Strathmore,
the Great Valley, as the name denotes in Gaelic, or, as it
is commonly called, the How ot Angus, extending n ou
thirty-three miles in length, and from six to eight in rea >
a district beautifully diversified by gentle eminences, er i
fields, plantations, villages, and gentlemen’s seats, very wue
of it being 200 feet above sea level. It was at °ne time
proposed to carry a canal through this valley, uffim nug
extended to Dumbarton, and thus connect the tnee
rivers of Scotland, the Clyde, the Forth, and the Tay, ano e
from Arbroath to Forfar was also in contemplation ; nui
neither of them has been carried into effect. ie ’
and remaining division, extends from the Siedlaw i
the German Ocean on the east, and the Frith o ay <j)
south, and is, with a few exceptions, a rich and well-cumva-
ed tract, varying in breadth from three to eig >t mi e ,
comprehending about a fourth part of the who e cou j
The woods and plantations have been computed toexte
to 35,000 acres, of which about 5000 consist of copp'C .
natural wood. Several of the Grampian glens are SP” r
with birches, oak, and hazels. The botany and zoo gY
the county were explored with great industry s®m1e ^
ago by Mr George Don of Forfar, who presented a }
ample enumeration in both departments, in a PaPer J
ed to Mr Headrick’s Survey for the Board of.
The general colour of the soils is red, but o ten
g
Forest; J
II
Forfar
^yy
FOR
port dark brown or black. In the Orampians tbc soil is often
moorish, over whitish retentive clay, but loose and friable
in the glens. Over the puddingstone or gravelstone rock
in the lower grounds, it is sometimes thin, mossy, and en¬
cumbered with stones ; and over the sandstone a tenacious
clay occurs. The soil above whinstone is fertile, though
sometimes shallow. In Strathmore it is often gravelly, In
other parts a dead sand. There is no great extent of moss ;
but what exists is of much value for fuel.
The mineralogy of a considerable portion of Forfarshire
was examined by Colonel Imrie, who has given a minute
description of it in a paper published in the sixth volume
of the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
In the Grampian district, towards the summit of the coun¬
ty, on the confines of Aberdeenshire, the prevailing rock
is granite, some of it very beautiful, with topazes or rock-
crystals in its cavities or fissures, known by the name of
cairngorums, from a mountain of that name in Aberdeen¬
shire ; also micaceous schistus, and porphyry dykes of
the latter in some places intersecting the former. * Lami¬
nated talc or mica, called by the shepherds sheep’s siller,
from its silvery lustre, which is sometimes thickly studded
with small garnets, is found in irregular veins, and siliceous
spar in jutting or detached hills. Lead was wrought at
Gilfianan, above the old castle of Innermark, in the upper
part of the parish of Lochlee, and also at Ardoch, near
Mill-den, on the Esk. At the former place, according to
Edward, in his Description of Angus, published in 1678,
it yielded one sixty-fourth part of silver; but both mines
have long since been abandoned. . Limestone in small
quantities frequently occurs, and is wrought in several
parts; there are also broad veins of slate, but which, it is
said, does not come off in plates of sufficient size for use.
In descending the Grampians to Strathmore, gravelstone
prevails, and afterwards, on the lower grounds, sandstone.
Clay marl is found both in Strathmore and the Siedlaw Hills,
but is little used. Shell marl is in greater request, and
abounds in different parts, particularly in the lochs of Kin-
ordie, near the bottom of the Grampians, Lundie in the
! Siedlaw Hills, Logie in the parish of Kirriemuir, and Resten-
net near Forfar. These lochs have been drained and ren¬
dered of easy access. It is also found in the lochs of For-
i far, Rescobie, and Balgavies, where it is raised by scoops,
and conveyed to the shore in boats. The Siedlaw Hills are
I chiefly composed of sandstone of various colours, some of
it susceptible of a high polish. Sandstone flags, which are
much used instead of slate for covering roofs, are raised in
great quantities on the hill of Balmashanner, and in the moor
to the south of Forfar; but the most extensive range of
these flags is in the parish of Carmylie, and along the south¬
ern declivity of the Siedlaw Hills. The principal lime-works
are in the maritime division, at Fledderwick near Montrose,
and at Boddin in the parish of Craig, upon the sea-shore.
The only mineral springs are chalybeate, one of which is
near Montrose, another to the west of Arbroath, two in the
side of a rivulet about a mile farther west, and one in the
north-west corner of Dumbarrow in the parish of Dunichen.
The heaviest rains are from the east and south-east, and
the heaviest snows from the north and north-east. At
* Crescent, half a mile westward of Dundee, the quantity of
rain that fell during six years, from 1790 to 1795 inclusive,
varied from 22-27 to 34-12 inches; but at Belmont, in the
centre of Strathmore, during the same years, it was from
31-45 to 39-55 inches. The mean height of the barometer at
Belmont, during the first three of these years, was 29-60,
and that of the thermometer 42°. At Crescent, the mean
degree of cold during winter, for the whole period, was
from 32^° to 39|°, and of heat during summer, from 60i°
to 66°. The south-east wind blows at Crescent twenty-
one, and the south-west one hundred and nine days an-
VOL. IX.
F A R.
nually , wheieas at Belmont the former prevails eighty-five
and the latter one hundred and thirty-eight days. '
1 he principal lochs or lakes have been already mentioned
as containing shell-marl. To these may be added Loch¬
lee among the Grampians, from which'the North Esk is¬
sues, and Lentrathan near their base. None of the streams
are so considerable as to have the name of rivers, but are
called waters. 1 he North Esk, after leaving Lochlee, flows
tow aids the east, and then the south-east, where it forms
the boundary between this county and Kincardineshire, and
falls into the sea about three miles north-east of Montrose,
having received the Mark, the Tarf, the Westwater, and
the Cmick in its course. The South Esk rises in the
north-western part of the county, among the Grampian
summits oi Clova, and passing by Brechin, discharges it¬
self into the basin of Montrose, five miles from the mouth
of the North Esk, after being joined by the waters of
Prosen, Carritty, and other mountain streams. Its ge¬
neral course is from north-w-est to south-east. Isla, the
last stream of any note, has also its source in the Gram¬
pians, flowing from the summit of the glen which bears its
name, in a direction from north to south, until, at Ruth-
ven, it bends to the westward, and joins the Tay in Perth¬
shire. Below the bridge of Craig it has cut a chasm, in
some places more than a hundred feet in depth, through a
barrier of porphyry and gravelstone rocks, where it forms
cascades of singular beauty. The Dean, the Lunan, the
Dighty, and a few others, are inconsiderable streams.
Much of the landed property of Forfarshire has changed
its owners within the last century ; and of the forty barons
mentioned by Edward, in the work already referred to, the
descendants of not more than a third of them now possess
estates in it. It is in general divided into estates of a mode¬
rate size. In 1811 a large proportion were from L.100 to
L.1000 a year, some from L.2000 to L.6000; but only one
or perhaps two worth L. 12,000 a year. About a third
part of the county is now held under entail. The valued
rent is L.171,239. 16s. 8d. Scots, which is divided amongst
two hundred and sixty-six estates, three fourths of which
are below L.500 Scots. The real rent of the lands in 1811
was L.260,196. 15s., which is less than 10s. an acre; and
of the houses, L.64,108 sterling. There are more than
sixty gentlemen’s seats, some of them venerable for their
extent and antiquity, such as the Castles of Glammis,
Brechin, and Airly, the house of Panmure, and others,
distinguished for elegance and the beauty of their situation.
Amongst the latter, Kinnaird Castle, the seat of Sir James
Carnegie, is the most magnificent.
Farms are of every size, but in general not large, the
average size of such as are arable being from 100 to 250
acres. There is a greater number below than above 100
acres. According to the Agricultural Survey, the whole
number of farms in 1808 was 3222, of which about the
half were under L.20 of yearly rent, and only eighty-six
above L.300. In the western division of the Grampian
district, the arable land is still held in runrig or intermixed,
and the mountains in common, either without leases, or on
leases not exceeding nine years. Throughout the rest of
the county the leases are commonly for nineteen or twenty-
one years. The farm-houses lately erected in the lower
parts of the county are in general convenient and comfort¬
able, but in the Grampians they are still miserable huts,
with walls of stone and turf alternately, five feet high, and
covered with thatch fastened with ropes in. the form of a
hay rick. In some parts where stones are scarce, cottages
and even small farm-houses are built with clay, wrought
up and mixed with straw, but in general the cottages are
built with stone and clay, w ith clay floors and thatched
roofs, one of which may be constructed for about L.15.
Their number has been much diminished ol late.
5 B
745
Forfar.
746
FORFAR.
Forfar.
The
agriculture of Forfarshire is for the most part re-
lefthough modern improvements are n„t s0 general
which according to Pennant, was a rare crop in 1775, is
now cultivated to a great extent upon almost every vanety
of soil, to the height of 800 feet above the level of the sea ,
also barley, and all the other farm crops common m Scot¬
land In reaping the corn crops there is a practice pecu¬
liar to this and one or two of the contiguous comtie^ ^
threaving; the reaper is paid for his work not by the acre
or by day-wages, but according to the number of sheaves
he cuts down, or bv the threave, which contains twenty-
four or twenty-eight sheaves, the girth of which is speci¬
fied. The advantages of this practice are, that women an
children, who cannot perform full labour, find employ me ,
working in families, on different parts of a field; whilst the
farmer gets his crops cut low and clean, from its being
their interest to fill the sheaf with the thickest part of the
straw, which is always that nearest the ground. I he un¬
married men-servants, instead of boarding in the farmer h
own house, often live apart in a place called the bothy,
where they cook their own victuals.
No great progress has been made here in the improve¬
ment of live stock. The garron, a small breed of horses,
keeps its ground in the Grampians, where the number em¬
ployed is much too considerable for the work they have to
perform. The Lanarkshire or west-country breed is com¬
mon in the lower districts. There is supposed to be more
than 9000 horses of all kinds and ages in the county, which
were valued in 1811 at L.220,270. The cattle in the cul¬
tivated parts, when fat, weigh from forty to sixty stones,
and in some instances a great deal more; and many more
are fattened than reared, the practice on the grazing lands
being to purchase them from the counties of Kincardine,
Aberdeen, and Moray, and after making them fat, oi neaily
so, to sell them for the markets in the south. They are
accordingly of a variety of breeds. Many of the perma¬
nent or stationary stock are without horns, and seem to be
allied to the Galloways. Oxen were formerly employed in
labour; but they are now rarely used except in turning up
soils overrun with broom and other shrubs. The permanent
stock of cattle is said to be about 37,400, worth L.2G1,800.
There are few flocks of sheep, except in the Grampians
and the highest of the Siedlaw Hills, though almost every
residing proprietor, and many of the farmers, keep a small
number. The original breed is the small white or yellow-
faced ; but the Linton, or black-faced, is the most numerous.
The number is computed at 60,000, and the value at L.42,000.
A herd of fallow-deer is kept in the park at Panmure.
Forfarshire contains five royal burghs, with a number of
villages and hamlets; and a pretty large proportion of its
inhabitants are employed in manufactures and commerce.
The royal burghs are, 1. Forfar, the county town ; 2. Dun¬
dee ; 3. Aberbrothick, or Arbroath ; 4. Montrose ; and
5. Brechin. To these may be added Kirriemuir, a consi¬
derable village; Cupar Angus, of which, however, only a
small part is in this county, most of it being in Perthshire; Forfar
Glammis, Douglastown, and Letham. In 1808,11,269,867^
yards of linen were stamped for sale in the county, the
value of which was nearly half a million sterling. About
half as much more, which was not stamped, might be made
for domestic use and private sale.
There are two customhouses in Forfarshire ; one at Dun¬
dee, and another at Montrose. For an account of the
Dundee shipping trade, see the article Dundee. That at
Montrose, including Johnshaven and Gourdon, amounts to
108 vessels, about 11,000 tons.
The fisheries on the coast of this county have not been
prosecuted with great success. The boats employed are
generally small, requiring only four hands. For some years
considerable quantities of herrings have been caught in the
months of June, July, and August. But the river fisheries
have become of great value since the plan was adopted, at
the suggestion of the late Mr Dempster of Dunichen, of
conveying fresh salmon to London packed in ice. Mr
Headrick estimates the produce of six of these fisheries in
1810 at L.7450. The greatest salmon fisheries are in the
Frith of Tay, and were carried on chiefly by stake-nets, a
practice which was objected to by the proprietors higher
up the river, and which has been since declared illegal in-
tra fauces terrce, or within the estuary.
Many religious and military ruins are to be found in
Forfarshire. Near the cathedral of Brechin is a curious
round tower, of which, though such be common in Ireland,
only two, it is said, have been observed in Britain; this,
and another similar to it at Abernethy, in Perthshire. (See
the article Brechin.) At Arbroath are the remains of an
abbey, founded by William the Lion in 1178, and very
richly endowed, where was held the parliament of Robert
Bruce which addressed the celebrated remonstrance to the
Pope, asserting the independence of the kingdom. A hill
fort called Cater-thun, in the parish of Menmuir, north-west
of Brechin, is worthy of notice. Pennant thinks it was
one of the posts occupied by the Caledonians before their
engagement with Agricola, at the foot of the Grampians.
The county of Forfar sends one member to Parliament;
the burgh of Dundee one ; and Inverbervie, Montrose, Ar¬
broath, Brechin, and Forfar one, Montrose being the re¬
turning burgh. It contains fifty-three entire parishes, be¬
sides portions of three others, which belong to presbyteries
that meet at Forfar, Dundee, Brechin, Meigle, and Ar¬
broath, and which, with the presbytery of Fordun, com¬
pose the synod of Angus and Mearns. There is no assess
ment for the poor in the county. .
See Edward’s Description of Angus, reprinted in i/Ji,
and Colonel Imrie’s Section of the Grampians, already re-
ferred to ; Beauties of Scotland, vol. iv.; Headricks
View of the Agriculture of Angus or Forfarshire;
of the Wernerian Society, vol. ii.; The General Hepo 'll
Scotland ; and Playfair’s Description of Scotland, vo . >•
The following are the returns of the population tor
years ending 1811, 1821, and 1831.
I c
r~
1811
1821
1831
16,135
16,812
By how
many Fa¬
milies oc¬
cupied.
24,750
26,718
505
576
OCCUPATIONS.
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Agricul¬
ture.
4980
5114
Families
chiefly em¬
ployed in
Trade, Ma¬
nufactures,
or Handi¬
craft.
13,616
15,348
All other
Families
not com¬
prised in
the two
preceding
classes.
PERSONS.
6154
6256
Males.
48,151
52,071
65,093
Females.
59,113
61.359
74,513
Total of
Persons.
107,264
113,430
139,606
FOR
Folj, Forfar, a royal burgh of Scotland, and capital of the
J county of Forfar, is situated in the lowest part of the
t'orp county, which declines to it on all sides, and has rather a
J pleasant appearance. The streets are by no means regular,
but many of the houses are well built and neat; an improve¬
ment, however, which has taken place within the last lew
years. At the beginning of the present century its streets
were chiefly composed of old thatched houses, and its church
was in a state of decay. But the town is now ornamented
with a handsome suit of county buildings, situated in a good
street. A new church with a steeple has likewise been
erected, and an Episcopal chapel was opened in 1823.
Besides these places of worship, some sects of dissenters
have meeting-houses here. Forfar being the seat of the
county courts of the sheriff, possesses a number of public of¬
fices and legal practitioners. There is a parish school, and
an academy, where the languages, mathematics, and geo¬
graphy are taught. It has also an excellent news-room
and library. The chief trade of Forfar is the weaving of
osnaburgs and coarse linens. From time immemorial how¬
ever it has been celebrated for the manufacture of brogues
or strong shoes, such as are fitted for the rugged soil of the
Highlands, where they are principally used by the inhabi¬
tants.
Forfar isa royal burgh of unknown antiquity, the privileges
of which were confirmed in 1669, in virtue of which it is
governed by a provost, two bailies, and nineteen counsel¬
lors, who are elected annually. The revenue of the burgh
may be averaged at L.1000. On the west side of the town
there is a beautiful sheet of water, which, although consi¬
derably reduced by draining, is still about a mile in length
by half a mile in breadth. In former times Forfar was pro¬
tected by a castle, which stood on a mound to the north of
the town. Its origin is uncertain, but it is believed to have
been the place wrhere the first parliament of Malcolm
Ceanmore assembled, after the destruction of Macbeth.
The site of this ancient fortress is now marked by the
town cross, which was removed by the magistrates some
years ago, for the purpose of pointing out where the royal
residence had been. Forfar has shared in the general ad¬
vancement of population, trade, and agricultural improve¬
ment, and it is now one of the most comfortable little
towns in the county. It lies fourteen miles north from
Dundee, and fifty-six from Edinburgh. In 1821 the popu¬
lation, including the parish, amounted to 5897, and in 1831
to 7944.
FORFEITURE originally signifies a transgression or
offence against some penal law. The word is formed from
the base Latin forisfactura, whence forfaitura and forfaic-
tura, and the French forfait. Forisfactura comes from yh-
risfacere, which, according to Isidore, signifies to hurt or
offend, facere contra rationem ; and is not improbably de¬
rived from foris, out, and facere, to do, an action out of
rule, or contrary to the rules. Borel thinks forfait is de¬
rived from the using of force or violence; and Lobineau,
in his glossary, supposes forisfacta properly to signify a
mulct or amend, not a forfeit, which latter he derives from
the Bas-Breton, forfed, a penalty. But w ith us it is now
more frequently used for the effect of such transgression,
as the losing some right, privilege, estate, honour, office, or
effects, in consequence thereof, than for the transgression
itself. Forfeiture differs from confiscation in this, that the
former is more general; whilst confiscation is particular y
applied to such things as become forfeited to the king s ex¬
chequer ; and goods confiscated are said to be such as no¬
body claims. See Treason.
FORFEX, in Roman antiquity, was a method ot draw¬
ing up an army in the form of a pair of sheers, and intent
ed to receive the cuneus or wedge, if the enemy s mu
make use of that formation.
FOR
747
FORFICULA, the Earwig, a genus of insects belong- Forficula
ing to the order of coleoptera. See Entomology. I!
bORGE properly signifies a small furnace, in which Forgery,
smiths and other artificers of iron, steel, or other metals, —*
heat these metals red hot, in order to soften them and ren¬
der them more malleable and manageable on the anvil.
An ordinary forge is nothing but a pair of bellows, the
nozzle of which is directed upon a smooth area, on which
coals are placed. The nozzle of a pair of bellows may also
be directed to the bottom of any furnace, to excite the
combustion of the coals placed there, by which a kind of
forge is formed. In laboratories there is generally a small
furnace consisting of one cylindrical piece, open at top,
which has at its lower side a hole for receiving the nozzle
of a double bellows. This kind of forge furnace is very
convenient for fusions, as the operation is quickly perform¬
ed, with a small expenditure of fuel. In its lower part,
two inches above the hole for receiving the nozzle of the
bellows, may be placed an iron plate of the same diameter,
supported upon twro horizontal bars, and pierced near its
circumference with four holes diametrically opposite to each
other. By this disposition, the wind of the bellows, pushed
forcibly under this plate, enters at these four holes; and thus
the heat of the fire is equably distributed, and the crucible
in the furnace is surrounded by it. This contrivance is
used in the forge-furnaces for smelting copper; with this
difference only, that these furnaces are square, which,
however, is a matter of little consequence.
As the wand of bellows strongly and rapidly excites the
action of the fire, a forge is very convenient when a great
heat is to be applied quickly ; but it is not suitable when
the heat is to be gradually increased.
Forge is also used for a large furnace, in which iron
ore, taken out of the mine, is melted dow n ; or it is more
properly applied to another kind of furnace, in which the
iron-ore, melted down and separated in a former furnace,
and then cast into sow's and pigs, is heated and fused over
again, and beaten afterwards with large hammers, and thus
rendered softer, purer, more ductile, and better fitted for
use. See Furnace.
FORGERY (from the French forger, signifying accu-
dere, fabricare, to beat on an anvil, forge, or form), may
be defined at common law to be the fraudulent making or
alteration of a writing, to the prejudice of another man’s
right; or it is the crime of imitating the subscription of
another, adhibiting it to a deed, and putting that deed to
use by acting under it, receiving property in virtue of it,
founding on it as a title to sue or to defend, or transferring
it to another. In considering forgery, it is necessary to
attend, first, to the mode of proof by which the crime is
established ; and, secondly, to the punishment which is in¬
flicted on the perpetrator thereof.
The proof of forgery is either direct or indirect. The
direct proof consists in the examination of the writer of the
deed, and of the witnesses who sign the deed and attest the
subscription. As the subscription of witnesses is an attes¬
tation to which the law gives effect to the extent of receiv¬
ing it on their death as evidence of the regularity of the
deed, and as weight is given to the subscription of a wit¬
ness, even where he does not recollect having adhibited
it; so, to cut down a deed regularly attested, the instru¬
mentary witnesses, as they are called in Scotland, must be
brought to swear to circumstances of sufficient force to in¬
validate the evidence given by their subscriptions ; a spe¬
cies of proof which the law does not and indeed cannot re¬
fect. The indirect mode of proof consists in an investiga¬
tion of all the circumstances from which it may be inferred
that the person by whom a deed is said to have been exe¬
cuted actually did not subscribe ; as, for instance, an error
in the date, an alibi, the stamp, the contexture of or date
F O R
impressed upon the paper, or a comparatio hterarum. The
comparison of the handwriting is made with genuine sub¬
scriptions of the same date as that alleged to have been
forged ; and where the real subscriptions differ materially
from the one founded on, the forgery of the latter may be
pronounced on with a considerable degree of certainty.
The indirect mode of proof, however, is not resorted to
where the direct mode is practicable.
Until recently the punishment of forgery was not ex¬
pressly laid down by statute ; but by the common law and
practice of the country, conviction was usually followed by
a capital punishment in all cases of gross forgery ; win st
those of less moment, as forgeries of executions, or where
the evidence was not in every respect conclusive, weie
commonly visited with what in Scotland is denominated an
arbitrary punishment, that is, with imprisonment or trans¬
portation. Latterly, however, the severity of the law in
this particular has been considerably mitigated, and the
punishment of death restricted to those cases of forgery
which are not only the most aggravated in their own na¬
ture, but at the same time calculated to prove most exten¬
sively injurious to the interests and well-being of society.
By the 2d and 3d William IV. c. 123, entitled an “ act for
abolishing the punishment of death in certain cases of for¬
gery,” it is enacted that where any person shall thereafter
be convicted of any offence whatsoever for which the 1st
William IV. c. 66 (entitled an “ act for reducing into one
all such forgeries as shall hereafter be punished with
death, and for otherwise amending the laws relative to
forgery”) enjoins or authorizes the infliction of the pu¬
nishment of death, or for any offence which shall consist
wholly or in part of forging or altering any writing, instru¬
ment, matter, or thing whatsoever, or of offering, utter¬
ing, or disposing of any writing, instrument, matter, or
thing whatsoever, knowing the same to be forged or al¬
tered, or of falsely personating another, such offender shall
not suffer death, or have sentence of death awarded against
him, but shall be transported beyond seas for the term of
such offender’s life. But it is at the same time specially
provided that nothing in this act shall be construed to
extend to the forging or altering, offering, uttering or
disposing of, knowing the same to be forged or altered, any
will, codicil, or testamentary writing, with intent to defraud
any body corporate or person whatsoever, or of forging or
altering, or of uttering knowing the same to be forged, any
power of attorney or other authority to transfer any share
or interest in any stock, annuity, or other fund, transferable
at the Bank of England or South-Sea House, or Bank of
Ireland, or to receive any dividend payable in respect of
such share or interest, with intent to defraud any body
corporate or person whatsoever, or of procuring, aiding, or
assisting in the commission of such offences, for all which
offences the punishment of death is to continue the same
as if this act had not been passed. And further, by 2d and
3d William IV. c. 44, it is enacted that persons punish¬
able with transportation for life under the foregoing act
shall be liable, previously to their being transported, in case
the court before which they are convicted shall think fit,
to be imprisoned, with or without hard labour, in the com¬
mon gaol or house of correction, or to be confined in the
penitentiary for any term not exceeding four years nor less
than one. Such is now the state of the law on this subject.
As it formerly stood its excessive severity had rendered it
to a certain extent inoperative ; for as the natural feelings
of mankind revolt at the indiscriminate sacrifice of human
life for offences of a secondary description, judges and juries
had tacitly combined to evade giving it effect in the less
aggravated class of cases, and thus to reconcile with public
opinion the practical administration of justice in this parti¬
cular. But as all such evasions, however humane in their
Forgitf
Forlii
FOR
spirit, are pregnant with manifold evils, it is to be hoped
that the mitigation which has taken place will augment the
efficacy of the law by increasing the certainty of the pu¬
nishment it awards, and that hence will result a diminution
in the number of offences of this kind, which the excessive
but irregular severity of the law, as it formerly stood, had
failed to produce. (a.)
FORGING, in smithery, the beating or hammering iron
upon an anvil, after having first made it red hot in the forge,
in order to extend it into various forms, and fashion it into
various works.
There are two ways of forging and hammering iron. The
first is by the force of the hand, in which there are usual¬
ly several persons employed, one turning the iron and like¬
wise hammering, and the rest only hammering. The other
way is by the force of a water-mill, which raises and works
several huge hammers beyond the force of man, under
which the workmen place large lumps or pieces of iron,
which are sustained at one end by the anvils, and at the
other by iron chains fastened to the ceiling of the forge.
This last way of forging is only used in the largest works,
as anchors for ships, which usually weigh several thousand
pounds. For the lighter works a single man is sufficient
to hold, heat, and turn with one hand, whilst he hammers
with the other.
FORISFAMILIATION, in Lcno. When a child, upon
receiving a portion from his father, or otherwise, renounces
his legal title to any further share of his father’s succession,
he is said to he forisfamiliated.
FORK, a well-known instrument, consisting of a handle
and blade, divided at the end into two or more points or
prongs. The table-fork did not come into use in England
till the reign of James L, as we learn from a remarkable
passage in Coryat. The reader will probably smile at the
solemn manner in which this important discovery or inno¬
vation is related : “ Here I will mention a thing that might
have been spoken of before in discourse ol the first Italian
townes. I observed a custom in all those Italian cities and
townes through the which I passed, that is not used in any
other country that I saw in my travels, neither do I thinke
that any other nation of Christendome doth use it, but only
Italy. The Italians, and also most strangers that are com-
morant in Italy, doe always at their meals use a little lorke
when they eat their meate ; for while with their knife,
which they hold in one hand, they cut the meate out ol the
dish, they fasten the forke, which they hold in the other
hand, upon the same dish, so that whatsoever he be that
sitting in the company of any others at meale shall unad¬
visedly touch the dish of meat with his fingers from which
all the table doe cut, he will give occasion of offence unto
the company as having transgressed the lawes of good man¬
ners, insomuch that for his error he shall be at least brow¬
beaten, if not reprehended in w ordes. This form ol leed-
ing I understand is generally used in all parts ot Italy,
their forkes for the most part being made ol yronn, steele,
and some of silver, but those are Used only by gentlemen.
The reason of this their curiosity is, because the Italian
cannot by any means indure to have his dish touched wit
fingers, seeing all men’s fingers are not alike cleane. Here¬
upon I myself thought good to imitate the Italian fashion
by this forked cutting of meate, not only while I was in
Italy, but also in Germany, and often times in England
since I came heme : being once quipped for that frequent¬
ly using my forke, by a certain learned gentleman, a lami-
liar friend of mine, Mr Law’rence Whitaker, who in is
merry humour doubted not to call me a table furcifer, on y
for using a forke at feeding, but for no other cause..
FOR IT, one of the delegations of the papal dominion, in
Italy, 1232 square miles in extent. It contains six cities,
nineteen maiket-tow ns, and a great number of villages.
FOR
Forlir - with 150,930 inhabitants. It extends from the foot of the
pol Appennines to the sea-shore, and is watered by several
II streams descending from those mountains, one of which, but
JJL not accurately ascertained, is the celebrated Rubicon. ’ On
^ the sea-shore are many morasses which generate malaria,
but the remainder of the province is tolerably healthy, and
highly feitile. I he chief city, of the same name, is situated
on the Via iEmilia, between the rivers Mentone and Ronco.
It contains nine parish churches, sixteen monasteries, and
seven nunneries. The population is 15,520. It has fabrics
of silks, refinenes tor salt and for sulphur, linen weaving,
and wax bleaching. Long. 12. 18. 5. E. Lat.44. 13. 25. n!
FORLIMPOPOLI, an open city of the delegation Forli,
in the papal dominions, in Italy, which, united with Berti-
noro, forms a bishopric. It contains 5808 inhabitants.
FORLORN HOPE, in the military art, signifies men
detached from several regiments, or otherwise appointed, to
make the first attack in day of battle ; or, at a siege, to
storm the counterscaip, mount the breach, or the" like.
They are so called from the great danger to which they
are unavoidably exposed.
FORM, in Physics, denotes the manner of being pecu¬
liar to each body ; or that which constitutes it such a par¬
ticular body, and distinguishes it from every other. But
Mr Harris uses the term form in another sense, as an effi¬
cient animating principle ; to which he supposes Ovid to
refer in the first lines of his Metamorphoses.
In nova fert animus mutatas dicere formas,
Corpora.
I
These animating forms are not of themselves objects either
of the ear or of the eye ; but their nature or character is
understood in this, that were they never to exert their pro¬
per energies on their proper subjects, the marble on which
the sculptor exercises his art would remain for ever shape¬
less, and the harp from which the harper calls forth sounds
would remain for ever silent.
Substantial forms seem to have been first broached by
the followers of Aristotle, who thought matter, under dif¬
ferent modes or modifications, not sufficient to constitute
different bodies, but that something substantial was neces¬
sary to set them at a greater distance, and thus introduced
substantial forms, on the footing of souls, which specify and
distinguish animals. What led to this erroneous notion
were the circumstances of life and death. For observing
that, as soon as the soul had departed out of a man, all
motion, respiration, nutrition, and other animal functions,
immediately ceased, they concluded that these functions de¬
pended on the soul, and consequently that the soul was the
form of the animal body, or that which constituted it such ;
indeed nobody doubted that the soul was a substance in¬
dependent of matter ; and hence it was concluded that the
forms of other bodies were to be equally substantial. But
to this it is answered, that though the soul be that by
which man is man, and consequently the form of the hu¬
man body as human, yet it does not follow that it is proper¬
ly the form of this body of ours, as it is a body, or of the
several parts thereof, considered as distinct from one ano¬
ther. For those several parts have their proper forms so
closely connected with their matter, that it remains inse¬
parable therefrom long after the soul has quitted the body ;
thus flesh has the form of flesh, bone of bone, and so forth,
long after the soul is removed, as well as before. The truth
1S> the body does not become incapable of performing its
accustomed functions because the soul has deserted it;
but the soul takes its leave because the body is no longer
in a condition to perform its functions.
The ancient and modern corpuscular philosophers, there¬
fore, with the Cartesians, exclude the notion of substantial
forms, and show, by many arguments, that the form is only
the modus or manner of the body in which it is inherent.
FOR
*49
fimidreaSrpIfre are °nly th[ee Penary modes of matter, Formality
gure, rest, or motion, with two others arising therefrom, ||
magnitude and situation, the form of all bodies they hold Forman,
to consist in these modes, and suppose the variations which '
they are capable of sufficient to present all the variety ob¬
servable in bodies.
Forms are usually distinguished into essential and acci¬
dental. 1 hough the five modes above mentioned, general¬
ly taken, be adventitious, yet to this or that body, as to
fire or water, they are essential. Thus it is accidental to
iron to have this or that magnitude, figure, or situation,
since it might exist in different ones ; yet to a knife or
hammer, the figure, magnitude, and position of parts, which
constitute it a hammer or knife, are essential, and they can¬
not exist or be conceived without these. Hence it is inferred,
that though there be no substantial, yet there are essential
forms, by which the several species of bodies become what
they are, and are distinguished from all others. Accidental
forms are those really inherent in bodies, but in such man¬
ner as that the body may exist in all its perfection without
them ; such as whiteness in a wall, heat in w ater, a figure
of a man in wax, and so on.
Form, in carpentry, is used to denote the long seats or
benches in the choirs of churches or in schools, for the
priests, prebends, religious persons, or scholars, to sit on.
Du Cange supposes the name to be derived from this, that
the backs of the seats were anciently enriched with figures
of painting and sculpture, called in Latin formce et typi. In
the life of St William of Roschild, w e meet with forma as
signifying a seat for an ecclesiastic, or religious person, in
a choir; and in that of St Lupicin, we find formula used
in the same sense. In the rule of the monastery of St
Cmsarea, the man who presides over the choir is called the
occupant of the first form or seat.
FORMALITY, as defined in the schools, is any manner
in which a thing is conceived ; or a manner in any object,
importing a relation to the understanding by which it may
be distinguished from another object. Thus animality and
rationality are formalities. The Scotists made great use of
formalities, in opposition to the virtualities of the Thomists.
Formalities, in matters of law, are frequently used for
the formulas themselves, or the rules prescribed for judicial
procedure. In contracts of strict law all the formalities
must be strictly observed, as an omission of the least may
ruin the whole convention.
FORMAN, Andrew, archbishop of St Andrews, Earl
of Pittenweem, and of Cottingham in England, one of the
lords of the regency appointed by the states during the
minority of King James Y. of Scotland, legate a latere,
primate of all the kingdom of Scotland, and archbishop of
Bourges in France, was descended from the family of the
Formans of Hutton in the county of Berwick, and is consi¬
dered as having been one of the best statesmen of the age
in which he lived. He wras employed in 1501, along with
Robert Blackader, archbishop of Glasgow, and Patrick
earl of Bothwell, to negotiate a match between James IV.
of Scotland, and Margaret eldest daughter of Henry VII. of
England, which next year was ratified by the Scottish am¬
bassadors. He was afterwards frequently employed as
Scottish ambassador to Rome, England, and France, upon
the most important occasions. In 1514 he was translated
from the see of Moray, to w hich he had been appointed in
1502, to that of St Andrews. During the time he pos¬
sessed the former, he wTas employed as mediator between
Pope Julius II. and Louis XII. of France, who w*ere at
that time at variance ; and he happily succeeded in conci¬
liating the difference. Having taken leave of the pope, he
on his return home passed through France, where he was
kindly received by the king and queen, who bestowed upon
him the bishopric of Bourges in France, winch bi ought;
750
Formation
F O R
FOR
. . i oflon francs of cold, and lies to the south of Ivi^a, is twelve miles in length, in some Fona
him annually 400 tuns of wine, ‘“^“fuberaUy parts eight miles, and in others, from great indentation^ ■
Besides this, ne was hiosl i J r , hoif n m ^ in Irreadth. Its name is derived
Jher smaller matters. Besides this, |ie noVmore* than half a mile in breadth. Its name is derived
rewarded by Pope Julius, wh°P:0b^eflrh^v Mentioned, from the abundant crops of wheat which are produced on ^ yl
bishopric of St Andrews, as has been already m western part of the island, whilst the eastern part is
conferred on him the two rich abbeys of Dimte-n ^ almost wholly covered with thick woods. There is no
Aberbrothick, and made him his legate ® ^ ; for the town on the island; but it is peopled by 1500 inhabitants,
time, however, there were two other Candida of ^ live in villages or sequestered cottages. It is sepa-
archi episcopal see The learned Gavin Dougk ,^1J ^ rated from Ivi?a by a strait two miles across, in the middle
Dunkeld, having been nominated by q ^ of which is t])e small island Espalmado.
ally taken possession; but John Hephur ’ ld e out FORMICA, the Ant. See Entomology.
tious man, having been preferred by the mor , rri. FORMING is used for the act ot giving being or birth
the officers of Gavin Douglas, ^,d this to any thing. The word is also simply used for giving figure _
son in the castle. And so great was the po 1 ter fornis his VeSSels as he pleases,
that when Forman was nominated^by the pope^ no t^any ^ ^ form all kinds of figures.
Forming of ci Siege, is the making lines of circumvalla-
tion, to fortify the camp, and disposing things for the attack
of a place in form.
Forming the Line, is drawing up infantry, cavalry, and
artillery, in order of battle. _
Forming is also used in grammar, in speaking of certain
tenses of verbs, which are made from others by a change
of certain letters. The present tense is formed from the
infinitive. Compound and derivative words, also, and even
all that have any etymology, are said to be formed.
FORMOSA, a large island in the Eastern Seas, more
nated by tne lauer suiieuu^*^ — —;-r~- - , ,, d Tvwan. it is about 180 miles in length
Moray, as well as some years’ revenue o t ie arc 1^ <)P j Iq • breadth, is distant 100 miles from the south-east
itself, and paying Hepburn three ^ou^nd Pencil crowns ,les between the twenty.thW and
annually out of his ecclesiastical revenues. On the apjxunt d’ s of north latltude. The Dutcl. at
rnent of the Duke of Albany to the regency, p . . | tab[|s]led a settlement on this island; and
deavoured to undermine the primate’s credit with that an early per od estaDlis^ ^ ^ t]]e >ice.
nobleman, by representing him as one who 1a “ of the Philippine Islands sent an expedition against For-
ner collected all the money m the country, and - ith a vig^ t0 expel the Dutch, and to propagatethe
sequently might endanger the tranquillity of the kin d ’ c h li u i ‘n the illand. But after erecting
These insinuations, however, were but little regarded by ^ abandoned the island. About
the regent; and Forman had the good fortune after a d f^ficutmns,f^ it afforded a retreat
to compose a difference between him and the no ty, Chinese, from the fury of the Tartar
which was likely to be attended with bloodshed. In 517 to 20,000 according t0 the usual
the archbishop was appointed by states one o t e q ■ very industrious; and they carried
^ See?" ms 0SZ°lX:\elsATi;s luc-ive trade with tileir countrymen in China, which
been already mentioned. In Mackenzie s Lives we are
informed, that in the collection of the Letters ot the Scot¬
tish Kings from the year 1505 till the year 1626, in the
Advocates’ Library, there is a letter from the pope to
King James IV., in which he not only commends Forman
person could be found to proclaim the bulls for his elec¬
tion At last Lord Home, at that time the most powerful
nobleman in Scotland, was induced, by large promises, be-
sMes Tome considerable gifts, amongst which was the do¬
nation of the abbacy of Coldingham to his youngest bro-
thtr David, to undertake the task. It was executed at
Edinburgh and at St Andrews, to which places Lori
Home’s brother proceeded with 10,000 men ; though the
doing of it, contrary to Forman’s inclination, proved a
source of much trouble to that nobleman afterwards. The
quarrel between Hepburn and Forman, however, was at
iLt terminated by the latter
naiJlLk U1 U1C V/limtot,  r • I.
on a lucrative trade with their countrymen in China, wlucn
proved the source of an abundant revenue to the IMcii
government. A profitable trade was also carried on by the
Dutch with Japan. In 1653 a conspiracy of the Chinese
inhabitants against the Dutch was discovered and suppress¬
ed ; and soon after this, Coxinga, the governor ot the ma-
King James IV., in which he not only commenas ro.nmu ^ , f Tphirhiamr aonlied for permis-
highly, but likewise promises that at the first creation of ritime Chinese p , • h was refused by the Dutch
cardinals be should be’ made one. This letter is dated the sum to rettre to *he 'stand, tvh.chw^ refused by t^.^
6th of May 1511; but the pope died before he had an op- governor; on which he fitted out P ^ the ^ obf
nortunitv of performing his promise. In the same collec- ot 600 vessels, and made himseli hpsieired
tion there is l letter from the Duke of Albany to Leo X., Formosa and the adjacent country, and atterw^
successor of Julius, in which he urges the pope to advance and took Port ea and, w ^ josg 0£ tkis conve-
Forman to the dignity of a cardinal, promised him by his to embark and leave the isda ‘ iv felt by their
predecessor, and to continue him as legate a latere. Arch- ment station and entrepo n+Vprwurds emraged in a
bishop Forman died in the year 1521, and was buried at East India Company. oxmg< which he^was de-
Dunfermline. Dempster says that he wrote a book against war with the Chinese an ie u ’ ., t 0btain pos-
Luther, a book concerning the Stoical philosophy, and a feated and slain. But they were no , fpnded by the
collection out of the Decretals. session of the island, which was bravely defended by 683
FORMATION, in Philosophy, an act by which some- posterity of Coxinga; and it Mas not tin u e >
thing is formed or produced. that the island was voluntardy smrendered by the rngn^S
Formation, in Geology. See Mineralogy. prince to the emperor of China, an i English
Formation, in Grammar, signifies the manner of form- mained in possession ot the Chinese, n ,. , was t0
ing one word from another. Thus accountantship is formed had a factory at Formosa, the clue o ijcc o weak-
from accountant, and this last from account. carry on a trade with Japan. In •>, r° & . g bad
FORMEDON, in Law (breve de forma donationis), a ness of the Chinese government, t e a io , coast
writ that lies for a person who has a right to lands or tene- acquired possession ot a great part o e sou
ments, by virtue of any entail, arising from the statute of of Formosa.  , i nr cer-
Westminster. FORMULA, or Fobmuj-auv, a rule or model, or ^
FORMENTERA, one of the Balearic Islands, in the tain terms prescribed or decreed by authority, io ^ ^
Mediterranean Sea, belonging to the crown of Spain. It and manner of an act, instrument, procee ng,
^Fornst1
I »
iForql, ■
* quit
^ v'
1
I
!
!
t
!
I
«
I
I
i
FOR
Formula, in Ecclesiastical History and Theology, signi¬
fies a profession of faith.
Formula, in Medicine, imports the constitution of me¬
dicines, either simple or compound, both with respect to
their prescription and their consistence.
Formula, a theorem or general rule or expression,
for solving certain particular cases of some problem ; so
I5 -f. 1 dis a general formula for the greater of two quan¬
tities whose sum is s, and difference d; and ^ s — i e? is
the formula or general value for the less quantity. Also
•ddx—x'1 is the formula or general value of the ordinate
to a circle whose diameter is d and absciss x.
FORMULARY, a writing containing the form or for¬
mula of an oath, declaration, attestation, or abjuration, to
be made on certain occasions. There are also formularies
of devotion, of prayers, and the like. Liturgies are formu¬
laries of the public service in most churches.
FORNACALIA, or Fornicalta, in Roman antiquity,
a festival instituted by Numa, in honour of Fornax, the
goddess of ovens, in which certain cakes were made, and
offered in sacrifice before the ovens.
FORNICATION {fornicatio, from the fornices in
Rome, where the lewd women prostituted themselves for
money), the act of incontinency between single persons.
Upon this subject we find the following observations in
Paley's Moral and Political Philosophy
“ The Scriptures give no sanction to those austerities
which have been since imposed upon the world under the
name of Christ’s religion, as the celibacy of the clergy, the
praise of perpetual virginity, the prohibitio concubitus cum
gravida uxore ; but, with a just knowledge of, and regard
to, the condition and interest of the human species, have
provided in the marriage of one man with one woman an
adequate gratification foiq the propensities of their nature,
and have restrained them to that gratification.
“ The avowed toleration, and in some countries the li¬
censing, taxing, and regulating of public brothels, has ap¬
peared to the people an authorizing of fornication, and has
contributed, with other causes, so far to vitiate the public
opinion, that there is no practice of which the immorality
is so little thought of or acknowledged, although there are
few in which it can more plainly be made out. The legis¬
lators who have patronized receptacles of prostitution ought
to have foreseen this effect, as well as considered, that
whatever facilitates fornication, diminishes marriages. And
as to the usual apology for this relaxed discipline, the dan¬
ger of greater enormities if access to prostitutes were too
strictly watched and prohibited, it will be time enough to
look to that after the laws and the magistrates have done
their utmost. The greatest vigilance of both will do more
than oppose some bounds and some difficulties to this inter¬
course. And after all, these pretended fears are without
foundation in experience. The men are in all respects the
most virtuous in countries where the women are most
chaste.
“ If fornication be criminal, all those incentives which
lead to it are accessaries to the crime ; as lascivious con¬
versation, whether expressed in obscene or disguised un¬
der modest phrases ; also wanton songs, pictures, books,
the writing, publishing, and circulating of which, whether
out of frolic or for some pitiful profit, is productive of so
extensive a mischief from so mean a temptation, that few
crimes within the reach of private wickedness have more
to answer for, or less to plead in their excuse.”
FORNIX, in Anatomy, is a part of the corpus callosum
in the brain, so called on account of a distant resemblance
to the arch of an ancient vault when view ed in a particular
manner.
FORQUALQUIER, an arrondissement of the depart¬
ment of the Lower Alps, in France, extending over 3G9
751
FOR
square miles. It is divided into six cantons and fifty-two Forres,
communes, and contains 32,411 inhabitants. The capital
is a town of the same name, situated on a plain through .
winch t.ie river Laye flows, and which yields wine, olive oil,
and much silk. Ihe latter is extensively spun there. It
contains 2741 inhabitants. Long. 5. 46. E. Lat. 43. 58. N.
FORRES, a royal burgh of Scotland, in the county of
Moray. It stands on a rising ground, at the distance of
three miles from the mouth ot the Findhorn, and is neat
and well built. The trade carried on here is not very ex¬
tensive ; amongst other articles, straw plait for bonnets is
manufactured. In this town there is a fine stone building,
called Anderson’s Institution, which was founded in 1824.
Here the youth of Forres, Rafford, and Kinloss, are taught
the classics, mathematics, natural philosophy, and other
branches of education. Besides this academy there are
several private schools in Forres ; and a news-room, a sub¬
scription library, and various friendly societies. The places
of worship are the parish church, a meeting-house of the
United Secession church, and another of the Independents.
At the western extremity of the town is an eminence on
which stood the castle of Forres. This is an object of cu¬
riosity ; for here Duffus, one of the early kings of Scotland,
was killed by Domvald, governor of the castle. The river
Findhorn runs immediately behind the eminence. At this
place a very handsome bridge was swrept away by the great
flood of August 1829, which will be noticed in the article
Morayshire. Forres is noted for the possession of one of
the most remarkable ancient stone obelisks to be found in
Britain. It is thus described by Mr Cordiner, in a letter
to Mr Pennant: “ In the first division, underneath the Go¬
thic ornaments at the top, are nine horses with their riders
marching forth in order. In the next is a line of warriors
on foot, brandishing their weapons, and appear to be shout¬
ing for the battle. The import of the attitudes in the third
division is very dubious, their expression indefinite. The
figures which form a square in the middle of the column
are pretty complex, but distinct; four serjeants with their
halberts guard a canopy, under which are placed several
human heads which have belonged to the dead bodies piled
up at the left of the division; one appears in the charac¬
ter of executioner severing the head from another body;
behind him are three trumpeters sounding their trumpets,
and before him two pair of combatants fighting with sword
and target. A troop of horse next appears, put to flight
by infantry, whose first line have bows and arrows, the
three following swords and targets. In the lowermost di¬
vision now visible, the horses seem to be seized by the vic¬
torious party, their riders beheaded, and the head of their
chief hung in chains or placed in a frame 5 the others being
thrown together beside the dead bodies under an arched
cover. The greatest part of the other side of the obelisk,
occupied by a sumptuous cross, is coveied over with an
uniform figure, elaborately raised, and interw oven w ith
great mathematical exactness. Under the cross are two
august personages, with some attendants, much obliterated,
but evidently in an attitude of reconciliation; and if the
monument was erected in memory of the peace concluded
between Malcolm and Canute, upon the final retreat of the
Danes, these large figures may represent the reconciled
monarchs. On the edge below the fretwork are some rows
of figures joined hand in hand, which may also imply the
new degree of confidence and security which took place,
after the feuds were composed, which were characterized
on the front of the pillar. But to whatever particular
transaction it may allude, it can hardly be imagined that,
in so early an age of the arts in Scotland as it must have
been raised, so elaborate a performance would have been
undertaken but in consequence of an event of the most ge¬
neral importance; it is therefore surprising that no dis-
752
FOR
F O R
f tinrtpr traditions of it arrived at the era when letteis were
known. The height of this monument (called King Sueno s
Stone) above the ground is twenty-three feet besides
twelve or fifteen feet under ground. Its breadth is three
feet ten inches by one foot three inches in thickness.
FORSTER, John Reinhold, a celebrated naturalist
and geographer, and an accomplished scholar and linguist,
was born on the 22d October 1729, at Dirschau, in Polish
Prussia, where his father was burgomaster or mayor. His
family was of English descent, and had quitted Great Bri¬
tain in the time of Charles I. . .
At the age of fourteen he was placed for a year at tne
public school of Marienwerder, and was afterwards admit¬
ted into the gymnasium of Joachimsthal at Berlin. Among
his schoolfellows was Pallas, who became so well known
for his various researches in natural history, with several
others who distinguished themselves in literature and sci¬
ence. He applied himsell with diligence to the study of
the ancient and modern languages, and in particular of the
oriental languages, as connected with divinity. He con¬
tinued the same pursuits at the university of Halle, which
he entered in 1748. After three years, having completed
his theological studies, he resided for two years more at
Dantzick, preaching as a candidate. In 1753 he obtained a
small benefice at the neighbouring tow n of Nassenhuben,
and the next year he married his cousin Elizabeth Nikolai;
but he still found leisure to improve himself in natural phi¬
losophy, geography, and the mathematics. His increasing
family having become too expensive for his income, he ac¬
cepted the proposals of the Russian consul at Dantzick, and
agreed to superintend the establishment of the new colo¬
nies at Saratof on the Volga. The consul received the
thanks of the reigning favourite, Count Orlof, for his judi¬
cious selection of a person so well qualified; but our ad¬
venturer was not satisfied with his success in the under¬
taking, and, in 1766, he resolved, somewhat suddenly, to
try his fortune in England, whither he proceeded well re¬
commended, but with exhausted finances. Soon after¬
wards, however, he received a gratuity of 100 guineas
from the Russian government, and he obtained some re¬
muneration from the booksellers for his translations from
the German and the Swedish. He declined a proposal of
Lord Baltimore, who offered him the management of his
large estates in America, preferring the appointment of a
teacher of modern languages and natural history in the
dissenting academy of Warrington, where he found a more
interesting society than would have been attainable in any
part of the New World. He was not, however, very popu¬
lar as an instructor ; and he was soon after this engaged to
accompany Mr Dalrymple, who wTas going out as governor
of Balambanjan, near Borneo ; but the plan was never ex¬
ecuted. In 1772 he was appointed naturalist to the expe¬
dition under the command of Captain Cook in his second
voyage of circumnavigation ; and he took with him his
son George, then seventeen yeai'S old. For this undertak¬
ing Forster was abundantly qualified as a man of science and
an accurate observer, though his temper and conduct were
not always such as to make him agreeable to his shipmates,
nor was he uniformly considerate and humane in his inter¬
course with the uncivilized inhabitants of the countries
which he explored. After the return of the expedition,
there were repeated discussions and disputes respecting For¬
ster’s share in the intended publication of the narrative of
the voyage. Two thousand pounds, which had been granted
by government for the plates of the work, were to have
been equally divided between Cook and Forster for this
purpose ; but Forster’s performance of his part of the un¬
dertaking was disapproved, and he was deprived of the ad¬
vantage which he expected to have derived from the plates.
# O'"  —^ CW iict V ^ 1 v liuill 111
It is possible that he may have expressed himself
mcauti
ously respecting the conduct of the expedition ; perhaps also Forstii
he may have been thought deficient in accuracy of idiom; for
he was more fluent than correct or elegant in the various *
languages which he was in the habit of speaking and writ¬
ing. He was, however, supposed to be concerned in the
account of the voyage which was published by his son;
and this participation was considered by his opponents,
and even by many of his friends, as an infringement of
the conditions of his engagement; besides that many of¬
fensive remarks and a few inaccuracies were introduced
into the work, some of which were afterwards candidly ad¬
mitted and corrected by his son. All these circumstances
made Forster’s residence in England by no means agree¬
able, and his pecuniary embarrassments became so pressing
that he was at one time in confinement for debt. He was,
however, set at liberty in 1780, by the munificence of the
king of Prussia, who furnished him with the means of sa¬
tisfying his creditors, and established him at Halle, as pro¬
fessor of natural history, and inspector of the botanical gar¬
den. The year after he took the degree of doctor of phy¬
sic in the university. He was not always on the most cor¬
dial terms with his academical colleagues, and he was too
fond of accusing them in his reports to his superiors. His
circumstances were also much embarrassed by his unfortu¬
nate propensity to play, which absorbed the whole earnings
of his labour. He, however, considered the eighteen years
that he spent at Halle as the happiest of his life. He was
much afflicted in his old age by the premature death of his
two sons ; indeed his health seemed to be impaired by his
grief, and he died on the 9th December 1798. Professor
Kurt Sprengel has written an account of his life, containing
a just encomium on his various talents and acquirements,
though somewhat too flattering with regard to his moral
character. He appears to have been master of seventeen
different languages ; and he was as extensively acquainted
with things as with words, being as much indebted for his
various knowledge to his industrious and accurate observa¬
tion of nature, as to his great reading and his profound
learning. He was long intimate with Buffon, and greatly
admired his writings; and he w as in constant correspon¬
dence with Linnaeus and his son, the latter of whom gave
the name of Korstera to a new genus of plants, in conipli-
ment to the two botanists who had discovered it in New
Zealand. In conversation he was witty, but frequently too
satirical; and his unguarded sallies created him many ene¬
mies. He became a fellow of the Society of Antiquaries
soon after his arrival in England ; in February H7-he
was elected a fellow of the Royal Society; and in 1
upon his return from the South Seas, the university of Ox¬
ford conferred on him the honorary diploma of a doctor o
laws. His principal publications are these :
1. Specimen Historice Naturalis Volgensis, PM. I rans.
1767, p. 312, containing a geographical description of the
country about Saratof, and an ample enumeration of its va¬
rious productions. 2. An Introduction to Mineralogy, or an
accurate Classification of Fossils and Minerals, 8vo, Lon on,
1768; with a Translation of Lehman’s Halotechnia, intend¬
ed principally as a text-book for a course of lectures e
livered at Warrington. 3. A Catalogue of -Snto ’
8vo, Warrington, 1770. 4. A Translation Ka m s
vels into North America, 3 vols. 8vo, Warrington am
don, 1770, 1771. 5. Osbeck’s Voyage to China ^ndJ
Fast Indies, translated from the German ; aUn a
and Flora Sinensis, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1 • •
Translation cf Bossu’s Travels in Louisiana, wt \
and a Systematic Catalogue of all the known
English North America ; together with an Abstract oj ^ ‘
ling’s Travels, 2 vols. 8vo, London, 1771. 7.
cies Insectorum, Centuria 1, 8vo, London, D7 , co
chiefly of English insects, together with a few toreg
FOR
I'orst; ones, arranged according to the Linnaean system, with the
'■OT adoption of two genera from Geoffroy. 8. An Account of
the management of Carp in Polish Prussia, Ph. Tr. 1771,
p. 310, in a letter to the Honourable Daines Barrington.
It appears that the carp is a kind of staple commodity of
that country. 9. An Easy Method of Assaying and Class¬
ing Mineral Substances, with a Translation of Scheele’s
Experiments on Sparry Fluor, from the Memoirs of the
Swedish Academy, 8vo, London, 1772. 10. Translation
o/'Bougainville’s Voyage, 4to, London, 1772. W.Episto-
Ice ad J. D. Michaelis, 4to, Gottingen, 1772, containing
remarks on this author’s Spicilegium Geographioe Exterce.
12. An Account of the Roots used by the Indians in the
neighbourhood of Hudson's Bay to dye Porcupines' Quills,
Phil. Tr. 1772, p. 54;; the Galium tinctorium and Helle-
borus trifolius. 13. An Account of several Quadrupeds
from Hudson's Bay, Phil. Tr. 1772, p. 370; describing a
collection of specimens sent to the Royal Society from
the Factory at Hudson’s Bay. 14. An Account of the
Birds sent from Hudson's Bay, p. 382. 15. An Account
of some Curious Fishes sent from Hudsons Bay, Phil. Tr.
1773, p. 149, addressed to T. Pennant, Esq. These pa¬
pers were published during the author’s absence with Cap¬
tain Cook. 16. 17. He translated Grainger’s Travels and
Riedesel’s Travels, in conjunction with his son George.
18. He made a Catalogue of the Animals and Plants re¬
presented in Catesby's Carolina, with the Linncean names.
19. Characteres generum plantarum, quas in itinere ad in¬
sulas maris australis collegerunt J. R. et G. Forster, folio,
London, 1776, containing descriptions and figures of 75
new genera. 20. Liber singularis, de Bysso antiquorum,
quo ex JEgyptiaca lingua res vestiaria antiquorum, imprimis
in sacro codice occurrens explicalur, 8vo, London, 1776.
The object of this essay is to prove that the byssus of
the ancients was cotton, and not fine linen, in which the
author succeeds without difficulty ; and he states, that all
the cloths enveloping the mummies that he has been able
to examine are uniformly cotton. In his Egyptian ety¬
mologies he is learned and ingenious, but, like almost all
I other Egyptian etymologists, extremely precipitate. 21.
Observations made during a Voyage Round the World, on
Physical Geography, Natural History, and Ethic Philoso¬
phy, especially on the Earth and its Strata, Water, and the
Ocean, the Atmosphere, the Changes of the Globe, Organic
Bodies, and the Human Species, 4to, London, 1778. This
highly interesting work was published by subscription; and
a French translation of it was added as a fifth volume to
that of Cook’s Voyage, 4to, Paris, 1778. 22. Description
of the Yerbua Capensis, Swed. Trans. 1778, p. 108. 23.
Translation of Von Troil’s Letters on Iceland, 8vo, Lon¬
don, 1780. 24. On Buffon’s Epochs of Nature, Gottingen
Mag. 1780, i. i. p. 140. 25. On the Tiger-Cat of the Cape,
Phil. Trans. 1781, p. 1; the Felis Capensis, found from
Congo to the Cape, and capable of being tamed like a cat.
26. Historia Aptenodytoe, Commentat. Gott. vol. iii. p. 121;
the penguin, a genus peculiar to the southern hemisphere.
27. Zoologia Indica Selecta, Latin and German, fol. Halle,
1781,4to, London, 1790; 2d edit. Halle, 1795. 28. Ac¬
count of a New Insect, Naturforscher, vol. xvii. p. 206,
Halle, 1782 ; a species of cancer. 29. A Picture of Eng¬
land for 1780, continued to 1783, 8vo, 1784; German, 8vo,
Bessau, 1784; giving some amusing particulars of many
of the principal public characters at the time of the Ame¬
rican war, but frequently satirical, and sometimes unjust.
^.Essays on Moral and Physical Geography, 3 vols. 8vo,
Leipsic, 1781, 1783; continued by his son-in-law Mat¬
thias Sprengel. 31. A Collection of Memoirs relating to
Domestic Economy and Technology, 8vo, Halle, G84. 32.
On the Albatross, Mem. Sav. Etr. vol. x. p. 563; the Dio-
ftiedea. 33. History of Discoveries and Voyages in the
vol. IX.
FOR
AWA, 8v°, Francfort on the Oder, 1784; English, Lon-
and’ 11 ’ ^r’ T' containing a most extensive '
wflSTu6 collecJtlon of relations of all the attempts
which had been made to explore the arctic regions. 34.
WU {™aab°afm£ Mendicity, especially at Halle, 8vo,
Halle, 1786. 35. Enchiridion Historic Naturali inser-
viens, 8\o, Halle, 1788; an extremely useful collection of
definitions of the terms employed in the description of
birds, fishes, insects, and plants, after the manner of the
1 hdosophia Botamca of Linnmus ; it is dedicated to his son
Lreorge, by whose infantine curiosity he was first impelled
to the study of natural history ; and it was chiefly arrang¬
ed 116 ^e‘sure h°urs his voyage round the world.
36. A Memoir on the Badjar Cit. Mem. Acad. Berl. 1788,
1789, p. 90; the Manis pentadactylus. 37. Magazine of
Modern Voyages and Travels, translated from various lan¬
guages, with Remarhs, 16 vols. 8vo, Halle, 1790,1798. 38.
An edition of Bergius iiber die Leckereyen, a work on diet,
with notes by Forster, Kurt, and Sprengel, 2 vols. 8vo,
Halle, 1792. 39. A Letter to Schreber on the Per sea, Ma-
gazin fur die Botanih, vol. v. p. 234. 40. Onomatologia
nova systematis oryctognosice vocabulis Latinis expressa,
folio, Hal. 1795, 1 page. 41. Observations and Truths
united to Probabilities, or Materials for a new Essay on the
Theory of the Earth, 8vo, Leipzig, 1798; one of the last
of our author’s publications, which is considered as a good
elementary work on geology.
(Sprengel’s Memoir; Eyries in Biographic Universelle,
vol. xv. 8vo, Paris, 1816 ; Aikin’s General Biography, vol.
iv. 4to, London, 1803; Chalmers’s Biographical Dictio¬
nary, vol. xiii. 8vo, London, 1814.) (l. l.)
Forster, John George Adam, commonly called George,
a distinguished naturalist and circumnavigator, the son of
John Reinhold Forster, was born at Dantzick in 1754,
and enjoyed, in his earliest youth, the advantage of his fa¬
ther’s assiduous and affectionate instructions, by which he
profited so rapidly, that he was capable, at the age of ten
years, when he went with his father into Russia, of ascer¬
taining the species of a plant by comparing it with the
Linnaean description. He was for a short time at a school
in Petersburg. Upon his arrival in London, he was at first
placed in a merchant’s counting-house, but soon found his
health unequal to the employment, and followed his father
to Warrington, where he continued his studies at the aca¬
demy with so much application, that he became a perfect
master of the English language, and otherwise distinguish¬
ed himself by the strength of his memory and the vigour
of his imagination, at the same time that he assisted his
father in giving lessons in French, and in completing a
variety of translations of voyages and travels. He also ac¬
companied his father, together with Sparrman, in the ar¬
duous engagement of making all kinds of physical obser¬
vations in the circumnavigation of the globe; and he was
particularly employed in delineating the various objects of
natural history which were discovered. After his return
he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society ; but he soon
quitted England to settle at Paris. In 1779, however, he
was appointed professor of natural history at Cassel; and,
in 1784, he was nominated to a similar situation in the
University of Wilna, where he took a degree of doctor of
physic ; but he found little satisfaction in residing amongst
a people so imperfectly civilized. The empress of Russia
had engaged him to take an important part in a new voyage
of discovery which she meditated; but the design was
abandoned upon the commencement of the war with the
Turks. He was next invited by the elector of Mentz to
accept the appointment of president of the university new¬
ly established in that city, and he was residing there at the
time when the French army entered it. Being a declared
republican in his political principles, he was dispatched as
3 c
753
F orster.
754
Forster.
FOR
an envoy to Paris to solicit the incorporation of Mentz with
the French republic; but during his absence the Prus¬
sian troops retook the city, and he lost the whole of hi
nroperty, including his numerous manuscripts. He had
married^ a Miss Theresa Hayne, and had one daughter as
early as 1788 ; but, at a subsequent period, his wile s con¬
duct gave him great reason for uneasiness ; and though e
affected to despise what he called the prejudices of social
life, and to excuse her infidelity, and even attempted to a
cilitate her union with a more favoured admirer, still the
affair in reality affected him deeply, and he resolved once
more to leave Europe, as if in search of the waters of ob¬
livion ; and he was actually preparing for a voyage to 1 inbet,
when his health was subdued by the ravages of a scorbu-
tic disorder, and he died on the 13th February 1792. Be¬
sides the assistance which he rendered his father in many
of his literary undertakings, he was also the author of a
variety of separate publications under his own name.
1. A Voyage Round the World in his Britannic Ma-
jestys Ship Resolution, commanded by Captain James
Cook, during the years 1772, 1773, 1774, and 1775 2
vols. 4to, London, 1777'; in German, 2 vols. 4to, Berlin,
1779, 1780, and 3 vols. 8vo, 1784. The style of this work is
rather more animated and poetical than that of the official
account of the voyage; the second volume is considered
as the best written, and the freest from affectation and false
sentiment. 2. Mr Wales, the astronomer of the expedition,
published some remarks on the work, which occasioned a
Reply to Mr Wales’s Remarks, 8vo, London, 1778, in which
the author declares that his father had no concern what¬
ever in the book, but he admits that he had committed some
inaccuracies. 3. A Letter to the Earl of bandwich, 4to,
London, 1779. 4. His Answer to the Authors of the Lite¬
rary Journal of Gottingen exhibits considerable warmth of
language, but candidly admits some errors ; it excited some
further animadversions from Professor Meiners, who de¬
clared himself the author of the criticisms. 5. In 1787 he
published at Berlin, in 4to, A Translation of Captain
Cook’s Third Voyage, performed in 1776-1780, with an
intrcduction and other additions. 6. A Description of the
Gentiana saxosa, Swedish Trans. 1777, p. 183. l.Life of
Dr Dodd, 8vo, Berlin, 1779. 8. Preface to Sparrman’s
Travels, 8vo, Berlin, 1784. 9. He undertook, together
with Professor Lichtenberg, the publication of the Gottin¬
gen Magazine, which was continued from 1780 to 1785, and
published in it, amongst other essays, A Description of the
Red Creeper, or Certhia coccinea of Owhyhee, i. vi. p. 346.
10. Experiments with Vital Air, vol. iii. ii. p. 281; examin¬
ing its effects on glow-worms. 11. A Decad of New Plants,
N. Act. Upsal, vol. iii. 1780, p. 171. 12. On Pygmies,
Hessiche Beytrage, vol. i. p. 1, 1785. 13. History and
Description of the Bread-Fruit Tree, p. 208, 384 ; also
separately, 4to, Cassel, 1784. 14. Florulce Insularum
Australium Prodromus, 8vo, Gottingen, 1786. 15. Fasci¬
culus Plantarum Magellanicarum, Commentat. Soc. Gbtt.
vol. ix. p. 13. 16. Plantce Atlanticce, p. 46. 17. Miscel¬
lanies, or Essays on Moral and Physical Geography, Na¬
tural History, and Moral Philosophy, 6 vols. 8vo, Leipsic
and Berlin, 1789-1797 ; the last two volumes are posthu¬
mous, and chiefly of a political nature. 18. Picture of the
Lower Rhine, Brabant, Flanders, Holland, England, and
France, taken in the year 1790, 3 vols. 8vo, Berlin,
1791-1794 ; Dutch, Haarlem, 1792, 1793 ; French, called
Voyage Philosophique, 2 vols. 8vo, Paris, 1795, 1796.
This work contains many interesting remarks on manners
and on the arts, showing that the author possessed very ex¬
tensive information, as well as originality of talent; but
there is too much affectation of sentiment, and an injudi¬
cious display of hostility to Great Britain. 19. Historical
Remembrances of the Year 1790, 8v0, Berlin, 1793. There
FOR
are also several political pamphlets of a temporary nature,
which could add little or nothing to their author’s fame; j ^
and a few scattered memoirs in different periodical publi- Wrifiy
cations. He was also concerned in the Collection of Voy- lorts,
ages published by Professor Sprengel; and, together with
Pallas and others, in an edition of Martini’s Dictionary of
Natural History. Indeed, his life, though short, was one
continued scene of literary activity; but his application to
the labour of compilation was too unremitting to allow him
to concentrate the whole force of his mind on the perfor¬
mance of any one great original work of genius. The
Sketches of the Mythology and Customs of the Hindoos were
written by another author of the same name. ^
{Life by Pougens; J. R. Forster in Jacobi's Annals,
and in the Dedication of his Enchiridion ; Eyries in Bio-
graphie Universelle, vol. xv. 8vo, Paris, 1816; Aikin’s
General Biography, vol. iv. 4to, London, 1808; Chal¬
mers’s Biographical Dictionary, vol. xiii. 8vo, London,
1814.) , (L- L-)
FORT, in the military art, a small fortified place, envi¬
roned on all sides with a ditch, rampart, and parapet. Its
use is to secure some high ground, or the passage of a river,
to make good an advantageous post, to defend the lines and
quarters of a siege, and the like, torts are made of dif¬
ferent figures and dimensions, according as the peculiar na¬
ture of the ground requires. Some are provided with bas¬
tions, others with demi-bastions ; some are of a square form,
others pentagonal, and others again are stellated, having
five or seven angles. A fort differs from a citadel in this,
that the latter is built to command some town.
Vitrified FqRTS. This name has been given to certain
remarkable ruins, situated for the most part on the tops
of certain hills in the Highlands and northern parts of
Scotland. They were first discovered about the year 1773,
by Mr Williams, an intelligent mineral surveyor, who pub¬
lished an account of them some time afterwards. These
singular structures derive their appellation of vitrified
from the circumstance of the stones composing them pre¬
senting the appearance of having been melted or fused by
means of fire, thus forming a solid mass of a glassy struc¬
ture, somewhat resembling volcanic lava, or the re use o
a furnace. The single fact of their vitrification is the on y
characteristic applicable in a general sense to the whole
of these forts. In form, size, and situation, they present
every variety. Some of them are round or elliptical,
whilst others are in the form of squares or parallelograms.
In magnitude they vary from a few yards to some eig ty or
ninety in length, whilst their breadth differs in a proper
tional degree. The walls, likewise, as might have been
expected, vary much in thickness. Some of them are
only two or three, and others are about twenty ee m
breadth. In height they also differ considerably, having
apparently in some instances been twelve feet, an m
others not a third of that height. In one or two in¬
stances there are a series of walls, two or three in nu
ber, enclosing the same area of ground, with a space
tween each of the works sufficiently large to admit o a
live defensive operations on the part of those w 0 oc
pied the place. Their vitrification is very irregular, oc¬
casionally it does not extend a few feet above the 8r0
on which the fabric stands, nor penetrate beyond t e
face, whilst in a few instances it rises to the heig 0
or twelve feet, and passes inwards to a conerat) ef tbe
tent on both sides. Sometimes only isolated par s 0
walls show traces of vitrification, and that too bu on
side ; in other instances the process appears to ave
completed with elaborate care, as the effects o e <•
extend externally and internally over the greater p
their surfaces. They are for the most part placed,
upon the highest elevation of the country where j
VITRIFIED FORTS.
Vitrify)
Fort*
situated, but generally in a commanding position ; and
they are found sometimes upon the sea-shore, and some¬
times many miles inland. In general their structure dis¬
plays nothing like regular masonry ; that is, the stones have
not been hewn into symmetrical shapes and cemented to¬
gether, as is the case in the more modern structures of
the same country. A few of them have regular causeways
leading up to them, and many are furnished with wells, an
indispensable requisite for a garrison. Such is a general
description of these singular erections, which have for
more than half a century excited so much curiosity and
interest.
After the discovery of Mr Williams, the ingenuity of
the learned was turned to their probable origin, and se¬
veral theories and conjectures were hazarded by various
individuals upon the subject. By one party they were
declared to be of volcanic origin, whilst another contend¬
ed that they were works of art. Of the latter opinion was
Mr Williams himself, who not only declared them to be
the result of human ingenuity, but speculated upon the
manner in which they were constructed. But before ad¬
verting to any of the theories which have been advanced,
we shall give a description of the most remarkable of
these forts, and this, as far as possible, in the language of
those individuals by whom they were examined.
Dun MacSniochain, which lies in Argyleshire, is very
fully described by Dr Macculloch.1 “ It is situated on a
small rocky hill, which forms a kind of island in the plain,
of a narrow prolonged shape, and scarped all round, except
at one extremity, which affords access to the summit and
the fort. The height of this hill or rock above the plain
seems to be about forty or fifty feet; and it is, even in the
modern military sense, a strong position. It is important
to remark, that the rock consists of limestone and;slate in¬
termixed, the plain itself being chiefly alluvial, and the
nearest hill and rocks being of trap, and of that pudding-
stone so well known to all travellers, which also abounds
in the vicinity of Oban. That stone is itself formed of
fragments of various trap rocks, and is remarkable for its
ready fusibility, while the rock on which the fort stands
is of an infusible nature. The fort itself is so contrived
as to occupy nearly the whole summit, which is about 250
yards long, and consists of three distinct parallelogramic
enclosures. The dimensions of these are as follows, as
nearly as could be measured by pacing. The outer
is about thirty yards long and about twenty-four broad ;
the next is about thirty-seven, with a similar breadth ; and
that at the farther extremity is about fifty-six yards in
length, but being imperfect, it may formerly have been
longer. Besides this, between the first and second works
there is a transverse wall which reaches from the one pre¬
cipitous face to the other, so as, when entire, to have cut
off the communication from without to the two inner
ivorks. The circumferences of the tw'o inner enclosures
make collectively a line of about 260 yards, which, ac¬
cording to the modern military computation for a redoubt,
would contain more than 500 men. The external work
would dispose of about a hundred more. Hence it is plain
that this must have been a military work of some conse¬
quence, as capable of holding a large garrison.” The doc¬
tor goes on to show the eligibility of this place as one of
military defence ; and observes, that the walls were pro¬
bably twelve feet thick. He continues, “ when it is said
that the walls here or elsewhere are vitrified, it must not
be supposed that they form a solid mass of glass or slag.
That condition is very various in different specimens
755
throughout Scotland, and if it is here more perfect than in Vitrified
many, it is less so than in some others. To speak more Forts,
accurately, many of the stones which form the walls are
more or less perfectly slagged or scorified ; so that while
some have been thus changed throughout, the surfaces
only of others are affected, while others again, consisting
of less fusible materials, are only burnt. A certain pro¬
portion has escaped the fire altogether, or has never been
exposed to it; and if we may judge from the ruins, this
has taken place chiefly towards the upper part of the wall.
The general result, however, is, that in some parts the
wall forms a solid mass, but of an irregular composition,
consisting of scoria, slag, burnt stones, and stones scarce¬
ly altered, united together, but with vacant intervals;
while in other places it is separable into lumps of various
sizes, and into single stones.”
The next vitrified fort described by Dr Macculloch is
that of Dunadeer.
“ The hill of Dunadeer, having an elevation of about
600 feet2 from the irregular plain on which it stands,
with a steep acclivity all round, has a flat oval summit,
which is entirely occupied by the enclosure, so as to form
a strong ’military position. Though much ruined, and
consequently obscured, having apparently been used as
a quarry for building a more modern castle in the same
spot, it is not difficult to trace either the dimensions or
the disposition of the original work. The form is a paral¬
lelogram, of which one extremity is curved, so as to be near¬
ly semicircular, and its longest side is about fifty-eight
yards, the shortest being about twenty-four. The thick¬
ness of the wall seems originally to have been eighteen or
twenty feet; although, from the state and nature of the
ruin, it is impossible to be very accurate in this particular.
The highest remaining portion is about six feet above the
present surface ; and if one foot be added for the increase
of soil, and two for the loss which it has sustained at the
summit, to be computed from the ruined part at its foot
on each side, we shall have eight feet as the probable ori¬
ginal altitude.
“ The materials of the hill are chiefly grey granite, an
infusible rock ; but there are scattered in the surrounding
plain blocks of a black variety, which, from containing
hornblende, is very fusible. To pass over the obviously
more modern ruins at this place,3 as not concerning the
present question, there are at a certain stage down the
hill the well-marked traces of a work which once seems
to have encircled the whole. It is a kind of fortification
well known to antiquaries as occurring frequently in the
ancient British hill forts; and it resembles a modern mili¬
tary field work, as it consists of a single ditch and wall,
the latter being formed of loose stones not vitrified. I
consider this as part of the original defences, because a
similar one is found on Noath.
“ The materials in the vitrified wall are, as at Dun
MacSniochain, partly roasted without adhesion, and part¬
ly vitrified, or glazed or scorified, in a similar manner. It
is easy to see that the dark granite forms the vitrified
and scorified substances; but, not to enter on the more
minute details, which rather concern the chemist and mi¬
neralogist than the antiquary, but which are very inte¬
resting to them, I shall only further remark, that where-
ever stones not capable of vitrification themselves have
undergone this change, it has been produced by the a ka i
of the wood used in the process; whence the glazed sur¬
faces of many unvitrifiable substances. ....
« Now I remarked that at Dun MacSniochain the ma-
- , , i • oni 2 Tliin is an exasperation. It is only about 400 feet high at the moat.
1 MaccuMoch's Highlands and Western Isles, \o\. I- mnvfar stone and fragments of the earlier vitn-
s This, we presume, refers to the remains of an oblong tower constructed of ume mortar stone^"d ^he structlirp.
fied fort, to which the opponents of Dr Macculloeh ascribe a more modern date than belongs to the
756
VITRIFIED FORTS.
Vitrified terials of the hill itself were not vitnfiable, but that a very
Forts, fusible rock was present at a short distance, or scattered
in fragments about the plain. The same is true here ;
and in both cases the forts are not erected out of the ma¬
terials nearest at hand, which are infusible, but collected
with considerable labour from a distance. It is hence
evident that the builders of those works were aware of
the qualities of these various rocks, and it is equally evi¬
dent that they chose the fusible in preference to the in¬
fusible, although with a considerable increase of labour.’
The next vitrified fort of consequence is that upon
the hill called Noath, or Top of Noth, in Aberdeenshire.
It is thus described by the same author:
“ This mountain is the highest point of its own ridge,
rising to the height of about 1800 feet above the level of
the sea, and of 300 above any part of the surrounding
ground, with a steep acclivity. The summit is a plain ;
and, as at Dunadeer, that plain seems to have regulated
the size of the fort, as it occupies the whole space; an
arrangement which is equally found at Dun IVIacSnio-
chain. Nothing can more clearly prove the military and
common design of all these works, since they vary in
form and size according to the ground they stand on, and
are so contrived, just as a military work would be in the
hands of a modern engineer, that they may command all the
points of access, and prevent the enemy from advancing
any where under cover. . . . The area on Noath is nearly
twice as large as that on Dunadeer, yet the same system
is followed ; and in Dun MacSniochain, as I already show¬
ed, though the mode of occupying the ground is different,
the principle of a complete command is equally kept in
some places. That rubbish prevents the breadth from Vitrii
being correctly estimated, but this seems, as at Dunadeer, Fort
to have been eighteen or twenty feet. And if from that
rubbish we may form an estimate of the total height of
the wall before dilapidation, and before the growth of soil
below, it may probably be taken at twelve feet. I must
also remark, that the fallen rubbish, where the standing
and vitrified part is eight feet high, consists of unvitrified
stones; so that here, as at Dun MacSniochain, and in
other examples, the wall, after having been vitrified to a
certain height, seems to have been raised by some courses
of dry masonry to its total altitude.” The state of the
various materials which have been here exposed to the
fire is so similar to that of those belonging to Dun Mac¬
Sniochain and Dunadeer, that it is unnecessary to repeat
the description.
On the hill of Knockfarril, which lies to the south of the
valley of Strathpeffer, two miles west from Dingwall in
lloss-shire, there is a vitrified fort. It is a remarkable
one, both on account of its size, and because it was one of
those which arrested the attention of Mr Williams, the
discoverer of these structures. The hill of Knockfarril
forms part of a double ridge which bounds the valley of
Strathpeffer on the south, and separates it from the valley
of the river Conan. The sides of the hill are steep, but
at the eastern and western extremities the ascent is com¬
paratively easy. The area upon the top is about a hundred
and thirty-five yards in length by about forty-five yards in
medium breadth, and is a good deal inclined towards the
west. Round the area, and close to the edge of the hill,
are found masses of stones cemented together by melted
V
while other variations are made for the purpose of matter, and irregular both in position and in size. The
conforming to the peculiar shape of the hill.”
“ The enclosure on Noath is a long parallelogram of about
ninety by thirty-tw o yards, slightly rounded at the angles;
and it contains a well. Hence also we may conclude
that this was a station and a garrison. An entire defi¬
ciency of the wall at the eastern side seems to indicate
the entrance or gateway; a notion confirmed by its be¬
ing continuous with a spacious causeway that extends a
considerable way down the hill. That connexion also
leads us to conclude that this causeway was not a poste¬
rior work, but that it originally belonged to the fort. It
is made of laid stones, of considerable bulk, with great
care and strength, resembling a Roman road; and it is
remarkable that a similar causeway leads to the fort of
loose stones on the top of Ben-na-chie.
“ At Noath, too, as at Dunadeer, there is a similar field-
trench and wall, or outwork, on the declivity of the hill;
vitrification is superficial, extending only a short way
amongst the stones. According to Mr Cardonnel, one of
the earliest inspectors of this place, “ the enclosure is a
hundred and twenty feet long and forty broad within the
walls, strengthened on the outside with works at each
end. A range of habitations seems to have been erected
against, or under the shade of, the outward wall, of which
those on the south side seem to have been higher and
larger than those on the north. There are two wells
in the middle, which, on being cleared out, filled with
water. On the skirts of the hill to the south are many
detached buildings, which, from the stratum of dung
found on removing the ruins, appear plainly to have been
used for securing the cattle. This place seems to have
been anciently of consequence, and the residence of some
powerful chief, from a road which leads through the hills
to the north-west sea. To the east of the works are a
and, though much obscured, it seems also to have former- number of vitrified ruins, extending for a considerable
ly surrounded the whole. In both cases it seems to have way along the ridge of the hill. The end next the fort
been intended as a covered-way, to retard the attack on seems to have joined the outer wall, and consisted either
the body oi the place. The vitrified enclosure is far more of two parallel walls, closed above, with a passage between
perfect here than in any of these works in Scotland; and them under cover, or a high wall broad enough to walk
it is infinitely more remarkable, since, being unencumber- on. In this wall there is the vestige of a break about the
ed with soil and vegetation, scarcely even bearing a lichen, middle, over, which a bridge has been laid, to be drawn up
we see at a glance the whole effect of its blackness, its
bulk, its regularity, and its extent. We may indeed won¬
der how any one could have imagined such a work the
or removed as occasion might require.”
Mr Williams caused several cuts to be made across the
area in different places, in which, Sir George Mackenzie
produce of a volcano, and not less how any one capable observes, a considerable quantity of rubbish is to be seen,
in the least degree of observation or reasoning could have “ This rubbish,” says he, “ appears to have been collect-
C0«CTiVet 11 t^iere^'ect beacon-fires. ed for the purpose of extending or forming the area on the
• v i P*11*"8 '"l16 wa^ wbich have been most perfectly top; and it would seem that much labour had been be-
yitn e are, as might have been expected, the most en- stowed in accomplishing in this manner what might appa-
ire. w ere highest, they measure eight feet from the rently have been effected more easily by cutting down
groun , an t ie accumulation of soil at the base would part of the summit.” The vitrified masses appear in many
jus i y ie a dition of two or perhaps three feet more in instances to have been displaced; and it seems pretty evi-
1 Article t outs, Vitrified, in Edinburgh Encyclopaedia.
Vitilfid dent that the rampart was originally constructed with _
Fo much regularity as the nature of the materials would ad-
mit, both in order to render it more durable, and also to
make it serve the purposes of defence.
The fort next in importance to that of Knockfarril is
situated upon the hill of Craig-Phaidrick, near Inverness,
“ which,” according to Cardonnel, “ has this peculiar cir¬
cumstance, that there appears to have been two vitrified
walls quite round the area. The inner one seems to have
been very high and strong, the outer wall but low ; pro¬
bably the space between was intended for securing their
cattle, as there are no remains of dry-stone buildings, such
as are found near the rest. Several parts of this outer
wall appear quite entire, sticking to the firm bare rock,
where it was first run. The area within the inner wall is
near eighty paces long and twenty-seven broad.” Of this
fort we have an account by Mr Tytler, afterwards Lord
Woodhouselee. The hill itself is a small conical emi¬
nence, forming the eastern extremity of that ridge of
mountains which bounds Loch Ness on the north-west
side. It is situated about a mile to the north of Inver¬
ness, and is accessible on two different quarters, namety,
the west and south-east; the former affording entrance
by a narrow level ridge joining the hills on Loch Ness, and
the latter by an easy ascent from the high ground above
Inverness. On approaching the hill from the west, the
traveller first meets with a road cut through the rock from
the bottom to the top, in most places ten feet broad and
nearly as many deep, winding, for about seventy feet, in
an easy serpentine direction, by which he gains an ascent
over a steep rock otherwise quite inaccessible from that
quarter. In ascending by this road there appears, towards
the middle, on the right hand, a small platform overhang¬
ing the passage, and inclining by a very gentle declivity
to the very edge of the rock. Four enormous stones,
which are placed upon the platform, and on the edge and
extremity of it, have evidently been guided by art into
that position, it being impossible that they could have
j rested there had they been rolled down from the higher
parts. The obvious reason for placing them in such a
position has been, that on an alarm of danger they might
be projected into the path below, which could be effected
by the efforts of a very few men; and when done, the
i passage would be entirely obstructed, or at least rendered
so difficult that it could be defended by a few men against
any number of assailants. Some other large stones are
placed on an eminence to the left, probably with a view to
block up a hollow channel, by which an enemy might have
attempted to ascend. When the traveller reaches the top
of the hill, a few feet below the rampart which crowns
the whole, there appears an outward wall, approaching on
the sides of the hill so near the upper rampart as to have
only a trench of ten or twelve feet wide between them.
This outward wall is in some places so low as to be almost
level with the rock, though in other places it rises to the
height of two or three feet; but even where lowest, it
may be traced by a line of vitrified matter sticking fast to
the rock all along, and nearly of the same breadth, which
is about nine feet. The remains of this wall are strongly
vitrified, excepting in one place on the north side, where,
for about seventy yards, the rampart is formed only of
dry stones and earth. At the east side, where the hill is
more accessible, there is a prodigious mound of vitrified
matter above forty feet in thickness. At the south-east
corner, and adjoining to this immense mound, is an out¬
work, consisting of two semicircular vitrified walls, with a
narrow pass, which appears to have been the principal
entry to the fort, cut through in the middle.
The inner wall, surrounding the summit of the hill,
encloses an oblong level area of about seventy-five yards
VITRIFIED FORTS.
I?1'*’ ai’d t,'lrty broad,.rounded at each of the ends like
L 6 f otWard Wa ,11 18 °f Fonsidei’able height, and near-
y ie same thickness with the outward one. It has
some appearance of having been defended with four tur-
rets or bastmns; but the traces are so imperfect that
Mr iytler does not lay much stress on his observations in
this respect; a number of small tumuli of earth, with a
stone in the centre, were more discernible. On the east
side a portion of the internal space appears separated
from the rest by two ranges of stones fixed strongly
!!Vi-e eart1’ .anc!, forming a rectangular parallelogram.
1 his separation, says our author, “ is immediately dis¬
cernible by the eye, from this circumstance, that the
whole of the enclosed summit has been most carefully
cleared from stones, of which there is not one to be seen,
unless those that form this division, and the single one in
the middle of the circle of tumuli above mentioned. What
has been the design of this separated space it is difficult
to conjecture. It might perhaps have marked the resi¬
dence of those of a higher rank, or served as a temple
for the purposes of devotion.” At the east end of the
large area on the summit is a well of about six feet in dia¬
meter, which has probably been sunk very deep in the
rock, though now it is filled up with rubbish to within a
yard of the top.
In the parish of Meigle, in the county of Perth, there
is a hill called Barryhill, which seems to have been forti¬
fied with particular care. “ Its summit,” says Dr Play¬
fair, by whom it has been described, “ was levelled into
an area a hundred and eighty feet long and seventy-two
broad. Around the area a mound of earth was raised
from six to eight feet high and ten to twelve broad at top.
On this mound a wall of freestone was built, without any
cement whatever. The foundation of the wall was com¬
posed of rough granite, and still remains. It is of the same
breadth with the summit of the mound, but the height of
the wall cannot be known. Gordon’s estimate of it is very
erroneous. Among the ruins there are several pieces of
vitrified stone, but these vitrifications must have been ac¬
cidental, as they are few and inconsiderable. Along the
west and north borders of the area are barracks, or huts
of dry stone, and sufficiently sheltered by the mound and
wall; but no structures of this sort can be traced in the
south part of the area. As the north and west sides of the
hill are steep, and of difficult access, there was no need of
an outer ditch in these quarters ; but towards the south and
east, where the hill gently slopes, there is a ditch ten feet
broad and twelve to sixteen feet below the foundation of
the wall. At the south-east extremity of the fort a nar¬
row bridge was raised over the ditch, eighteen feet long
and two broad, except towards each end, where the
breadth was increased. It was composed of stones, laid
together without much art, and vitrified above, below, and
on both sides, so that the whole mass was firmly cement¬
ed. That an opening was left below, after the process
was finished, is doubtful. On the upper part of the bridge
a stratum of gravel was laid, to render the passage smooth
and easy. This is the only part of the fort intentionally
vitrified. A few yards distant from the ditch there is an
outer wall, the foundation of which is about eight feet
lower than the summit of the mound. The approach to
the fort is from the north-east, along the verge of a pre-^
cipice; and the entrance was secured by a bulwark of
stone, the ruins of which are extant. There is no vestige
of a well within the fort; but westward, between the
basis of the mound and the precipice, there was a deep
pond or lake, recently filled up by the tenants in that
neighbourhood. About a quarter of a mile eastward, on
the declivity of the hill, there are some remains of ano¬
ther oval fort, of less extent than the preceding, consist-
757
Vitrified
Forts.
VITRIFIED FORTS.
ine of a strong wall and ditch. Tradition says that there
was a subterraneous communication between these forts,
which is not improbable.” t . r ^ c «
In reference to this description of Dr Playfair, Sir
George Mackenzie observes,1 “ On going to examine what
Dr Playfair has called a bridge, I found that this consi¬
derable mass consisted of primitive rock stones vitrified.
It had not the slightest resemblance to a bridge, either
in its form or apparent use.” He goes on to state that
its position is in the bottom of the trench, between the
summit and the outer rampart; and then observes, 1 he
singularity of Barry Hill is in the vitrified matter being
in the trench. If it shall afterwards be found that the
whole extent is composed of melted stones, this circum¬
stance also will be remarkable, as it will indicate an in¬
tended collection of vitrifiable stones. But if detached
vitrified masses only shall be found, then their presence
may be presumed to have been accidental.”
Near Creich, in the county of Sutherland, a ridge pro-
iects into the Frith of Dornoch, terminating in an abrupt
precipitous hill. The ridge runs nearly east and west, and
the top is of difficult access ; whilst the summit, the out¬
line of which is very irregular, is encircled by a rampart
of loose stones. Within this there is another rampart of
the same kind, which encloses the remains of a building
constructed of stone and mortar. It is about thirty feet
square, the walls being three feet thick, but not now more
than four feet in height. There is a spring of water on
the outside of the rampart, and at a short distance within
it there is a well, which has been filled up. What renders
this ruin remarkable is, that within the enclosure of the
rampart, and at one end of it, there runs across the whole
summit a mass of stones displaying abundantly the marks
of fire ; and the vitrification, according to Sir G. Macken¬
zie, is entirely confined to this part of the hill. The sur¬
face of the hill within this rampart is uneven and rocky;
and that part of it which is crossed by the vitrified mass
is rather lower than the eastern portion.
Near the church of Amwoth, in the county of Kirkcud¬
bright, there is a steep rocky hill about three hundred feet
high, the summit of which has been fortified. “ The top,
which forms a level area thirty paces long and twenty
broad,” says the Rev. Mr Gordon, by whom it has been
described, “ is nearly surrounded with an irregular ridge
of loose stones, intermixed with vast quantities of vitri¬
fied matter. The stones, consisting of the common blue
schistus of the country, have been softened, twisted, and
partly fused by the fire. These heaps of loose stones
and vitrified matter are scattered irregularly over the top
of the fort, and exhibit no appearance of having ever
formed a continued wall. The vitrification is only partial
and superficial, and seems to have been the accidental
effect of large fires kindled on these high rocks, either for
some domestic purpose, or for signals to alarm the coun¬
try on the approach of an enemy. It was formerly believ¬
ed that these vitrified forts were peculiar to that part of the
island which is north of the Forth. But besides the one
described above, there are two others in the country, and
they all command a very extensive prospect of the sea.”
In the island of Bute, in the parish of Kingarth, there
is a vitrified fort; and in Cantyre, at the entrance of the
bay of Carradale, on a small island, about a rood of ground
is enclosed by vitrified masses. Others have been observ¬
ed in Argyleshire, particularly one on the hill of Dun-
skeig, which commands the entrance of Loch Tarbert.
On the same hill, ramparts have been constructed with dry
stones, without any vitrification.
On the hill of Laws, which is situated near the village Vitrifie
of Sturdymuir, a few miles north-east from Dundee, there
is a vitrified fort. The area on the summit is 133 yards Wy>'
in length and 66 in breadth, and all round it are to be
seen the vestiges of a broad rampart, and large masses of
vitrified stones. About four miles east from Forfar is the
castle-hill of Finhaven, the vitrifications on which have
been compared by Dr Anderson to the effects of fire in a
lime-kiln. The enclosed area is about 140 yards long and
upwards of forty broad, and the walls in some parts of this
fort have been laid bare, so as to appear at least ten feet .
high. There is no perfect description of the extent of the
vitrification, but Mr Tytler says that marks of it are visi¬
ble all round the summit. Dr Anderson describes it as
appearing here and there in horizontal or nearly horizontal
streaks. Dr Jamieson informs us that the stones are in
courses, and banded together, and that they have been
very unequally and irregularly affected by the fire, and
many of them not at all. Seven or eight varieties of stone
appear to have been employed. On this hill there are
several cross walls, and the vestiges of outworks, which
altogether present much that is interesting to the curious
in such subjects. .
It is impossible in this place to describe all the vitrified
ruins, amounting to about fifty, and extending oyer Perth¬
shire, Forfarshire, Kincardineshire, Aberdeenshire, Banff¬
shire, Morayshire, Inverness-shire, which contains an im¬
mense number, Ross-shire, Cromartyshire, Argyleshire,
Buteshire, Berwickshire, and Galloway. Dr Hibbert, who
has laboured with great industry in attempting to solve the
problem of their probable origin, in a paper which was read
to the Society of Antiquaries of Scotland in 1831, informs
us that he had discovered masses of vitrified matter at
Elsness, in the island of Sanday, one of the Orkneys. Of
these curious remains, which he calls vitrified cairns, or
beacon cairns, he counted more than twenty. 1 hey are
of a round shape, from three to five yards in diameter, and
elevated from two to three feet above the surface of the
ground. The stony fragments of which they are com¬
posed appear to have been collected from the beach, an
consist of what geologists call an argillaceous schist. Iheir
fusibility they derive chiefly from the feldspar, or rather
the alkali, which they contain.
At Jedburgh, and we believe in other parts of bcotland
besides those above mentioned, vitrified matter has een
found, but only in small quantity, and not presenting any
appearance of having formed part of a building.
Not long after these structures were discovered by Mr
Williams, the notion that their vitrification was of volcanic
origin was started, and soon became very prevalent,
was embraced by Mr Pennant, the eminent naturalist,
who came to this conclusion after an examination of Lraig;
Phaidrick. A similar view was adopted by other indi¬
viduals ; and the appearance of the hill in question, a
well as that of some others of these forts, is not i ca c
lated to favour this opinion. But as other ruins o
same kind came to be discovered, and an ^PPearfnC^ j
regular construction began to develop itself, anot;, er „r
a more rational hypothesis was advanced. _ lo t ® y
1777, Mr Williams published a pamphlet, inJ™lcn /
validity of the volcanic theory was opposed. ln‘s a
first assured himself, on the authority ^ &C i!s 0f
celebrated chemist, that many varieties of the roc
Scotland were fusible by artificial means, an
vanced the theory that vitrification was artificia y
ced, as a cement for the consolidation of rampar s o
stones. He supposed that they were constructed in
■Jed ft
ArcJuEologia Scotica, vol. iv. p. 184.
! Archaologia Scotica, ibid.
VITRIFIE
following manner: Two parallel dikes of earth or sod
being raised in the direction of the intended wall, with a
space between them sufficient for its thickness, the fuel
was put in and set on fire. The stone best adapted for
this purpose, called the plum-pudding stone, is everywhere
to be found in the neighbourhood. Stones of this descrip¬
tion were laid on the fuel, and, when melted, were kept
by the frame of earth from running off; and by repeatino-
the operation, the wall was raised to a sufficient height.
Amongst others who adopted the theory of Mr Willia'ms,
was Dr Anderson, who improved upon it by suggesting
that a peculiar kind of vitrifiable ore was employed to
promote the vitrification.
In a paper published in the year 1827, in the Trans¬
actions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, another hypo¬
thesis was advanced by Lord Woodhouselee, who had some
time before made an extensive survey of the vitrified forts.
Mr Williams, probably from too partial an examination,
had erroneously asserted that every stone composing a
vitrified fort had been acted upon by the fire; but Lord
Woodhouselee finding that the fact was not so, and that
many parts of the walls showed no marks of vitrifica¬
tion, began to doubt the theory of Mr Williams. Whilst
he agreed with him in thinking these structures artificial
works, he differed from him in supposing that their vitri¬
fication was accidental. It was not, he said, in their con¬
struction, but in their demolition, that they were vitrified ;
and this may be supposed to have occurred from many
circumstances. In the rude state in which Scotland
existed at the early period to which the erection of these
forts must be attributed, it is probable that their build¬
ings, both for habitation and defence, would be frequently
constructed of loose stones of an irregular shape, which,
of themselves, could scarcely form a wall of any tolerable
strength. Hence it became necessary to employ wood as
well as stone in their construction. This kind of building,
then, in our author’s opinion, was begun by raising a double
row of palisades or strong stakes in the form of the intend¬
ed structure, in the same way as in that ancient mode of
building described by Palladio under the name of riempiuta
a caffa, or coffer-work. These stakes were probably warp¬
ed across by boughs of trees laid very closely together, so
as to form two fences running parallel to each other at
the distance of some feet, and so close as to confine all the
materials, of whatever size, that were thrown in between
them. Into this intermediate space, his lordship supposes,
were thrown boughs of trees, earth and stones of all sizes,
large or small as they could quarry or collect them. Very
little care would be necessary in the disposition of these
materials, as the outward fence would keep the mound in
form. In this way it is easy to conceive that a very strong
bulwark might be reared with great dispatch; which, joined
to the natural advantage of a very inaccessible situation,
and that improved by artful contrivances for increasing
the difficulty of access, would form a structure capable of
answering every purpose of security or defence. The
most formidable attack against such a building would be
are, which would no doubt be always attempted, and often
with success, by an enemy who undertook the siege. If
the besiegers prevailed in gaining an approach to the
ramparts, and, surrounding the external wall, set fire to
it in several places, the conflagration must speedily have
become universal, and the effect may be easily imagined.
If there happened to be any wind at the time to increase
the heat, the stony parts could not fail to come into
fusion; and as the wood burnt away, sinking by their own
weight into a solid mass, there would remain a wreck of
D FORTS.
vitrified matter tracking the spot where the ancient ram¬
part had stood ; irregular, and of unequal height, from
the fortuitous and unequal distribution of the stony mate¬
rials of which it had been composed.
The fifth and last theory is, that the vitrification of
these forts was the result of beacon-fires. This opinion
first obtained supporters amongst the contributors to Sir
John Sinclair’s Statistical Account of Scotland. It was
afterwards advocated by Sir George Mackenzie in the ar-
tide previously referred to; and latterly by Dr Hibbert,
who has published several ingenious papers on the subject
in the Archceologia Scotica. Such are the various hypo¬
theses which have been advanced explanatory of the sin¬
gular phenomena of vitrified forts. To present any thing
like a complete view of the arguments which have been
produced in support of each, would occupy more space
than can here be allotted to the subject; an abstract,
therefore, of those which are most striking can only be
given. In general those who have considered the subject
at all are divided into two classes; namely, those who sup¬
port the theory of Mr Williams, and those who advocate
the beacon-fire theory. Amongst the most eminent of
the former class is Dr Macculloch, who published a me¬
moir upon the subject in the Transactions of the Geolo¬
gical Society of London, and also treated of it in his work
on the Highlands and Western Isles of Scotland.
But, first, with respect to the beacon theory. That at
a very early period of Scottish history mountain fires were
lighted for the purpose of alarming the country when an
enemy appeared upon the coast, is an undoubted histori¬
cal fact. The primary assumption is therefore undenia¬
ble. With respect to their origin, many of those who
support the hypothesis that the vitrification of these forts
is the result of beacon-fires, have offered conjectures as
to the date of their erection. Upon this subject Dr Hib¬
bert observes,1 “ The coasts of Scotland began to be
annoyed by the predatory visits of the Vikingr (Sea-
kings) about the end of the eighth century; but it was
not probably until the Scots had obtained a complete
ascendancy over the Piets, by which both were united
under one government, that systems of beacons were
formed to provide against the sudden descent of the Scan¬
dinavians, who invaded them from the Danish or Nor¬
wegian shores, or from countries which they subsequent¬
ly colonized, namely, from Shetland, Orkney, Caithness,
Sutherland, the Hebrides, Ireland, or the Isle of Man.
The Murray Frith, as we learn from ancient Sagas,
was one of the most convenient landing places for the
Northmen ; and hence we must look to this locality for
the greatest proportion of vitrified sites. The number of
such as have been traced within sight of each other, in a
direction east to west from Banff to Dingwall, and in a
direction north to south from Cromarty to Fort Augustus,
may be estimated at twenty ; but it is probable that their
actual amount will be eventually found to be much more.
Two vitrified eminences appear near Huntly, connected
apparently with the line of coast extending from Kinnaird’s
Head to the mouth of the Dee. More south, a chain of vi¬
trified sites, nine or ten in number, appears to have con¬
veyed signals from the line of coast which stretches from
Kincardine to the Tay, being prolonged from Stonehaven
or Dundee to the neighbourhood of Dunkeld or Crieff. On
the west coast, again, we find similar vitrified sites at
Bute, Cantire, Isla, Loch Etive, Loch Sunart, Fort Wil¬
liam, or at Arisaig. The number which subsists on the
west yet remains to be ascertained ; about twelve have
been enumerated. Lastly, at Galloway, three occur,
759
"Vitrified
F orts.
1 Archwologta Scotica, vol. iv. p. 170.
760
Vitrified
Forts.
vitrified forts.
. , • . momiulinff colonists of dia, where he also lays much stress upon the appearances Vitrified
apparently as signals against the maiau g exhibited by the hill of Dun Creich, in which, as formerly Forts.
Ireland. . . , . • h;„y.]v imnro- mentioned, only the singular wall which runs from one side
“ But it must be kept in to the other of the rampart shows marks of vitrification,
bable that the original intent of the iocaiities for The reason assigned for traces of fire being only partially
fied sites was that of. affording ^onye visible in this anfi in all the other forts is, that the com-
beacon-fires. There is no necessity ’ , bustible matter was always placed so as to be sheltered
Wta, that signal lights, ffrom the wind. “ To be satisfied,” he observes, « whe-
proach of an enemy from the sea, titprefore that ther the signal-fires should be kindled on or beside a heap
Uified stations. It is not ^probable therefore^ Uiat tfi g e ^ a ^ of ^ ^
the rude ramparts themselves m to , inhabitants arisen when a fire was kindled on the bare ground. The
mote period, have been erected by ie ^ picts . and fuel wouid be blown about and dispersed, to the great
of Albyn,. namely, by the Cale < . .jon would annoyance of those who attended. The plan for obviat-
hence their occasional or very par , j nces ing the inconvenience thus occasioned, which would oc-
merely indicate the later ^ cUSr most naturally and readily, would be to raise a heap
rnS^fw.foYuordedl;rtoeaar,ieHnhS«s,were of stores on ei, side, of which the fuel migh. be
called upon to repel new invaders from the sea
Dr Hibbert goes on to remark, that after the Norsemen
had acquired a permanent settlement in Scotland, and
also in other places, they themselves became liable to
sudden piratical descents from their own countrymen ; to
i • . I *-.K aD nf in fxvPl'V rountrv
placed to windward.”
Such are the leading arguments produced in support of
their doctrine by the advocates of the beacon theory.
The most distinguished advocate of Mr Williams’ views is
Dr Macculloch, to whose works on the Highlands and
sudden piratical descents tr0.™ Western Isles we have already referred. The doctor oh-
guard against whic i iey in , ^vctpms of serves with reference to the partial vitrification of the
beacon-fires “hTwardemWp oVwhichrvas enforced by the walls,’that had the walls been the enclosures of beacon-
Cost ri-Crons laws! This we are informed of by ancient fires, every stone from the summ.t to the base must have
Saeas and edicts on the subject are found in many early felt their effects alike. But the great variety found
codes’of the north of Europe. From two ancient writers, in the forms and sizes of these works, their obviously mi-
Olaus Magnus and Snorro, passages are quoted, which litary and defensible character, and the enormous size of
go to prove that large trees vJere felled, formed into piles some of them, as for instance that at Noath, seems, in
upon mountain tops, and then set fire to, for the purpose
of giving intelligence to the country of a hostile invasion.
These, however, obviously apply to countries upon the
Norwegian coast in particular ; but they may be extended
to those portions of Scotland which were under the domi¬
nation of the Norsemen.
The same writer further observes, that vitrification may
in some cases have resulted from fires having been lighted
in these forts during the observance of religious and other
festivals. The custom of kindling immense fires on occa-
his opinion, to render the notion of their having been
signal-stations scarcely worth refuting. “ At Amwoth,
in Galloway,” he says, “the hill has been scarped by art,
so as to form a deep ditch close to the foot of the wall.
Nothing of this kind could have been required for a bea¬
con ; and it is further remarkable, that the transverse wall
at Dun MacSniochain is a common expedient for defence
in the ancient British works that occupy peninsulas or
promontories; as at Castle Trereen, Zenor, and dintagel,
in Cornwall. The advanced covered-ways of Noath and
Dunadeer, and the causeway of the former, would be
equally unnecessary on such a supposition ; nor, at l\oath,
could any possible purpose of a beacon have demanded
or justified such an enormous work, whether we con*
sider the area enclosed, or the height and thickness of the
walls. . .,
“ To imagine an area of 2700 square yards covered wita
burning wood, and to conceive a wall that would have re
testivais. me custom or Kinaung unmenst; mes un m     j
sions of feasting was certainly common in ancient times; Dunadeer, and the causeway of the oimer, W0!F
indeed, the custom of the Baaltein, or festival in honour pnnnllv unnnressarv on such a supposition ; nor, at JNOi
of Baal, is observed in some districts even at the present
time. He also supposes that many of the sites where
vitrified remains occur w ere places of rendezvous for tribes
or clans, upon public occasions of peace or warfare; and
also that the ramparts afforded a shelter for cattle as well
as for human inhabitants. Dr Hibbert sums up his evi- purning wuuu, unu lu cuu^civc c    
dence in support of the beacon theory by giving a list quired the labour of many hundred men for wee vs, ui ^
of the ancient forests of Scotland, from which it appears for no other purpose than to enclose what did not wan.
that the country was formerly in a densely wooded state, enclosing, are dreams not deserving a serious examina ion.
and hence afforded ample materials for kindling beacon- If a chemical argument were wanted in addition to tiese,
fires upon the grandest scale, and celebrating the rites of it would be found in the fact, that though all this w00 ’
Baal, or any other object of worship, in a manner sufficient- a forest in itself, were collected and lighted, when a squa ^
ly flagrant to propitiate the favour of the most exorbitant yard would have served the purpose, as well as tw0 ®
fire-loving god of antiquity. three thousand, it would not vitrify its enclosure m
In the Transactions of the Society of Antiquaries of manner in which these walls are vitrified; as the curren
Scotland, vol. iv. are various papers relative to vitrified of air from without would, by cooling the externa Par ’
sites, which were read to the society by Dr Hibbert in impede its action on the outside, where the fusion is
the year 1831. These contain several communications complete as within. It has been asserted that these v
from Sir George Mackenzie, Mr George Anderson, and trifled forts actually did communicate in chains, 011?c3,3
others, in which the main principle, that these forts were nection, throughout the country. Nothing but a sum
beacon stations, is supported by an attempt to establish ignorance respecting these works and their places cou
the fact that the hills on which they are found form a have led to such an assertion; it is not the fact, in,.n)3 ^
regular chain of signal stations which command each other, instances it is physically, geographically, and optica y i
By this arrangement a fire kindled on one of them could possible; and the mere supposition involves equal ig *
be seen by those contiguous, and thus intelligence com- ranee of the political state of Scotland in ancient j
municated throughout the whole line, on whatever part of else hypothesis respecting its union under one
the coast the enemy might make their appearance. This government, which is purely gratuitous. Many o
hypothesis was advanced by Sir George Mackenzie, in indeed are placed in situations so low, or so 9,n.a.n°
his article on vitrified forts in the Edinburgh Encyclopre- among hills, as to preclude all communication o tns
Vitri fjl
Fori
VITRIFIE
ture; as is the case in Isla, in Morven, in Ardnamurchan,
in Galloway, and apparently along the course of the Bogie
in Aberdeenshire.”
Dr Macculloch goes on to observe, that the appearances
of the burned and vitrified substances appeared to him to
prove that a long-continued and intense heat had been
applied, neither of which effects could have resulted from
the burning down of a wall formed of stone and wood, as
Lord Woodhouselee supposed was the case. The plan
of constructing a species of furnace by means of earthen
mounds, into which stones and fire were introduced till
the structure was finished, not only, according to our au¬
thor, answers all the conditions, and, among the rest, that
of vitrifying the materials below more perfectly than the
upper ones, but is confirmed as to its probability and ef¬
ficacy by a practice in use in some parts of India. We
are informed by a French engineer, that in that part of
Asia houses of clay are burned into a solid brick, in this
very manner and at this day, in order to prevent the ef¬
fects of inundations. Dr Macculloch further observes, that
the art seems to have been practised in England, though
with a different end in view. Some years ago a house was
demolished in Shropshire, part of which, of unknown an¬
tiquity, was covered with an entire crust of glass, appa¬
rently for the purpose of protecting it from the effects of
the weather.
With respect to the antiquity of these forts, little can
be advanced that is satisfactory. Our author offers a spe¬
culation, that if they were built by one people, in the wide¬
ly-separated districts where they are found, they ought to
belong to a time prior to the division of Scotland into a
Pictish or Caledonian, and a Scottish or a Celtic and Nor¬
wegian dominion. Thus they should be referred to the
aboriginal Celts, or first settlers of Scotland ; that people
whom the Pictish invaders found, and on whose defeat
they settled themselves in the conquered country. The
same writer concludes his observations by expressing a
hope “ that some future traveller in the East will find fur¬
ther reasons to prove that they are among the earliest mi¬
litary works of our oriental Celtic ancestors.”
Such are the arguments brought forward by each of the
parties in support of their theories as to the origin and
design of vitrified forts. It must be confessed that a case
perfectly satisfactory and free from doubt is made out by
neither of them, although the balance of probability seems
in favour of the opinion that they were regular military
works, vitrified on purpose, for the sake of strengthen¬
ing the walls at the time when cement was unknown. In
support of this view of the case, we shall offer a few re¬
marks.
The main question is, were these forts intentionally vi¬
trified, for the purpose of cementing the walls together ?
or was the vitrification an accidental result of beacon-fires
being lighted up within their enclosures ? It would cer¬
tainly be injudicious to advocate either theory exclusive¬
ly. For if, on the one hand, we maintain that they were
intended for places of strength, some of them are evi¬
dently too small, and would have been utterly useless
for that purpose ; and if, on the other hand, it be assert¬
ed that they were signal-stations accidentally vitrified by
signal-fires being lighted there, then the size and elabo¬
rate construction of some of them indicate their adap¬
tation to something of far more importance. Sir George
Mackenzie observes: “ We allow, that while these hills
were chosen for signal-stations, they were also used as
places of defence. And indeed it would have been
strange if posts of so much importance had been left
d forts. 76J
without the means of resistance. All have agreed that Vitrified
they were places of more or less strength, though perhaps Forts,
such lofty and exposed situations were not well chosen
foi protracted warfare. Had they been merely places of
retreat, an invading enemy would certainly overlook them,
as he could overrun and pillage the country without the
possibility of his being annoyed from them; or if there
was any risk of his progress being interrupted, the situa¬
tion of the hills would render it easy for a small party to
coop up the garrison. But as an enemy would always en¬
deavour to approach unseen, and to prevent the country
from being alarmed, these stations would undoubtedly be *
objects of attack; and hence we should be warranted in
supposing that they were to a certain extent fortified,
even were the appearance of ramparts less unequivocal.”
Now, as Sir George advocates the opinion that vitrifica¬
tion was an accidental result of fires being kindled in these
forts, of what possible use could they be as strongholds?
For if these watch-towers were lit when the enemy ap¬
peared, then of course those within would be compelled
to evacuate them, as no living thing could have breathed
within some hundred feet of the place where such immense
conflagrations took place. It seems, therefore, a very im¬
probable circumstance, that men, even allowing that they
were sunk in the lowest barbarism, would laboriously con¬
struct and fortify a place which they must have been
aware it would be necessary to abandon at the very time
when they were most needed.
With regard to the vitrification on the hill called the
Top of Noth, the same writer observes : “ The vitrifica¬
tion is only in the inside, which is a very satisfactory
confirmation of the idea that it has been produced by
signal-fires. Had the outside of the rampart on Top of
Noth1 been vitrified, we might have been warranted in con¬
cluding that fire had been used to strengthen it. Had
the inside been vitrified with this view, it is impossible to
conceive that no attempt was made to cement the outside
also; since in every structure for defence, however rude,
we find the strongest, and not, as in this instance, the
weakest, part opposed to the approach of an enemy.” This
reasoning seems by no means conclusive. Vitrification was
had recourse to, not because the vitrified matter thus
formed was of a stronger nature than the materials which
it bound together, but simply because it did bind or ce¬
ment them, so as to form one solid fabric. Now this
might be accomplished either on the one side or the other,
without making any very great difference as to strength.
It is, however, very problematical if those who construct¬
ed these fabrics had any thing of this kind in view when
they erected them ; and as vitrification occurs on the out¬
side of other forts, little weight can be attached to this
argument. In those forts which were vitrified only on the
inside, it seems probable, that from the nature of the hill
where they stood, it was found impracticable to accom¬
plish it on the outside. Various other circumstances be¬
sides the nature of the ground may have occurred to de¬
termine both the extent of the vitrification and the choice
of the parts where it was to be effected.
Sir George Mackenzie further observes, with respect
to the situation of the forts : “ We do not remember an in¬
stance in which there is not much higher ground imme¬
diately contiguous to the hills on which the vitrifications
are found.”2 Now, granting that the situation of every
one of them was a commanding one, and that the whole
were connected together like links in a chain, so that a
fire on any given hill could readily communicate intelli¬
gence to the others, is it not probable that those who
1 Other individuals, who have examined the above fort, inform us that it is vitrified on
* There is no high ground contiguous to Dunadeer or to Ivoth.
VOL. IX.
the outside as much as on the inside.
5 D
762
FOR
Vitrified erected the signal-stations would
Forts, accessible elevations, such as towered aboveall tl e neig
v—bourin? heights, and commanded the widest range
country? By this means the end would not only have
been more perfectly effected, but the number of signal-
stations would have been lessened by one half, or perhaps
more; and to suppose that the aboriginal inhabitants of
Scotland would have overlooked this obvious fact, is to
attribute to them a degree of ignorance below that of the
most savage tribes which the enterprise of modern times
has discovered. An erroneous notion seems to prevail as
to the extent of fire requisite to convey intelligence ot tne
approach of a foe. But it was not necessary to keep up
the combustion for any length of time. Supposing tha
these were signal-stations, a temporary blaze would com¬
municate all the intelligence that was required, and just
as much as could have been conveyed, although the tire
had been continued for a considerable period of time.
The more that the advocates of the beacon theory insist
on their being a regular chain of forts, the less necessity
there is for supposing that the fires were so large, and
continued for such a length of time, as to vitrify rocks. If
it be urged, as it has been, that vitrification was produ¬
ced, not by the intensity of the fire at one time, but result¬
ed fiapm repeated applications of it, still this could only
apply to vitrification upon the surface; for, allowing that
on any given occasion, when the beacon was lighted, the
heat was sufficient to vitrify the rocks one inch inwards,
upon the next occasion when it became necessary to re¬
peat the signal in the same place, it is not to be suppos¬
ed that it would vitrify it another inch farther inwards.
This supposition would involve the absurdity that the
fires lighted were on every successive occasion stronger
and stronger, a circumstance which was not likely to oc¬
cur. Besides, considering the height to which it was ne¬
cessary to convey the combustibles, it is probable that,
when the fires were once found to answer the purpose,
and the people knew that they would do so again, they
would become less rather than greater. Hence we may
conclude, that in every case where the vitrification pene¬
trates to some depth inwards, it resulted from an intense
continuous heat, kept up for a long period, not from a se¬
ries of petty fires. Where the chain of communication was
regular, there was, as we have said, no necessity for such
stupendous piles of burning wood as were requisite for vi¬
trifying some feet of a wall; the combustion of a few trees
would have accomplished the end as well as if the blaze
of iEtna had irradiated the summits of the hills. But
though not an absolute necessity, there was a degree of
propriety which could scarcely have been overlooked in
placing them within sight of each other, as has been assert¬
ed by the advocates of the beacon theory. Dr Macculloch,
however, as we have seen, has denied that this is the case ;
but his statement must be taken with caution, for a great
many sites probably remain undiscovered. However, the
main question will not be affected by the decision of this
point. The more numerous the forts were, the less use
was there for immense conflagrations, and hence the pro¬
bability is lessened that they were so extensive as to fuse
masses of rock.
The following is a quotation from one of the papers of
Dr Hibbert: “ None of these vitrified forts exhibit, as from
many writers we should be erroneously led to suppose, any
regular masonry in their structure. Unhewn fragments of
stones, and water-worn boulders, sometimes mingled with
smaller gravel, appear in a quantity almost exceeding be¬
lief, following the contour of the summit of a mountain,
or, as in the instance of a fort which is situated in the
Kyles of Bute, following the contour of a small holm or
islet, elevated a few yards only above the level of the
: sea
FOR
and in cases where, owing to the more exposed nature of Font
the ground, a stronger defence is demanded, a double or August
even treble rampart of the same rude materials is added. ' r'
The vitrification which characterizes these forts is, in
some few of them, displayed to an extent that is perfectly
astonishing; while in other instances it is with difficulty
to be detected.” . ^ ,
At an early period, the want of proper tools tor either
quarrying stones, or hewing them into symmetrical forms,
would compel builders to seize upon such masses as pre¬
sented themselves, whether round, oval, or of any other
shape. Now, in order to form a level bed upon which
these might repose with any degree of security, they
would naturally have recourse to gravel and debris of some
kind, for at this period they seem to have been ignorant of
cement. It cannot be denied that a very unstable erec¬
tion would result from this method of building; for the
walls would not only be easily demolished by a hostile
force, but rain, which falls in large quantities in moun¬
tainous regions, by percolating through the fissures, would
soon have washed away the unconsolidated mass. But,
granting that signal-fires had accidentally vitrified the
walls in one instance, is it not to be presumed that the
idea of cementing the walls of their strongholds by means
of fire would suggest itself to those who observed the
fact? This is an extremely probable circumstance; and
it is strongly corroborated by the fact mentioned by Dr
Macculloch, and many others who have examined these
ruins, that stones of an easily fusible natuie were brought
from some distance, whilst those composing the mountain
upon which they stood were neglected. This was certain¬
ly done intentionally; but of what use was it to build of
such materials the walls of what may be called a furnace.
Obviously of none whatever. On the contrary, there was
an evident disadvantage. For as in every fire-place a plen¬
tiful supply of air is necessary to support combustion, it is
clear, that as soon as the rocks began to melt, the in¬
terstices would have been filled up, and the combustion
immediately checked. It was the object of the builders
to construct their fire-places of unfusible rocks, and it was
also necessary to leave numerous openings for the free a -
mission of air; but it would appear that no indication of
any such thing is to be traced in these ruins, a circum¬
stance which strongly supports the truth of the hypothe¬
sis that they were regular forts, not beacon-stations. I e
presence of wells or tanks for water in some of these forts,
of double and of triple walls and causeways leading up to
them in others, besides many other circumstances which
might be adduced, all go to prove the same view.
In a word, the probability is, that the natives having
observed the effects of fire upon some stones of ramparts
which enclosed beacon-fires, acquired the idea of conso¬
lidating their places of strength by the same means, at a
time when the use of cement was unknown. Those parts
of vitrified forts which show that mortar was used in their
construction must, according to all accounts, be referre
to a later date than that of the vitrified portions of these
fabrics. (®* R' R’^ ,
FORT AUGUSTUS, the central fort of three such
establishments erected for the purpose of overawing t e
Highlands since the Revolution. It is situated in e
centre of a beautiful plain or opening in the hills, in t e
heart of Inverness-shire, at the western extremity of Loch-
ness, and on the south bank of the Caledonian Canal, or
Augustus is the weakest of the three forts mentioned, an
was easily taken and destroyed by the Highland insurgents
during the revolt of 1745. It resembles a gentlemans
house more than a place of military strength; and, t oug
capable of containing 400 soldiers, is now sufficiently gar
risoned by a few veteran artillerymen.
FOR
‘ m FORT GEORGE, a fortress of Scotland, in the county
G ?e of Inverness. It is an irregular polygon of six bastions,
mounted with eighty pieces of cannon, and is situated on
the southern extremity of a low peninsula which projects
^ into the Murray Firth, about twelve miles north-east of In¬
verness. The whole fortress covers an area of ten Scotch
acres, and the barracks possess accommodation for about
3000 troops. This fortress was begun in 1746, and com¬
pleted in 1764, at an expense of L.l 60,000. It was con¬
structed with the intention of keeping the Highlands in
check ; but for this purpose it is now no longer required,
and only serves as a barrack for soldiers. It is usually oc¬
cupied by a governor, lieutenant-governor, several inferior
officers, and one or two companies of soldiers. The view
from the ramparts is extensive and varied.
FORT ST DAVID, q town of Hindustan, on the sea-
coast of the Carnatic, situated on the river Tripapolore.
Three rivers of considerable size all fall into the sea in the
space of four miles within the bounds of Fort St David.
The Panaur is about 1800 yards to the north of the Tri¬
papolore, and the two streams communicate by a canal
which runs parallel to the margin of the sea, from which it
is distant about 1000 yards. Fort St David stands in the
angle formed by the junction of the canal with the Tripa¬
polore, which passes close to the site of the fort, and then
sends to the south an arm that joins at no great distance
the river of Bandapollam, where both in one channel con¬
tinue along the eastern side of Cuddalore, separated from
the sea by a mound of sand. This factory was first esta¬
blished in the year 1691. After the capture of Madras by
the French in 1746, the English were besieged here with¬
out success ; and from this period it continued the head of
the English settlements till 1758, when it was taken by
Lally, after a short siege, and the fortifications destroyed.
It is 100 miles south-south-west from Madras, and 15 south-
south-west from Pondicherry. Long. 79. 57. E. Lat. 11.
46. N.
FORT WILLIAM, a fortress of Scotland, in the coun¬
ty of Inverness. It is situated on the east side of Lochiel,
and the south side of the small river Nevis, where it falls
into that inlet of the sea, at the distance of sixty-one miles
south-west of Inverness, and twenty-nine and a half south¬
west of Fort Augustus. It is of a triangular form, with two
bastions mounting fifteen twelve-pounders. The fort was
originally built during the usurpation of Cromwell, by Ge¬
neral Monk, and occupied much more ground at that time
than it does at present. During the reign of William III.
it was rebuilt on a smaller scale, and received its name in
honour of that monarch. In the year 1745 it stood suc¬
cessfully a siege of five weeks, but is by no means a place
of great strength. It is now garrisoned by a governor,
fort-major, and a company of soldiers.
FORT ALICE, in Scotch Law, signified anciently a small
place of strength, built for the defence of the country, and
which on that account was formerly reckoned inter regalia,
and did not go along with the lands upon which it was si¬
tuated without a special grant from the crown. Now, for-
talices are carried by a general grant of the lands; and
the word has become synonymous with manor-place, mes¬
suage, and the like.
FORTAVENTURA, or Fuerteventura, one of the
Canary Islands. It is fertile in corn and excellent fruits,
and remarkable for its numerous breed of goats and prodi¬
gious quantity of goat-milk cheese. For its size and po¬
pulation see the article Canary Islands.
FORTESCUE, Sir John, an eminent English lawyer
in the reign of Henry VI. was descended from an ancient
family in Devonshire, though both the time and place o
his birth are unknown. He is supposed to have been e u-
cated at Oxford, and the great learning displayed in his
FOR
763
writings does no discredit to such a supposition; but it Fortescue.
is nevertheless altogether uncertain at which university
he studied, or whether he ever studied at any. When
he turned his views to the legal profession he entered
himself of Lincoln’s Inn, where he soon distinguished him¬
self by his knowledge of the civil as well as of the common
law. In the fourth year of Henry VI. he was appointed
one of the governors of Lincoln’s Inn, and three years after¬
wards the same office was again conferred upon him. In
1441 he was made a king’s serjeant at law, and the fbllow-
ing year chief justice of the King’s Bench. As a judge
I ortescue is highly commended for his wisdom, gravity,
and uprightness; and he seems to have enjoyed great fa¬
vour with the king, who is said to have given him some
substantial proofs of esteem and regard. He held his of¬
fice during the remainder of the reign of Henry VI. to whom
he steadily adhered ; and having faithfully served that un¬
fortunate monarch in all his troubles, he was attainted of
treason in the first parliament of Edward VI. which as¬
sembled at Westminster in November 1461, having been
included in the same act by which Henry VI., Margaret
of Anjou his queen, Edward their son, and many persons
of the first distinction, were likewise attainted. When
Henry subsequently fled into Scotland, he is supposed to
have appointed Fortescue, who appears to have accompa¬
nied him in his flight, chancellor of England ; and although
the name of the latter is not found recorded in the patent
rolls, because, as Selden remarks, “ being with Henry VI.
driven into Scotland by the fortune of the wars with the
house of York, he was made chancellor of England while
he was there,” yet several writers have mentioned him by
this style and title ; and in his book De Laudibus Legum
Anglice, he calls himself Cancellarius Anglice, which seems
to settle the question. Early in 1463, Fortescue embarked
at Bamburg with Queen Margaret, Prince Edward her son,
and many other persons of distinction who followed the for¬
tunes of the house of Lancaster, and landed at Helvoets-
luys, from which the party were conducted by Bruges and
Lisle to Lorraine. Being thus expatriated, he remained
many years on the Continent, moving about from place to
place, as the necessities of the royal exiles required, and en¬
deavouring to promote their interest by every means in his
power. But his most important labours during this period
were of a different and more lasting kind. Having observed
that Prince Edward applied himself wholly to military ex¬
ercises, and seemed to think of nothing but qualifying him¬
self to command in battle, Fortescue, who had observed in
him indications of a sound understanding, judged it high
time to endeavour to give him other impressions, and par¬
ticularly to infuse into his mind just notions of the consti¬
tution of his country, as well as a due regard for its laws.
With this view he drew up his celebrated work De Lau¬
dibus Legum Anglice, which, though it failed of its primary
intention, owing to the barbarous murder of the young
prince, for whose benefit it was composed, will yet remain
a lasting monument of the author’s learning and patriot¬
ism. When the prospects of the exiles began to brighten
a little, the queen and the prince returned to England,
accompanied by Fortescue and others, who no doubt hoped
that a more auspicious day was about to dawn upon the de¬
scendant of time-honoured Lancaster. But destiny still
counter-worked the designs of the heroic Margaret. ei
attempt to assert the rights of her son totally laded ; am
the chancellor, forced to reconcile himself as he best could
to the victorious Edward IV. wrote an apology for his con¬
duct, which, though Selden had seen it, has never been
published. Little further is known respecting the life of
this remarkable man, excepting that, amidst all the changes
of masters and varieties of fortune, he stedfastly maintained
those constitutional principles which he had with equal abi-
764
Forth.
forth.
1 • i thp rplpbrated treatise Forth joins the German Ocean, its breadth is from thirty-
lity and conciseness explained " five to forty miles.
> above referred to. He appears to ,a d Y is so deep as to be navigable by vessels of seventy tons
vanced age, though the time of his death, like the date ^ ^ ^ h^h up as StirUng) and the tide flows a mile
his birth, has not been ascertamea. Endand, above that town. At low water, above Borrowstownness,
Fortescue’s masterly v^^cati n o learned the it seldom exceeds two fathoms in depth ; at Queensferry,
though received with great favour by ear between Inchgarvey and the north shore, it deepens to
profession to whom rt was ^ thirty-seven fathoms. It becomes shallower again where
in print not the retgn of Henry VIIL when ,t w^ p ^ ^ till k reaches the north channel between King,
lished by Whitechurch in 16mo, bu ^ Tot_ horn_ness and inchkeith, where it deepens to twenty-six
1516 it was translated by Motoster^ad ^ tcl^y^^ fathoms_ Between EUe and the south shore tts depth is
tel; and again in 1567, lo73, and 157 , X , H sometimes thirty fathoms ; and it never exceeds this depth
1598, 1599, and 1609. It was hkew.se panted, with Heng^ so ^ ^ with the German 0cean
The Forth, like other streams connected with the ocean,
ebbs and flows twice in twenty-four hours j but the flood
Forth.
S Magna et Parra, in 1616 and 1660 12mo;
and again with Selden’s notes in 1672, in 12mo. In 1737
it appeared in folio; and, in 1775, an English translation,
with the original Latin, and Seldens notes, besides a va¬
riety of remarks relative to the history, antiquities, and
laws of England, was published in 8vo. Waterhouse s
Fortescue Illustratus, which appeared in 1663, though pro¬
lix and defective in style, may be consulted with advan¬
tage, and will serve to facilitate the labours of more judi¬
cious and able inquirers. 2. Another valuable and learned
work by the same author, but written in English, was pub¬
lished in the reign of Queen Anne, under the title of I he
Difference between an absolute and limited Monarchy, as
it more particularly regards the English C onstitution, and
accompanied with some remarks by John Fortescue Aland
of the Inner Temple, London, 1714, in 8vo ; and a second
edition with amendments appeared in 1719, 8vo. In the
Cotton Library there is a manuscript of this work, in the
title of which it is said to have been addressed to Henry
VI.; but many passages show plainly that it was written in
favour of Edward IV. 3. Of the author’s other writings,
which were pretty numerous, but never printed, we know
nothing more than can be collected from the titles, and the
commendations bestowed on them by persons who had per¬
used the manuscripts. Those still extant are, 1. Opuscu-
lum de Natura Legis Nature, et de ejus censura in succes¬
sions Regnorum Supremorum; 2. Defemio juris Domus
Lancastrice ; 3. Genealogy of the House of Lancaster ; 4.
Of the Title of the House of York ; 5. Genealogies Regum
Scotiee ; 6. A Dialogue between Understanding and Faith ;
7. A Prayer Book which savours much of the Times we
live in ; with some others, which, as the author was a man
of great knowledge and observation, will, we trust, yet be
printed. When lord-chancellor, Fortescue is said to have
drawn up the statute of the 28th Henry VI. on the resump¬
tion of certain grants of the crown, which, though much
relied on by writers on that subject, is not extant in any
edition of the statutes. (a.)
FORTH is the name of the largest river in Scotland.
It is first formed of several smaller streams, rising on the
north of Ben-Lomond, or flowing from the lakes in the
adjacent country. It proceeds easterly in a direct course
for above a hundred miles, receiving in its progress the
tributary waters of the Goodie, the Teith, and the Allan,
above Stirling, and below it the Devon, the Can-on, the
Avon, the Almond, the Leith, the Esk, the Leven, the
Tyne, and others; and it discharges itself into the Ger¬
man Ocean in about 56° 10' of north latitude. The wind¬
ings of the river both above and below Stirling are par¬
ticularly beautiful. The windings above Stirling to Gart-
more extend about thirty-three miles in length, though
only twenty in a direct line; and towards Alloa the river
flows for twenty-four miles in a tortuous course, without
advancing more in a straight line than six. Its width
at Borrowstow’nness is four miles, at Queensferry two,
at Kinghorn nearly six, between Dysart and Aberlady
about twelve, between Elie and Dirleton Common eight,
and between St Abb’s Head and Fifeness, where the
Neap Tides,
Itise.
6 feet.
7
6*
and ebb run about two hours longer in the middle than at
the shore. It was high water, full and change, according
to Captain Thomas, in 1815, at
Spring Tides,
H- Rise.
Ely Harbour, 2 11 p. m. 14 feet.
Leith and Burntisland, 2 15 16^-
At Hopetoun House....2 30 17
The tides at Leith and Kinghorn rise sometimes as high
as nineteen feet above low-water mdrk, the average being
seventeen and a half feet.
There are in the Forth, as elsewhere in similar rivers
and arms of the sea, particular currents. Amongst the most
remarkable are those known by the name of leakies, above
Queensferry, and which are particularly observed from
Culross to Alloa. These consist in an intermission of the
tide at certain places, during the flood at others, and be¬
fore high water at certain places, the sea ebbing at others;
and also whilst the sea ebbs at certain places, and before
low water, the ebb intermitting at others, and a flow com¬
mencing and continuing some time, after which the ebb¬
ing is resumed until low water. I his is observable during
two hours, and the irregularity occupies more of the river,
according as it is spring or neap tides.
Certain winds, acting upon the great mass of the Atlan¬
tic Ocean, affect the times at which it is high or low water
in the Forth, while their effect upon the extent of the rise
or fall of its waters is frequently very considerable.
The prevailing winds of the Forth will be seen by the
following table, constructed from observations taken every
day at ten o’clock forenoon, on the island of Inchkeith,
for the ten successive years ending on 31st December
1826.
Direction of the
Winds.
South 
South-west.
West  
North-west.
North 
North-east..
East 
South-east..
Changeable.
Description of the W inds.
Light
Airs.
Breezes.
96
42
275
44
26
68
334
104
101
1090
165
181
807
157
105
90
345
109
12
1971
Gales.
29
111
267
13
20
23
34
6
503
Storms.
2
5
22
3
1
24
26
5
88
Total.
292
339
1371
217
152
205
739
224
113
3652
Nearly the same facts are better brought ou Y
following table, constructed from the observation
every day, in the Calton Hill observatory, un er
FORTH.
perintendence of the astronomical observer, for the same
V ten years, ending on the 31st December 1826. The entry
in the register for each day is applicable to the winds of
its whole twenty-four hours.
Direction of the Winds.
South 
South-west.
West 
North-west.
North 
North-east..
East 
South-east..
Changeable.
Description of the Winds.
Moderate
and Calm.
85
310
444
207
61-
122
381
131
588
2329
Brisk.
2
43
54
33
6
11
37
8
44
238
Sharp.
25
High.
17
178
235
143
17
21
45
14
119
789
Very High.
3
68
54
48
5
2
4
2
29
215
Extremely
High.
4
30
8
9
56
Total.
Ill
630
798
444
93
158
471
158
789
3652
From these tables it will be observed, that the prevail¬
ing winds in the Forth, the gales and storms at Inchkeith,
and the very high and extremely high winds at the Calton
Hill observatory, chiefly proceed from westerly directions.
The waters of the Forth and its tributary streams are
all fresh until they mingle with that of the ocean. Long
before the river becomes two miles wide, they acquire a
saltness which differs little, if at all, from that of the sea
in general. The water in the neighbourhood of the coal-
works of the Forth has been often evaporated for the sake
of the salt, which was here at one time an extensive arti¬
cle of manufacture.
The constituent parts of 10,000 parts of the waters of
the Frith were found by Mr Murray,1 in the course of three
different analyses made in different ways, to contain,
Muriate of soda 242-51 245 04
Sulphate of magnesia  7*86 17-04
Sulphate of soda  9-99 2*66
Muriate of magnesia  34-49 28-63
Muriate of lime 
Sulphate of lime  9-45 9-72
220-01
33-16
42-08
7-84
304-30 303-09 303-09
Mr Murray placed most confidence in the results obtain¬
ed from the last of these analyses.
The minerals of which the banks of the Forth are com¬
posed will be found described under the counties of East-
Lothian, Mid-Lothian, West-Lothian, Stirling, Clackman¬
nan, Perth, and Fife, by all w-hich the Forth is bounded.
Coal, besides being wrought in these counties, was once
worked near Culross and Torryburn, under the bed of the
river, and partly by pits within high-water mark. At the
mouths of these pits there were piers, at which vessels
were loaded with the coals. But these mines have been
for many years filled with wrater.
The bed of this river consists to a great extent of mud,
and in many places the freestone bottom is covered with
it to the depth of twenty feet. Its banks above Alloa,
and a great way below that place, are formed of this ma¬
terial, which is brought down by the waters from the h’S*1"
er levels ; and the carses of Stirling and balkirk, &c. w hic i
have been formed from its accumulation, are secured at
their lowest levels by sea-dikes against inundations, occa¬
sioned by the rise of the tides.
The recent alluvial cover to the westw-ard of Alloa ias
been found by Mr Bald in some places to be no less than
ninety feet deep, and to contain trunks and branches o
Edinburgh Phil. Trans, viii.
765
Forth.
large trees, and beds of sand with sea shells, particularly
of the oyster, cockle, mussel, donax, &c.; and similar beds
of shells not only abound at and below Alloa, but are
found several miles to the w-estward of Stirling similarly
situated. Many of the oyster-shells are of uncommon
thickness, and larger than any specimens that can now be
found. What makes the westerly position in which these
uncommonly large shells are found very remarkable is,
that there are no specimens of the oyster now found far¬
ther up the Forth than Queensferry.
There is also a bed of marine shells on the banks of the
Forth near Borrowstownness, about three miles in length,
and several feet in thickness, and which is situated many
feet above the present level of the waters of the Forth.
This circumstance would favour the opinion that the sea
in this quarter had at one time occupied a higher eleva¬
tion than at present; an opinion which is further supported
by the fact of the skeleton of a large whale having been
found some time ago in the lands of Airthrey, near Stirling.
The surface of the ground where the remains of this huge
marine animal were deposited, was ascertained by Mr Ste¬
venson to be twenty-four feet nine inches above the pre¬
sent level of the Forth at high water of spring tides.
But if the land has been gaining on the waters in the up¬
per part of the Forth, ground has been lost farther down the
estuary. The sea has made considerable encroachments at
North Berwick ; at Newhaven, an arsenal and dock built
in the reign of James IV. in the fifteenth century has been
swept away; and on the coast of bife, in 1803, the last
remains of the Priory of Grail, and the ground on which
it stood, met with a similar fate.
At Largo Bay the sea seems now to be covering ground
which was formerly dry land. Here a submarine forest
has been discovered, the roots of the trees penetrating
into a brown clay, over which is irregularly distributed a
covering of sand and fine gravel. The peat upon it is
composed of land and fresh-water plants, amongst which
are hazel nuts, and the remains of birch, hazel, and alder
trees. The root of one tree, apparently an alder, was
here traced by Dr Fleming to an extent of more than six
feet from the trunk.
There is an abundant supply of sea-weed on almost ail
the shores of the Forth, which has often been burned at
various places to form kelp. Within the last twelve or
fifteen years this manufacture in the Forth has been en¬
tirely given up. The produce of the rocks, or what is cast
ashore in storms, is now therefore only used as manure.
766
fort h.
Forth,
Seals are often seen sitting on the rocks, or swimming
along the coasts of the Forth. Sharks are also said to
have occasionally made their appearance. Numerous ce¬
tacea from twenty to sixty feet long, and grampuses, have
often been stranded in the Forth. A male Beluga, or
white whale, apparently of full growth, appeared in its
waters in 1815. It was killed by the salmon fishers near
the abbey of Cambuskenneth, and sent to Edinburgh,
where it was dissected by the late Dr Barclay.
Numerous porpoises are often observed tumbling and
disporting in the Frith. The salmon is abundant, and
salmon fisheries have been established at Stirling, Abei-
corn, and near Queensferry, &c.' Herrings are also plen¬
tiful, and at Burntisland and various other stations the
fishery is prosecuted successfully, d he other fishes caught
in the Forth are mackerel, haddock, cod, turbot, skate,
flounders, halibut, soles, &c. In fact, fish are so abundant
in the Frith, that upwards of forty sail of foreign vessels
are said to have been frequently seen fishing on the cod
banks opposite St Abb’s Head, guarded by a Dutch ship
of war. Almost all parts of the Frith are also fished with
success by English vessels. Sometimes a dozen at a time
of the English fishing smacks are there seen busily employ¬
ed. One of them alone has been known to catch seventy-
two scores of large cod in two days. Faking this as an
average, and it is said not to be a high one, these vessels
in a week would catch 52,000 of the finest fish, which is
a much larger quantity than is believed to be sold in the
Edinburgh market during a whole year. This market is
chiefly supplied by Newhaven and Fisherrow boatmen,
who purchase their fish generally from fishermen residing
at a distance upon the coasts of the Frith, many of whom
are under contracts with English fishmongers for the sup¬
ply of the London markets.
Cellardike is one of the principal stations of this fishery
in the Forth. It supplies the London market to a great
extent with salted cod, and Glasgow as well as Edinburgh
with fresh fish ; but here, as elsewhere in the Forth, the
fishermen migrate for months to the herring fishery in the
north of Scotland, at the season when fish is most abun¬
dant, particularly the haddock. This interrupts the regu¬
lar supply of that important article. Lobsters and crabs
are also caught at almost all the fishing stations in the
Forth. Mussels, cockles, lampits, and wilks, are also col¬
lected in great quantities at those places where they
abound ; and oysters are extensively fished at the oyster-
beds, which are met with chiefly to the eastward of Leith.
There is nothing remarkable about the wild fowl resort¬
ing to the Forth in winter. The solan geese of the Bass
have been already described under that head, to which
the reader is referred.
Besides the Bass, there is another island in its neigh¬
bourhood, the May; and the larger islands farther up the
Forth are Inchkeith, Inchcolm, and Inchgarvey, which
will be found described in separate articles. The smaller
islands are Fidra, the Lamb, and Craigleith, near the Bass,
and Mickry and Cramond Islands near Inchcolm.
The principal sand banks which obstruct the navigation
of the Forth are the Drum Sands near Cramond, and the
Sandend to the east of Burntisland. The principal rocks
which require to be avoided by the mariner are the South
Carr reef lying N.N.W. from Dunbar, the North Carr
about a mile and a quarter east of Fifeness, the Blea to
the west of Kinghorn, the Commons to the west of Burnt¬
island, Craig Waugh S.E. l E. of Inchkeith, and the Gun-
net Rock, Pallas Rock, Longcraig, Briggs, and Harwit, in
its neighbourhood; and several miles farther west, and
nearer Inchcolm, the Oxcares, Carcraig, and Mickry Stone.
Many of these rocks are seldom seen at the lowest
ebbs ; their position, together with the different landmarks
which are necessary to point them out to the mariner, are Forth,,
well delineated on an admiralty chart of the Forth by Cap- ''-'yx
tain Thomas, of the navy, published in 1815.
To show their position still better, floating buoys have
been placed upon Craig Waugh, the Gunnet, the Har¬
wit, and the Pallas rocks, and beacons have been erected
on the Oxcares and the North Carr. The last was com¬
pleted in 1821, with a cast-iron ball formed in ribs, and is
elevated upwards of twenty-five feet above the medium
level of the sea, the under part of the beacon being a cir¬
cular building of masonry of eighteen feet in diameter.
Besides these provisions for aiding the navigator, there
is a lighthouse on the Isle of May. It has been lighted
since the 1st of February 1816, during night, wdth oil;
and, by means of reflectors, gives what is called by mari¬
ners a stationary light. Being defended from the wea¬
ther in a glazed light roof, it has a uniform steady appear¬
ance, resembling a star of the first magnitude, and is seen
from all points of the compass to the distance of seven
leagues. In 1804, another lighthouse ^ was erected on
the summit of Inchkeith. Its lanthorn is 229 feet above
the level of the sea, of which the building forms forty-five
feet. On the 1st of February 1816 it was converted into
a revolving light without colour, seen from all points of
the compass, and exhibiting a bright light once every mi¬
nute, and becoming less luminous, till to a distant observer
it totally disappears. By this arrangement the possibility
of mistaking Inchkeith light for any other of the Forth
is effectually prevented. There are also light-houses on
the pier-heads of Leith, Newhaven, Burntisland, I ettycur,
Queensferry, &c. on which, whilst there is water in the
harbours during night, care is taken to keep the lamps
burning. ... -
The harbours and landingplaces are, on the south side ot
the Forth, Dunbar, North Berwick, Port-Seton, Morison’s
Haven, Fisherrow, Leith, Newhaven, Irinity, Queensferry,
Borrowstownness, and Grangemouth; and on the north
side, Crail, Anstruther, Elie, Pittenweem, Leven, Methel,
West Wemyss, Dysart, Kirkaldy, Kinghorn, Pettycur,
Burntisland, Starleyburn, Aberdour, St Davids, Inver-
keithing, Queensferry, Charleston, Crombie Point, Cul-
ross, Kincardine, and Alloa. Ihe more important of these
harbours and landing places will be found described in se¬
parate articles. The anchorage in the Forth is in gene¬
ral good, and in particular the anchorage at Aberlady Bay,
in the westerly part of Largo Bay, and in the roads o
Burntisland, Leith, St Davids, Limekilns, &c. _
The coasting and foreign trade of the Frith is carried
on in vessels varying in size from eighteen tons to near y
500. The principal port to which they belong is Leith;
but there are several whalers and vessels engaged in the
Australian, American, Mediterranean, and Baltic trades,
belonging to other ports in the Forth.
The traffic in goods and passengers between the pom
in the Forth and London, Greenock, Glasgow, Liverpool,
Hull, Newcastle, Dundee, Perth, Aberdeen, Inverness,
Peterhead, and almost every considerable town in co
land, is conducted chiefly by the vessels of joint-stoc^
companies, which vessels sail periodically. A joint-s oc
company is also engaged in the Leith, Hamburg, ant
Rotterdam trades, the vessels belonging to which sai
present from Leith every alternate Tuesday. Ihe a
gow, Greenock, and Liverpool trade is chiefly con uc
through the Forth and Clyde Canal; as to which, see
vigation, Inland, and Grangemouth.
The names of all the vessels belonging to the ror
registered in the custom-houses of Leith, Bon ows o'
ness, Kirkaldy, and Anstruther. The aggregate tonnag
registered at each of these ports will be found un
articles Kirkaldy and Leith, together with a
f'P'
tii
forth.
for ment of the number of arrivals in a year from foreign
ports and coastwise, and the chief goods and other ar¬
ticles landed and exported, with the aggregate duties paid
upon them.
To facilitate the intercourse between the northern and
southern parts of Scotland by a communication across the
river Forth, wooden bridges near Stirling were erected at
a very early period. The time at which the present old
bridge of Stirling was erected is unknown; but it must
have been built before the year 1571, as Archbishop Ha¬
milton is then said to have been hanged over it by the
king’s faction under the Regent Lennox. The newest
bridge at Stirling is of very recent erection. There was,
within the last thirty years, a project of erecting a suspen¬
sion bridge at Queensferry, and another project of making
a tunnel near the same place ; but the practicability of
these schemes has been doubted.
From the want of such facilities of passage across the
Forth, the regulation of its ferries became the object of
legislative enactments at so early a period as the year 1467.
Before the introduction of steam navigation, the traffic at
these ferries was chiefly conducted by open boats, pin¬
naces, and yawls of various sizes ; and from the want of low-
water piers, they seldom departed from either side except
at high water. Although by the statute 1686 all Scotch fer¬
ries were subjected to the regulation of the justices of the
peace and commissioners of supply, the traffic on the Forth
at all times received much interruption from not having
stationary superintendents, and the consequent want of
proper subordination.
Most of the ferries on the Forth are still private pro¬
perty. The private rights to the Queensferry passage
were in 1809 purchased by parliamentary trustees, for up¬
wards of L.8550 ; and these trustees, out of funds arising
from a government grant, at first of L.13,525, and it is
believed afterwards of L.2300, and loans from private in¬
dividuals to as great an extent upon the security of the
profits arising from the traffic, have improved the landing
| places, and purchased and continue to maintain suitable
vessels. In 1828, the debts of this trust to banks and pri¬
vate individuals, with interest,amounted toL.16,410.2s. Id.
The rent payable by the tacksmen of the ferry, including
an allowance of L.200 a year from the post-office, was
then L.1920 0 0
The expenditure, consisting of repairs on
piers, vessels, feu-duties, interest of debts,
and officers’salaries, &c. then amounted to 1615 9 0
Leaving a surplus of. L.304 11 0
The annual surplus since 1828 is understood to be rather
greater than this, in consequence of the piers requiring
but little repair. The amount of the traffic in 1833 was
estimated at 6180 carriages and carts, 11,750 horses, 16,500
cattle, 27,000 sheep and lambs, 4500 barrel-bulk of lug¬
gage, 73,500 passengers, including 500 paupers allowed
to pass gratis, and 3000 Highland shearers, and exclusive
of mail guards and coachmen twice every day, and of mi¬
litary baggage and stores having a free passage. Ihe
number of passengers landed from, or taken off to, steam
vessels passing up and down the Frith, at Queensferry, is
estimated at not less than 4000.
The ferry stations of Burntisland and Newhaven were
added in 1792 to the stations of Kinghorn and Leith,
which had been used for the great ferry of the Forth from
the very earliest period of our history ; and by the act 32
Geo. III. cap. 93, the traffic in goods and passengers cross¬
ing the Forth between these stations was placed under
the superintendence of trustees, with powers to raise tolls
for the improvement of the harbours. These trustees ob¬
tained further powers from parliament in 1813 to pur-
767
chase from the boatmen the vessels used upon these ferries, Forth,
and to carry on the trade themselves exclusively both as
to goods and passengers. In 1813 and 1821 they were fur¬
ther empowered by parliament to acquire rights to extend
their monopoly in transporting passengers between Mid-
Lothian, and Kirkaldy and Dysart on the opposite coast.
They have tried both ; but some years ago they abandon¬
ed the Dysart passage. By a loan from government to
the extent of L.10,000, and from private individuals of
L.19,516. 13s. 4d., besides a sum from the Navy Board,
they have erected a stone pier at Newhaven, made small
repairs, and added landing slips to the harbours on the
north side; and they conduct the ferry to Leith at pre¬
sent by means of sailing vessels; and between Newhaven
on the one side, and Burntisland, Kinghorn, and Kirkaldy,
on the other, by steam navigation, their vessels making
from three to four trips to and from each of these ports daily.
In 1832 the gross debts of this trust, with interest, amount¬
ed to     L.39,494 7
Deduct their property in boats, stores,
fixtures, &c. and their funds, valued at 16,081 7 6
Nett debt L.23,412 19 8|
The revenue of the steam-vessel ferry to and from New¬
haven in 1832 was L.6,995 7 8^
Ditto of the sail-boat ferry at Leith, and
Burntisland, and Kinghorn, for passen¬
gers, cattle, and goods, landed there 1,051 2
Ditto of cutters and yauls, &c  7 5
Royalty for Newhaven pier L.238. 14s. 2d.
interest on bank accounts, towing vessels
out of harbours, light-house revenue, &c. 401 13
71.
12
L.8,455 9 3i
The steam-vessels’ expenses in 1832 were L.5,228 15 0^
Sail-boat expenses    1,077 2 1H
General charges of management, repairs on
houses, and piers, light-houses, &c  504 12 9
L.6,810 10 9
Interest of loans  955 16 8
Allowance for deterioration of vessels by
wear and tear  490 0 0
Total expenditure L.8,256 7 5
From this statement there would appear to be a surplus
revenue of L.199. Is. 10|d. This arises from the steam
navigation. The Leith ferry appears to be conducted
at a dead loss.
The number of passages and passengers to and trom
Newhaven in 1832 was as follows:
At the ferries of
Burntisland 
Kinghorn 
Kirkaldy 
Total...
At the ferries between
Leith and Kinghorn
Leith and Burntisland
Passages.
2,363
1,668
1,536
5,567
1,052
631
1,683
Paying
Passen¬
gers.
19,898
31,312
29,134
80,344
1,296
858
2,154
Free.
Mili¬
tary.
80
56
284
420
Poor.
58
71
111
240
768
forth.
Forth.
The revenue arising at the Burntisland and Leith ferry
in 1832 from cattle and carriages was L.15. 18s. a"a
from goods L.435. 17s. 8d. The revenue arising at the
Leith and Kinghorn ferry during the same period from
cattle and carriages was L.126. 7s. 6ld., and from goods
L.363. 16s. 4d. , . o
The revenue arising from the carriage of goods at the
ferry between Leith and Kirkaldy is not known, as it is
conducted by private traders, and is not within the hmi s
of the trustees’ monopoly. As little is generally known
concerning the numbers of the passengers crossing in the
steam-vessels which now regularly ply to and from Uy-
sart, Largo, Queensferry, Cromby Point, Limekilns, Alloa,
Stirling, Borrowstownness, &c. These vessels land and
take in passengers regularly at the low-water Chain Pier
at Trinity, which is a noble specimen of what may be
done in the erection of useful works by private individuals
for the benefit of the public. . , • r
The principal projects at present in contemplation tor
the improvement of these ferries, and in general for ex¬
tending the navigation of the Forth, are the erection ot
low-water piers on both sides of the Frith.
Mr Telford, in October 1828, reported to government
that it would cost L.38,660. 17s. 2d. to construct a low-
water landing place at Newhaven in connection with the
ferry pier, so as to secure a depth of water there of ten
feet at low water; and that in proceeding farther west¬
ward he could not perceive that any advantages were to
be obtained. ^ ,
Another project, founded on a report by Mr Matheson,
civil engineer, was to erect at Wardie Point, the property of water landing place there
Captain Donaldson Boswall, a complete landing place and th* ™nstr
a wet dock. At this place it is stated that at the distance
of 1500 feet from the shore there is ten feet deep water at
the lowest ebb of stream tides; but the accuracy of the
statement has been questioned. The estimated expense of
this proposed harbour and other structures is L.122,149.
A third project is that of a joint-stock company to erect
at Trinity, to the east of Wardie, and nearer the Ferry
Trustees’ pier, including the ground whereon the chain
pier now stands, a wet dock containing forty-three acres,
and affording wharfage to the extent of 12,000 feet. It is
is obtained at low water of spring tides, at the distance Fori
of 550 yards from high-water mark, the rise of the tide
giving twenty-eight feet at high water of spring tides. It
is proposed to extend two piers of masonry to this depth,
including between them an area of thirty-five acres, which
will be occupied as an outer harbour or receiving basin,
and capable of accommodating his majesty’s ships of war
as well as the largest class of merchant vessels. To the
landward of this basin it is proposed to construct a suite
of wet docks, to such an extent as may afterwards be found
necessary. It is calculated that the expense of each of
the piers will be from L.80,000 to L.90,000, and that the
wet docks will cost at least L.100,000 more.
The erection of low-water piers on the south side of the
Forth, at any of the stations above referred to, should
only take place if it be found to be utterly impracticable,
by a capacious tide basin, or otherwise, to deepen the har¬
bour of Leith, or secure at that station a sufficient depth
of water at the lowest ebbs. At the same time the erec¬
tion of low-water landing places on both sides of the Forth
is now considered by every body as an object of the great¬
est national importance; and when the relative merits of
new grants out of the public funds for such works in dis¬
tant colonies, or nearer home, come to be considered, it
is to be hoped that the harbours on the Forth will receive
proper aid from the government, and not be left to be im¬
proved exclusively by the enterprise and at the risk of
private individuals.
On the north side of the Forth Mr Rennie had advised
an extension of the present piers of Burntisland ror a low-
water landing place there. But Mr Telford recommended
to government the construction of a landing pier a little
to the eastward ; the pier to be at the distance of 700 feet
from high water, and carried in to ten feet depth of water
at low water of spring tides. He estimates the expense
at L.20,801. 9s. 3d. He also recommends a continuation
of the road partially made along the beach from the east¬
ward of Burntisland, so as gradually to rise from the east¬
ern extremity of that parish to the town of Kinghorn.
But in the event of Kinghorn being preferred as the better
of the two stations on the Fife side for a low-water har¬
bour, Mr Telford also reported to government that he
1 -■ . f*    V* ft /"\ 11V 1 FI f M P
ana atioruing wnariage 10 uie extent ui icct. At ^ ^ ^ u „ • .1^
proposed that the dock should be entered by a lock 200 would propose to form a very capacious harbour in tlie
feet in length and fifty-five in width, of sufficient dimen- bay of Kinghorn, by making an insulated break-water, ana
sions to admit a ship of the line or steam-vessels of the first a smaller one connected with the Kinghorn Ivirk L.raig,
class. The entrance is meant to be protected by a break- having an opening between them, and a main landing pie
water 1100 feet long, parallel to the channel of the Frith, slip on the western side of the harbour. He es ima es
V* MVV/* — - W w  £37 I        '
which, with two check piers built on arches, would secure
an outer harbour 900 feet long by 300 wide, where there
would be a low-water landing place ; the depth of the
water in the outer harbour at the lowest ebbs would be up¬
wards of eleven feet, and twenty-nine feet at high water,
and the depth over the whole dock would be only one foot
less. The estimated expense of erecting these works,
purchasing the grounds, &c. is stated to be L.250,000. Ap¬
plication has been made to parliament for power to carry
this project into execution.
A fourth project is that of his grace the Duke of Buc-
cleuch, who, with a munificence seldom displayed by a
single individual, has come forward with a proposal to
construct at his own expense a deep-water harbour on
his property at Granton. This situation is about three
quarters of a mile west from the Trinity Chain Pier, in a
small bay formed by Granton Point on the west and War¬
die Point on the east. Here a depth of twelve feet of water
expense at L.60,917. 3s.
Another survey and report was obtained at the same
time from Mr Buchanan, civil engineer. Mr Buchanan re¬
ported that a pier of solid masonry might be carried out
1200 feet on the ridge of rocks stretching from the Kirk
Craig, so as to form a harbour which would command a
depth of water at the entrance of ten or eleven feet at the
lowest spring tides, and of twenty-six feet at high water
of ordinary spring tides. This would inclose a space 0
twenty imperial acres in extent, secure from every storm.
He estimates the expense at L.20,159. 14s., and t e ex
pense of a level road from it to Kirkaldy, the great sea
of the traffic, at L.3960, and that of a railway upon it to
the same place at L.2760. 15s. Indeed, the t0_
Burntisland and Kirkaldy, referred to in both i r
ford’s and Mr Buchanan’s reports, are admitted to be "
dispensable at whatever station proper landing places
erected.
769
FORTIFICATION.
•a- Fortification is the art of putting a town or place in
such a posture of defence as may enable a comparatively
^ small number of men within to resist, for a certain period
of time, the attacks of a numerous army without; or it
may be more simply defined the art of putting a place in
a state to resist the attack of an enemy.
Fortification may be divided into Permanent, or such
works as are built round towns, and intended to remain;
Field, or such as are only required to last for a battle or
a campaign ; Defensive, or the means of resisting attacks ;
and Offensive, or the various modes of attacking fortified
places. And these may again be divided into Regular
and Irregular, Natural and Artificial. Regular fortifica¬
tion is that which is constructed, according to the rules of
art, on a figure or polygon which is regular, and has all
its sides and angles equal. Irregular fortification, on the
contrary, is that where the sides and angles are not uni¬
form, equidistant, or equal, owing to the accidents of the
ground, valleys, rivers, and the like. Natural fortifica¬
tion is the strength or capability of defence which nature
herself has afforded to particular places by reason of their
elevated situations and the difficulties of approaching
them ; as in the case of high and nearly inaccessible hills,
steep rocks, morasses, and the like. Artificial fortifica¬
tion, on the other hand, consists of works so contrived and
constructed as to increase the natural advantages of a si¬
tuation, or to remedy its defects.
INTRODUCTION.
Fortification is very nearly as ancient as the existence of
society. When men first assembled together for the pur¬
pose of mutual protection, and placed their habitations on
the same spot, the law of necessity, springing in this case
out of the principle of self-defence, rendered it indispen¬
sable for them to adopt some means for securing their fa¬
milies and their property against the sudden inroads of
enemies. Hence, when Cain, the son of Adam, built a
i city, he surrounded it with a wall; and, in like manner, the
Babylonians, when they built cities soon after the Deluge,
encompassed them with similar defences. In the early
ages, men considered themselves as sufficiently protected
by a single wall, from behind which they could with safety
discharge their darts, arrows, and other missiles, against
an assailant. But when, in the progress of improvement,
new and more powerful means of attack were discovered,
it became necessary to increase, in a corresponding de¬
gree, the inert force of resistance ; and accordingly the
feeble defensive structures of the primitive ages were in
time succeeded by solid ramparts, flanked and command¬
ed by elevated towers. In short, as the power of attack¬
ing fortresses or places of strength was augmented by
successive devices and inventions, the means of resistance
were proportionally increased, until the art of fortification
arrived at a state of comparative perfection, in which it
remained for many ages nearly stationary.
The various improvements which were from time to
time made in strengthening the walls, and adding to the
defences of ancient cities, are recorded in history, and
need not be detailed in this place. The first walls which
we read of consisted of brick, the material employed by
Cain for the protection of the city which he founded, anc
called by the name of his son Enoch. Amongst the an¬
cient Greeks, brick and rubble stones intermixed were
used for the same purpose, as we find from the descnp-
vol. IX.
tion of the wall which connected Mount Hymettus with Fortifica-
the city of Athens. The walls of Babylon and Nineveh in- in¬
dicate a prodigious advancement in the art of fortification,
and are justly accounted amongst the wonders of the an¬
cient world. Ihose of the former city, ascribed by some
to Belus, and by others to Semiramis, were thirty-two
feet in thickness, and a hundred feet in height, surmount¬
ed by towers at an average ten feet higher, and cement¬
ed by means of bitumen or asphaltum ; they encompassed a
vast area, and presented a solid defence, which no means
of attack known in ancient times were sufficient to overcome
or beat down. The walls of Jerusalem, though of smaller
dimensions, appear to have been little inferior in strength
and solidity to those of Babylon ; for, in the siege of that ca¬
pital by Vespasian, all the Roman battering-rams and other
engines, though used with the utmost vigour, required a
whole night to disengage four stones in the masonry of
the tower of Antonia. But when fortification had arrived
at the state in which we find it in the works of these and
other cities, it remained stationary for ages, and perhaps
even retrograded somewhat, until the discovery of gun¬
powder, the invention of artillery, and the application of
both to military purposes, effected an entire revolution in
the principles of attack and defence. Then the round and
square towers, which had formed secure flanking defences
against assailants armed only with arrows and with darts,
afforded no protection against the projectiles discharged by
cannon ; and even those battlements which had defied the
catapult and the battering-ram speedily yielded to the
force with which they w-ere now assailed, whilst their de¬
fenders were at the same time destroyed, or buried in
their ruins.
It being thus found that the ancient system of fortifi¬
cation was of little or no avail against the new method of
attack which had been discovered, and which came into
general use towards the close of the fifteenth century, it
became indispensably necessary to adopt another method
of defence. The plan of fortifying with bastions is sup¬
posed to have commenced with the Italians early in the
fifteenth century. The bastions on the enceinte of Ve¬
rona, built by the Italian engineer Micheli, in the year
1523, are generally supposed to be the oldest extant; and
the next, probably, are those still to be seen at Antwerp,
and which were constructed by the Emperor Charles V.
in the year 1545. These bastions are small, with narrow
gorges and short flanks and faces; and they are placed at
a great distance from one another, it being the invariable
practice, at the time when they were built, and for a con¬
siderable period afterwards, to attack the curtains, and not
the faces, of the bastions.
Errard of Bois-le-duc, one of the principal officers of
the engineer corps employed by Sully, prime minister
of Henri IV. was the first in France who laid down rules
respecting the best method of fortifying a place, so as to
cover its flank. At the command of the minister, he wrote
a book on the subject, which was published in 1594, and
in which the details of his method are explained. Errard
fortified inwards; and in the square, pentagon, hexagon,
heptagon, and octagon, he made the flank perpendicular
to the face of the bastion ; but in the enneagon, and in all
polygons of a greater number of sides, he made it perpen¬
dicular to the curtain. In endeavouring to accomplish his
object, however, he made the gorges too small, the em-
brazures too oblique, and left the ditch almost defenceless.
This engineer constructed part of the enceinte of the cita-
FORTIFICATION.
del of Doutens, as well as the citadel of Amiens, and also
some works at Montreuil and Calais.
The Chevalier Antoine de Ville, who succeeded hrrard,
published a treatise, dated 1629, in which he completed
much that his predecessor had only sketched, and rec¬
tified various defects in the method of the latter, ihe
Chevalier was employed under Louis XIII. and construct¬
ed new enceintes for Montreuil and Calais. His plan ot
fortifying has been denominated by some the French me¬
thod, and by others the Compound System (Systeme a
trait compose), because it united the Italian and Spams i
methods, from the latter of which it differs only in having
no second flanks and fichant lines of defence, and in not
confining the flanked or salient angle of the bastion to
ninety degrees. The leading maxims of the Chevalier de
Ville were, to place the flanks perpendicularly to the cur¬
tain, to make them equal to the demigorges, or each equal
to a sixth part of the side of the interior polygon, and, in
the hexagon and all higher polygons, to confine the flanked
angle to ninety degrees. But this plan is liable to nearly
the same objections as that of Errard ; for here, also, the
embrasures are too oblique, especially in the polygons,
and the ditch is necessarily but ill defended.
Sixteen years after the publication of De Ville’s treatise
appeared the work of the Comte de Pagan, which issued
from the press in 1645, and contained the development of a
system which, in a short time, entirely superseded those of
his predecessors. In fact, it was the Comte de Pagan who
first disengaged the science of fortification from a number
of suppositions which custom had in some measure conse¬
crated, and which, resting more on abstract mathematical
reasoning than on practical observation and experience, had
hitherto retarded the progress of the art. This engineer
acquired great reputation during several sieges which he as¬
sisted in conducting under Louis XIII.; but having become
blind at the age of thirty-eight, he was obliged to retire from
the service, in which he had already obtained the rank of
mareschal-de-camp, and he died six years after complet¬
ing the treatise above mentioned, in which he embodied
a full exposition of his system. The Comte de Pagan
made the flank perpendicular to the line of defence, in order
as much as possible to cover the face of the opposite bas¬
tion ; and he also pointed out a method of building case¬
mates in a manner peculiar to himself. Vauban borrowed
from the Comte de Pagan the length of his perpendicular,
and Allain Manesson Mallet, whose construction still re¬
mains in favour with many, also proceeded upon the prin¬
ciples laid down by this scientific soldier.1
The Mareschal de Vauban was born in 1633; and in 1655,
at the time of the Comte de Pagan’s death, he had already
acquired reputation at several sieges. Vauban followed up
the principles suggested by Pagan, and employed them
extensively in practice, with consummate skill and judg¬
ment. He constructed thirty-three new fortresses, re¬
paired and improved one hundred ; and having conducted
about fifty sieges, he left his extensive works, and a trea¬
tise De I'Attaque et de la Defense des Places, published in
1737, to speak for themselves. From the different con¬
structions observable in these works have been compiled
the systems which, in the military schools, are denomi¬
nated Vauban’s first, second, and third systems of fortifica¬
tion, and which the reader will find developed in the se¬
quel. Had the genius of Vauban been applied to the dis¬
covery of a method for securing a permanent superiority
to the defence of fortified places, posterity would have
been greatly indebted to him, and even humanity would
have had cause to rejoice in such a triumph of military
art. But, being engaged in the service of the most ambi¬
tious monarch of modern times, Louis XIV. he applied his
great talents to forward his master’s views, and soon per¬
fected that irresistible system of attack,2 which has ever
since been so successfully followed. Before his time
the general superiority was on the side of the defence;
but ever since, the case has been so completely reversed,
that the success of an attack made with adequate means,
and scientifically conducted, is a matter of absolute cer¬
tainty.
M. Minno Baron de Coehorn, first a general of artillery,
then a lieutenant-general of infantry, and ultimately di¬
rector-general of all the fortified places belonging to the
United Provinces of Holland, was the contemporary and
rival of Vauban. This able engineer, convinced that, how¬
ever expensively the rampart of a town may be constructed,
it cannot long resist the shock of heavy ordnance, invented
three different systems for throwing such obstacles in the
way of a besieging force, that, although the place be not
thereby rendered impregnable, it can only be approached
with great difficulty and hazard. But these methods are
only applicable to low and swampy situations, such as are
to be found in Holland, and are therefore not available
where the localities are of a different or opposite description.
At the same time, Bergen-op-Zoom, Manheim, and other
places fortified by this engineer, particularly the two for¬
mer, have very great merit, inasmuch as it is impossible
for a besieger to penetrate into any of the works, without
being exposed, on all sides, to the fire of the besieged,
who are under cover; and from artillery and musketry it
is scarcely possible for an assailant to shelter himself.
Coehorn published a work on fortification before he had
acquired much practical experience, and therefore did
not follow it in fortifying Bergen-op-Zoom, which is al¬
lowed on all hands to be his masterpiece.
Since Vauban's time several improvements have been
suggested, particularly by Cormontaigne, who entered the
corps of French engineers in 1716, nine years after Vau-
ban’s death, and died a marcschal-de-camp in 1750. Some
account of the system of Cormontaigne will be found m
a subsequent part of this article. The three methods de¬
livered by Belidor are all applicable to an octagon of two
hundred toises ; those of Scheiter, distinguished into great,
mean, and little, in imitation of Pagan, require the exte¬
rior sides of the polygon to be, respectively, two hundred,
a hundred and eighty, and a hundred and sixty toises.
Steven, a Fleming who wrote on fortification, exemplified
his method of construction on a hexagon. Fritach, a Pole,
proposed two methods, which he exemplified on different
polygons. Dogen, a Dutchman, published a large vo ume
on fortification, in which, after enumerating various modes
employed by different writers for determining the salient
angle, he selected three as the most approved, and pro¬
posed as many methods of construction, one of wtncli is
borrowed from Fritach, the Pole. Pietro Sardi, an ta ian,
suggested a peculiar method ot constructioii on a icxago
The Sieur de Fontaine found the flanked or salient angle o
the bastion by adding fifteen degrees to half the angle o
the figure, from the square up to the dodecagon, in wiucn
last it becomes ninety degrees, and at this he con
it in all the higher polygons. He also constructed
forth
tio;;
1 Mallet constructs outwards, making in every figure or polygon the demigorge equal to a fifth part of the side o (jemi.
polygon or figure, the capital of the bastion equal to a third part of the same side, the curtain equal to three filths oi ^ inji which
gorge, and the angle of the flank equal to 98°. The faces of the bastions and the flanks are determined by the lines o e ,
are razant. From these data all the other lines and angles are easily found.
2 See Ins work De t'Altaque et ic la Defense des Places, passim.
FORTIFICATION.
771
poi.Lca- wards, and, in every regular figure, made the curtain equal
t • to seventy-two toises, the face of the bastion to forty-eight,
and the flank, which he placed perpendicularly to the cur¬
tain, to eighteen toises, or a fourth part of the curtain.
Ozanam and Muller delivered each four methods of con¬
struction, the particulars of which will be found in their
respective works. In 1751, Charles Bisset, who as an en¬
gineer-extraordinary served with the Duke of Cumber¬
land in the Netherlands, and was present during the siege
of Bergen-op-Zoom by the Mareschal Lowendahl, pub¬
lished a treatise on the theory and construction of fortifi¬
cation, in which there are many sensible and judicious re¬
marks; and the same general description may be applied
to an Essai sur la Fortification, ou Examen des Causes de
la grand superiorite de I'Attaque sur la Defense, published
anonymously in 1755. In a work entitled Science de la
Guerre, which appeared at Turin eight years before the
date last mentioned, a new method of construction is pro¬
posed, in which the principal objects to be attended to are,
that there be mines under all the works, and that a regular
communication be kept up with the chambers by means
of subterraneous galleries, to be resorted to in proportion
as the enemy approaches the body of the place. The third
volume of the (Euvres Militaires contains some useful ob¬
servations and maxims relative to irregular fortification ;
and in the Supplement to the Reveries of Mareschal Saxe,
by Baron d’Espagnac, the subject of fortification generally
is amply discussed, and an accurate description given of
the different means of attack and defence.1
Of the more recent treatises on fortification, by far the
most elaborate and complete is that of M. de Bousmard,
entitled Essai General de Fortification, d'Attaque et de
Defense des Places, dans lequel ces deux Sciences sont ex-
pliquees et m ises I’une par 1'autre a la portee de tout le monde ;
a work which enjoys a deservedly high reputation on the
Continent, though it has hitherto been comparatively but
little known in this country. It is remarkable for great
accuracy and research, and may be considered as embody¬
ing in itself every thing that is valuable in connection with
the subject of which it treats. M. de Bousmard’s idea is,
that officers of the line should be entitled to exercise those
functions which have hitherto been universally reserved
for officers of engineers ; and he even goes so far as to ri¬
dicule the idea of the latter forming a separate body in
the army. He is of opinion that every officer should, when
required, be qualified to act as an engineer; and to furnish
the necessary information for this purpose, he has entered
into those minute details which are absolutely essential to
be known in order to direct the construction of fortresses,
and the works necessary for the attack or the defence of
strong places, but which are not at all requisite in order
to discern the influence of the one or to determine the
nature of the other. Proceeding on the same principle,
he has further hazarded some questionable opinions, and Fortifica-
indulged in abstract and delicate discussions, which are tion-
certainly out of place even in such a work, and which
appear but little calculated to benefit persons possessing
only a superficial acquaintance with the matters forming
the subject of these disquisitions. M. de Bousmard’s
work, therefore, though intended to serve as an element¬
ary treatise on fortification, is much too elaborate and
refined ever to be used as such, and also too expensive
for the pecuniary means of a great number of inferior
officers, whose instruction the author professes to have
had chiefly in view. But to teachers of fortification it is
altogether indispensable; and as long as the science and
practice shall continue on their present footing, it will be
deservedly considered as the most comprehensive and
valuable work on the attack and defence, as well as the
construction, of all kinds of fortification.2
With regard to Carnot’s Trade de la Defense des Places
Fortes, it was written to serve a temporary purpose; and the
celebrity which it acquired on its first appearance has for
some time been rather on the decline. The more prominent
innovations recommended in this treatise were, first, an al¬
teration in the trace or outline of the polygon; secondly,
the suppression of the exterior revetement of the covered
way, known as the counterscarp; thirdly, the detachment
of the scarp-wall from the rampart, and the construction of
the latter without revetement; fourthly, destructive per¬
sonal conflict with the besiegers by means of frequent sor¬
ties ; and, lastly, making vertical fire the basis rather than
an accessory of the defence. With regard to the first of
these proposals, all of which the reader will find very
ably discussed in Jones’s Journals of Sieges in Spain and
Portugal,3 we have only to remark, that by means of an
increased expenditure for retrenchments and casemates,
as recommended by Carnot, the strength of particular por¬
tions of the polygon may be increased; and that, if he has
failed in tracing a perfect front, founded on the basis of
Montalembert’s system of casemated and reverse fire, he
has at least rescued a valuable suggestion from unmerited
neglect, and rendered an important service to science by
directing the attention of military men to the means most
likely to create a barrier against the growing powers of the
attack.
The Trade de Fortification Souterraine, suivi de quatre
Memoires sur les Mines, by M. Mouze, lieutenant-colonel of
engineers in the French service, was published at Paris in
1804', and is justly considered as the most complete work
on the subject it treats of which has yet been given to the
public. Subterranean fortification is a branch of the art
which, until a very recent period, was wholly neglected in
this country, and in which our engineers are still far behind
their brethren of the continent. Wre learn from Colonel
Jones’s work on the Peninsular Sieges, that the Duke of
1 Besides the writers above enumerated, may be mentioned the Chevalier St Juhen, an able engineer, who published a method
by which, he asserts, works may be constructed at a less expense, yet in such a manner as to render the defence or attack more tor.
midable; Francisco Marchi, of Bologna, who furnished no less than a hundred and sixty different methods of constructing fortifi¬
cations ; Bombelle, who established three kinds of fortification, called the grand royal {grand royal), the mean royal and
the little royal {petit royal); Blondel, who published a system divided into two principal heads, the great and the little, whose exterior
sides are respectivelv two hundred and a hundred and seventy toises ; Donato liosetti, a canon of Livorno, who wrote on the method
of constructing works in what he calls forlijication d relours, or fortification in reverse, so denominated because the re-entering angle
of the counterscarp being opposite to the flanked angle, it will, according to him, be necessary to attack it from the reverse side ot
other works ; and Antonio de Herbart, major of artillery in the Duke o Wurtemburg’s service, who pubh.hed a treaUse on fortifica¬
tions with what he calls angular polyl erons. The treatise entitled Nouvelle Maniere de Jvitifier les Places, tirce dfis ^ snr ceux de
de Vide, du Comte de Pagan, et de M. Vaulan, avcc des Remarques sur Tordre renforce, sur les desseins du contai’ns little that is
M. Blondel, which appeared in 1G89, is full of strong reasoning, whence the author deduced a new system but it c°"ta^n^ ^Sous
really original, though it gives numerous references to what had previously appeared, and disposes the different parts m a ju
manner. M. de Montalembert’s system of casemated and reverse fire has been in part adopted in the splendid
dria in Italy, constructed under the directions of Napoleon. T, .
2 Fages-Vaumale, Aperpi Generate et Raisonne sur la Fortification des Places. Preface, pp- x
3 VoL ii. p. 131, et seqq.
772
FORTIFICATION.
Fortiflca- Wellington's army in Spain was unattended by a single
tion. regularly-trained sapper or miner until late in the year
1813; and many valuable lives were sacrificed, trom the
want of these valuable, or rather indispensable auxiliaries.
SYSTEMS OF PERMANENT FORTIFICATION.
1. Vaubaris First System.
Before commencing to draw a plan of fortification, it is
usual to determine upon some polygon whir<;1> ‘°T ^eT'
scribe it. In this figure, accordingly (see Plate LLaL< VI.
fig 1), we have taken the angle of an octagon, and called
the length of the side 360 yards.1 In constructing a for¬
tification, a figure is determined on, as near that of a re¬
gular polygon as possible, within which the enceinte or
chain of main works is to be contained. The enceinte oi
body of the place consists of as many bastions, connected
with curtains, as there are sides to the figure, and each of
these is made as near 360 yards as possible, so that eveiy
part may be within range of such arms as are to be em¬
ployed in its defence.
The principal or outline denotes the contour or line by
which the first figure of the work is defined. This line is
supposed to pass along the superior part of the cordon, and
is that from which all the other parts of the work are set oft.
The exterior side, or side of the polygon above mention¬
ed as equal to 360 yards, is that upon which the front of the
fortification is described, and it extends from the flanked
angle of one bastion to the corresponding angle of the
next, as AB. These lines are bisected, and a perpendi¬
cular, DC, is drawn from the point of bisection towards
the place, its length being proportional to the extent of
the exterior side and adjacent angle of the polygon; that
is, one sixth for the hexagon and all figures of a greater
number of sides, one seventh for the pentagon, and one
eighth for the square.
The lines of defence AEG, BEH, are drawn from the
extremities of the exterior sides through these points, and
produced to an indefinite length ; and upon the lines so
drawn are set off two sevenths of the exterior sides, equal to
102f yards, which marks out the point for the shoulder of
the bastion E and F. The distance between these points
is then laid along the continuation of each line of defence,
and a line is drawn connecting them for the curtain GH,
from the extremities of which lines are drawn to the point
marked off for the shoulder of the bastion, and thus form
the flanks. And in this manner is drawn a front of fortifi¬
cation, which being repeated round the sides of the poly¬
gon, completes the works of the enceinte or body of the
place.
Yauban divided his first system into three parts ; namely,
the little, the mean or intermediate, and the great. The
first he used for small forts of four or five sides, citadels,
horn-works, and crown-works, making the exterior sides
from 120 to 240 yards, the perpendicular in the square
equal to one eighth, and in the pentagon one seventh,
and the faces of the bastions in each equal to two sevenths
of the exterior side. In the mean or intermediate, which
is adapted for all sizes of towns, the exterior side varies
from 250 to 360 yards, the perpendicular is one sixth, and
the faces are two sevenths. In the great the exterior side
varies from 360 to 520 yards. This kind was never adopt¬
ed for all the sides of a place, but only when one of these
happened to be near a river or a marsh ; in which case the
distances of the bastions should be so regulated that they
may not be out of musketry range from one another.
When the curtain becomes unavoidably too long, this de- Fortific
feet is in part remedied by erecting on it a flat bastion, tion.
which is not so high as the rest of the works.
Ground which will admit of being regularly fortified
throughout is seldom or never to be met with, but, never¬
theless, the rules of regular fortification must be observ¬
ed as nearly as possible ; that is, the flanked angles should
not be less than 60°, the lines of defence should not ex¬
ceed musket range, and the sides should be lengthened
or shortened so as to obtain a well-proportioned front upon
each. After an irregular place has been reduced to as
regular a form as possible, lines are drawn parallel at the
distance of about thirty yards from the houses, in order
to give sufficient space for the rampart; and these lines
form the interior polygon, which may be fortified inwards
by setting off the demigorges of the bastions, and raising
their flanks at an angle of 100° with the curtain: Or,
the exterior side may be formed and fortified inwards by
drawing a line parallel to each of the interior sides; and
when the angle is that of a polygon of more than five
sides, the distance from the exterior to the interior sides
should not be less than 100 yards. If a side extend from
360 to 520 yards, the perpendicular should be'diminished
to about fifty yards, and the faces of the bastions be made
from 100 to 120 yards. When a side is very long, it may
be divided into several parts of from 340 to 360 yards
each, which may be fortified with flat bastions.
The ditch or fosse is an excavation of from twelve to
twenty-four feet in depth, and from thirty to fifty yards in
breadth, surrounding the rampart on the exterior side, and
the earth dug out of which serves to raise the rampart
and parapet. The side of the ditch next the place forms
part of the escarpe, the side next the country is called the
counterscarp, and it is made circular opposite the salient
angles of the works. In fig. 1 arcs are described with a
radius of thirty yards, opposite the salient angles of the
bastions, tangents to which are drawn upon the shoulders
of the neighbouring bastions, and thus form the ditch.
The general dimensions of a ditch should be such that its
excavation, or deblai, would produce sufficient earth, or
remblai, for the formation of the works. The breadth
varies from thirty to fifty yards, in order that, in passing
across it to the assault, the enemy may, for a considerable
time, be exposed to the fire of the works; and its depth
must also be such as to render difficult the escalade of the
parapet, as well as to prevent the besiegers at the crest ot
the glacis from being able to see to breach the lower part
of the revetement of the escarpe. The line of the coun¬
terscarp is drawn from the rounding at the salient angles
of the bastions upon the shoulders of the bastions next
adjoining, in order that the whole of the ditch may c
defended by the fire of the flanks of the collateral bas¬
tions. Ditches are of three kinds; wet, dry, and such
as may occasionally be rendered either wet or dry. ie
wet ditch is calculated to prevent sudden surprises or as¬
saults, excepting during hard frost, as in the attempt mate
to surprise Bergen-op-Zoom in the year 1814; but, inde¬
pendently of this exception, the number of bridges ot
communication, which require continual repair, an is
difficulty of making sorties, which a wet ditch creates,
render it extremely inconvenient. A dry ditch, wine
is capable of containing works for its own defence, an y
means of which communications round the works may
moje easily be maintained, is therefore prefeia a 0
wet one; but the third kind, which unites the adva *
tages of the other two, should, when practicable, e pr
1 Although it has been common to employ the French toise as the standard measure for drawing plans, yet as the British lineal
measure of yards and feet has of late years been adopted by our engineers, we shall conform to the same usage.
FORTIFICATION.
773
Portia* ferred to either. It is only in particular situations, how-
tin ever, that the advantage of such a ditch can be obtained.
The tenaille is a work placed in front of the curtain. It
is formed by the continuation of the lines of defence, at
the distance of ten yards from the angle of the shoulder;
the ends are then drawn parallel to the flanks of the bas¬
tions ; it is made sixteen feet broad ; the angle formed by
the meeting of the two lines which determine its rear is
then cut off, at the distance of ten yards, parallel to the
curtain ; and another line is drawn, at the distance of six¬
teen yards, parallel to this, and forming -a small curtain
upon the line of defence or front of the tenaille. The re¬
lief or height of the tenaille is determined by that of the
neighbouring flanks, and it has a parapet of seven or
seven and a half feet in height, and from twelve to fifteen
feet in thickness. The use of the tenaille is to cover the
postern gate, which is often made in the curtain or flank;
when the ditch is dry, to protect the troops who may be
formed behind the work for the defence of the ditch ; and
when the ditch is a wet one, to cover the boats which may
be collected for the same purpose. It also serves to aug¬
ment the defence, as its fire, from being more horizontal,
and nearer than that from the flanks, is of course propor¬
tionally more effectual.
The ravelin or demilune is a work constructed opposite
the curtain, and composed of two faces meeting in an out¬
ward or salient angle, with two demigorges formed by the
counterscarp. Its use is to cover the curtain, the gates,
and the flanks of the bastion. The ravelin is constructed
as follows: Ten yards are set off along the faces of the
bastion; from the shoulder an arc is described from the
curtain, upon the perpendicular produced, with a radius
of 160 yards ; from this intersection lines are drawn bear¬
ing upon the points set off at ten yards from the shoulders
of the bastion, but not further than the lines of the coun¬
terscarp, and at the intersection of the lines of the coun¬
terscarp or re-entering angle ; and six yards are set off on
the capital or line bisecting its angle, whence lines are drawn
parallel to the lines of defence till they meet those of the
counterscarp. Stairs, called pas-de-souris, are construct¬
ed here in order to facilitate the entrance of the ravelin
from the ditch. The ditch in the ravelin, which is twen¬
ty-four yards in breadth, is made circular at the salient
angle, and drawn parallel to the faces till it joins the main
ditch.
The covered-way is a space of ten yards in breadth, ex¬
tending all round the counterscarp of the ditch, and co¬
vered by a parapet of from seven to nine feet in height,
with a banquette. The superior part of this parapet forms
a gentle slope towards the country, which terminates at
the distance of from forty to seventy yards ; and this slope
is called the glacis. The covered-way serves for drawing
up troops in order to make sorties, and costs less than
any other part of the works in proportion to the difficulty
of taking it. In the salient and re-entering angles of the
covered-way spaces are contrived which have been deno¬
minated places of arms.
The salient places of arms are formed by the circular
parts of the counterscarp, and the prolongation of the
branches of the covered-way till they intersect. The re¬
entering places of arms are constructed with two faces,
forming a salient angle of 100° with the covered-way. I he
demigorges of the re-entering places of arms are generally
from twenty-four to thirty yards ; but when they are in¬
tended to contain a redoubt or entrenchment, they are
from forty to forty-eight yards. The re-entering places
of arms are meant to flank the branches of the covered
way, and to contain the troops for its defence. The sa¬
lient places of arms also serve for assembling the troops
destined to defend the covered-way.
Traverses are constructed across the covered-way, upon Fortifica-
the prolongation of the sides of the ravelins and bastions, tion.
perpendicular to the line of the counterscarp ; they are from
eighteen to twenty feet thick, and serve to cover the troops
from the enfilading fire of the enemy. Other traverses
should be constructed between these, so that the distance
from the one to the other should not exceed thirty-six or
f°rty yards. Openings are cut into the parapet of the
covered-way about ten or twelve feet wide, in order to keep
up the communication from one part to another round the
ends of the traverses, which, however, may be shut by a
gate when required. In the more improved systems of
Cormontaigne and others, these passages are constructed
in such a manner that each can be defended by the fire
from the traverse in rear of it.
The glacis, as already stated, forms a gentle slope or
declivity from the parapet of the covered-way towards the
country, and varies from forty to sixty yards. Its parapet
cannot be ruined by the fire of the enemy; it covers the
revetement of the body of the place; and being an in¬
clined plane, it can be easily seen and defended from any
part of the works.
The rampart is an elevation of earth, being the part of
the works situated next to the town. It must be thick
enough to receive a mound of earth, called the parapet,
and also leave sufficient space behind it for working the
guns, as well as room for the defenders to pass round
freely. The ditch is immediately in front of the rampart,
the faces of which are reveted or built up with stone
walls, backed interiorly, at every fifteen or twenty feet,
by buttresses or counterforts of masonry, to strengthen
it. The rampart is divided into the interior slope, the
terre-plein, the banquette, the parapet, and the exterior
slope or escarpe. See fig. 4, profile.
The revetement or face of masonry around the work on
both sides of the ditch is intended to prevent the earth
forming the rampart from falling into the ditch. To as¬
certain the proper thickness of masonry for this purpose
has always been a work of considerable trouble and dif¬
ficulty. Colonel Pasley of the royal engineers has given
the following rules: 1st, For full scarped revetements
without berms, and for demi-revetements having berms
equal to one fourth the height of the masonry, the thick¬
ness of the wall should be seventeen sixtieths, and the
length of the counterforts or buttresses one fifth of their
height. 2dly, For demi-revetements without, berms, the
mean thickness of the wall should be three tenths, and
the length of the counterfort one fifth of the height. Sdly,
For counterscarp revetements, having only to retain sim¬
ple terre-pleins, the mean thickness should be one fourth,
and the counterfort one sixth of the height. In all these
cases, Colonel Pasley supposes the revetement to be coun-
tersloped, that is, to have the exterior slope in a vertical
plane, and the interior face inclined, so that the base of
the wall may be broader than its upper surface by one
fifth of its height; and he also supposes the counterforts
to be rectangular, and the intervals between their centres
to be equal to four times their width, ithly, He recom¬
mends that the foundations be made deeper in rear than
in front, and that the courses of masonry form an angle
with the horizon of about 10°; and, excepting at the ex¬
terior points, where it should be made horizontal, to pre¬
vent the rain from penetrating, that the interior face ot
the wall should be of an irregular form. In order to di¬
minish the lateral pressure of the earth against the re¬
vetements, several tiers of arches may be built between
the counterforts in the form of segments of a circle.
The cordon is a round projection of stone, about a foot
in diameter, which goes quite round the revetement wall
near the top, and serves to throw the drip of rain off the
774
FORTIFICATION.
tion.
tj. •_ a obstacle to of one tower-bastion to that of the next, is supposed to Fortific:
Fortifica- face of the masonry. _ for escalade airainst the be equal to 240 yards, and from its extremities, at the tion.
besiegers, m placing their ladders for escalade against tne oe ^ twent;.four yards, perpendiculars are erected
^htvrofih or section of Vauban's first system is given equal to thirty-sia yards, for the flanks of the tower-bas-
InPlate CCXLvi fig.4., in order to illustrate the relative Hons A l,ne .s then drawn parallel to the intenor side
“r hSld of the r spective works and also to show ^
^ and this being done on bo.hPsifes of the a?gle, foL,
other or above the country. When the height of the the tower-bastion. The oblique radius is then produced
other, or anove e y • twentv feet, and seventy-eight yards, and lines of defence are drawn to
IS ofthe pmpet of the covered-way Is nine feet above the the angle where the tower-bastion joins the curtain or line
n one of the ite!then the rampart will have a command of AB. On these hues of defence, the faces of the counter-
fwentv feet over the country, and eleven feet over the crest guard, or exterior bastion, are set off equal to . yards,
of the covered!way land the latter, again, will have a com- and from the point forming the shoulder, Banks are di-
► f
rr l
mand of nine feet over the field. There are three sorts
of command, namely, in front, in rear, and in enfilade.
That in front is when any eminence directly faces the
work which it commands; that in rear is when the emi¬
nence is behind the work; and that in enfilade is when
the eminence is situated laterally on the prolongation of
any line or work. The last, which is the most dangerous
kind of command, is best remedied by raising the salient
works exposed to it, or by erecting traverses. In draw-
jn<r this figure, aline, called the line of site, and supposed
to^be the "surface of the ground on which the fortification
stands, is drawn, and perpendiculars are erected on it
rected to a point set off on the line AB, at the distance
of seventy yards from its extremities. From the salient
angles of the tower-bastions arcs are described with a ra¬
dius of fourteen yards for the breadth of the ditch, and
tangents to these arcs are drawn parallel to the faces of
the tower-bastion, but stopped where they would meet a
line drawn from the salient angle of the tower-bastions,
at the distance of twenty yards from the flanks.
The tenaille is the same as in the first system, except¬
ing that, at its ends, it is carried down till it meets the
line drawn between the flanked or salient angles of the
tower-bastions. The ditch in front of the counterguards, or,
eimalto^the^esp^ctive heights of the different parts of in other words, the main ditch, is constructed in the same
equal IU uie } * mnnnpr as n the first system. Ihe ravelin is formed by
the works corresponding to the lines in the figure. Thus
a shows the terre-plein of the rampart, b the banquette or
step to enable the soldiers to fire over the parapet, c the
parapet, d the revetement, e the escarpe, f the counter¬
scarp, and so on.
2. Vaubans Second and Third Systems.
Having thus endeavoured to explain, with as much mi¬
nuteness as possible, the principles of Vauban’s first sys¬
tem, we trust, from what has been said, that no great dif¬
ficulty will be experienced in understanding the methods
manner as in the first system. The ravelin is formed by
setting off ninety yards from the re-entering angle of the
counterscarp, and directing its faces to points set oft on
the counterguards, at the distance of twenty yards from
the shoulders. A flank is formed by cutting off the cor¬
ners of the ravelin at the distance of fourteen yards on its
demigorge, and twenty on its face; and this flank serves
for the placing of guns in such a manner that their fire
may be directed into the counterguard, or into the ditch
before them, as occasion may require. Again, at the dis¬
tance of forty-eight yards from the re-entering angle of
of otherengineerrwho^iave Constructed wodcs varying but the counterscarp, lines are p^llelto^he faces of
little in the main from those prescribed by this system, the ravelin for the \dltc
whilst even these varieties have arisen from difference of this, and parallel hereto, about e ghte®n in
situation and local peculiarities, more than from any other and the redoubt thus constructed
cause. The same general observation, indeed, applies to feet over the parapet of the rampart, as the tower-bastions
the other methods of construction followed by Vauban have over the counterguar s. ie cohere - y
himself, who, in his second and third systems (see Plate are formed as in the first system. some niJ!L0f
CCXLVI. fig. 2) merely modified, according to circum- that redoubts are constructed in tie re-en er ng j
stances, the principles upon which the first is based, arms; in which case them demigorgcs are mac e
When this celebrated military engineer was called upon teen to forty yards, and their faces se o c g
to repair or improve the fortresses of Landau, Brisach, a hundred degrees, as before,
and others, and found these places already surrounded 3> Cormoniaiqm s System.
with strong walls surmounted by small towers at the r , i
angles, he did not, as some might have supposed, pro- The difference between the systems of au an
ceed to destroy these defences, but, with his accustomed Cormontaigne may easily be discovered by an exaI^1
judgment and ability, he immediately took advantage of tion of Plate CCXLVI. fig. 3. Vauban makes t e a
them, and constructed, nearly in the same proportions of his bastions two sevenths of the exterior si e, an ^
as in his first system, large counterguards or bastions montaigne one third. Vauban, in his first system, p
in front of the towers which crowned the angles of the duces the faces of his ravelin to the distance o ten ya
wall. And by this method an important object was at- upon the face of the bastion from the shoulder, an in .
tained ; for, as in front of each tower, or rather tower- second and third systems, to the distance of twenty ya »
bastion, there ran a ditch which cut off all communica- but Cormontaigne makes the capital of his rave ins a ^
tion between it and the counterguard, so the enemy, even 120 yards, and produces the faces to the t‘istancetjie
if they should have succeeded in establishing themselves thirty yards from the shoulder; by which n|fanS jjnS
in the counterguard, would still have another ditch to flanks are better covered, and the ^asdons arT r?Vtjlus
cross, and another wall to breach, before they could at- are enlarged. And this is an advantage; for he is
tempt to give the assault. enabled to construct a larger redoubt in his rave in, ^
There is so little difference between the second and curtain and flank are also better covered, and, as ^ ®
third systems of Vauban, that a description of the former mer is shorter, communications are more easily elgame
will be sufficient to enable the reader to distinguish and between the bastions. Cormontaigne gives 116 s
appreciate the peculiarities of the latter. In the second breadth to his covered-way as Vauban, but ie an
system, the interior side of the polygon, from the centre in a different manner the communication round
FORTIFICATION.
775
Forkca- mities of the traverses, as may be seen by inspecting the
tip., plate. By this chequer order, or zigzag line of communi-
cation, the passage round the extremity of one traverse
may be defended by the fire of the other in its rear, or
nearer to the body of the place, and the advance of assail¬
ants along the covered-way completely checked.
4. The Modern System.
The modern system, which is shown in Plate CCXLVII.
fig. 2, varies but little from Cormontaigne’s. Its perpen¬
dicular is one sixth of the exterior side,-and the faces of
the bastions are one third. The flanks are at right angles
with the lines of defence, whereas in Vauban’s system they
form an angle of about eighty-two degrees; which is not
so good, because, in the modern system, the guns placed
in the flanks can fire straight along the ditch without be¬
ing moved or turned on their platforms. The ravelin is
formed by setting off thirty-four yards from the shoulder
angle of each bastion along the face, which line forms one
side of an equilateral triangle, the vertex of which, op¬
posite the centre of the curtain, forms the salient angle
of the ravelin. The redoubt of the ravelin is formed by
drawing its faces parallel to those of the ravelin from the
shoulder angle of the parapet of the bastion ; and it has
flanks with a ditch about twenty yards in breadth. The
cavalier in the bastion is drawn parallel to the faces of
the bastion, at the distance of forty-eight yards. The
ditch on the faces is ten yards in width, but there is no
ditch on the flanks. The cowpure, or cavalier retrench¬
ment, is drawn perpendicular to the faces of the bastions,
at thirty-four yards for the counterscarps of the coupures,
whilst the scarps are at ten yards, and parallel to these.
5. Coehorn's System.
This system, which is shown in Plate CCXLVII. fig. 1,
is particularly adapted for the low and swampy country
of Holland, where alone it has been practised. It is not,
therefore, deemed necessary here to enter into any details
respecting it. The great width of the ditch, which is near¬
ly twice as broad as in Vauban’s systems, and the narrow
space between the flanks, constitute the principal differ¬
ences between the methods of these celebrated engineers ;
a difference, as already observed in speaking of Coehorn,
caused by the different descriptions of ground on which
their respective works were erected.
6. Outworks,
Plate CCXLVIT. fig. 3, shows several kinds of out¬
works, as a horn-work g, tenaillons k and k, bonnet d, lu¬
nettes a and d, an entrenched bastion e, batardeau /, and
caponniere h. These, and other works of a similar de¬
scription, are constructed for the purpose of occupying
some of the ground which might otherwise be of service
to the besiegers ; but their application must of course de¬
pend upon certain localities, and the judgment of the en¬
gineer must therefore determine, in each particular place,
which is best adapted to the ground, and most proper to
be employed with reference to the general defence of the
place.
ARMAMENT OF FORTRESSES.
Having thus endeavoured to describe as briefly as pos¬
sible the principal systems of fortification, it only now re¬
mains for us, before quitting this branch of the subject,
to say a few words respecting the means of defending a
place after it has been fortified. And here we may ob¬
serve, that it is difficult to lay down any exact rules as to
the proportion of ordnance, ammunition, and stores of
every kind required for the defence of a fortified place,
seeing this must necessarily vary according to the parti- Fortifiea-
cular situation of each fortress, the system on which its tion.
works have been constructed, and the species of attack
to which it may be exposed. If, for example, one of the
sides be covered by a morass, swamp, or any other ob¬
struction which it is difficult or perhaps impossible to sur¬
mount, it must be obvious that, in this case, a smaller
proportion of artillery will be required than if the fortress
were equally accessible on every side; and, on the other
hand, a maritime fortress, accessible at all points, will ne¬
cessarily require for its defence a larger proportion of ord¬
nance than if it were only assailable on one or a few of
these points. Where every front is equally exposed to
attack, all must of necessity be equally prepared.
On this subject, however, there have been established
certain maxims, of which the following appear to be the
most important: First, the proportion of ordnance, ammu¬
nition, and stores, should never exceed the quantity ne¬
cessary for a brave and resolute defence. Secondly, those
points which are considered as being most exposed to at¬
tack should be most completely armed, whilst the partial
armament of the remaining points may suffice. Thirdly,
for each of the faces of the bastions which are liable to
be attacked, five or six pieces of ordnance should be al¬
lotted ; for each of the flanks of these bastions, four ; for
the faces of the ravelins, from five to seven; for the lu¬
nettes, when there are such, four pieces of ordnance should
be reckoned ; besides two or three pieces for each of the
places of arms in the covered-way. Supposing, therefore,
that one Iront of a place is to be completely armed, the
proportions of ordnance required will be, for the faces of
the bastions from ten to twelve pieces, for the two inte¬
rior flanks from six to eight, for the faces of the ravelins
from five to seven, and for five places of arms from ten to
fifteen ; making the total of ordnance for one front from
thirty-one to forty-two pieces. Fourthly, when a place is
exposed to attack on two consecutive fronts, the arma¬
ment of each should be augmented one half; when it is
threatened with attack on detached fronts, the armament
should, in that case, be doubled. Fifthly, each of the
other fronts should merely be provided with such a pro¬
portion as to secure it against insult. Lastly, from the
foregoing maxims, it appears that a hexagon, having only
one front exposed to attack, requires from fifty-eight to
sixty-eight pieces of ordnance on such front, whilst in
more extensive places, six, eight, or ten pieces should be
added for each additional front.
The next consideration is the proportion which the se¬
veral kinds of ordnance should bear to one another. And
here let it be remembered that ordnance of the higher
calibres is not the only description which ought to be em¬
ployed. In many cases medium, and even light guns are
more efficacious; for when only troops or working parties
are to be fired at, light guns will answer every purpose,
as the range of the shot is nearly equal to that of larger
guns, and they are of course much more manageable, and
may be worked with greater rapidity. But short guns of
heavy calibre are best adapted for the flanks; and, gene¬
rally, the large or heavy ordnance should only be employ¬
ed to destroy the besiegers’ batteries and dismount their
guns. The flank guns being only required for the defence
of the ditch, short pieces of large calibre, as carronades,
which throw a heavy charge of grape or canister shot, are
the most proper to be employed. The light guns, as they
can easily be withdrawn, should be placed on the covered¬
way and places of arms, and on outworks of every descrip¬
tion. The heavy long guns and mortars, as they are not
so easily moved, should be within the body of the place,
and as they require a great quantity of ammunition, they
should be less frequently used, and only upon urgent oc-
776
FORTIFICATION.
* • J- • nf ammunition is a duty rable other instances of the disastrous consequences usually Fortiaai
Fortifica- casions. A judicious econ } <■ attendant on the failure of sieges might easily be produ- tion.
, tiom incumbent upon every Ju^mJa^erafchassd ced ; but those which have just been referred to are suffi-
   place stacked Th G^neral^Cha^ ce^, ^ ^ ^ ^ ^
,n the defence oUie eta ^ c]osc of stl0vv that the dearest interests of a country may frequently
this respect. From the co jiqcci„ -vnpnrl he staked on the sure and speedy reduction of a fortress,
the attack, scarcely a smgle shot was needlessly expend- be staked on the s„ P^y iro e t0 a s J(
ed by the garrison.
ATTACK AND DEFENCE OF FORTIFIED PLACES.
Having thus treated of that important branch of forti¬
fication which is denominated permanent, and which, be-
inff applied solely to the defence of towns, is not liable to
It is therefore of the greatest importance to a state
that the sieges undertaken by its armies should be carried
on in the best and most efficient manner possible, or, in
other words, that by a due combination of science, labour,
and force, these operations should be rendered not only
short, but certain, and unproductive of any great expen¬
diture of life. But the sieges undertaken by the British
ing applied solely to the defenceot t , ^ ^ have almost never united these three indispensable con-
be destroyed except by an enemy, ^ral tem ditions ; and with regard to those which took place during
consider the attack of fortified place g j t d the contest in the Peninsula, it is well known that various
of which was introduced by Vauban, and so far perre^ted of ization> and particularly the want of a
by that great engineer that it has ever since served b of men)fesuch as sappers and miners, trained to the
model for the plans of his success0 - <4 j b y required at sieges, not to mention the inexperi-
“ Lffa -so ution des S1f^’ g ayV ^tf^tureffi de la ence of the engineers, and an inadequate supply of rnate-
une affaire de cabinet. . Life est u e ^ necessitated a departure from all established princi-
SS^VreTes ™p°r- ^
state that the success of sieges depends on several circum
stances, such as, u 1. Du secret, sans lequel il est difficile
de reussir: 2. Des forces que 1’on a sur pied pour atta-
quer les places des ennemis et defendre les siennes: 3.
De la disposition des ennemis; car s ils sont leunis, et
aussi forts que nous, ils peuvent nous empecher d en faiie .
4. De 1’etat des magazins les plus a portee des lieux sur
miner: regular approaches were therefore impracticable,
it was necessary, in almost every case, to take the bull,
as the saying is, by the horns; the last operation of a
siege scientifically conducted, namely, battei ing in bleach,
was the first, or almost the first, undertaken: and the
troops were marched to the assault whilst the defences
remained nearly entire, and exposed to eveiy species of
4. De fetat des ^reVd^e ? r Se"Ta coni n ure dest^ctTon whilh the unreduced means of the besieged
lesquels on peut entrepiendre . 5. De la conjoncture aes ^ bear a„ainst them. The army of a country
terns, parce que tous ne sont pas propres aux sieges, et has^utstripped all others in the useful arts and in
eviter tant off 0^ peutTfi* Des fonds nSsaires k leurs mechanical improvements, was left wholly unprovided with
depeLes; 1 largent est le nerf de la guerre, sans lui those applianees wh.ch at once eeonom.se ^
on ne s9auroit r^ussir en rien. Ce sont la des nr&ures a and serve to render ^ “ost effeetual for tte purpose
prendre de longue main, qui doivent etre dirigees a loisir ; to which they are applied. ^tandmg tms
et apres tout cela, quand on croit les avoir bien prises, sou- great anomaly, wineh is ^ the govern
vent tout echappe ; car fennemi, qui n’est jamais d accord alone, and no agams noblv sustained its
avec vous, pourra vous interrompre.... II faut bien peser m the most adverse emeumstances so noWysus^
toutes ces ionsiderations, avant que de se determiner; et reputation, it may be observed that, m all penods^and ^
prendre toujours si bien son terns, que 1’ennemi ne puisse all countries, the means e p y g over.
vous tomber sur les bras avant vos etablissemens.”1 fortresses have generally mere 1 , advance-
A siege, therefore, being one of the most arduous un- whelming and irresistible in Pu 1 , , ugeful
dertakings in which an army or corps d’armee can be em- Nment of knowledge and the imp centuries
ployed; one in which the greatest fatigue, hardships, and arts; and .that Europe auring JJ2, , accom-
personal risk are encountered, and in which the prize can the extensive diffusion o vvea ^1 nf^talent all
only be won by complete victory ; it is obvious that, upon panied by an unprecedented deve opmen ’
the success or failure of such an enterprise may depend more or less directed towards mi i aiy m ’ , g
the fate of a campaign, sometimes that of an army, and caused the results of sieges, am int ee 0 ......
perhaps even the existence of a state. Of this the fail- operations of war, to depend muc i ess on n b-
ures before Pavia in 1525, before Metz in 1552, before ertion or casual displays of heroism, than on mer^
Prague in 1557, before St Jean d’Acre in 1799, and be- nation and expenditure. This may e ma e app
rrague in ioo/, oerore ot jean UAcre in i/uu, anu ue- uanun . v turv>
fore Burgos in 1812, present instructive examples. By a slight retrospect of the sieges of t le six een , ^
the first, France lost her monarch, the flower of her no- At the period here referred to, the ar o qnd
rue nrsi, France iosi ner monaren, me nower or ner no- -gvl luc x.v-.v,     - * ,
bility, and all her Italian conquests; by the second, she several works of a fortress so as to covei eac i o
was saved from destruction, whilst thirty thousand of her to be covered by their glacis from the view o an >
rsrvcvmioo rxci ri oly rvrl • Kir tVtrx a f f txrovfirvv* WHC PltllPT linknOWll OT » WUllS
and
was saveu irom uesirucuon, wmisi unriy mousanu or ner to uc cuvcitu xx.v-.x   , ,
enemies perished; by the third, the greatest warrior of was either unknown or disregarded; vv n s
his age, Frederick the Great, was brought to the very brink quantity of artillery in use, its unwieldiness, ant » ^
of destruction ; by the fourth, the most successful general expense and difficulty of bringing it up, occasio
of France, and perhaps the greatest commander that little to be used in sieges, that the chief objee in
any age or country has produced, was stopped short in ing towns was to render them secure against es5a-. bon.
his career of victory; and by the last, a beaten enemy surprise, by means of lofty walls or altitude o si ^
gained time to recruit his forces, concentrate his scatter- All places fortified prior to the sixteent i cen y ^
ed corps, and regain that ascendency of which the vie- invariably of this construction. And as the siniP gyme
tory at Salamanca had for a time deprived him. Innume- the fortresses to be attacked necessarily gave
i- ch
th
wi
im
co
tin
De VAttaque et de la Dlfcnse des Places, pp. 1 and 2. Hague, 1737, 4to.
FORTIFI
Fortijfc- character to the operations directed against them, so, in
tioi those days, every thing was effected by daring courage,
without the aid of science; and gallantly contending in
individual combat, or fearlessly confronting danger, were
considered as the highest qualities of a besieger. Thus
the contest dragged on for months, in petty but sanguinary
affairs, and the most persevering or the most hardy troops,
however ill organized or supplied, were the most dreaded,
and not unfrequently the most successful. But when ar¬
tillery became more moveable, and large quantities began
to be employed in sieges, lofty and exposed walls no
longer opposed any adequate barrier ; large breaches were
speedily effected; places which had formerly resisted for
months were carried in a few days; and hence, in order
to restore an equality of defence, it became necessary to
screen the ramparts from distant fire. The ,attempt to
gain security by concealment rapidly advanced towards
perfection, whilst the means of the besiegers remained the
same; and between the middle of the sixteenth and com¬
mencement of the seventeenth century, works were so
skilfully disposed and so well covered, that the defence of
towns obtained a temporary superiority over the attack
as the latter was then practised. Of this the obstinate
and successful defences made by the Dutch against the
Spaniards during the reigns of Philip II. and Philip III.
may be cited as remarkable examples.1
But unhappily for this pre-eminence, Vauban appeared on
the scene, and, supported by Louis XIV., who brought to
the attack of fortresses a vast and costly preparation in ord¬
nance, ammunition, and materials, perfected in the early
offensive campaigns of that monarch a covered mode of at¬
tack, which, by a singular combination of science and la¬
bour, and by the steady advances of a few brave men well
trained to such work, rendered comparatively easy the
reduction of places capable of for ever defying the rude
violence of multitudes. These increased means of attack,
| to which it was found impossible to oppose a successful
resistance, caused the art of concealment or covering to
be further studied, till at length, in well-constructed fort¬
resses, not a single wall remained exposed to view, and
the sap and the mine became as necessary as the gun and
the mortar to the success of a besieger. To render this
intelligible to the general reader, it may be proper to in¬
troduce here a descriptive sketch of the progress of a mo¬
dern attack, from the excellent work of Sir John Jones,
already referred to.
“ The first operation of a besieger,” says that able and
experienced engineer, “ is to establish a force able to
cope with the garrison of the town to be attacked, at the
distance of six or seven hundred yards from its ramparts.
This is effected by approaching the place secretly in the
night with a body of men, part carrying entrenching tools,
and the remainder armed. The former dig a trench in
the ground parallel to the fortifications to be attacked,
and with the earth that comes out of the trench raise a
bank on the side next to the enemy, whilst those with
arms remain formed in a recumbent posture, in readiness
to protect those at work, should the garrison sally out.
During the night this trench and bank are made of suffi¬
cient depth and extent to cover from the missiles of the place
the number of men requisite to cope with the garrison,
and the besiegers remain in the trench during the follow¬
ing day, in despite of the fire or sorties of the besieged.
This trench is afterwards progressively widened and deep¬
ened, and the bank of earth raised till it forms a covered
road, called a parallel, embracing all the fortifications to
be attacked; and along this road, guns, waggons, and men
CATION. 777
securely and conveniently move, equally sheltered from Fortifica-
the view and the missiles of the garrison. Batteries of tion.
guns and mortars are then constructed on the side of the
road next the garrison, to oppose the guns of the town,
and in a short time, by superiority of fire, principally aris¬
ing from situation, silence all those which bear on the
works of the attack. After this ascendency is attained,
the same species of covered road is, by certain rules of
art, carried forward, till it circumvents or passes over all
the exterior defences of the place, and touches the main
rampart, wall at a spot where it has been previously beaten
down by the fire of the batteries erected expressly for
the purpose in the more advanced parts of the road.
“ The besiegers’ troops being thus enabled to march
in perfect security to the opening or breach in the walls
of a town, assault it in strong columns; and being much
more numerous than the garrison defending the breach,
soon overcome them, and the more easily as they are as¬
sisted by a fire of artillery and musketry directed on the
garrison from portions of the road only a few yards from
the breach ; and which fire can, at that distance, be main¬
tained on the defenders of the breach until the very in¬
stant of personal contention, without injury to the assail¬
ants. The first breach being carried, should the garrison
have any inner works, the covered road is by similar rules
of art pushed forward through the opening, and advanced
batteries are erected in it to overpower the remaining
guns of the place ; which effected, the road is again push¬
ed forward, and the troops march in security to the as¬
sault of breaches made in a similar manner in those inte¬
rior works, and invariably carry them with little loss.”
But as it is always an object to preserve the life of even
a single soldier, so, when time is abundant, the loss of
men attendant on the assault of breaches under these fa¬
vourable circumstances may be avoided, by pushing up
the covered road through the breach, without giving the
assault, and thus, by art and labour, the strongest defences
frequently fall without any exertion of open force.”
From this description it must be obvious that the most
important object at a siege is to carry forward the cover¬
ed road to the walls of the place; that all the other ope¬
rations are secondary to and in furtherance of such an
advance ; and that hence the efficiency of armies at sieges
depends upon their ability to complete the road at a small
expense of life. But in forming this covered road, differ¬
ent degrees of difficulty are experienced in proportion as
it advances. At its commencement, the work, owing to
the distance from the fortifications, which is usually about
six hundred yards, and not being straitened for space,
can easily be performed by the common soldiers. But
when the road or trench has arrived within a fair range
of musketry, or three hundred yards from the place, then
particular precautions are required; yet the work at this
stage is not so difficult as to prevent its being executed
by soldiers who have had a little previous training. At
the last stage, when the approaches have been pushed close
to the place; when to be seen is to be killed; when mine
after mine blows up the head of the road, with every offi¬
cer and man on the spot; when the space becomes so con¬
fined that little or no front of defence can be obtained;
and when the enemy’s grenadiers sally forth every mo¬
ment to attack the workmen, and deal out destruction to
all less courageous or weaker than themselves; then the
work becomes truly hazardous, and can only be perform¬
ed by selected brave men, called sappers, who have ac¬
quired the difficult and dangerous art from which they
derive their name. An indispensable auxiliary to the
1 Journals of Sieges in Spain, by Colonel Sir John T. Jones; Preliminary
VOL. IX.
Observations on the Attack of Fortresses.
5 F
778
FORTIFICATION.
Fortifica- sapper, however, is the miner, who, in the exercise o
tion. art, requires even a greater degree of skill, conduct, am
courage than his principal. The duty of a miner at a
siege is to accompany the sapper, to listen for and dis¬
cover the enemy’s miner at work, and to prevent his blow¬
ing up the head of the road, either by sinking down and
meeting him, in which case a subterranean conflict ensues,
or by running a gallery close to that of his opponent, and
forcing him to desist from working by means of suffocat¬
ing compositions, and various arts of chicanery, the know¬
ledge of which he has acquired from experience, with¬
out the aid of skilful miners, sappers would be unable to
execute that part of the covered road forming the descent
into the ditch, not to mention other portions in the forma¬
tion of which the assistance of the miner is equally indis¬
pensable ; and without their joint labours and steady co¬
operation, no besiegers’ approaches ever reached the walls
of a fortress.
But a siege, though it calls for great.personal bravery,
unremitting exertion, and extraordinary labour in all em¬
ployed, yet, if scientifically prosecuted, is alike certain in
its progress and its result. More or less skill and exeition
in the contending parties may in some degree prolong or
abridge its duration ; but the sapper and the miner, when
skilfully directed and adequately supported, will ultimate¬
ly surmount every obstacle. On the other hand, sieges
undertaken by armies destitute of these auxiliaries, as was
that of the Duke of Wellington in Spain, are hazardous
in the extreme. Their only chance of success consists in
scrutinizing the exterior of a fortress, in order to discover
some spot whence, from the irregularity of the ground,
or fault of construction, the main escarpe wall may be
seen at a distance sufficiently great to enable the ordina¬
ry working parties to approach with the covered road,
and there to establish batteries for breaching the wall or
forming an opening through it into the place. W hen this,
is effected, the troops at once advance to the assault of
the breach, as in the sixteenth century, thus losing the
shelter of the covered road at the moment when the fire
of the place becomes most powerful and destructive; and
as the fire of the besiegers’ distant batteries is necessarily
suspended during the assault, in order to avoid killing
their own storming party, the garrison can therefore with
impunity mount their ramparts and employ every kind of
weapon, missile, and instrument in their defence. All the
chances are thus in favour of the besieged ; for should the
columns of attack, under all these disadvantages, arrive
in good order at the brink of the ditch, they must descend
into it by a wall from fourteen to sixteen feet in depth, Fortfl
which cannot fail to break their order and throw them tioil
into confusion ; and as no new formation can be attempt-
ed in a spot where death is incessantly showering down
on them, the assailants rush to the breach more like a
rabble than a solid column. From this moment success
hinges on the individual and confident biavery of the offi¬
cers and troops, and the unshrinking firmness of the ge¬
neral commanding, in at once encouraging and supporting
their efforts. But although these qualities, when united
in a high degree, may, at a great sacrifice of life, enable
the assailants to overcome all resistance, yet an assault of
this nature, attempted under ordinary circumstances and
feelings, has almost invariably proved unsuccessful. In¬
deed it may be laid down as the general result of expe¬
rience, that should an army unprovided with sappers and
miners, and the necessary materials and means to render
their services efficient, be opposed to a place fortified ac¬
cording to the modern system, with its walls completely
covered, all the usual methods to reduce it would prove
unavailing ; no period of time nor sacrifice of men would
be sufficient to purchase success, and the prudent course
would be to decline an attempt pregnant with hazard, per¬
haps ruin.1
Having thus given a general description of the methods
of attack^ we shall now subjoin, on high authority, a view
of what is considered as necessary for the proper de¬
fence of fortified places. An order issued by the French
minister of war in 1813 contains directions on the subject
which are almost universally applicable, and therefore
deserve a place here. Every commander is directed to
consider his garrison as liable to be unexpectedly attack¬
ed, and to pass at once from a state of peace into one of
war or siege, either by rebellion, by unlawful assemblies,
bv the presence of an enemy, by surprise, or by sudden
assault; in a word, by unforeseen causes, of which the his¬
tory of war offers numerous examples. He is therefore
ordered, even in time of peace, to fix his plan and ar¬
rangement for defence, according to such supposed at¬
tacks as may appear most probable, and to determine,
for the principal cases which may be likely to occur, the
necessary posts, reserves, and movements of the troops,
and to take measures to ensure the due and active co¬
operation of every corps of the garrison. He ought, par¬
ticularly, to make himself thoroughly acquainted with,
first, the ground beyond the place which may be within
the circle of action, of investment, and of attack; second¬
ly, the fortifications of the place, its interior, its buildings,
for the above account ot tne various mooes oi auacKing unuueu pi<u;cs, ua.*c *—;    ~ ° fnr the
powers of F.urope, and induced them to form and keep up, as integral portions of their military strength, every necessary . • .
reduction of fortresses ; and their sieges have in consequence become certain and comparatively bloodless. But ng am , co ^
jealous of permanent military establishments, always discountenanced military organization and military prepara ion ' . i UJ
need ; and with respect to sieges, they being of rare*occurrence, and moreover exclusively offensive operations, even carried n J
feelings beyond the bounds of rational prudence ; for, possessing a corps of officers professionally educated and we groun el^
science of attack and defence, she denied them every requisite establishment to render their acquirements availing, an . mos u .,
ably expected her armies to reduce the skilfully fortified and well-covered places of the nineteenth century with means in enoi
brought against the exposed and ill-constructed places of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries. . And what was ie im
consequence of this irrational jealousy and niggardly parsimony ? Contrary to all ordinary calculation, the fortresses gams
the French in Spain were reduced ; but at what a prodigious expenditure of life was this effected ? In the several attac s upo .
joz, two of which, from extrinsic circumstances, proved abortive, a little army was sacrificed ; as many men, in short, as wou ^
been sufficient for the consumption of ten sieges undertaken with adequate means, and conducted according to the on inary ^
science. But this is not to be understood as involving any reflection against the military talents of the general or t 'e.pro
ability of the engineers. General Foy, in his work on the war in the Peninsula, has indeed made such a charge, condemning 0^
of attacking fortresses adopted by the British in Spain as unskilful and inefficacious, and bringing it forward as mdispu a i e P ^
the low state of military knowledge in our army. But it should be recollected that the adoption of this .mode wras no a m ^
choice, but of necessity ; and that if it was in its own nature rash, hazardous, and inefficient, the tact of its having een ^
against Ciudad Bodrigo and Badajoz with such rapidity of development and certainty of result as to outstrip the calcu a u’ ^ns-ve
French marshals, deceive the vigilance of French governors, paralyse the science of the French engineers, and baffle every
effort of the French garrisons, is surely no evidence of deficiency in military talent and professional skill. 1 he objections 0 even
of attack are insurmountable and decisive ; that it succeeded.in the instances referred to is merely a proof what British so i >
when acting under the greatest disadvantages, are capable of accomplishing.
Journals of the Sieges in Spain, Preliminary Observations—“ These considerations,” says Sir John Jones, to whom are
the above account of the various modes of attacking fortified places, “ have for many years had their due weignt & .
FORTIFICATION.
779
l for a- its military edifices or establishments ; thirdly, the garri-
ti son, the means of the place in artillery, in ammunition, and
V in other stores of every kind ; fourthly, the population to
he subsisted in time of siege, the men capable of bearing
arms, the master and journeymen artificers fit to he em¬
ployed either on the works or in case of fire ; anA, fifthly,
the provisions, materials, tools, and other resources which
the town itself and surrounding country can furnish, and
which it might he necessary to secure in case of siege.
In order to enable governors and commanders to comply
with these instructions, which are equally clear and pre¬
cise, the minister proceeds to detail their principal duties,
according to the circumstances in which they may find
themselves placed; hut for these we must refer to the
general order itself, which is a masterpiece of its kind, and
in all probability emanated directly from Napoleon him¬
self. Its object appears to have been to produce a belief,
that by taking proper precautions, and making a full use
of means previously provided, the defence might be ren¬
dered equal, if not superior, to the attack; and although
it is acknowledged on all hands that the idea of attain-
, ing such an advantage for the defence is, generally speak¬
ing, fallacious, yet the importance of the directions em¬
bodied in the order is noton that account diminished, and
where they are duly observed, the nature and extent of
, the resistance must be materially increased.
i Attach of the Citadel of Antwerp.
I ■
. I For the elucidation of the principles above stated, we
i | now proceed to give a sketch of the attack on the citadel
. i of Antwerp; first, because this was the most regular and
f I scientific siege which had taken place for many years;
i and, secondly, because, as a practical operation, an ac¬
count of it must not only be more interesting, but at the
. I same time more instructive, than any description what-
I soever of the formal theoretical plans which are usually
drawn in the military schools.
. [ The French army employed to cover and conduct the
attack of the citadel of Antwerp, in November and De¬
cember 1832, was placed under the command of Marshal
, ! | Gerard, and amounted to 54,000 infantry, 0000 cavalry,
and 6450 engineers, artillery, and pontonniers, making a
total of 66,450 men, and 14,300 horses, with 144 pieces of
siege and 78 of field artillery. On the 24th of November
Marshal Gerard established his head-quarters at the vil¬
lage of Berchem, about 2500 yards from the citadel, and
issued orders to commence operations in the evening as
soon as it became dark. The garrison of the citadel, under
General Baron Chasse, amounted to 4470 men, with 144
pieces of ordnance of all calibres, and abundance of am¬
munition and stores.
At eight o’clock p. m. on the 29th November the French
troops destined for this service consisted of 18 battalions,
900 artillery, and 400 sappers, in all about 17,140 men, as¬
sembled at the depots of intrenching tools. rIhe flank
companies of these brigades, supported by twelve eight-
pounders and a strong piquet of cavalry, formed the co¬
vering party under the direction of General Haxo, by
whom and the officers of his department (the engineers)
the first parallel and approaches were traced out, whilst
General Niegre and the officers of artillery marked the
sites of the projected batteries. The first parallel leaned
on the covered-way of the right face of Montebello, and
extended towards Kiel, its nearest point being about 325,
and its farthest 435 )’ards from the advanced front of the
citadel. The distance covered by the first parallel, from
right to left, was 1870 yards, and that by the approaches
3750 yards. The communications from the right and centre
debouched from the Malines Chaussee, in the village of
Berchem, parallel to the road leading from that village to Fortifica-
the Harmony and St Laurent; that from the left com- fi°n-
menced near to the garden called Heinrich’s; whilst a
fourth, on the extreme right, sprung from the covered-way
of the left flank of Montebello, opposite to the first traverse.
On the second night, from 30th November to 1st De¬
cember, five approaches were pushed on in front of the first
parallel; two in the direction of the capital of the Toledo
bastion, two upon that of the Lunette St Laurent, and
one, being the fifth, terminating in a place of arms on the
extreme left. From the 1st to the 2d December two
zigzags were added to the approaches ; one from the cen¬
tre, in the direction of the gorge of St Laurent, and the
other on the right, diverging towards the curtain, between
the Toledo and Fernando bastions. The badness of the
weather sadly incommoded the workmen, and prevented
the artillery getting the guns into battery. Between the
2d and 3d December four zigzags were made in front of
the approaches on the right and centre, and half a paral¬
lel was formed to complete the place of arms constructed
on the left during the night of the 30th November. The
heads of the zigzags were pushed to within 135 yards of the
glacis. The batteries Nos. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 9, with two
for mortars in the rear, were armed, and ready to be un¬
masked at a moment’s notice. The arming of Nos. 7, 8, and
10, on the extreme left, was impeded by the difficulties of
the ground. From the 3d to the 4th December, the se¬
cond" parallel was traced and commenced, its right leaning
on the foot of the glacis of the counterguard, its centre
and right 130 yards distant from the place of arms in the
covered-way of the Toledo bastion, and its left towards the
right of the covered-way of St Laurent, at 90 yards from
the crest, and 15 from the foot of its glacis. The length
of the second parallel was 1250 yards, and, together with
its approaches from the first parallel, it occupied 3025
yards of ground. By the greatest exertions batteries Nos.
7, 8, and 10 were armed during the night. This complet¬
ed the armament, and, at 11 a.m. on the 4th, the embra-
zures were unmasked, and the signal being given, the
batteries opened their fire from centre to flanks, and
maintained it steadily during the day.
From the 4th to the 5th of December an approach was
pushed on from the second parallel, almost in a direct
line upon the salient angle of St Laurent, and an entry
was made into the covered-way by a return to the left.
The garrison discovered this, and opened a sharp fire from
the Lunette ; a lodgment was, however, effected near the
spot usually occupied by the first traverse. At this time
the garrison suffered much from the fire of the besiegers.
From the 5th to the 6th the lodgment made the previous
night in the covered-way of the salient place of arms of St
Laurent was prolonged as far as the first traverse. But
the besieged kept up so vigorous a fire that the French
engineers were obliged to renounce the flying and adopt
the full sap. The zigzag in the counterguard, being
about three feet in width and four in depth, was conduct¬
ed along the parapet, nearly to the extremity of the right
flank, and within 180 yards of the counterscarp of bas¬
tions Toledo and Fernando; and two lodgments, blinded
with fascines, were made in the parapet for six rampart
guns to enfilade the covered-way of the Toledo bastion. In
the mean time a steady fire was kept against Kiel, the ra¬
velin in its rear, and the Paciotto bastion, hrom the 6th to
the 7th a battery of 24-pounders near the village of Burcht
on the left and Hoboken on the right opened on the gun¬
boats which flanked the French post at the Melk Huys.
It was intended to assault St Laurent this evening ; but as
the lunette was found to be too well protected by trous-de-
loup, the project of storm was abandoned, and the regular
method of descent, passage, and mine, determined on.
780
FORTIFICATION.
Fortifica¬
tion.
Between the 7th and 8th of December a shell penetrated
the blindage of the laboratory, and setting fire to loaded
bombs and other combustibles, caused considerable ha¬
voc. A battery for six mortars, E, on the right between
Nos 3 and 4, now opened its fire ; another, F, also for six
mortars, was traced behind the centre of the parallel; and
platforms for four mortars were laid down near Montebel¬
lo. The fire of these batteries was directed on the Tole¬
do bastion and the buildings within it. On the previous
day lets of smoke and flame were seen to issue from the
Great Barracks, and, in spite of every exertion on the part
of the garrison, the whole building soon became involved
in a general conflagration, which raged with such fury that
by the evening of the 8th it was entirely consumed.
From the 9th to the 10th of December the operations
against St Laurent were renewed with great activity, and
the sap advanced to the crotchet of the second traverse,
whilst that intended to debouch upon it from its right
was likewise pushed on. The principal operation of t ie
night, however, was the opening of the third parallel, 130
yards in advance of the second, its right debouching be-
yond the Boom Chaussee, from the branch running into
the covered-way of the counterguard, and its left uniting
with the boyau parallel to the foot of the glacis of St Lau¬
rent. At this time the garrison suffered much from the
vertical fire of the mortars and howitzers, especially the
oreat mortar, and the new-model eight-inch howitzeis.
Until the year 1822, the eight-inch howitzer in common
use in France measured three feet six inches French, and
weighed 1096 lbs., or twenty-three times the weight of the
loaded projectile, whilst its calibre was equal to a solid shot
of 80 lbs., and contained 65 ounces of powder. The new-
model howitzer is an improvement on the Russian licorne
and the Spanish heavy howitzer, perfected by Colonel
Paixhans. The raft for the blinded descent into the ditch
was brought up to the lodgment, and a second descent d
cid convert was commenced to the left of the first, ihe
third parallel was, at the same time, improved and widen¬
ed. A little after dusk on the 10th the besieged made a
sortie, which was driven in, but not until damage enough
had been done to occupy the French all the night of the
10th and morning of the 11th in repairing it. from the
11th to the 12th three rafts were got ready, and placed in
the descents to the ditch ; they were about twelve feet by
eight. At dusk the miners returned to the escarpe, and, in
an excavation made the previous night, fixed two petards,
which, by their explosion, produced a fissure in the wall;
and a serjeant having immediately entered the hole, com¬
menced a gallery under the centre of one of the arches. At
11 A. m. on the 12th the battery mortars, H, on the extreme
right of the second parallel, opened their fire, which, com¬
bined with that from the others, told severely on the Toledo
bastion. The miners still continued their work under the
Lunette St Laurent, and commenced chambers for three
mines. The fourth parallel was widened during the day.
Between the 12th and 13th of December the miners were
at work in the chambers under St Laurent, which were
not yet completed. On the right the covered way of the
left face of the Toledo bastion was crowned to within
sixty-five yards. From the 13th to the 14th, after near¬
ly sixteen nights of open trenches, the arrangements for
the assault of St Laurent wrere completed, and orders were
issued to prepare for the storm. Much, a great deal too
much, was said of this out-work, defended by little more
than a hundred men, one five-and-a-half inch howitzer,
two coehorn mortars, and a six-pounder. The mine being
reported charged, the blinded descent into the ditch was
pierced as soon as it became dark, and every thing got
ready for the assault. Three storming parties, consisting
of the flank companies of the 65th regiment of the line,
were posted in readiness, with a column of icserve , and
at 5 A. m. on the 14th, every preparation being complet¬
ed, the match was applied to the saucissons of the mines.
After a few moments of suspense, three successive explo¬
sions took place, and the escarpe immediately presented
a wide and practicable breach. The fascines for crossing
the ditch had been injured by the explosions; but after
a little delay the storming party entered almost without
opposition, and made prisoners one lieutenant and forty-
eight rank and file, the others having escaped into the
citadel. Thus fell the Lunette St Laurent.
After this, operations were carried on against the cita¬
del, and at 11 a.m. of the 21st December the battering in
breach commenced, and continued for two days. At length,
on the 23d, when a practicable breach had been form¬
ed, and Marshal Gerard was about to deliver the as¬
sault, the garrison surrendered, after as gallant a detence
as any recorded in military history, though mote remark¬
able for its passive than its active character. WhenJVlar-
shal Gerard, accompanied by the French princes, entered
the fortress, they found General Chasse in a casemate
in the Alba bastion, which he had occupied during the
siege. On their progress from the gate to the governor s
quarters, they passed through a scene of desolation and
ruin, intermixed with painful and disgusting objects, which
baffles all description. The whole, indeed, presented an
unparalleled chaos of black and smouldering destruction;
and, with the exception of the principal powder maga¬
zine, two or three service magazines, and the hospital, not
a building was standing. The terrepleins of the bastions
were ploughed into deep ruts by the shells; the gorges
were encumbered with heaps ot fallen rubbish ; and though
the casemates and subterranean communications were not
perforated, all of them had sustained damage from the in¬
cessant explosion of shells, and they emitted an offensive,
nay, almost insupportable odour, caused by the number
of men who had been crowded into these vaults. Every
thing was of course said by the victors to console and
flatter the vanquished. When Count Gerard took his leave
of General Chasse, he observed to the brave veteran,
“ that it was high time to surrender; that he had gal¬
lantly and honourably done his duty, and that he ought
not to have held out a day longer. With a fortiess re¬
duced to a heap of ruins, a garrison exhausted and exte¬
nuated, and a breach sufficiently wide to admit a column
formed upon a front ol a hundred, it would not have been
bravery, but madness, to attempt, under such circum¬
stances, to stand an assault. _
This operation, so instructive in a military point of view,
is also remarkable as having occurred in a time of gener
ral peace. It would be out of place here to enter into any
detail of the complicated series of events and negotiations
out of which so singular an occurrence arose: we shall
therefore content ourselves with observing, generally, that
Great Britain and France, as joint guarantees for the in¬
tegrity and independence of Belgium, having failed in
every attempt to procure the evacuation of Antwerp y
means of negotiation, were obliged, by the faith of trea
ties, to have recourse to force. Hence the siege, po ifr
cally considered, is to be viewed merely as an ejectment
executed against the king of Holland, who had re use
to renounce possession, unless compelled to do so.
Fort;
tio
''-'-yJL
1 The account of the siege given above is abridged from that published in the United Service Journal, and which is decidedly the;
best that has yet appeared
FORTIFICATION.
781
The following is a list of the different batteries, with the direction of their fire respectively:—
Number of
Batteries.
Twenty-four Sixteen
Pounders. Pounders.
6
7
8
9
10
A
B
t C
D
11
12
13
E
F
G
H
L K
14
15
16
L
30
4
Eight-inch
Howitzers.
14
3
4
20
Ten-inch
Mortars.
10
9
11
10
Distance in
Yards.
40
10
535 and 550 j
500
640
650
680 and 430
700
380 and 700 j
465
820
650 and 520 j
850
1000
1050
850
Direction of Fire.
Battering the left face of Toledo, and
gorge of St Laurent.
Ricochetting the left face of Toledo.
Battering the left face of the Ravelin.
Ricochetting left face of the Ravelin.
Battering right face of Toledo, and ri¬
cochetting left of Toledo.
Ricochetting left face of Toledo.
Ricochetting left face of St Laurent,
and battering right face of Paciotto
Ricochetting left face of Ravelin.
Battering salient angle of Paciotto.
Battering left face of Ravelin, and
Lunette of Kiel.
Not armed.
Body of the Citadel.
500
435
220 and 275
500
490
650
380
600
50
350
125
250
Battering the right face of Toledo.
Battering the Batardeau.
Battering the left face of Ravelin.
The body of the Citadel.
Breaching Battery.
Counter-battery against the left flank
of Fernando.
Six pierriers on the Ravelin and To¬
ledo.
Terreplein and rampart of Toledo.
The French brought against this place 66,450 men,
14,300 horses, and 222 guns of all descriptions; and they
lost during the siege 108 killed, and 695 wounded, total
put hors de combat 803. The Dutch had 4937 men in
the garrison, of whom they lost 122 killed, 369 wounded,
and 70 missing, total 561.
Siege of Dantzick.
Having thus given an example of an interior and passive
defence, we shall now, in further illustration of the prin¬
ciples already laid down, advert to one of a different if
not opposite kind. The siege of Dantzick, whether con¬
sidered with reference to the magnitude of the operation,
the difficulties to be surmounted by the besiegers, or the
active and varied character of the defence, was certainly
one of the most memorable events in the campaign of
1807. Before the war of 1806 and 1807, the fortifica¬
tions had been much neglected, because, from the posi¬
tion of the place, no one suspected that it would have to
sustain a siege. But when the battles of lena and Auer-
stadt had entailed destruction on the Prussian army, and
laid open the kingdom, General Manstein, who command¬
ed at Dantzick in the absence of Field-marshal Kalkreuth,
the titular governor, had laboured with much activity in
improving the exterior works, and particularly in causing
them to be strongly palisaded. It is necessary, there¬
fore, to describe the principal defences, at the period when
the place was invested by Marshal Lefebvre, at the head
of the tenth corps of the Grand Army, and immediately
before the commencement of the trenches on the 1st of
April 1807.
The city of Dantzick, traversed by the Moltau, was
surrounded with large ditches filled by that river, the
waters of which, retained by several sluices, formed, to the
eastward, a vast inundation, which, reaching on one side
to the suburbs of Ohra and St Halbrecht, and on the
other to the dikes of the Vistula, extended about four
leagues, and covered two thirds of the eastern fronts. On
the north, the Vistula runs about two hundred and sixty
yards from the covered-way, leaving a space between the
left bank and the glacis of the place, consisting of an im¬
practicable marsh, intersected by some canals ; and at its
embouchure, distant nearly three miles, the banks were
defended on the right by the fort of Weichselmunde, and
on the left by an intrenched camp in the small island of
Neufahrwasser, intended to cover and protect the arrival
of such succours as might come from the seaward. The
ground adjoining the banks of the Vistula being intersected
by canals and covered with marshes, was extremely unfa¬
vourable to a besieger, as it rendered it difficult for him
to form establishments or raise works of proper solidity,
and forced him to extend his quarters, disseminate his
troops, and multiply his posts. At the period in question,
this inconvenience was the more severely felt, because
the besieging force was inferior in numbers to that of
the garrison, and it required the most vigilant caution to
occupy numerous posts without unduly weakening it. I he
782
FORTIFICATION.
Fortifica¬
tion.
communication between the place and the fort °f Weich-
selmunde was maintained by a series of redoubts con¬
structed on the borders of the Vistula, and particularly
by the advantageous position of the isle of Holm, which
enabled the besieged so to approximate the fire of the
place to that of the fort as only to leave between them
an interval of about fourteen hundred yards, and also to
communicate with Weichselmunde by the canal of Laack,
in spite of batteries which the besiegers might establish at
Schellmuhl. The French, therefore, could not attempt to
throw a bridge over this part of the Vistula until they had
made themselves masters of the isle of Holm. On the west,
two chains of hills, separated by the valley of Schidhtz,
covered this part of the enceinte ; and the prolongations
of these hills were crowned by two forts, that of Bischops-
berg and that of Hagelsberg, which, being connected by
continuous intrenchments, formed a second enceinte,
flanked upon one sidebv the inundation of the Moltau, and
upon the other by the left bank of the Vistula. This new
enceinte, though constructed of earth, and without re-
vetement, was nevertheless secure against insult; and as
the covered-wav, as well as the foot of the scaips and
counterscarps, bristled with strong fraises, which seived
instead of revetements, the besiegers had no hope of suc¬
ceeding by a coup-de-main, and were therefore obliged to
proceed by a regular attack. _ .
From this description of the defences of Dantzick, it is
easy to perceive that the difficulties attending the opera¬
tion must have been very great. The principal of these,
as stated by General Kirgener,1 who, until the arrival of
General Chasseloup, directed the attack, were, 1st, that
Marshal Lefebvre had at first an army inferior to that of
Marshal Kalkreuth, and that this army was in a great
measure composed of new troops, all those destined for
the siege not having then arrived ; 2dly, that, owing to
the badness of the roads and the inclemency of the season,
the artillery experienced the greatest difficulty in bringing
up its convoys, whilst the establishment of the batteries
was retarded, and a scarcity of ammunition sometimes pre¬
vailed ; Sdly, that the place requiring an immense circum-
vullation, which, in fact, could not be completed until
after the arrival of reinforcements, the corps of troops
which occupied the quarters were extremely weak, and
hence could neither furnish a sufficient number of work¬
men at a time, nor even the number of men necessary for
guarding the trenches ; and, ^thly, that the besiegers had
no good plan of the place, no idea of the depth of the ditch¬
es, and that, as the accidents of ground in front of the
fortifications were extremely diversified, they could only
be reconnoitred in proportion as the works advanced.
These circumstances, the necessity of concentrating the
greater part of the troops close to the camp of Neu-
fahrwasser, by which succours arriving by sea might de¬
bouch, and, lastly, the advantage which the besieged had
been able to preserve of remaining masters of part of
the suburbs, determined the chief engineer, after the in¬
vestment had been effected, to direct the principal attack
against the Hagelsberg, and a false one against the
Bischopsberg fort. The true point of attack was the long
branch of lines in the plain connected with the bastion on
the right of the Hagelsberg; “ c’etait la le defaut de la
cuirasse but, for the reasons above stated, General Kir¬
gener was induced to direct his approaches against the
fort itself.
As the details of this great siege would fill a considerable
volume, all that our limits permit us to attempt is merely
to indicate the principal occurrences. On the 1st of Feb- Fortifr
ruary 1807 the troops of General Dombrowski began to vJ[on '
approach Dantzick, and took up a position at Mewe, upon
the left bank of the Vistula. On the 15th General Menard,
commanding the Baden contingent, arrived at the same
point, and repulsed a detachment of the garrison of Dant¬
zick, which had advanced from Dirschau to attack him.
On the 23d General Dombrowski, having been reinforced,
received orders to attack a large detachment of the ene¬
my which occupied an advantageous position at Dirschau
and its environs. The combat here was obstinate and
sanguinary ; but the Prussians, though intrenched in a
church and a churchyard, were dislodged and driven back,
chiefly by the Poles, who, exasperated by their long re¬
sistance, put to death without mercy all who fell into
their hands. After the combat of Dirschau, General Man-
stein no longer sought to obstruct the distant approaches.
The troops destined to form the besieging army now ar¬
rived in succession, and the pare of artillery began to be
formed. On the 12th of March Marshal Lefebvre found
himself in a condition to close in on the place ; and the
troops of the garrison having withdrawn, he distributed
his own in the following positions: A battalion of French
light infantry at Ohra, a Saxon battalion at St Halbrecht
in the Burgerfeld, and two others at Tiefensee and
Kemlade ; the Poles occupied Schonfeld, Kowald, and
Zunkendin ; some battalions took post at Wonnenberg,
Neukau, Schudelkau, and Sniekau ; the Saxon cuirassiers
and light horse were stationed at St Halbrecht and
Guirsehkens ; the 19th regiment of French chasseurs at
Burgfeld, and the 23d at Schudelkau ; the Baden dra¬
goons and hussars at Wonnenberg, and the Polish lancers
at Langenfurt. On the 16th the marshal attacked the vil¬
lage of Stolzenberg, which he carried after a warm resist¬
ance, as he did also the suburb of Schidlitz to which the
Prussians had retired ; and on the 18th the place was
entirely invested, with the exception of the eastern part,
which, by the isle of Nehrung, communicated with K6-
nigsberg. Field-marshal Kalkreuth now arrived in Dant¬
zick, and assumed the command of the place. The next
operation of the besiegers was the attack of the isle of Neh¬
rung, which, after a severe and protracted struggle, was
carried in the most gallant manner, and measures imme¬
diately taken to secure possession of this important con¬
quest. A bridge was also established on the Vistula, and
various works constructed to check the attempts of the
enemy either on the side of Dantzick or on that of Ph|au*
At this time the governor, who, besides the burgher militia,
had under his command a garrison of 18,000 men, made
a sortie for the purpose of destroying the works already
commenced by the besiegers ; but the attempt failed, and
the Prussian columns were compelled to retreat into the
place without having obtained the smallest success upon
any point. . , , u
As it had been decided that the principal attack should
be directed against the fort of Hagelsberg, favoured by
two false attacks, the one directed against the intrench¬
ed camp at Neufahrwasser, and the other against Bischops¬
berg, and also by two other secondary attacks on the left
bank of the river, ground was broken on the night of
the 1st and 2d April, at the distance of sixteen hundred
yards from the palisades. The approaches were pushed
forward with the greatest vigour, and on the night of the
11th the second parallel was commenced by means of the
flying sap. On the morning of the 12th the marshal ordered
the batteries to be armed, which was accordingly done.
1 This officer, the head of the engineer staff, and one of the most distinguished in that branch of the service, fell in the field of ba
at Bautzen, where he received his death-wound from the same ball which killed Duroc, the grand marshal of the palace, and the m
mate friend of Napoleon.
FORTIFICATION. 783
F iSca- On the 13th the enemy made a sortie in force, attacked
fii- the Saxons with great impetuosity, carried a redoubt con-
structed upon the mamelon of Hagelsberg, and even pe¬
netrated to the head of the trenches; but they were ulti¬
mately repulsed, though not without difficulty and loss.
By the 23d all the batteries of the first and second pa¬
rallels, and those of Stolzenberg, were armed, and em¬
placements were provided for field howitzers, in order to
throw shells into all quarters of the city. At daybreak
on the 24th the batteries were unmasked, and though the
garrison returned the fire vrith the greatest vivacity, that
of the besiegers soon obtained the ascendency, commit¬
ting great ravages in the place. Being apprised of this
circumstance, Marshal Lefebvre summoned the governor,
who replied in a manner worthy of himself. The fire of
the mortar and reverse batteries continued during the
25th, in the course of which a new battery was construct¬
ed between the low flanks of the Stolzenberg; and the
direction of some others changed, in order to batter the
right bastion of Bisehopsberg, the fire of which had great¬
ly incommoded the French batteries. During the day of
the 26th, the fire on both sides was exceedingly animat¬
ed ; but at seven in the evening, that of the garrison sud¬
denly ceased, and a column of six hundred Prussian gre¬
nadiers, followed by two hundred workmen, soon after¬
wards sallied out of the place. As the sortie had been
foreseen, however, preparations were made to repulse it,
which was done by a combined attack in front and on both
flanks, in consequence of which the whole column was
either killed or taken. Meanwhile the works were vi¬
gorously pushed forward at all points. The batteries of
Stolzenberg were united with the attack on the Bischops-
berg; emplacements were prepared for batteries d rico¬
chet ; at the attack of the Lower Vistula the works were
continued, and a tongue of land situated at the extremi¬
ty of the isle of Holm taken possession of and isolated
by means of a cut; whilst at the principal attack the
greatest exertions were made to prolong the right of the
third parallel, and enlarge the communications. On the
30th April the batteries of the besiegers, augmented by
several pieces which had arrived from Warsaw, thunder¬
ed on the place, in different quarters of which conflagra¬
tions now appeared; and the besieged replied by the fire
of all the batteries of the front of the attack, directing
more than thirty pieces on a redoubt, which fired with
the greatest effect. But as the fire of the besiegers had
made little impression on the exterior fortifications, which
were of earth, it was during the first days of May direct¬
ed chiefly against the palisades, in order to facilitate the
assault of the place; and the utmost activity was at the
same time evinced in extending, improving, and urging
forward the attack; whilst, on the other hand, the garri¬
son showed equal vigour in obstructing the approaches
and destroying the works of the besiegers. In fact, not¬
withstanding the address of the French artillery, that
of the garrison still remained effective, because it had
not been possible to ricochet the lines of the fortifica¬
tions, and the resources of the besieged in munitions of
all kinds were more considerable than those of the be¬
siegers.
On the urgent recommendation of General Chasseloup,
who had by this time assumed the direction of the attack,
it was now decided that the isle of Holm should be as¬
saulted, as the possession of it would enable the besiegers
to construct new batteries, to take in reverse the front of Fortifica-
the attack. The besieged had spared no pains for the
preservation of this important post. In the night of the
6th and 7th of May, however, it was attacked, and, after
a desperate resistance, carried; whilst the possession of
it was secured by works added to the intrenchments
which had just been stormed, and the batteries were turn¬
ed against the place. At the principal attack the fire of
the besiegers had also mastered that of the besieged ; and
Marshal Lefebvre was preparing to assault the fort of Ha¬
gelsberg, when a Russian corps d’armee under the com¬
mand of General Kamenskoi arrived by sea, and disem¬
barked at the intrenched camp of Neufahrwasser.
At the moment of landing his troops, General Kamen¬
skoi was ignorant of the capture of the isle of Holm, and
he was disconcerted to find such an obstacle to his com¬
munications with the place. This occasioned delay, which
proved fatal to his enterprise; for had he attacked imme¬
diately on landing, it is not improbable that he would have
succeeded. It was only on the 15th of May, however,
being the fourth day after the disembarkation, that he
resolved to make an attempt to succour the besieged city.
He began to debouch at four in the morning, and, under
cover of a brisk cannonade, formed his force, consisting of
from eleven to twelve thousand men, in four columns of
attack. The onset was impetuous, and at first the Rus¬
sians gained ground, thrice attempting to penetrate the
French line ; but they were ultimately repulsed at all
points, and forced to retreat with great loss to the in¬
trenched camp. Field-marshal Kalkreuth made no at¬
tempt to second this attack by means of a general sortie,
which umuld have placed the French between two fires ;
and by its failure the fate of Dantzick was decided. Such
was the issue of the only effort made by the allies to re¬
lieve this important fortress.
The works of the besiegers were now pushed forward
with redoubled vigour: and in the course of the following
day preparations were made for the assault of Hagelsberg.
Foreseeing this, Marshal Kalkreuth resolved to make a last
effort to destroy the nearest works of the besiegers, and for
this purpose ordered a grand sortie, which took place on
the evening of the 20th May ; but although the Prussians
fought with all the fury of despair, they were at length
driven back, and pursued even into the ditch of the place.
On the 21st the army of siege was reinforced by the
arrival of the troops of Marshal Mortier, part of which
had remained before Colberg ; the marshal himself quick¬
ly followed; and orders were immediately issued for the
assault of Hagelsberg. Before giving the signal, how-^
ever, Marshal Lefebvre again summoned the governor of
Dantzick, who, having no longer any hope of being suc¬
coured, and convinced that the besiegers were in a con¬
dition to make themselves masters of the fort of Hagels¬
berg, showed a disposition to capitulate. A suspension of
arms was accordingly agreed to, and this was followed,
on the 24th of May, by a capitulation, the principal con¬
ditions of which were similar to those which the field-mar¬
shal himself had granted to the garrison of Mayence in
1793.1 * * *
FIELD FORTIFICATION.
Field fortification is the art of constructing all kinds ot
temporary works in the field. An army intrenched, or
1 Dumas, Precis des Evencmens Militaires, tom. xviii. chap. 19, p. 123. Relation authenlique du Siege de ^
conditions de la capitulation furent que la garnison sortirait avec armes et bagages, drapeaux deP^T.epS’au " avant nostes, de T’armi
Lmee, avec deux pieces d’artiilerie legere et leur caissons atteles de six chevaux, pour etre
Prussienne a Pillau, en passant par Hie de Nehrung, et en cinq jours de marche. Cette garnison s engageait a ne pas
I’armee Franchise pendant un an.” (Dumas, ubi supra.)
784
FORTIFICATION.
Fortifica. fortified, in the field, produces, in many respects, the same
tion. effect as a fortress; for it covers a country, supplies the
want of numbers, stops the advance of a superior enemy,
or if he chooses to risk a battle, obliges him to engage at
a disadvantage. “ In a war of march and manoeuvre,
savs Napoleon, “ if you would avoid a battle with a supe¬
rior army, it is necessary to intrench every night, and to
occupy a good defensive position. Those natural posi¬
tions which are ordinarily met with are not sufficient to
protect an army against superior numbers without re¬
course to art. Those who proscribe lines of circumval-
Jation, and all the assistance which the science of the
engineer can afford, deprive themselves gratuitously of an
auxiliary which is never injurious, almost always useful,
and often indispensable. It must be admitted at the same
time that the principles of field fortification require im¬
provement. This important branch of the art of war has
made no progress since the times of the ancients. It is
even inferior to what it was two thousand years ago. En¬
gineer officers should be encouraged in bringing this art to
perfection, and in placing it on a level with the rest.
Whenever Napoleon had time and occasion for strength¬
ening his position by field-works, he acted upon the prin¬
ciples recommended in the above extract, as almost all
his predecessors had done. In the wars which followed
the revolution of 1688, in those of Queen Anne’s reign,
and during the Seven Years’ War, we find the command¬
ers of each period, William III. the Duke of Marlbo¬
rough, Marshal Villars, Marshal Saxe, Frederick II. and
Marshal Daun, practically exemplifying their conviction
of the great utility of field-works. A few redoubts saved
Peter the Great at Pultowa, and enabled him to gain a
decisive victory over his formidable antagonist, and at
Borodino, some slight open field-works, thrown up by the
Russians, caused the French great loss, and rendered too
costly to be of almost any avail the victory which, by in¬
credible efforts of gallantry, they gained. It has been
argued by some, against intrenchments and field-works,
that they have oftener been carried than successfully de¬
fended, and that hence incommensurate importance has
been attached to them. But it should be remembered,
on the other hand, that victory in such circumstances
has generally been purchased at an expense which ren¬
dered it in effect equivalent to defeat; and that a practice
which the greatest commanders of ancient and modern
times have approved and followed, cannot be one of doubt¬
ful utility. At Austerlitz, where the contending armies
were nearly equal, Napoleon was preparing to superintend
the construction of intrenchments when he found himself
called upon to receive battle; and in Portugal, the Duke
of Wellington showed to what importance the art of the
engineer might be turned for influencing, not merely the
fortune of a campaign, but the fate of a cause. The lines
of Torres Vedras, which formed the ne plus ultra of the
powerful French army under Massena, and from which
the tide of war was rolled back broken into Spain, were
perhaps the most remarkable works of the kind ever con¬
structed.
“ Lisbon,” says Sir John Jones, “ being situated at the
extremity of a peninsula formed by the sea and the Ta¬
gus, it is plain that if an army be so posted as to extend Fortifi| r;a‘
rvoninsula. nn enemv can nenetrate into the ^10r!
across the peninsula, no enemy can penetrate into the ( tl0r
city without a direct attack on the army so formed. It
was on this principle that the lines covering Lisbon were
planned by Lord Wellington. Nature drew the rude
outline of a strong defensive position, and art rendered it
perfect. A tract of country thirty miles, extending from
the mouth of the Zizandra on the ocean, to Alhandra on
the Tagus, was modelled into a field of battle ; mountains
were scarped perpendicularly, rivers dammed, and inun¬
dations formed; all roads favourable to the enemy were
destroyed, and others made to facilitate the communica¬
tions of the defenders ; formidable works were erected to
strengthen and support the weak parts, whilst numerous
cannon places, on inaccessible points, commanded the dif¬
ferent approaches to them, and gave an equality of de¬
fence to the whole position.”1 2 These lines were not con¬
tinuous and connected works ; they consisted of indepen¬
dent forts, redoubts, fleches, redans, batteries, &c. so
placed as to command and enfilade every approach, and
to support each other by a cross or a flanking fire. The
first line occupied a front of twenty-nine miles between
the sea and the Tagus; and by means of telegraphs in¬
telligence could be conveyed from one extremity to the
othe^ in a few minutes; whilst the troops were disposed
in masses in the rear of the works, ready to move upon
any point that might be attacked, by interior communi¬
cations shorter than any by which the enemy could ad¬
vance. “ The aim and scope of these works,” says Co¬
lonel Napier, “ was to bar the passes, and to strengthen
the fighting positions between them, without impeding
the movements of the army. These objects were attain¬
ed; and it is certain that the loss of the first line would
not have been injurious, save in reputation, because the
retreat was secure upon the second and stronger line,
and the guns of the first were all of inferior calibre,
mounted on common truck carriages, and consequently
immovable and useless to the enemy.”3 Both lines occu¬
pied a front of fifty miles, on which there were erected
one hundred and fifty forts, mounting in all about six hun¬
dred pieces of artillery.
Before this formidable position, defended by a double
line of works, and by an army massed and ready to move
upon any point by interior communications, the French
remained five months, wasting their numbers and resour¬
ces ; until at length, finding it utterly impracticable to force
any part of even the exterior line, they were obliged to
retire from Portugal, closely followed and harrassed hy t e
army which they had previously driven out of Spain. Yet
though the lines of Torres Vedras were thus perfect m
themselves, and though one of the ablest of the Frenc
generals and a veteran French army were foiled before
them, it is not meant to refer to this system of separate
field-works as a model to be followed on all occasions , or
whilst the old method of covering a considerable front by
a continued line of regular bastions and curtains has been
universally condemned by modern engineers, it is never¬
theless certain that there are situations where a partial
application of continued lines may be most judiciousy
made. In fact, it is not by any fixed rule, but from tn
1 Military Maxims of Napoleon. _ , , , jjey
2 War in Spain, p. 124. The French army which invaded Portugal under Massena consisted of three corps, urm61^ g-nard
and Junot and General llegnier, amounting in all to 00,000 infantry and 0000 cavalry, besides a strong body ot t ic ™Pe „ ®e coj’
which crossed the Pyrenees after the invading force had commenced its march from the neighbourhood of Salamanca. por_
lected to oppose this threatened invasion did not exceed 48,000 infantry and 3000 cavalry, ot which about a half was compo
i, and of which a very unfavourable opinion still continued to be entertaine • 1 s
tuguese levies, yet untried in any general action, and of which a very unfavourable opinion suu conunutu uc c“l,':1iVT"'r_a(jvantages
of numbers, and still more in the composition of their army, therefore, the French had a decided superiority; but all thei
were neutralised by the defensive position of Torres Yedras.
3 History of the War in the Peninsula, vol. iii.
FORTIFI
Ffaca- nature of the ground and of the position to be defended,
|:W- that the species of works calculated to be most useful
should, in every case, be determined.
It must be obvious indeed that even a limited know¬
ledge of the art of war opens a wide field for the exer¬
cise of the talents and resources of engineers in field for¬
tification ; but the possession of a military coup-d’ceil, or
of that intuitive judgment which comprehends at a glance
the true bearing or character of objects as well as events,
is necessary to enable them to convert theoretical stores
of information to the best practical uses. In passing
through a country, it requires an experienced eye to seize
quickly on whatever it presents calculated to prove advan¬
tageous or disadvantageous to an army destined to attack or
defend it; to appreciate the value of villages, stone-enclo¬
sures, and broken ground; to know where to dam up rivers,
to scarp heights, to form abattis, trous-de-loup, and other
obstacles; to select the best situations for field-forts and
redoubts, and the best emplacements for batteries; and
to arrange all the defensive means employed, with refer¬
ence to the number of troops destined to act upon the
different parts of the line, so that the movements of
the defenders may not be obstructed or retarded, and the
communications throughout may be short and easy. The
variety of ground, however, upon which military opera¬
tions are for the most part carried on, precludes the pos¬
sibility of laying down fixed rules in regard to this sub¬
ject ; the accidents of ground, and the peculiar circum¬
stances of each individual case, must, as already observed,
CATION. 785
determine the extent and description of the works to be Fortifica-
consti ucted, as well as the obstacles most proper to tion.
be formed for retarding, if not obstructing, the advance of 'Y^-'
an enemy.1
At the same time, though the observance of fixed rules
be impracticable, general principles are of universal ap*
plication ; and hence some of the received maxims in per¬
manent fortification hold equally good in regard to the
construction of field-works. These are, Jirst, that the
works to be flanked must never be beyond the range of
the missiles discharged from the works flanking them, or in
other words, never out of the effective range of musketry,
that is, from 150 to 200 yards; secondly, that the angles
of defence should be about right angles; thirdly, that the
salient angles of all works should be as obtuse as possi¬
ble ; fourthly, that though ditches cannot always be as
fully flanked as in permanent fortification, yet partial
flanking must be carried as far as possible; anti,fifthly,
that in the construction of field-works, reference should
not only be had to the direct and immediate obstacles
which the work itself is calculated to present to the ene-
my, and the positive effect of the fire on the approaches
to it, but the relative value of the work should likewise
be considered, with respect to the support it can receive
from or give to other works. These principles or max¬
ims are of invariable application.
It is usual to divide field-works into three classes : First,
works open at the gorge ; secondly, works enclosed all
round ; and, thirdly, lines at intervals.
Redans, or simple heads fig.
Double redans, or queues d’hironde....fig. 2,
Tenailled heads fig. 3,
Bastioned heads fig. 4,
Redoubts fig. 5,
Star-forts fig. 6,
Bastioned forts fig. 7,
Lines a cremaillieres fig. 8,
Lines of redans fig. 9,
Lines of tenailles fig. 10,
Lines of bastions fig. 11,
Lines at intervals fig. 12,
are the names given to the various tracings of the first class, or
open works.
> are the names given to works of the second class, that is, closed
works.
> are the names given to works of the third class, or lines at inter-
? vals.
The first class are of the simplest kind of field-works,
and serve as a mere cover in front of avenues, bridges,
causeways, and the like; but being quite open at the
gorge, they are only suited for defence when their extre¬
mities rest on rivers, or obstacles which prevent their be¬
ing turned, or when within the full sweeping fire of works
in their rear. To increase the strength of a redan, its faces
are sometimes broken into a kind of flank, as in fig. 1, Plate
CCXLIX. The double redan, or queue d'hironde, fig. 2, is
considerably stronger, as the re-entering faces defend each
other; the tenailled heads in situations which require a
greater extent of front; and the bastioned heads are also
employed in similar circumstances. See fig. 3 and 4.
Redoubts are works closed on all sides; they are con¬
structed of a square or polygonal figure, but most com¬
monly square, as, when of this form, each front can fur¬
nish a strong perpendicular fire. Provision should be
made for defending the ground before the angles, which,
however, are sometimes rounded or cut en cremailliere, so
that a fire may be delivered from them. See fig. 5.
Star-forts were proposed in order to remedy the defects
of redoubts having the ground before them undefended
by a flanking fire, so that a cross fire might be delivered
from the adjacent sides. But, according to Jomini, “ star-
forts are the very worst description of fortification; they
cannot have flanks, and the re-entering angles take so
much from the interior space that it is impossible to place
troops and artillery in them sufficient for their defence
an opinion confirmed by the practice of Sir Richard
Fletcher and Sir John Jones in the construction of the
lines of Torres Vedras, where the trace of the redoubts
was made subservient to the conformation of the ground,
to the object in view, and to the protecting them as much
as possible from the fire of the enemy’s position.
In bastioned forts, fig. 7, the principles of construction
correspond with those detailed in permanent fortification;
and the flanking defence thus obtained for the ditch is
nearly perfect. As bastioned forts are only constructed
in cases of great importance, no labourer expense should
be spared in the formation of such works.
Forts with demi-bastions, fig. 12, are objectionable, as
the ditches are only defended by an oblique fire from the
sides. The parapets of these works should be of suffi¬
cient thickness to resist the fire of the heaviest guns that
can be brought against them. In some cases, however,
the parapets need only be strong enough to resist the fire
1 Shaw’s Coitrse of Field Fortification, p. 9, et seqq. To the author of this useful tract we have been indebted for valuable assistance
in the compilation of the present article, the plates connected with which are engraved from drawings either executed by him or
under his inspection.
VOL. IX. 5 G
786
Fortifica¬
tion.
FORTIFICATION.
of li^ht field-guns, whilst in others it will be sufficient if
they5serve as a cover to the men within them against
musketry. The latter kind is generally that which is
thrown up in an evening after taking up a position, and
which, if the army does not move next day, it may be
considered as necessary to strengthen in some parts, ac¬
cording to circumstances.
Continued lines, or connected works, are resorted to in
order to enclose the front, or to connect important works
or forts. The most simple tracing is that of redans join¬
ed together by curtains, fig. 9 ; but as the ditches of these
curtains can only be defended by an oblique fire from the
faces of the redans, this defect may be remedied by
breaking the curtains so as to form nearly right angles
with the faces of the redans, in which case they are call¬
ed lines of tenailles. .
Lines en cremailliire have long faces, with flanks per-
pendicular to these, in order to defend their ditches.
When these faces can be directed towards ground upon
which it is impracticable to establish enfilading batteries,
the construction is considered as good.
Bastioned lines are the strongest trace which can be
given to continued lines, when the ground will admit of
such. A perfectly regular trace is only suited for level
o-round. The ditches in field-works are often sloped en
rampe towards the adjoining flanks, in order that the de-
blctiy or quantity of earth excavated, may not exceed the
remblai, or quantity contained in the mass of the rampart
or parapet, a circumstance which often occurs in field¬
works, where there is seldom any rampart, and only cover
sufficient for the defenders.
Lines with intervals, fig. 141, shows the general trace of
lines of this kind. The salient works should never be be¬
yond the range of musketry from the re-entering works,
and the angles of defence between the two lines should be
as near as possible to right angles.
Tetes-de-pont, or bridge-heads, are works generally open
at the gorge, and whose flanks rest upon a river, in order
to cover one or more bridges. 1 he best situation for these
works is the re-entering sinuosity of a river. As tetes-de-
pont, fig. 13, are usually constructed for the purpose of
enabling a retiring army to cross a river in order, and to
check an enemy pressing upon it, the tracing and profile
should be such as to secure a double advantage to the
greatest extent possible. In Sir Howard Douglas’s able
work on the Construction of Military Bridges will be found
much valuable scientific information upon this important
subject.
To field-works there are usually added a variety of ob¬
stacles, in order to 1’ender the approaches more difficult to
the enemy ; such as palisades, barriers, abbatis, trous-de-
loup, chevaux-de-frise, harrows, and crows' -feet.
Palisades are strong stakes fixed in the ground, and well
sharpened at the upper extremities. They are sometimes
placed horizontally in the face of the parapet, in which case
they are called fraises. Barrier-gates, for closing the en¬
trances of field-works, should be made strong enough to re¬
sist a sudden attack; they are always placed on the most
inaccessible side. Abattis are lines of felled trees of consi¬
derable size, strongly bound together and picketed down,
with the smaller branches cut off, and the remainder
sharpened and pointed towards the enemy. They are
interlaced as much as possible. Abattis, well disposed,
present a formidable obstacle. Trous-de-loup are rows of
pits, made before a work, in the form of inverted cones,
having each a strong palisade or stake in the middle.
Chevaux-de-frise are formed by inserting iron-pointed
stakes, five or six feet in length, into a heavy beam of
wood, which will thus, if it be square, present four pro¬
jecting spears, and if hexagonal, six. Chevaux-de-frise are
generally chained together in a line, in order to cover the Fortift
ground required; and sometimes they are so constructed hon
as to revolve on an axis. Harrows, such as those ordi- .
narily used in husbandry, are recommended to be spread,
with the teeth uppermost, over the ground by which an
enemy, particularly cavalry, is likely to advance to the
attack. Crows' -feet are pieces of iron, with four points,
each four or five inches long, projecting in different direc¬
tions, and also intended to impede the advance of cavalry.
For the defence of open towns and villages, the following
methods, recommended by the French minister of war in
1814, are considered as the best that have yet been sug¬
gested : “ To admit of a town being advantageously in¬
trenched, it is necessary that it should not be command¬
ed within any short distance, that the houses should not
be of a construction easily set on fire, and that its extent
should not be out of proportion to the means and time at
the disposal of the defenders. The first thing to be done
is to clear the approaches to the town, by levelling houses,
hedges, shrubberies, and whatever may favour the assail¬
ants. Wood ought to be cut two feet from the ground,
that it may serve to impede the advance of the enemy
without masking the fire of the defenders. The next ob¬
ject is to form or complete the enclosure round the town.
For this purpose advantage is taken of buildings, walls, and
fences applicable to the defence. The openings which
remain must be closed by palisades, stockades, or ditches
strengthened by abattis. All streets leading out of town
must be barricaded. The barricades must be sufficient
to resist field artillery, and high enough not to be easily
got over ; and they ought to be flanked by loopholing the
neighbouring houses. When pressed for time, carts filled
with dung and the wheels taken off, sand-bags, bales of
wool or cotton, and furniture taken from the neighbour¬
ing houses, all form good barricades. If there should
be any old castle, church, or large substantial building, it
should be converted into a keep, by blocking up useless
entrances, loopholing walls, and surrounding them by a
ditch or abattis. If a town is situated near a stream or
river, by which part of it may be covered by inundations,
this should never be neglected.”
Villages are intrenched on similar principles, and be¬
ing generally surrounded by gardens with live hedges,
the latter may be made use of in forming the lines of de¬
fence. If there should only be sufficient troops to defend
part of a village or town, a part only should be intrench¬
ed and separated from the rest by means of carts and bar¬
ricades. If there are very few houses, it may be neces¬
sary to confine the defence to the church or churchyard,
which may in all cases serve as a sort of keep.
The destruction of bridges. Nothing is of greater con¬
sequence to a retiring army than to be able to destroy
the bridges in its rear, in order to retard the advance of
the enemy. Its safety, nay even its existence, may de¬
pend upon the success with which this operation is per¬
formed. In order to destroy a stone-bridge, a trench m
the form of a cross is made in the crown of the arch, the
branches of which are about ten feet in length, and sunk
to the top of the arch-stones. A hundred and six y
pounds of powder are placed in each cut or trench i°r
arch three feet thick, strong planks are then laid over the
powder, and the whole being well covered with rubbis i,
the fire is communicated by means of saucisson or ong
powder-hose. Stone bridges are also destroyed by simply
cutting a trench about eighteen inches deep across the crow
of the arch, and placing in it 345 pounds of P°'yde{'cov^n
in the manner just described. Ihis quantity has
found sufficient to destroy semicircular arches ot twe" ^
five feet in span, and three feet in thickness at e
Wooden bridges may be destroyed in different way ,
C *rt
FOR
pj'ified they may be pulled to pieces, burned, or blown up. When
M there is time to take them to pieces, they are unspiked,
il and the timbers so separated that they may be speedily
removed. The best method of burning such bridges is
to tar them, and to cover and surround them with fascines
or tarred brushwood. When it is necessary to blow up
wooden bridges, this may be effected by means of 220
pounds of powder suspended under the superstructure,
and fired in the manner above described.
A ford is rendered impassable by throwing in large
stones, by sinking boards with spikes standing upright in
them, by scattering in it crows’-feet, or by placing har¬
rows taken from the neighbouring farms. A low wall may
FORTIFIED Island, an island in the Indian Seas, lying
off the coast of Canara, about a mile from the land, a little
way north from the entrance into Lake Onore. The island
abounds in cocoa-nut, palms, and plantain trees, and has
plenty of fresh water. It produces the best sort of cari,
which is used by the natives in painting their houses. Its
name is derived from its fortifications, which were greatly
strengthened by Tippoo Saib, from whom it was taken in
1792, by three British frigates. It is upwards of a mile in
circuit. Long. 74. 27. E. Lat. 14. 16. N.
FORTISSIMO, in Music, sometimes denoted by FFF,
or ff f signifies to sing or play very loud or strong.
FORTITUDE, a virtue or quality of the mind, which
is generally considered to be the same as courage, though in
a more accurate sense the oue may be distinguished from the
other. Courage may be a virtue or a vice, according to cir¬
cumstances ; fortitude is always a virtue. We speak of des¬
perate courage, but not of desperate fortitude. A contempt
or neglect of danger, without regard to consequences, may be
called courage ; and this some brutes possess as well as man.
In them it is chiefly the effect of natural instinct; in man it
depends partly on habit and partly on strength of nerve. But
fortitude being the virtue of a rational and considerate mind,
is founded on a sense of honour and a regard to duty.
This virtue takes different names, according as it acts
in opposition to different sorts of evil; but some of these
are applied with considerable latitude. With respect to
danger in general, fortitude may be termed intrepidity;
with respect to the dangers of war, valour ; with respect
to pain of body or distress of mind, patience ; w ith respect
to labour, activity ; with respect to injury, forbearance;
with respect to our condition in general, magnanimity.
The motives to fortitude are many and powerful. This
virtue tends greatly to the happiness of the individual, by
giving composure and presence of mind, and keeping the
other passions in due subordination. To public good it is
essential; for without it the independence and liberty of
nations would be impossible. It gives to a character that
elevation which poets, orators, and historians, have in all
ages rejoiced to celebrate. Nothing so effectually inspires
it as rational piety; the fear of God is the best security
against every other fear. A true estimate of human life,
particularly its shortness and uncertainty, together with
the numberless evils and temptations to which, by a long
continuance in this world, we must unavoidably be expos¬
ed, ought by no means to discourage or to throw any gloom
on our future prospects, but should teach us that many
things are more formidable than death, and that nothing
is lost, but much gained, when, by the appointment of
Providence, a well spent life is brought to a conclusion.
FORTUNA, the goddess of fortune, worshipped by the
Greeks and Romans, became particularly celebrated after
the triumphs of the latter. According to Hesiod, she was
the daughter of Oceanus and Tethys, the sister of the
FOR 787
also be built across, so as not to be perceptible above the Fortunatae
water ; strong stakes may be driven into the bottom, and Insul®
trees fastened to them ; waggons loaded with stones, and ,, ^
the wheels taken off, may in like manner be employed; ^ tune.,
not to mention a number of other things which may be
easily found, and which will answer the purpose equally
well. The rendering a ford impassable by such means is
only second in importance to the destruction of a bridge,
when the enemy whose progress it is desired to retard
has either no pontoon-train at all, or has outstripped it by
the rapidity of his advance. In this way much valuable
time may be gained on the one hand and lost on the
other. (A.)
Parcae, and the protectress of cities. The sculptor Bupa-
lus represented her with a celestial globe on her head, and
a^ cornucopia in her hand. She had temples in Smyrna,
Corinth, and Elis ; but it was at Rome where she seems
to have been more particularly worshipped, and where she
had upwards of twenty shrines erected to her honour.
I here was a magnificent temple of Fortune at Praeneste,
now Palestrina, eighteen miles east from Rome. Here was
the celebrated oracle called Sortes Prcenestince, where the
response was given by means of words written on pieces
of wood, which were placed in a box, and having been taken
out at random, were then united, when the priest declared
the meaning of the answer. The first Mosaic pavement in¬
troduced into Italy was ordered by Sylla for this temple; and
it is a curious fact that a very fine specimen is still seen at Pales¬
trina, which may possibly be that to which we have alluded.
FORTUNATiE Insult, the name by which the Canary
Islands were known to the ancients. The Carthaginians
were no doubt acquainted with these islands at an early pe¬
riod, but it was the selfish nature of their policy to confine
such knowledge to themselves, for the sake of the commer¬
cial advantages to be derived from it. It was not, there¬
fore, till the fall of Carthage that the Greeks and Romans
acquired any accurate information respecting the islands
on the west coast of Libya. Statius Sebosus, the friend
of Lutetius Catulus, consul 242 b.c., and who flourished in
the time of the Cimbrian war, could not have been the first
who made the discovery, though he was probably the first
who gave a description of them to the public. Of this
account we possess only a few notices by Pliny, who seems
to have derived no information from any other quarter.
Yet there must have been considerable intercourse with
these islands, as we find that Sertorius, when flying before
the superior force of the party of Sylla, was so charmed
with the account of them he received from some sailors,
that he was strongly tempted to take refuge there. The
name seems at first to have been restricted to two, Con-
vallis, the island of Tenerijfe, and Planaria, now Canaria,
from which the Canary Islands derive their name. Pto¬
lemy extends the name to six islands. (Strab. i. 3; Plin.
vi. 32 ; Pint. Sert. 9; See Minano, Diccionario Geogra-
Jico, See. Madrid, 1826.)
FORTUNE (Tu^»j), a name which, amongst the an¬
cients, seems to have denoted a principle by which things
came to pass, without being necessitated thereto ; but what
that principle was, or whence it proceeded, they do not
seem to have precisely considered. Hence their philoso¬
phers often intimate that men only conjured up the phan¬
tom of Fortune to hide their own ignorance ; and that thus
they call Fortune whatever befals a man without his knowr-
ing for what purpose. Hence Juvenal (Sat. x. ver. 366)
affirms, there were men wffio made a deity of fortune.
Nullum numen abest, si sit prudentia ; sed te
Nos facimus, Fortuna, deam, coeloque locamus.
788
Fortune
Islands.
FOR
According to the opinion of the heathens, therefore, For¬
tune was in reality only the occurrence of things in a sud¬
den and unexpected manner, without any apparent cause
or reason ; so that the philosophical sense of the word coin¬
cides with what is commonly called chance.
But in religion the term had much greater force ; for al¬
tars and temples in great numbers were consecrated to For¬
tune as a deity. This intimates that the heathens had per¬
sonified, and even deified chance ; conceiving it a sort of
o-oddess who disposed at pleasure of the fate of men. Hence
the invocation of Horace, O diva, gratum qucn regis An-
tium, in which he recommends Augustus, then preparing
for a visit to Britain, to the protection of this divinity.
From all this it may be inferred that the ancients at one
time considered Fortune as a peremptory cause, operating
in order to do good to some, and evil to others; and at
another as a blind inconstant cause, without any view or
determination at all. If, then, the word Fortune had no
certain meaning even amongst those who erected altars
in honour thereof, much less can it be asceitained what
the term denotes in the minds of those who now use the
wTord in their writings. They who would substitute the
term Providence instead of that of Fortune, cannot give
any tolerable sense to half the phrases in which the word
occurs.
Horace paints the goddess as preceded by Necessity,
holding nails and wedges in her hands, with a cramp-iron,
and molten lead to fasten it, but rarely accompanied with
Fidelity, unless when she abandons a family, in which case
Fidelity never fails to depart with her, as well as friends.
Fortune is disrespectfully spoken of by most of the Roman
writers, and represented as blind, inconstant, unjust, and
delighting in mischief (Ovid, ad Liv. ver. 52, ver. 374;
Hor. lib. i. od. 34, ver. 26, lib. iii. od. 29, ver. 15 ; Statius,
Theb. xii. ver. 505). However, they had a good as well
as a bad fortune, a constant and an inconstant fortune, the
latter of which was represented with wings, and a wheel
beside her (Hor. lib. iii. od. 29, ver. 56). Juvenal alludes
to a statue of Fortune, which exhibited her under a good
character, as the patroness of the poor infants who were
exposed by their parents in the streets {Sat. vi. ver. 605).
The painters commonly represent her in a woman’s habit,
with a bandage over her eyes, to show that she acts with¬
out discernment; and standing on a wheel, to express her
instability. The Romans, says Lactantius, represented
Fortune w ith a cornucopia, and the helm of a ship, to show
that she distributes riches, and directs the affairs of the
world. In effect, it is by such characters that we see her
represented upon so many medals, with the inscription,
FoRTUNA AVG. FORTUNA REDVX, FORTVNiE AVG. Or FOR-
tuna: redvcis, and so on. Sometimes she is seen point¬
ing at a globe before her feet, with a sceptre in one hand,
and holding the cornucopia in the other.
The Romans had a male as well as a female Fortune
which were objects of adoration ; the Fortuna virilis being
honoured by the men, and the Fortuna muliehris by the
wromen. They appear to have derived the worship of For¬
tune from the Greeks under the reign of Servius Tullius,
w'ho dedicated to her the first temple in the public market¬
place. Nero also built a temple to Fortune. The Fortune
worshipped at Antium was probably the most exalted of
any amongst the Romans, if we may judge by the account
which Horace gives us of the solemn processions that were
made to her (Hor. lib. i. od. 35, ver. 22). But the most
celebrated temple of Forturie was at Praeneste ; and Sta¬
tius speaks of several, whom he calls the Prcenestince So-
rores (lib. i. Sylv. iii. ver. 80).
FORTUNE Islands, two small islands in the Eastern
Seas, one near the south-w'est coast of the island of Su¬
matra, in long. 90. 25. E. and lat. 1. 35. S.; the other near
F O S
the north coast of the island of Celebes, in long. 123. 48. Forumi
E. and lat. 0. 50. N. „ II
FORUM, in Roman antiquity, a public place within the Fossari
city of Rome, where causes were judicially tried, and ora-
tions delivered to the people.
Forum was also used for a place of traffic, and answered
to our market-place. These places were generally called
fora venalia, in contradistinction to the former, which were
called yhra civilia.
The fora civilia were public courts of justice, common¬
ly magnificent in themselves, and surrounded with porti¬
coes and stately edifices. Of these, six were very remark¬
able : 1. Forum Romanum ; 2. Julianum, ; 3. Augustum ;
4. Palladium ; 5. Forum Trajani ; and, 6. Forum Sallustii.
The Forum Romanum was the most noted, and is often
styled simply Forum, by w7ay of eminence. Here were
the bar called Rostra, the Comitium, the sanctuary of Sa¬
turn, the temple of Castor, and other remarkable edifices.
Of \hefora venalia, or market-places, which were nume¬
rous, the chief were, the forum boarium, for oxen or beef;
suarium, for swine; pistorium, for bread; cupedinarium,
for dainties ; and olitorium, for garden stuffs.
The Grecian ayoeai corresponded exactly wfith the Ro¬
man/ora, being places where courts and markets were in¬
discriminately held. At Athens they had many fora, but
the chief of these were the old and the new.
Forum Indicere was the act of the praetor appointing
the place in Rome where causes were to be tried. Agere
forum denoted the bringing on causes out of Rome, in a
Roman province, and was the same with agere conven-
tum. ...
FOSS, or Fosse, in Fortification, a ditch or moat. The
word in French is formed from the participle fossum, of
the Latin verb fodio, I dig.
Foss, Fossa, in Anatomy, a kind of cavity in a bone,
with a large aperture, but no exit or perforation. When
the aperture is very narrow it is called a sinus.
Foss is particularly used for the cavity or indenture in
the back part of the neck.
FOSSA, in our ancient customs, was a ditch full of water,
where women who had committed felony were drowned.
Nam et ipsi in omnibus tenementis suis omnem ab antiquo
legalem habuere justitiam, videlicet ferrum, fossam, furcas,
et similia. In another sense it is used to signify a grave,
as appears by these old verses:
Hie jacent in fossa Bedae Venerabilis ossa:
Hie est fossatus, qui bis erat hie cathedratus.
Foss- Way was anciently one of the four great Roman
highways of England, and, according to Camden, was so
called because it was ditched on both sides, this having
been the Roman method of making highways.
FOSSANO, a city of the province Cuneo, in the king¬
dom of Sardinia. It is situated on the river Stura, is forti¬
fied, and contains a cathedral, five other churches, six mo¬
nasteries, two nunneries, and 14,000 inhabitants. It is a
place of consideration, from its extensive silk manufac¬
tures, and from its tanneries. There is also much trade in
wine, corn, hemp, and other products of the soil.
FOSSARII, in Antiquity, a kind of officers in the East¬
ern Church, whose business it was to inter the
Ciaconius relates that Constantine created nine hundred
and fifty fossarii, whom he took out of the different colleges
or companies of tradesmen; and he adds, that they w ere
exempted from taxes, services, burdensome offices, and t e
like. Goar, in his notes on the Greek Euchologion, insi¬
nuates that Xhe fossarii were established in the times o t e
apostles ; and that the young men who carried off the body
of Ananias, and those persons full of the fear of God w o
interred St Stephen, were of the number. St Jerome
us that the fossarii held the first place amongst the clerks,
F O S
ipii but he is to be understood of those clerks only who had
' i the direction and superintendence of the interment of the
devout.
w’ FOSSIL, in Natural History, denotes in general every
thing that is dug out of the earth, whether it be native
thereto, as metals, stones, salts, earths, and other minerals,
or extraneous, as the bones of animals, and the like.
Native fossils are substances found in the earth or on
its surface, of a simple structure, exhibiting no appear¬
ances of organization, and included under the general
names of simple and compound, earthy'or metallic mine¬
rals. Extraneous fossils are bodies of the vegetable or
animal kingdoms accidentally buried in the earth. Of the
vegetable kingdom there are principally three kinds, trees
or parts of them, herbaceous plants, and corals; and of
the animal kingdom there are four kinds, sea shells, the
teeth or bony palates and bones of fishes, complete fishes,
and the bones of land animals. See Mineralogy.
FOSTER, James, a nonconformist divine, highly cele¬
brated for his pulpit eloquence and erudition, was born at
Exeter in the year 1697. At the age of five he was put
to the free school of that city, where his progress in the
acquisition of grammar was so rapid that his master boast¬
ed of him as the most eminent genius in his school. From
this seminary he went to the academy where young men
designed for being clergymen in the dissenting interest
were educated, and here his progress was equally great. His
apprehension was remarkably quick, his judgment solid,
his memory retentive, his eloquence commanding, and his
talents for argumentation truly admirable; but above all,
his piety was genuine, and few men possessed candour,
modesty, liberality, integrity, tenderness, and benevo¬
lence, in so remarkable a degree. He commenced preach¬
er at the age of twenty-one, and was much admired where
he occasionally officiated. Rut the doctrine of the Tri¬
nity, which was then much agitated in the west of Eng¬
land, did not accord with the notions of Mr Foster, and
the honesty and openness of his heart would not suffer him
to conceal his opinions, which, in fact, brought so much
odium upon him from the orthodox party, that he retired
to another scene of action. He became pastor of a con¬
gregation at Milborne-port, in Somersetshire ; but as soon
as his hearers became zealously attached to what was
deemed the orthodox opinion, he retired to Ashwick, un¬
der the Mendip Hills, in the same county. In this asy¬
lum he preached to two congregations at a little distance
from each other, the united contributions of which did not
amount to L.15 per annum. In this state of poverty and
obscurity he lived for some years, submitting patiently to
the privations which were occasioned by his determined
uprightness and sincerity. In 1720 he gave the world his
Essay on Fundamentals, the design of which was to
check an uncharitable and intolerant spirit, at that time
extremely prevalent, by showing that the Trinitarian no¬
tion is not a fundamental article of Christianity, or made
an express condition of salvation in the sacred Scriptures.
A sermon accompanied this essay, entitled The Resurrec¬
tion of Christ proved and vindicated, against the most im¬
portant objections of the ancient Jews or modern Deists.
From Ashwick, Foster removed to Trowbridge in Wilt¬
shire, where his congregation did not usually exceed
twenty or thirty persons.
By reading Dr Gale’s treatise on infant baptism, he be¬
came a convert to the doctrine, that immersion is the true
scriptural rite, and was accordingly soon afterwards bap¬
tized in London in conformity to that mode. This unre¬
served manner of adopting whatever his conscience be¬
lieved to be truth, excluded him from almost every reli¬
gious party amongst whom he might otherwise have expect¬
ed preferment. But whilst he deliberated with himself
F O S 789
whether he should abandon the ministry, and acquire the Foster,
knowledge of some mechanical employment, Mr Robert
Houlston received him into his house in the capacity of
chaplain, and here his circle of acquaintances became
wider and more respectable. In 1724 he was appointed
to succeed Dr Gale in the Baptist congregation in Barbi¬
can, London. In 1728 he commenced a Sunday evening
lecture in the Old Jewry, which he continued till within
a short time of his death, with a degree of popularity
which few dissenters at that time enjoyed. In 1732
appeared his work entitled The Usefulness, Truth, and
Excellency of the Christian Revelation, defended against
the objections contained in a late book, called Christiani¬
ty as old as the Creation. In this reply Mr Foster exhi¬
bited no ordinary share of talents and ingenuity, and it
was admired by the candid and judicious of every descrip¬
tion. Dr Tindal, against whom it was written, is said to
have always spoken of it with great respect. He publish¬
ed a volume of sermons in the year 1734, followed by
three other volumes, the last of which appeared in 1744.
At this time he was appointed successor to Dr Jeremiah
Hunt, in the protestant congregation at Pinner’s-hall. In
1746 he attended the Earl of Kilmarnock when under
sentence of death for high treason, after which he pub¬
lished an octavo pamphlet, containing An Account of the
Behaviour of the late Earl of Kilmarnock after his Sen¬
tence, and on the day of his Execution.
Foster received from Marischal College, Aberdeen, the
degree of doctor in divinity, accompanied with handsome
letters from the Principal and Professor Fordyce. “ We
beg,” said the latter, “ that you will be so good as to ac¬
cept of the diploma, as a small mark of the sincere vene¬
ration we have for you, and of the sense we entertain of
the eminent services you have done to the cause of liber¬
ty, religion, and virtue, by your writings as well as pub¬
lic instructions.” The first volume in quarto of his Dis¬
courses on all the principal Branches of Natural Religion
and Social Virtue, was published in the year 1749, and
the second appeared in 1752. They were published by
subscription; and to evince the high estimation in which
his talents and virtues were held, two thousand names
were contained in the list, many of them those of per¬
sons distinguished by their rank and literary abilities.
In the month of April 1750 he was seized with a vio¬
lent distemper, from the effects of which he never tho¬
roughly recovered; yet whilst at all able to officiate, he
continued to preach till the beginning of 1752, when he
had another attack, which seems to have been of a para¬
lytic nature. After suffering for some time, he expired
on the 5th of November, in the fifty-fifth year of his age.
His private and public life were alike irreproachable.
Foster, it appears, would have died in indigent circum¬
stances, had it not been for the numerous subscriptions
to his discourses on natural religion.
Besides the works above noticed, Dr Foster published
three funeral sermons, one of which was intended for
Mr Emyln ; together with a number of essays which ap¬
peared in the Old Whig.
Foster, Samuel, an English mathematician and pro¬
fessor of astronomy at Gresham College, was one of that
learned association which met for cultivating the new phi¬
losophy, and which Charles II. established as the Royal
Society. Mr Foster, however, died in 1652, before this
incorporation took place; but he wrote a number of ma¬
thematical and astronomical treatises, particularly, 1.
The Description and Use of a small portable Quadrant,
for the more easy finding of the hour of azimuth, 1624,
in 4to; 2. The Art of Dialling, 1638, in 4to ; 3. Posthu-
ma Fosteri, containing the description of a Ruler upon
which are inscribed divers scales, 1652, in 4*10; 4. Four
790
F O T
Fothergill. Treatises of Dialling, 1654, in 4to ; 5. The Section alter-
ed, and other scales added, with the description and use
thereof, 1661, in 4to ; 6. Miscellanies, or Mathematical
Lucubrations. Of the treatises in this collection some
are written in Latin and others in English.
There were two other persons of this name who pub¬
lished mathematical works; William Foster, a disciple of
Mr Oughtred, who taught in London ; and Mark Foster,
author of a treatise on trigonometry, who lived later than
the former.
FOTHERGILL, Dr George, was born in Westmore¬
land in 1705, where his family had long possessed a com¬
petent estate, which had descended regularly for several
generations. After receiving an academical education in
Queen’s College, Oxford, of which he became a fellow,
he was, in 1751, elected principal of St Edmund’s Hall,
and presented to the vicarage of Brumley in Hampshire.
Having been long afflicted with an asthma, he died of that
disease in 1760, at the age of fifty-five. He was the author
of a collection of sermons, in 2 vols. 8vo; the first consist¬
ing of occasional discourses, published by himself, and the
second being printed from his manuscripts.
Fothergill, Dr John, an eminent physician, was
born of Quaker parents, in 1712, at Carr End in Yorkshire,
where his father, who had been a brewer at Knaresbo-
rough, lived retired on a small estate which he cultivated.
The doctor was the second of five children, and received
his education under the care of his grandfather Thomas
Hough, a person of fortune in Cheshire (which gave him
a predilection for that county), and at Sedbergh in York¬
shire. Having served his time to Mr Bartlett, an apo¬
thecary at Bradford, he removed to London, and became
a pupil of Dr, afterwards Sir Edward, Wilmot, at St rlho-
mas’s Hospital. He then went to the university of Edin¬
burgh for the purpose of studying physic, and there took
his doctor’s degree. From Edinburgh he went to Leyden,
but after a short stay he returned to London, and began
to practise about the year 1740, in a house in White-hart
Court, Lombard Street, where he resided during the great¬
er part of his life, and acquired most of his fortune. In 1746
he was admitted as a licentiate of the College of Physi¬
cians in London ; and in 1754 as a fellow of that of Edin¬
burgh, to which he was a considerable benefactor. He
afterwards became a member of the Royal Medical So¬
ciety at Paris, and a member of both the Royal and An¬
tiquarian Societies. He continued his practice with un¬
interrupted success till within the two last years of his life,
when an illness, which had been brought on by unremitting
attention, obliged him to give up a considerable part of it.
Besides his application to medical science, he had imbib¬
ed an early taste for natural history, and employed him¬
self on conchology and smaller objects of botany. He
had a very extensive practice, but he did not add to his
art any great or important improvements. His pamphlet
on the ulcerous sore throat is the best of his publications,
but it owes much of its merit to the information of the
late Dr Letherland. It was printed in the year 1748, on
the re-appearance of that fatal disorder which in 1739
had carried off the two sons of Mr Pelham. In 1762 Dr
Fothergill purchased an estate at Upton in Essex, and
there formed a botanic garden. In 1766 he began, be¬
tween Midsummer and Michaelmas, to withdraw from
the excessive fatigue of his profession, and took no fees
during this recess. For some time before his death he
had been endeavouring to contrive a method of generat¬
ing and preserving ice in the West Indies. He was the
patron of Sidney Parkinson, and drew up the preface to
his account of the voyage to the South Seas. At his ex¬
pense also was made and printed an entirely new trans¬
lation of the Bible, from the Hebrew and Greek origi-
F O U
nals, by Anthony Purver, a Quaker, in two volumes, Fougass*
1764, folio; and also, in 1780, an edition of Bishop Per- ||
cy’s Key to the New Testament, adapted to the use of a foul
seminary of young Quakers, at Ackworth, near Leeds in ^an(is
Yorkshire, founded in 1778 by the Society, who purchas- ^
ed, by a subscription, in which Dr Fothergill stood fore¬
most, the house and an estate of thirty acres which the
Foundling Hospital held there, but which they found in¬
convenient for their purpose. The doctor himself first
projected this on the plan of a smaller institution of the
same kind at Gildersomes, and endowed it handsomely by
his will. It now contains above three hundred children of
both sexes, who are clothed and instructed. Amongst the
other beneficent schemes suggested by Dr Fothergill, were
those of bringing fish to London by land carriage, which,
though it did not in every respect succeed, certainly tend¬
ed to destroy a supposed combination ; and of rendering
bread much cheaper, though equally wholesome, to the
poor, by making it of one part of potatoes mixed with
three parts of household flour. But all his public bene¬
factions, his encouragement of science, and the instances
of his attention to the health, police, and convenience of
the metropolis, we cannot pretend to specify. The fortune
which Dr Fothergill had acquired was great, amounting
to about L.80,000. His business, when in full practice,
was calculated at near L.7000 per annum. In the influ¬
enza of 1775 and 1776, he is said to have had sixty pa¬
tients on his list daily, and his profits were estimated at
L.8000 per annum. The disorder which hastened his
death was a schirrus of the prostate gland, and an obstruc¬
tion of the bladder. He died at his house in Harpur
Street, in the month of December 1780, and his remains
were interred in the Quakers’ burying-ground at Winch-
more Hill. The doctor by his will appointed that his shells
and other pieces of natural history should be offered to Dr
Hunter at L.500 under the valuation which he had order¬
ed to be taken of them, and accordingly Dr Hunter bought
them for L.T200. Flis drawings and collections in natu¬
ral history were also offered to Sir Joseph Bankes at a
valuation. His English portraits and prints, which had
been purchased by him for eighty guineas, were bought
by Mr Thane for two hundred guineas. Flis books were
sold by public auction.
FOUGASSE, in the art of war, a small mine from six
to eight feet under ground, and generally placed under
the glacis, or in dry ditches. It is charged with sacks of
powder covered with earth and stones, and, like larger
mines, is fired by means of a saucisson.
FOUL, in nautical language, is used when a ship has
been long untrimmed, so that grass weeds, or barnacles,
grow on her sides under water. A rope is also foul when
it is either tangled in itself, or hindered by another from
running or being overhauled.
Foul imports also the running of one ship against an¬
other. This happens sometimes by the violence of the
wind, and sometimes by the carelessness of the people on
board, to ships in the same convoy, and to ships in port
by means of others coming in. The damages occasioned
bv running foul are of the nature of those in which both
parties must bear a share. They are usually made to
fall half upon the sufferer, and half upon the vessel which
did the injury ; but in cases where it is evidently the
fault of the master of the vessel, he alone must bear the
damage. . r
FOUCFIENGE, a town of Persia, in the province ot
Khorassan, twenty-five miles north ot Herat. Long.
29. E. Lat. 34. 50. N.
FOUL Islands, a cluster of small islands in the Indian
Sea, near the north coast of the island of Flores. Long.
121. 22. E. Lat. 8. 9. S.
F O U
Fda FOULA, or Fowla Island, one of the Zetland Isles,
lying between six and seven leagues west from the main
Fou land. It is about three miles in length, narrow, and full of
'-T rough, steep, and bare rocks; one of which is so large,
and runs up to such a height, that it may be clearly seen
from Orkney. This solitary isle, it has been conjectured,
is the Thule of Tacitus. It is pastoral, and maintains a few
families.
FOULAHS, a people of Africa, who inhabit the confines
of the Sahara, or Great Desert. The principal of the
Foulah states is that within Sierra Leone, and of which
Teembo is the capital.
FOUMART, a species of Mustela. See Mammalia.
FOUNDATION, in Architecture, is that part of a build¬
ing which is under ground.
Foundation denotes also a donation or legacy, either
in money or lands, for the maintenance and support of
some community, hospital, school, or other institution.
FOUNDERY, or Foundry, the art of melting and
casting all sorts of metal, such as brass, iron, &c. See
Brass-making, and Iron-making ; also the article Fur¬
nace.
Foundery of Small Works, or Casting in Sand. The
sand commonly used for casting small works is at first of
a pretty soft, yellowish, and clammy nature ; but it being
necessary to strew charcoal dust in the mould, it at length
becomes of a quite black colour. The sand is worked over
and over, on a board, with a roller and a sort of knife ; and
is placed over a trough to receive it, after it has by these
means been sufficiently prepared.
This being done, the workmen take a wooden board of
a length and breadth proportional to the things to be cast,
and putting a ledge round it, they fill it with sand a little
moistened, to make it duly cohere. They then take either
wood or metal models of what they intend to cast, and
apply them to the mould, and press them into the sand so
as to leave their impression there. Along the middle of
the mould is laid half a small brass cylinder, as the chief
canal for the metal to run through, when melted, into the
models or patterns; and from this chief canal are placed
several others, which extend collaterally to each model or
I pattern placed in the frame. After this frame is finished,
they take out the patterns, by first loosening them all round,
that the sand may not give way ; then they proceed to
work the other half of the mould with the same patterns
in just such another frame, only that it has pins, which,
entering into holes corresponding to it in the other, make
the two cavities of the pattern fall exactly on each other.
The frame, thus moulded, is carried to the melter, who,
after extending the chief canal of the counterpart, and
adding the cross canals to the several models in both, and
strewing mill dust over them, dries them in a kind of oven
prepared for the purpose. Both parts of the mould being
dry, they are joined together by means of the pins ; and to
prevent them giving way, by reason of the melted metal
passing through the chief cylindrical canal, they are
screwed or wedged up like a kind of press.
Whilst the moulds are thus preparing, the metal is fus¬
ing in a crucible of a size proportional to the quantity of
metal intended to be cast. When the moulds have cool¬
ed, the frames are unscrewed or unwedged, and the cast
work taken out of the sand, which sand is worked over
again for other casting.
Foundery of Statues. The casting of statues depends
on the due preparation of the pit, the core, the wax, the
outer mould, the inferior furnace to melt off the wax, and
the upper to fuse the metal.
The pit is a hole dug in a dry place, something deeper
than the intended figure, and made according to the pro¬
minence of certain parts of it. The inside of the pit is
F O U 791
commonly lined with stone or brick ; but when the figure Foundery.
is very large, they sometimes work on the ground, and
raise a proper fence to resist the impulsion of the melted
metal. Ihe inner mould, or core, is a rude mass, to which
is given the intended attitude and contours. It is raised on
an iron grating strong enough to sustain it, and is strength¬
ened within by several bars of iron. It is generally
made either of potters’ clay mixed with hair and horse
dung, or of plaster of Paris mixed with brick dust. The use
of the core is to support the wax and the shell, and lessen
the weight of the metal. The iron bars and the core
are taken out of the brass figure through an aperture left
in it for that purpose, which is soldered up afterwards.
It is necessary to leave some of the iron bars of the core,
which contribute to the steadiness of the projecting part,
within the brass figure. The wax is a representation of
the intended statue. If it be a piece of sculpture, the
wax should be all from the hand of the sculptor himself,
who usually forms it on the core; though it may be wrought
separately in cavities, moulded on a model, and afterwards
arranged on the ribs of iron over the grating, filling the
vacant space in the middle with liquid plaster and brick
dust, by which means the inner core is proportioned as
the sculptor carries on the wax. When the wax, which is
of the intended thickness of the metal, is finished, small
waxen tubes perpendicular to it from top to bottom are
filled, to serve both as canals for the conveyance of the
metal to all parts of the work, and as vent-holes to give
passage to the air, which would otherwise occasion great
disorder when the hot metal came to encompass it.
The work being brought thus far, must be covered with
its shell, which is a kind of crust laid over the wax, and
which being of a soft matter, easily receives the impres¬
sion of every part, which is afterwards communicated to
the metal upon its taking the place of the wax, between
the shell and the mould. The matter of this outer mould
is varied according as different layers are applied. The
first is generally a composition of clay, and old white cru¬
cibles well ground and sifted, and mixed up with water
to the consistence of a colour fit for painting; and it is
applied with a pencil, by means of which it is laid on seven
or eight times successively. For the second impression
horse dung and natural earth are added to the former
composition ; but for the third impression only horse dung
and earth are used. Lastly, the shell is finished by laying
on several more impressions of this last matter, made very
thick with the hand. The shell, thus finished, is secured
by several iron girths bound round it, at about half a foot
distant from each other, and fastened at the bottom to the
grating under the statue, and at top to a circle of iron where
they all terminate.
If the statue be so large that it would not be easy to
move the moulds with safety, these must be wrought on
the spot where it is to be cast. This is performed in two
ways. In the first place, a square hole is dug in the
ground, much larger than the mould to be made therein,
and its inside is lined with walls of freestone or brick.
At the bottom is made a hole of the same materials, with
a kind of furnace, having its aperture outwards ; and in
this is a fire made, to dry the mould, and afterwards melt
the wax. Over this furnace is placed the grating, and upon
this the mould, formed as above. Lastly, at one of the
edges of the square pit is made another large furnace, to
melt the metal. In the other way, it is sufficient to work
the mould above ground, but with the precaution of a fur¬
nace and grating underneath. When finished, four walls
are run around it, and by its side a melting furnace is
prepared. For the rest, the method is the same in both
cases. The mould being finished, and enclosed as de¬
scribed, whether below ground or above it, a moderate
792
F O U
Founderv. fire is lighted in the furnace under it and the whole co¬
vered with planks, that the wax may melt gently down,
and run out at pipes contrived for that purpose at the
foot of the mould, which are afterwards C
with earth, as soon as the wax is all carried off. W hen this
is done, the whole is filled up with bricks thrown m at
random, and the fire in the furnace augmented, until both
the bricks and mould become red hot. I he fire is then
extinguished, and every thing being cold again, the bricks
are taken out, and their place filled up with earth, moisten¬
ed, and beaten a little at the top of the mould, in order
to render it the firmer. These preparatory measures
being duly taken, there remains nothing but to melt the
metal, and run it into the mould. This is done by means
of the furnace above described, which is commonly made
in the form of an oven with three apertures, one to put m
the wood, another for a vent, and a third to run the metal
out at. From this last aperture, which is kept very close
whilst the metal is in fusion, a small tube is laid, by which
the molten metal is conveyed into a large earthen basin,
over the mould, into the bottom of which all the large
branches of the jets or casts, which are to convey the
metal into the different parts of the mould, are inserted.
These casts or jets are all terminated with a kind ot
plu^s, which are kept close, so that, upon opening the fur¬
nace, the brass, which rushes out with violence, may not
enter any of them till the bason be full enough of mat¬
ter to run into them all at once; upon which occasion
they pull out the plugs, which are long iron rods with a
head at one end, capable of filling the whole diameter of
each tube. The whole of the furnace is then opened with
a long piece of iron fitted at the end of each pole, and the
mould filled in an instant. This completes the work in
relation to the casting part; the rest is the sculptor s or
carver’s business, who, taking the figure out of the mould
and earth with which it is encompassed, saws off the jets
with which it appears covered over, and finishes it with
chisels, gravers, puncheons, and other instruments.
Foundery of Bells. The metal for casting bells, it is
to be observed, is different from that employed for casting
statues ; there being no tin in the statue metal, whereas
in the bell metal there is a fifth, and sometimes more.
The dimensions of the core and the wax for bells, espe¬
cially a chime, are not left to chance, but must be mea¬
sured upon a scale, or diapason, which gives the height, the
aperture, and the thickness, necessary for the several tones
required. It is on the wax that the several mouldings
and other ornaments and inscriptions, to be represented
in relief on the outside of the bell, are formed. The clap¬
per or tongue is not properly part of the bell, but is fur¬
nished from other hands. In Europe it is usually ot iron,
with a large knob at the extremity ; and is suspended in
the middle of the bell. In China it is only a huge wood¬
en mallet, struck by the hand against the bell; and hence
they can have but little of that consonance so much ad¬
mired in some of our chimes of bells. The Chinese have
a method of increasing the sound of their bells, by leav¬
ing a hole under the cannon ; but this our bell-founders
would reckon a defect.
The proportions of our bells differ very much from those
of the Chinese. In ours, the modern proportions are, to
make the diameter fifteen times the thickness of the brim,
and the height twelve times. The parts of a bell are,
first, the sounding bow', terminated by an inferior circle,
which gnws thinner and thinner ; secondly, the brim, or
that part of a bell whereon the clapper strikes, and which
is thicker than the rest; thirdly, the outward sinking of the
middle of the bell, or the point under which it grows wider
to the brim ; fourthly, the waist or furniture, and the part
that grows wider and thicker quite to the brim ; fifthly, the
F o u
upper vase, or that part which is above the waist; sixthly, Pounder;
the pallet, which supports the staple of the clapper with- ||
in; and, seventhly, the bent and hollowed branches ofFounta“
metal uniting with the cannons, to receive the iron keys,
by which the bell is hung up to the beam, and which forms
its support and counterpoise when rung out.
Without entering into the details of the operations, we
may state, that the business of bell foundery is reducible
to three heads; first, the proportion of a bell; secondly,
the forming of the mould ; and, thirdly, the melting of the
metal.
Foundery of Great Gum and Mortar Pieces. See
Cannon-Making.
Letter Foundery, or Casting of Printing Letters. See
Printing and Type-Making.
FOUNT, or Font, among printers, a set or quantity of
characters or letters of each kind, cast by a letter-founder,
and sorted. Thus, we say, a founder has cast a fount of pica,
of english, and of pearl; meaning that he has cast a set of
characters of these kinds.
A complete fount not only includes the running letters,
but also large and small capitals, single letters, double let¬
ters, points, commas, lines, and numeral characters. See
Printing and Type-Making.
FOUNTAIN, a spring or source of water rising out of
the earth. Amongst the ancients, fountains were generally
esteemed sacred; but some were held to be so in a more
particular manner than others. The good effects resulting
from cold baths gave springs and rivers this high reputa¬
tion ; for their salutary influence was supposed to proceed
from some presiding deity. Particular reasons, however,
occasioned some to be held in much greater veneration than
others. It was customary to throw little pieces of money
into those springs, lakes, or rivers, which were esteemed
sacred, in order to render the presiding divinities propi¬
tious ; as the touch of a naked body was supposed to pol¬
lute their hallowed waters. For the phenomena, theory,
and origin of fountains or springs, see Spring.
FountAiN-Tree, a very extraordinary vegetable, which
grows in one of the Canary Islands, and is likewise said to
exist in some other places, and which distils water from its
leaves in such plenty as to answer all the purposes of the in¬
habitants who live near it. Of this tree we have the follow¬
ing account in Glasse’s History of the Canary Islands :—
“ There are only three fountains of water in the whole island
of Hierro, wherein the fountain-tree grows. One of these
fountains is called Acof which, in the language of the an¬
cient inhabitants, signifies river ; a name, however, which
does not seem to have been given it on account ot its
yielding much water, for in that respect it hardly de¬
serves the name of a fountain. More to the northward is
another, called Hapio ; and, in the middle of the island is a
spring, yielding a stream about the thickness of a man s
finger. This last was discovered in the year 1565, and is
called the fountain of Antonio Hernandez. On account ot
the scarcity of water, the sheep, goats, and swine ere .
not drink in the summer, but are taught to dig UP
roots of fern, and chew them to quench their thirst,
great cattle are watered at those fountains, and at a P ac^
where water distils from the leaves of a tree. Many wn
ters have made mention of this famous tree, some m su
a manner as to make it appear miraculous; others agai
deny the existence of any such tree, among w lorn is
ther Feyjoo, a modern Spanish author, in his Teatro
tico. But he, and those who agree with him in this
ter, are as much mistaken as those who would nia e i P
pear to be miraculous. This is the only island o a
Canaries which I have not been in; but I have saile
natives of Hierro, who, when questioned about the exi
ence of this tree, answered in the affirmative.
F O U
Four ■- FOUR BOROUGHS’ COURT, an ancient Scottish
roug / court, so called because composed of delegates from four
CoHf royal burghs ; originally the burghs of Edinburgh, Stirling,
Foi-e.Berwick’ and Roxburgh; but from the year 1348, when
the two last burghs were in the hands of the English, the
burghs of Edinburgh, Stirling, Lanark, and Linlithgow.
These delegates were assembled yearly at Haddington, be¬
fore the Lord Chamberlain of Scotland, and formed for ap¬
peals from the burgh courts and chamberlain ayres, a court
which was to the inhabitants of the burghs what the high
court of parliament was to the other inhabitants of the
kingdom, the highest and ultimate court of appeal.
In 1405, when the regent, Robert duke of Albany, uncle
to King James I., was lord chamberlain, a court of the
four burghs was held at Stirling, where it was resolved
that deputies from the royal burghs south of the Spey
should convene yearly with the four burghs, to consider
and conclude on all matters affecting the common weal of
all the royal burghs. T his convention, though at first as¬
sembled with the court of four burghs, does not appear to
have ever formed a constituent part of the latter assembly,
and it seems also soon to have disregarded both the place
and time of its meeting; for in 1487 its constitution was
materially improved, representatives from all the royal
burghs, “ baith south and north,” being by a statute of
that year appointed to meet in convention yearly at Inver-
keithing, “ there to commoun and treate upon the weilfare
of merchandice, the gude rule and statutes for the common
profite of burrowes, and to provide for remeid upon the
, skaith and injuries sustained within the burrowes.”
I he chamberlain ayres, which had long been regarded
by the nation as a grievance demanding immediate refor¬
mation, were thus substantially superseded, and according-
, ly soon afterwards fell into disuse. The court of four bo-
roughs continued somewhat longer; but on the institution
1 of the court of session, which was vested with a universal
| civil jurisdiction, its judicial functions were swallowed up,
| and it likewise expired. The office of lord chamberlain it¬
self also, falling into the hands of the nobility and court fa¬
vourites, ceased to be exercised; and his place in the con¬
vention came to be occupied by the Lord Provost of Edin¬
burgh, who, though not a member, is the constant preses of
j the convention. The origin of this last circumstance, hi¬
therto, we believe, unexplained by our writers, seems to
be this. The convention was, by the statute above men¬
tioned, appointed to meet at Inverkeithing. This, how¬
ever, it did not long continue to do ; but, like the court of
four burghs and the other supreme courts of the king¬
dom, removed to Edinburgh as early as the time of Alex¬
ander Lord Horne, who was great chamberlain from 1488
to 1517 ; and as that individual was at one time both lord
provost of Edinburgh and great chamberlain of Scotland,
and also, as it seems, the last in the latter office who exer¬
cised its duties in person, hence, no doubt, arose the prac¬
tice of the lord provost of Edinburgh being the permanent
preses, and the town-clerk of Edinburgh the perpetual
clerk, of the convention. This civic parliament lias con¬
tinued till the present time. By stat. 1607, c. 6, letters of
horning were allowed to issue on all its acts and decrees
betwixt burgh and burgh, and burgesses of free burghs, on
a simple charge of ten days.
FOUR SADDLE Island, anislandin theMergui Archi¬
pelago, about six miles in circumference, and separated by
a narrow strait from the island of St Susannah. Eat. 10.
27. N.
FOUR CRAG’S Island, a low flat island, of a quad¬
rangular figure, on the south-west coast of New Holland.
Long. 137. E. Eat. 36. 26. S.
. FOURCHEE, or Fourchy, in Heraldry, an appellation
given to a cross forked at the end. See Heraldry,
vol, .ix. - '• *
F O U
793
bOLRCROY; Antony Francis de, a celebrated che- Fourcroy.
mist and physician, born at Paris on the 15th June 1755,
was the son of John Michael de Fourcroy, by his mar¬
riage with Jane Laugier. His family had been long esta¬
blished in the capital; several of them had been distin¬
guished at the bar, and Fourcroy Je Ramcourt was well
known as an engineer of considerable talent, and a mem¬
ber of the Academy of Sciences.
His father was an apothecary attached to the house-
hO'd of the Duke of Orleans, and was a great sufferer by
the abolition of places of this kind, which was procured
by the corporation of apothecaries, some time before the
Revolution. Young Fourcroy was sent to the college of
Harcourt, but made no progress in his learning there, and
underwent great hardships, from the cruelty of an unjust
master. He was afterwards obliged to subsist by his la¬
bour in copying, and by taking pupils as a writing mas-
tei. He was, however, fortunate in the patronage and
assistance of \ icq d Azyr, who had been a friend of his
father, and under whose auspices he resolved to study
physic ; obtaining his support in the mean time by giving
his assistance to richer persons than himself in their lite¬
rary labours, and by a few translations, for which he war.
very ill paid. When he had gone through the regular
course of study, he became a candidate for a gratuitous
diploma, upon a foundation established by Dr Diest;
but he failed of success, from a party quarrel. His own
party, however, which was that of Vicq d’Azyr, indemni¬
fied him for the loss, by making a collection to discharge
the fees, amounting to about L.250; but the highest de¬
gree, that of doctor regent, was still refused him ; and he
was therefore incapable of holding a professorship under
the Parisian faculty of physic. He resolved to apply him¬
self to science as the readiest way of acquiring medical
reputation; but he seems to have been little known, at
any time of his life, as a practical physician. The deter¬
mination, however, like that of the countryman in the
fable, was still a beneficial one; and though he failed of
discovering the golden treasure for which he dug, he pro¬
fited by the increased fertility of the soil, and by the
abundant fruits which it bore him.
In natural history he soon distinguished himself as a
pupil worthy of Geofiroy, by an entomological publication ;
and in anatomy, by his description of the tendons and
their sheaths, which appears to have procured his admis¬
sion into the Academy of Sciences in 1785. He stood at
first in the capacity of an anatomist, though he was af¬
terwards removed to the section of chemistry. His favou¬
rite pursuit, however, from the beginning, was chemistry;
and in this he derived considerable assistance from Buc-
quet, who was then a professor in great esteem; and hav¬
ing once undertaken to deliver a lecture in his place, on
occasion of a temporary indisposition of Bucquet, though
wholly unprepared, he found himself capable of speaking
for two hours with great fluency, to the delight and asto¬
nishment of his audience. The reputation of Bucquet
was soon transferred to Fourcroy; and he was enabled,
by an advantageous marriage, to purchase the apparatus
of his predecessor, and to succeed to his lectures.
In 1784, upon the death of Macquer, then professor of
chemistry in the Royal Garden, the Count de Buffon
found the claims of Fourcroy so strong, that he thought
it right to appoint him to the vacant chair, though no less
a chemist than Lavoisier was a rival candidate ; the com¬
petition not being wholly decided either by talent or by
depth of learning, but probably, in a great measure, by the
reputation in the art of teaching which Fourcroy had al¬
ready acquired. His success in this new situation was
brilliant and universal; and he continued for twenty-five
years to absorb the whole attention of a numerous au-
5 H
F O U R C R O Y.
dience, by his eloquence, and by the perspicuity of his
mode of explaining some of the most important novelties
that have ever appeared in any age. The science which he
taught was then making its most rapid progress. It was
then that Bergman and Scheele had introduced into ana¬
lytical chemistry a precision almost geometrical; that
Priestley had discovered the aeriform elements of the
animal and vegetable world; that Black and Wilcke had
methodised the phenomena of heat; that Cavendish had
discovered the composition of water and of the nitric
acid; that Monge had repeated and extended his expe¬
riments ; and that Lavoisier had reduced the whole of
chemistry to a uniform system, which, though founded on
a generalization somewhat too hasty, has still been of im¬
portant service to the science, by concentrating the at¬
tention of the philosophic reasoner on various classes of
phenomena, which could not so easily have been compre¬
hended in one view, without the aid of some such hypo¬
thesis. M. de Fourcroy was particularly happy in his
tact of perceiving whether or not all his audience were
fully in possession of the ideas he wished to communicate
to them, and he was never tired of explaining himself, till
he was satisfied that he had said enough. His manner
was energetic, and such as an Englishman might perhaps
have thought pompous and affected; but we must recol¬
lect that there is no fixed standard of propriety in mat¬
ters of taste, and that, as the common conversation of the
French is naturally accompanied with more of emphasis
and gesture than our own, it is very possible that, with¬
out any greater proportional exaggeration than is intro¬
duced in similar cases in Great Britain, an actor, a lec¬
turer, or a preacher, may exhibit what to us would appear
a caricature, while it only affects his own countrymen as
a natural, though impressive, style of public speaking.
The chemical amphitheatre of the Public Garden was
crowded by students from all countries, and from all
quarters of the globe, some prompted to visit Paris by
their own love of learning only, some assisted in their pur¬
suits by their respective governments; and it was twice
in succession necessary to provide more extensive accom¬
modations for the overflowing numbers that sought for
admittance.
M. de Fourcroy’s political life, though not unsuccess¬
ful, seems to have contributed less materially to his hap¬
piness than his scientific career. He was chosen a sup¬
plementary member of the National Convention, and en¬
tered on the functions of the office in the dreadful period
of 1793. He had, however, the wisdom to refrain from
employing the eloquence that he possessed under circum¬
stances so dangerous, and he almost entirely confined his
exertions to some attempts to soften the cruel tyranny of
the times. Darcet was one of the destined victims that
he had the good fortune to save ; but he soon found it too
dangerous to persist in such interferences. M. Cuvier,
however, very fully acquits him of any approbation of the
judicial murders which were committed, and of any conni¬
vance at such proceedings as it might have been possible
for him to avert; declaring, that if, upon the strictest in¬
quiry, he could have discovered that there was the least
foundation for charging him with having been indifferent
to the fate of his great rival Lavoisier, no consideration on
earth could have induced him to become the biographer of
a person so odious and contemptible. It was at a later pe¬
riod that Fourcroy acquired some little influence as a di¬
rector of the public instruction ; and in this capacity he had
great scope for the exertion of his talents, in the re-esta¬
blishment of the many public institutions connected with
science, which the madness of the Revolution had de¬
stroyed. The Ecole de Medicine was one of the first that
was restored; but the name of Medecine seeming to carry
with it too much of respect and authority for the levelling Fourcrr
spirit of the day, the new institution was at first called
Ecole de Sante. M. de Fourcroy was also very essential¬
ly concerned in the organization of the Ecole Polytech¬
nique, as well as of the central schools of the departments,
and of the Normal schools of Paris ; nor was he an indiffe¬
rent spectator of the establishment of the Institute, which
was at first intended to be as much immediately subser¬
vient to public instruction, as to making known the re¬
sults of private study. He had also considerable influ¬
ence in obtaining the adoption of a law calculated greatly
to facilitate the formation of a museum of natural his¬
tory on a magnificent scale. If, in the pursuit of these
objects, he sometimes appeared to forget the dignity of
language most appropriate to his subject, it must be re¬
membered that he lived in times when the choice of ex¬
pressions was by no means at the option of the speaker.
He was once denounced by the Jacobins, merely for his
silence in the assembly; but he excused himself, by
pleading the absolute necessity of applying himself to
chemical pursuits for the support of his family.
In 1798 his duties as a senator were terminated; but
he was made a counsellor of state under the consular go¬
vernment, and again employed in the department of pub¬
lic instruction, with less liberty to pursue his own ideas
than before, but with more effectual means of attaining
the objects of his appointment. In this capacity he di¬
rected, in the course of five years, the establishment of
twelve schools of law, and of more than thirty lyceums,
afterwards called royal colleges, and three hundred ele¬
mentary schools ; exhibiting, in the performance of this la¬
borious duty, the greatest possible judgment and attention
in overcoming the local difficulties which perpetually oc¬
curred in the details of the undertaking, and depending on
none but himself for the whole of the required arrange¬
ments. He conducted himself with great impartiality in
his choice of the persons to be employed, though he some¬
times found himself obliged to pay a certain degree of
deference to the arbitrary power under which he acted,
or even to his own political connexions. Remembering
the difficulties which he had himself encountered in the
early part of his career, he was particularly kind and
benevolent in his intercourse with those young men to
whom he was the dispenser of public munificence, in ad¬
mitting them to a gratuitous education.
The great number and extent of M. de Fourcroy s sci¬
entific labours may be considered as paramount to a more
immediate participation in the discovery of some of the
new facts which changed the aspect of the science of
chemistry. His ideas were, however, often rather en¬
larged than profound ; and he was not uncommonly some¬
what too precipitate in his conclusions; but he was ge¬
nerally methodical in the mode of conducting his re¬
searches, and clear in relating their results. His pursuits
and projects were sometimes varied a little capriciously,
though he prosecuted them all with equal warmth .and
eloquence. He wras too much the slave of public opinion
for his own comfort; and even the slightest expressiono
censure that occurred in private society, or the most un¬
important criticism that appeared in a periodical wor ,
became, a heavy misfortune to him, and deprived him o
his tranquillity fora considerable time. But the desire o^
universal approbation acted upon him as a strong 1I)|'.en,
live to continued exertion; and, amongst all his poll ma
and official labours, he continued his experiments, his ine-
moirs, and his lectures, with as much eagerness as it tney
had constituted his whole occupation. His nerves se
ultimately to have suffered by his unremitting aPPllca“°1j
and he became subject to palpitations, which, as he was
aware, rendered the duration of his life extreme y Pr
tT
FOUR
Foti xoy. rious. At last, on the 16th of December 1809, at the age
of fifty-four, as he was signing some dispatches, he ex¬
claimed suddenly, “ I am dead and his words were true.
It happened, that on that day his family were about to
assemble for the celebration of an anniversary in which
they were particularly interested ; the assembly actually
met, though only to mourn his loss ; and their disappoint¬
ment was rendered the greater, upon the receipt of some
distinguished marks of the imperial favour, which arrived
too late to be of any use to his spirits or to his health, but
which would have been of the more value to him, as he
had before been passed over, when some of his colleagues
had received considerable gratifications. He had, how¬
ever, been made a count of the empire, and a commander
of the legion of honour, in addition to his various lite¬
rary and scientific titles; and he must have had the heart¬
felt satisfaction of reflecting, that he had been of use to
the promotion of knowledge by his experiments and his
writings ; to his country by the public institutions which
he had established; and to many deserving individuals
by the benefits which he had bestowed on them, without
the remorse of having done injury to any one.
He left a son by his first marriage with Mile. Bettinger,
the Count de Fourcroy, an officer of artillery, who was
afterwards killed in the campaign of 1813 in Saxony, and
a daughter, Mad. Foucaud. By his second marriage with
Mad. Belleville, the widow of M. de Wailly, he had no
children. His two maiden sisters also survived him, though
by no means in a state of affluence; but they received
great kindness from his friend and assistant M. Vauquelin.
His place at the Institute was very ably filled by M.
Thenard; M. Laugier succeeded him at the Museum,
and M. Gay Lussac at the Ecole Polytechnique.
The chief of M. de Fourcroy’s separate publications
are, 1. Essai sur les Maladies des Artisans, 12. Paris, 1777,
translated from Ramazzini. 2. Analyse Chimique de VEau
Sulfureuse d'Enghien, par Fourcroy et Laporte, 8vo, 1778,
applying the recent discoveries on the nature of gases to the
contents of this water. 3. Lemons Elementaires d'Histone
Naturelle etde Chimie, 2vols. 8vo, 1782; 5 vols. 8vo, 1789,
1794 ; afterwards translated by Nicholson. 4. Memoires et
I Observations de Chimie, 8vo, 1784 ; a collection of memoirs
intended as a sequel to the elements. Most of these had
been read to the academy before the author was a mem¬
ber, and were destined for the Memoires des Savans Et-
rangers. They relate to the metallic carbonates, to detona¬
tions, to tests for water, to combustions in a stream of
oxygen, and to the properties of several saline and metal¬
lic substances, with a useful introduction on the mode of
conducting chemical experiments. 5. An edition of the
Entomologia Parisiensis of Geoff roy, 2 vols. 12mo, 1780;
extracted from Geoffrey’s larger work, with the addition
of two hundred and fifty new species. 6. L ’Art de con-
naitre et d'employer lesMedicamensdans les Maladies, 2 vols.
8vo, 1785. 7. Methode de Nomenclature Chimique, par de
Morveau, Lavoisier, Berthollet, et De Fourcroy, 8vo,
1787. 8. Essai sur le Phlogistique et les Acides, 8vo, 1788 ;
from the English of Kirwan. 9. La Medecine eclairee par
les Sciences Physiques, 4 vols. 8vo, 1791, 1792; a collec¬
tion of papers, with some original essays by the editor.
10. Philosophic Chimique, ou Verites Fondamentales de la
Chimie Moderne, 1792, 1796,1800. Reviewed by Deyeux,
Ann. de Chim. Ivi.; a work which has been translated into
almost every European language, including modern
Greek. 11. Precedes pour extraire la Soude du Sel Marin,
4to, 1795. 12. Systeme de Connaisances Chimiques, 10 vols.
8vo, 5 vols. 4to, 1800. This vast collection of chemical
information was written from beginning to end in the
space of eighteen months, during an interval of leisure
from public business. Eev. Ann. Ch. xxxvi. xxxvii. Trans-
c R O Y. 795
lated by Nicholson. 13. Tableaux Synoptiques de Chimie-> Fourcroy.
fol. 1800, 1805. 14. Abrege de Chimie, pour Vusage des
ecoles veterinaires. 15. Chimie pour les Dames, in the Bib-
liotheque des Dames.
Besides his separate works, M. de Fourcroy was the
author of more than a hundred and sixty memoirs, print¬
ed in different publications, the principal of which it will
be sufficient to enumerate in a very cursory manner, add¬
ing a few of Dr Thomson’s able criticisms on the respec¬
tive articles. Ihe most important of his later researches
were published jointly in his own name and in that of his
pupil Vauquelin ; and it is supposed that the processes
were generally conducted and often suggested by Vauque¬
lin, but that the investigations were set on foot and di¬
rected, and the results described and methodized, with
inferences and theoretical reasoning, by Fourcroy.
16. In the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences we find
an Anatomical History of the Tendons and their Mucous
Capsules, 1785, 1786, 1787. 17. On the Smoking Oil of
Vitriol of Saxony, and the Concrete Salt obtained from it,
1785 ; modifications of the sulphurous acid. 18. On He¬
patic Gas, 1786. 19. Report on a Sand from Peru con¬
taining Copper. 20. On Azote, and its production in ani¬
mals, 1787. 21. On detecting Lead in Wines, 1787. 22.
On Combustions in the Oxymuriatic Acid, 1788. 23. On
Metals precipitated by Ammonia, 1788. 24. Experiments
on Animal Substances, made at the Lyceum, 1789. 25. On
a Liver changed by putrefaction, 1789. 26. On the Colours
derived by Vegetables from Oxygen, 1789. 27. On an Ore
of Lead from Roziers, 1789. 28. On the Sulfate of Mer¬
cury, and on Triple Ammoniacal Salts, 1790. 29. On the
Formation of the Nitric Acid by the Action of the Oxyd of
Mercury on Ammonia, 1790. 30. On the Combustion of
Hydrogen in close vessels, by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and
Seguin, 1790. 31. On Barita and Strontia, Mem. Inst,
vol. ii. 1797. 32. On Phosphate of Lime and on Phospho-
rus, ib. 33. On the Urinary Secretion in Horses and in
the Human Subject, ib. 34-36. On Urinary Calculi, with
two more Memoirs on the Secretion, iv. 1803. 37. On the
Nitrous Oxyd, by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Thenard, vi.
1806. 38. On Cow’s Milk, ib. 39. On the Guano, used
as a Manure in the South Sea Islands, ib. 40. On Taba-
sheer, ib. 41. On the Chemical Nature of Carious Wheat,
ib.; the change is supposed to depend on an alteration
and depravation of the gluten. 42. On a Detonating
Substance obtained from Indigo, ib. 43. On Animal Sub¬
stances treated by Nitric Acid, ib. 44. 45. Two Memoirs
on Crude Platina and a new Metal found with it. 46. On
the effects of Germination and Fermentation on Corn and
Pulse, vii. 1801. 47. In the Memoirs of the Royal Society
of Medicine for 1782-83-84, Par. 1787, we find a valuable
memoir On the Muriate of Lime, p. 267, which the author
seems to have been one of the first to introduce in
such cases as had usually been benefited by sea water.
48. On Morbid Changes in some of the Animal Fluids, p.
488. 49. On the Nature of Muscular Fibres, and on the
Seat of Irritability ; showing the analogy of muscular fibre
to the coagulable lymph of the blood, and observing
that Bordeu had very properly called the blood a fluid
muscle.
Many of these earlier papers have also been printed in
the Annales de Chimie, but they are sometimes altered,
and they are mixed with others which are original. 50.
On Azote (20), vol. i. (1789). This memoir exhibits no
very favourable specimen of the author’s accuracy ; for he
asserts in it that pure azote turns vegetable blues to green,
and that it may be obtained by means of a low heat, from
the oxide of manganese. 51. On the Gas in the Air Ves¬
sels of the Carp. 52. On a Morbid Change in the Blood,
ib.; exuding from the face. 53. On detecting Lead in
796
Fourcroy.
fourcroy.
Wine (21), ib. 54.55. On two Ores of Lead, ii.; con¬
taining the arseniate and the phosphate. 56. On the ac¬
tion of Oxyds on Ammonia, ib. ; particularly those of
manganese, mercury, and tin. 57. On the Salts of Mag¬
nesia, ib. 58. On a Change in the Liver after Death (25),
iii. 59. On Biliary Calculi, ib. ; describing the adipo-
cere of these substances. 60. On the Albumen of Vege¬
tables, ib.; more properly distinguished by Proust under
the name of gluten. 61. On the Carbonate of Barita of
Alston Moor, iv. 62. On the Medical Properties of Oxy¬
gen, ib. 63. On 'the Triple Salts of Ammonia and Magne¬
sia, ib.; an elaborate and interesting paper. 34. On
Combustions in Oxymuriatic Acid Gas, ib. 65. On the
effect of Oxygen in colouring Vegetables, and on the prepa¬
ration of Solid Pigments, v. 66. On the Changes observed
in the Cemetery of the Innocents, ib. Fourcroy had been ap¬
pointed, together with Thouret, to superintend the remo¬
val of these remains to a remoter spot, and observed that
the muscular parts were often slowly changed into a sub¬
stance nearly resembling sperriaaceti. 67. On a, Black
Sand from St Domingo, vi. 68. On the Water of Enghein,
(2), ib. 69. Discoveries in Animal and Vegetable Chemis¬
try, ib. 70. On the Formation of the Nitric Acid from the
Action of the Oxyd of Mercury on Ammonia, (29), ib. 71.
On the Culture of Cloves in the Isle of Bourbon, vii. 72.
Experiments on Animal Substances, made at the Lyceum
in 1790, (24), ib. 73. Second Memoir on the Substances
found in the Cemetery. 74. On the Cinchona of St Do¬
mingo, viii. x.; a very valuable analysis of a species of bark
officially referred to his examination. 75. On the Com¬
bustion of Hydrogen, (30), viii. 76. Report on Loyser s Art
de la Verrerie, ix. 77. On Bell Metal, ib. The principal
object of this paper is to discover a ready mode of con¬
verting the spoils of the churches into copper coin, by
fully oxidating a part of the alloy, and fusing the remain¬
der with it; the whole of the tin becomes oxidated, and
the copper is melted out in a state of purity. 78. On
Tears and Mucus, x.; a valuable investigation of the na¬
ture of the substances most generally diffused in the ani¬
mal fluids. 79. On the Sulfate of Mercury, and its combi¬
nation with Ammonia, ib.; a paper containing several new
facts, though mixed with some inconclusive reasoning.
80. On the Refinement of Saltpetre, xi. 81. On the Juice
which furnishes Elastic Gum, ib. 82. Note on the Decom¬
position of the Carbonic Acid Gas, effected by Mr Tennant,
xii. 83. On Triple Salts, xiii. 84. On Animal Concretions,
from the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique. 85. On the Brain,
xvi. 86. Report on some Artificial Pencils, xx. 87.
Extract of a Memoir on Hydrocarbonous Gas, and on the
supposed Combustion of Azote, xxi.; showing that though
phosphorus is soluble in azote, it is only so far burned in
it as some particles of oxygen happen to be present. 88.
On Detonations by Percussion, ib. 89. Extract of a Me¬
moir of Proust on Odoriferous Substances, ib.: M. de
Fourcroy proved the non-existence of any separate prin¬
ciple deserving the name of aroma, and showed that odo¬
rous substances in general were volatilized without any
change of their nature or separation of their parts. 90.
On obtaining Pure Barita, ib.; an elegant and effectual
process. 91. On the Union of Chemistry with Pharmacy,
ib. 92. On Vitality, and on Humboldt's Experiments,
xxii. 93. On the Action of the Sulfuric Acid on Vege¬
table and Animal Substances, xxiii. 94. On the Forma¬
tion of the Sulfuric Ether, ib. This paper seems to make
it probable that the attraction of the acid for water tends
to facilitate the formation of the ether in this instance,
though the same theory cannot be applied to the action
of the other acids on alcohol. 95. On the Sidfurous Acid,
xxiv. 96. Report on some Colours for Porcelain, xxv.
97. Letter to Humboldt on the Chemistry of Life, xxvii.
98. Examination of Dr Pearson s Experiments on Calculi f mm
ib.; with a general request to medical men, soliciting the "'T'''
communication of specimens. 99. On Pneumatic Medi¬
cine, xxviii. 100. On the Experiments of Mayow, from
the Dictionnaire Encyclopedique, xxix. 101. Novelties
from Egypt, ib. 102. On Congelation by Artificial Cold,
ib. 102. Letter to Giobert on Calcidi, xxx. 103. No¬
tice of Ventenat's Vegetable System, ib. This botanist has
given to an elegant genus of plants the name of Furcroea,
in compliment to the merits of our author in natural his¬
tory. 104. On the Chemical and Medical History of the
Urmary Secretion, xxxi. xxxii.; finding some of the
peculiar substances which occur in the human subject to
be identical with some of the contents of the excretions
of birds, though they are wanting in the same fluid formed
by quadrupeds. M. de Fourcroy had Ascertained that
some of the calculi found in animals were capable of being
dissolved by a weak solution of vinegar, and he had con¬
ceived some hopes that the observation might be applied
with advantage to similar diseases in the human subject.
FI is investigations respecting calculi, however, notwith¬
standing their importance, were in a great measure antici¬
pated by the acute penetration of our celebrated country¬
man Dr Wollaston, though his paper is not mentioned by
M. de Fourcroy. 105. Notice of the Chimie Optoma-
thique, xxxi. 106. Account of a Memoir of Fabroni on
Fermentation and on Ether, ib. 107. Chemical Novelties,
xxxii. 108. Report on Paul's Artificial Waters, xxxiii.
109. On Dabit's Ether, xxxiv. 110. On the Identity of
the Three Empyreumatic Acids ivith the Acetic, xxxv.;
suggesting that they might be substituted for it in some
economical processes. 111. Galvanic Experiments, xxxix.;
by Fourcroy, Vauquelin, and Thenard. 112. Note in an¬
swer to Proust, xlii. 113. Remarks on a Memoir of the
Dutch Chemists on the Carbonic Oxide, xliii. 114. On
a New Phosphate found in the Bones, xlvii.; that of mag¬
nesia, not before observed. 115. Extract of a Memoir on
Platina, xlviii. 116. 117. Two Memoirs on Crude Pla-
tina, and on a Metal found with it, xlix. 1. T hese re¬
searches were less successful than those of Mr lennant,
Dr Wollaston, and Mr Descorils, which were completed
about the same period. 118. Extract from Izarns Ma¬
nual of Galvanism, 1. 119. On the Alumina of Saxony,
lii. 120. On a Fluid found in the Caoutchouc of the Cas-
tilloya Elastica, Iv. 121. On a Detonating Substance
formed by the Action of the Nitric Acid on Indigo and
Animal Matters, Iv.; the investigations relating to indigo
have since been carried further by Mr Hatchett. 122.
On the Products of Animal Substances treated with the Ni¬
tric Acid, Ivi.; yielding more azote as they are more highly
animalized. 123. On the Guano, (39), Ivi. 124. Experi¬
ments on Ivory, Recent and Fossil, and on the Enamel of
the Teeth, in search of the Fluoric Acid, Ivii.; these expe¬
riments were nut completely successful, though Morichini
had detected the fluoric acid in the teeth before that
time, and Berzelius has found it still more recently.
M. de Fourcroy was for some years the editor of the
Journal des Pharmaciens ; lie first suggested the idea of
the publication of the Annales du Museum d'Histoire Na-
turelle, and contributed several valuable papers to it, as
well as to the Journal de I'Ecole Polytechnique, and to the
Magazin Encyclopedique. He was also the author of
some very voluminous articles in the chemical part of the
Encyclopedic Methodique; but the fabric of his celebrity
is principally founded on the works wThich have already
been enumerated, and which are better known to the
public.
(Palissot de Beauvois, Eloge Historique, Par. 1810; uu-
vier, Eloge, M. Inst. A. Math. 1810, and in Biographic
Universelle, xv. 8. Par. 1816; Thomsons Annals, i. May
F O W
Foi.nont 1818, p. 321 ; Aikin’s General Biography, vol. x. 4to,
. J Lond. 1815.) (l. l.)
ey^ FOURMONT, Stephen, professor of the Arabic and
Chinese languages, and one of the most learned men of
his time, was born at Herbelai, near Saint Denis, about
four leagues from Paris, in 1683. He studied in Maza-
rin College, and afterwards in the Seminary of Thirty-
three. He was at length appointed professor of Arabic
in the Royal College, and admitted a member of the Aca¬
demy of Inscriptions. In 1738 he was chosen a member
of the Royal Society of London, and in -1741 a member of
that of Berlin. He was often consulted by the Duke of
Orleans, first prince of the blood, who had a particular
esteem for him, and made him one of his secretaries. He
was the author of many learned works, the most import¬
ant of which are, 1. Racines de la Langue Latine mises en
vers Francois, Paris, 1706, in 12mo; 2. Reflexions Critiques
sur les Histoires des Anciens Peuples, Paris, 1735, in 2
vols. 4to; 3. Meditationes Sinicce, 1737, in folio; 4. Gram-
matica Sinica (Chinese Grammar), 1742; and, 5. Several
Dissertations printed in the Memoires de VAcad, des In¬
scriptions. Fourmont died at Paris on the 18th December
1745, at the age of sixty-two. He must not be confounded
with Michel Fourmont, his youngest brother, who was pro¬
fessor of the Syriac language in the Royal College, and a
member of the Academy of Inscriptions, and who died in
1746.
FOURNESS, in Loynsdale, Lancashire, is a tract be¬
tween the Kent, the Leven, and the Dudden sands, which
runs north parallel with the west sides of Cumberland and
Westmoreland, and on the south runs out into the sea as a
promontory. Here, as Mr Camden expresses it, “ the sea,
as if enraged at it, lashes it more furiously, and in high tides
, has even devoured the shore, and made three large bays;
viz. Kentsand, into which the river Ken empties itself;
Levensand and Duddensand, between which the land pro¬
jects in such a manner that it has its name hence ; Fore¬
ness and Foreland, signifying the same with us as promon-
toriurn anterius in Latin.” Bishop Gibson, however, derives
the name of Fourness, or Furness, from the numerous fur¬
naces that were there anciently, the rents and services of
which, called Bloomsmithy rents, are still paid. This whole
tract, except on the coast, rises in high hills and vast piles
of rocks called Fourness-Fells, amongst which the Britons
found a secure retreat, trusting to these natural fortresses,
though nothing was inaccessible to the victorious Saxons ;
for we find the Britons settled here 228 years after the ar¬
rival of the Saxons; because at that time Egfrid king ol
Northumberland gave St Cuthbert the land called Carih-
mell, and all the Britons in it, as is related in his life. In
these mountainous parts are found quarries of a fine du¬
rable blue slate, which is made use of to cover buildings in
this and many other parts of the kingdom.
FOU-TCHANG, a city of China, in the province of
Pe-tche-li, situated on the banks of the grand canal. It is
an ancient city, but the gates at the extremities are in a
state of decay. It has a bridge of great antiquity, consist¬
ing of four large arches and three smaller ones, secured by
parapets ; the whole of which is crumbling down.
FOU-TCHEOU, a city of China, of the first rank, which
is celebrated for a magnificent bridge built of stone, with
100 arches, and a double balustrade along the whole length.
The city is governed by a viceroy, and has nine others under
its jurisdiction. It is the residence of many literati, and has
a good harbour. Fou-tcheou is 870 miles south of Pekin.
Long. 119. 4. E. Lat. 20. 4. N. This is also the name of
a city of the third rank, which wTas almost ruined by an in¬
vasion of the Tartars. It is 735 miles south of Pekin.
FOWEY, a market-town and seaport of the county of
Cornwall, in the hundred of Powder, 239 miles from Lon-
FOX 797
don. The harbour, deemed the best on that part of the Fowl
coast, is formed by the river Fowey, which there empties ^
itself into the channel. There is space and depth of water , ^ ox~
for 1000 vessels. It has, however, but little trade, except
that which in the few months of summer consists in the
catching of pilchards, which, though a casual, is sometimes
a source of great profit. The mouth of the river is de¬
fended by several forts of various dates. It is governed by
a mayor, recorder, and eight aldermen, and returns two
members to the House of Commons, chosen by the inha¬
bitant householders. The population 'amounted in 1801
to 1155, in 1811 to 1457, in 1821 to 1455, and in 1831 to
1767.
FOWL, among zoologists, denotes the larger sorts of
birds, whether domestic or wild ; such as geese, pheasants,
partridges, turkeys, ducks, and the like.
FOWLING, the art of catching birds by means of bird¬
lime, decoys, and other devices, or the killing of them by
the gun.
Fowling is also used for the pursuing and taking birds
with hawks, more properly called falconry or hawking.
FOX, in Zoology. See Mammalia.
Fox, John, the martyrologist, was born at Boston in
Lincolnshire, in the year 1517. At the age of sixteen he
was entered a student of Brazen-Nose College in Oxford ;
and in 1543 he took his degree of master of arts, and was
chosen fellow of Magdalen College. He discovered an
early genius for poetry, and, conformably to the taste of
his age, wrote several Latin comedies upon subjects taken
from Scripture. Of these, one still remains, entitled De
Christo Triumphante, printed at London in 1551, and at
Bale in 1556, 8vo, and reprinted in 1672. But having
forsaken the muses, he applied himself with great assiduity
to the study of theology, including church history ; and
having manifested an inclination, which he took no pains
to conceal, for the doctrines of the reformation, he was, in
the year 1545, expelled from his college as a heretic, happy,
it is said, to have fared no wrorse. He had lost his father
early in life, and, as his mother had married again, his step¬
father availed himself of this occurrence to retain the whole
of his patrimony, knowing that Fox would not venture to
sue him for restitution. This rascality on the part of his
mother’s husband reduced him to the greatest distress ; but
he soon afterwards found an asylum in the house of Sir
Thomas Lucy, Warwickshire, who employed him as tutor
to his children. When this engagement expired, Fox, who
had in the meanwhile married the daughter of a citizen of
Coventry, proceeded to London ; but finding no immediate
means of subsistence, he was again reduced to absolute want.
Relief, however, at length came, and in a manner which is
described as almost miraculous. As he was one day sitting
in St Paul’s church, emaciated with hunger, a stranger ac¬
costed him familiarly, and, bidding him be of good cheer,
put. a sum of money into his hand ; telling him, at the same
time, that new hopes were at hand. And, in fact, he was,
three days thereafter, received into the family of the
Duchess "of Richmond, as tutor to the Earl of Surrey’s
children, who, upon their father being sent to the Tower,
were committed to her care. In this family he lived at
Ryegate in Surrey, during the latter part of the reign of
Henry VIII., the entire reign of Edward VI., and part of
that of Queen Mary ; but he could never discover the ge¬
nerous person who had at once relieved his distress and pre¬
dicted his good fortune. At length, however, being per¬
secuted by his implacable enemy Bishop Gardiner, he was
obliged to seek refuge abroad ; and he selected as the place
of his retreat Basil in Switzerland, where he subsisted by
correcting for the press. But on the death of Queen Mary
he returned to England, where he was graciously received
by his former pupil the Duke of Norfolk, who retained him
798 FOX FOX
Fox. in his family as long as he lived, and bequeathed him a pen-
gi0n at his death, which took place in 1563. Mr Secre¬
tary Cecil also bestowed on him a rectory near Salisbury ;
and, in point of fact, he might have obtained considerable
church preferment, had it not been for his unwillingness
to subscribe to the canons. He died in the year 1587, in
the seventieth year of his age, and was buried in the chan¬
cel of St Giles’s, Cripplegate. Fox was a man of great
industry, and considerable learning; a zealous, but not a
violent "reformer; a nonconformist, but not an enemy to
the Church of England. The most celebrated of his works
is that which is entitled Acts and Monuments of the Church,
and commonly called Martyrology, containing a history of
the troubles in the church of Rome since the tenth cen¬
tury, particularly in England and Scotland. It was pub¬
lished at London, 1563, in folio, but afterwards augmented,
and printed for the fourth time in 1583, two vols. folio, and
in 1632, three vols. folio. He relates in detail the history of
the martyrs of the Protestant religion, but embellishes his
narrative" with so many marvellous circumstances, that his
enemies, it must be confessed, had some reason in applying
to it the name of Legend. The Catholics, in particular, re¬
proached him with passion and with grossness ; and, what
was far more serious, accused him of having often altered the
truth in order to swell the number of martyrs to his creed.
Nor can it be denied that, in the first edition, he had enroll¬
ed amongst the number of those who had sealed their testi¬
mony with their blood, persons still living, and who remon¬
strated against the honour intended for them. But notwith¬
standing all these and many other objections, some of which
are undoubtedly well founded, the Martyrology met with
prodigious success in England, where, amidst all the changes
which have taken place in taste and opinion, it still main¬
tains its ground. The other writings of Fox, which were
very numerous, consist of works on theology, and particu¬
larly controversy ; and some of his letters which have been
preserved reflect honour on his character as a man of sense
and humanity.
Fox, George, the founder of the sect of Quakers, was
born at Drayton, Leicestershire, in the year 1624. His
father, a zealous Presbyterian, was a weaver. Young Fox,
from his earliest years, showed uncommon gravity, and
participated in none of the diversions natural to his age :
he courted solitude, and when he spoke it was in a melan¬
choly tone. His parents were unable to give him any educa¬
tion beyond reading and writing, but they early inspired
him with sentiments of religion and virtue. Fox was at
first placed with a wool-merchant, and sent to tend sheep
in the woods ; a circumstance which seems to have con¬
firmed his inclination for a solitary and contemplative
life. He was then put as an apprentice to a shoemaker
at Nottingham; and from the accounts of the times we
learn, that as he wrought at his trade, he used to me¬
ditate much on the Scriptures, which, with his solitary
course of life, improving his natural melancholy, induced
him at length to fancy himself inspired; and in conse¬
quence he set up as a preacher. He proposed but few
articles of faith, insisting chiefly on moral virtue, mutual
charity, the love of God, and a deep attention to the in¬
ward motions and secret operations of the Spirit; he re¬
quired a plain, simple worship, and a religion without ce¬
remonies, making it a principal point to wait in profound
silence for the directions of the Holy Spirit. Fox met with
much rough treatment on account of his zeal, was often
imprisoned, and several times in danger of being put to
death. But, in spite of all discouragements, his sect, which
received the name of Quakers, prevailed, and many consi¬
derable men w^ere led to join them ; amongst whom were
Barclay and Penn. Fox died on the 16th of January 1690.
He was comparatively an uneducated man, as we have al¬
ready seen; but he possessed in an eminent degree the
talent of persuasion, since, although born in an inferior F0jj
grade of society, and devoid of any but the simplest in-
struction, he succeeded in recommending his doctrine to
men of a superior rank in society. It was undoubtedly owing
to this circumstance that the society of Quakers, or, as they
call themselves, Friends, was enabled to outlast so many
other sects, founded by enthusiasts, which have generally
disappeared immediately after the death of their authors;
whereas Quakerism acquired every day new force, and the
laws which at first persecuted, ended by tolerating, and
even protecting it. Fox, however, only laid the founda¬
tion ; it was reserved for Barclay and Penn to raise the
superstructure. The writings of Fox have been collected
in three volumes folio; the first containing his Journal,
which is eminently curious; the second, his Correspon¬
dence ; and the third, all that he has written on his Doc¬
trine. Some persons have indeed pretended that he is not
really the author of these different productions; but his
followers, on the other hand, maintain that whatever is
most admirable in this collection really proceeded from the
pen of their patriarch.
FOX, Charles James, a celebrated statesman and ora¬
tor, was third son of the Right Honourable Henry Fox,
afterwards Lord Holland, and of Lady Georgina Caroline
Fox, eldest daughter of Charles, second Duke of Rich¬
mond. He was born on the 24th January 1749.
Mr Fox received the first rudiments of his education
in a private school of some celebrity, kept by a Mr Pam-
pelune at Wandsworth. In 1758 he was sent to Eton,
where he gave early promise of future eminence. In
the beginning of summer 1763 the mistaken indulgence
of his father carried him first to Paris, and then to Spa.
After wasting idly three months abroad, he was sent home
to England, and at his own desire he went back to Eton.
He had left school a boy; he returned to it with all the
follies and fopperies of a young man. At Spa he had
been initiated in play; and his father, whose fondness for
him was excessive, had encouraged him in a propensity
which was the source of much future unhappiness to both.
In the autumn of 1764 he was removed from Eton and
sent to Oxford, where he was placed at Hertford College,
under the tuition of Dr Newcome, afterwards primate of
Ireland. At Oxford as well as at Eton he distinguished
himself not less by his powers of application than by the
quickness and superiority of his parts. The following
letter, which he preserved with care, and used to show
with triumph when reproached for idleness, is a curious
document of his diligence in study while he was at coR
lege. “ You judge rightly,” says Dr Newcome in a letter
to his pupil, “ in thinking that I should be much surpris¬
ed by the information which you were so obliging as to
give me. But, on reflection, I think you have done well
to change the scene in such a manner, and I feel myself
inclined to envy you the power of doing it. Application
like yours requires some intermission; and you are the
only person with whom I have ever had connection to
whom I could say this. I expect that you will return
with much keenness for Greek, and for lines and angles.
As to trigonometry, it is matter of entire indifference to
the other geometricians of the college (who will probably
continue some time here), whether they proceed to other
branches of mathematics immediately, or wait a term or
two longer. You need not, therefore, interrupt your amuse¬
ments with severe studies; for it is wholly unnecessary to
take a step onwards without you, and therefore we sha
stop till we have the pleasure of your company. All your
acquaintances here whom I know are well, but not muc
happier for your absence.” This letter was probably writ¬
ten in spring 1765, when Mr Fox made a second excur¬
sion to Paris with his mother. . ,
In autumn 1766 he quitted Oxford, and accompanied
FOX. 799
x. his father and mother to the south of Europe, where Lord
^ Holland had been advised to pass the winter on account
of his health. He remained with them at Naples during
the winter, and not finding a good Italian master there,
taught himself that language. In the following spring he
attended them as far as Turin in their way to England,
and then went to Genoa to meet Lord Fitzwilliam, with
whom and Mr Uvedale Price he spent the summer in
Italy, chiefly in Tuscany. In the beginning of winter he
rejoined his father and mother at Paris, and accompanied
them to Nice, where he passed with them the winter of
1767-68. It was during this long residence in Italy that
he contracted his strong partiality for Italian literature.
In a letter to Mr Fitzpatrick, written from Florence in
September 1767, he conjures him to learn Italian as fast
as he can, if it were only to read Ariosto. “ There is
more good poetry in Italian than in all other languages I
understand put together.” He appears to have indulged
freely at this period in all the pleasures natural to his
time of life, but never to have intermitted entirely his ap¬
plication to study. Je travaille tovjours le matin, he says,
in another letter written from Nice. Acting plays was
also at this time one of his favourite passions, though he
confesses that the last time he acted he fell far short of
his own expectations ; “ but then,” he adds, “ my expec¬
tations, it must be confessed, were very high.” In the
course of this journey he made a visit to Voltaire at Fer-
nay, in company with Mr Price.
He did not return to England till August 1768 ; and
having been elected one of the burgesses for Midhnrst in
his absence, he took his seat in the ensuing session, and
made his first speech in the House of Commons on the
15th of April 1769, in support of the decision in favour of
Colonel Luttrel, on the famous Middlesex election. He
spoke, says Horace Walpole, with insolence, but with in¬
finite superiority of parts.
Lord Holland, father to Mr Fox, had begun his politi¬
cal career as an adherent of Sir Robert Walpole, and con¬
tinued ever after one of the steadiest friends and warmest
admirers of that great statesman. The treachery of the
Pelhams to his patron excited an early prejudice in his
mind against all the members of that family ; and the
falseness, folly, and fickleness of the Duke of Newcastle
added contempt and distrust to his dislike. After a long
rivalship with Mr Pitt, he was finally driven from the
cabinet by a coalition of the Pitt and Newcastle parties,
and reduced to the subordinate though lucrative employ¬
ment of paymaster of the forces. In this situation he
was found by Lord Bute at the conclusion of the war, and
recommended to the king as the only person in the
House of Commons who had courage and ability to de¬
fend the peace against Mr Pitt and the Newcastle party.
It was with great difficulty he was prevailed on by his
majesty to undertake this office, but when engaged in it,
he performed it most successfully. For his services on
this occasion he was rewarded with a peerage ; but the
part he had taken estranged him for ever from his old
friends the Dukes of Cumberland and Devonshire, and
other leaders of the Whig party. It was at this period
that his son Charles received his first political impres¬
sions; and there is still extant a copy of French verses
written by him in 1764, in praise of Lcrd Bute, and full
of invective against Mr Pitt. When brought into parlia¬
ment, he wras, therefore, in the first instance, connected
with the Duke of Grafton’s administration, which, though
originally formed under the auspices of Lord Chatham,
had been gradually sinking into a mere court party.
Mr Fox was not of age when returned to parliament,
and probably for that reason, after his first speech, he
took little part in public debate till January 1770. Du¬
ring this interval he made another excursion to the Con- Fox.
tinent, where he is chiefly taken notice of for his losses
at play. He had, as already mentioned, acquired a pas¬
sion for play as early as his first journey to Spa ; and for
many years afterwards, when not engaged in active poli¬
tical business, play and Newmarket were his chief avoca¬
tions. His losses were such as early to embarrass, and
finally to ruin, his private fortune ; but so great a hold had
these pursuits taken of his mind, that, till the payment
of his debts in 1794, he could never prevail on himself
to renounce them entirely. From that moment he gave
them up for ever.
In February 1770 he was rewarded for his support of
government with the place of junior lord of the admiralty,
which he retained for two years, and resigned on the 20th
of February 1772, partly in consequence of some slight
offence he had received from Lord North, and partly be¬
cause he had resolved to oppose the royal marriage bill,
“ which, in place” he says, “ I should be ashamed of do¬
ing but he had no thoughts, he adds, “ of going into
opposition.” He had an immediate and satisfactory ex¬
planation with Lord North; but, to punish him for his
speech against the royal marriage act, which was a mea¬
sure entirely the king’s own, he was suffered to remain a
considerable time out of office. At length, in January
1773, he was made one of the lords of the treasury, a si¬
tuation he continued to fill till his memorable quarrel with
Lord North in the following year.
Some gross and scandalous reflections upon the speaker
of the House of Commons, written by the celebrated
Horne Tooke, having appeared in the Public Advertiser,
Mr Woodfall, the printer of that newspaper, was called to
the bar of the house, and having there confessed himself
publisher of the libel, he was declared guilty of a breach
of privilege; on which Mr Herbert moved that he should
be taken into the custody of the serjeant-at-arms. The
house, unwilling to engage in a fresh contest with the
press and the city, were disposed to acquiesce in this mo¬
tion ; but Mr Fox, thinking the punishment inadequate
to the offence, without consulting Lord North, moved, as
an amendment, that Mr Woodfall should be committed to
Newgate. Lord North found himself compelled by this
motion to resist Mr Herbert’s proposition; but though he
substituted the Gatehouse for Newgate, as a less.objec¬
tionable place of confinement, he was left in a minority
on the division, the original motion being carried by a
great majority. Incensed at this disgrace, and determin¬
ed to punish his youthful colleague for his temerity, he
had a new commission of the treasury made out a few
days afterwards, in which the name of Mr box was omit¬
ted. This happened in February 1774.
Long before his breach with Lord North, Mr Fox had
formed an intimate acquaintance with Mr Burke, one of the
leading members of the Whig or Rockingham party in the
House of Commons ; and to the friendship he contracted
with that gentleman may, in a great measure, be attribut¬
ed the decided change in his political character and opi¬
nions, which commenced at this time. He had been
brought up by his father in the maxims and principles of
Sir Robert Walpole ; and from this education he derived
the love of peace, the good-humoured spirit of concilia¬
tion, and ardent attachment to civil and religious liberty,
which were afterwards the most conspicuous features of his
public character, and are certainly the chief merits of the
Walpole school. But the tone and character of Sir Ro¬
bert Walpole’s policy, though suitable, and perhaps neces¬
sary, for the times in which he lived, was no longer adapt¬
ed to the state of the country. When the Jacobites re¬
nounced their idol without changing their creed, and
transferred to the house of Brunswick the same allegiance
800
F O X.
Fox.
which they had borne to the Stuarts, the weapons which
Sir Robert had employed to preserve the constitution be¬
came, in the hands of its enemies, instruments of its de¬
struction. Mr Burke was the first to perceive, or at least
the first to explain, the change that had taken place in
our internal government, and the first to point out a p an
of systematic opposition in parliament, as the °"Jy mefns
of preventing, or at least of retarding, what Mr Hume has
called the euthanasia of English liberty. In Mr box he
found a pupil ready to receive his lessons, and Fepaie
by character and turn of mind to act upon them with fo
tUude and perseverance. From Mr Burke s example and
instructions Mr Fox caught more elevated notions ot
public principle than had animated the successors of Mr
Robert Walpole ; and from the writings and conversation
of the same great man he learned the necessity of paity
connections in a mixed government like ours, to counter¬
act the influence of government, and preserve a due ba¬
lance of power between the crown and the people. L ie
American war roused all the energies of his mind. ie
discussions to which it gave rise involved all the first prin¬
ciples of free government. The vicissitudes of the con¬
test tried the firmness of its opponents. Its duration ex¬
ercised their perseverance. Its magnitude and the dan¬
gers of the country called forth their powers. The pro-
o-ress of Mr Fox was steady and uninterrupted, bo early
as the beginning of 1775, we are told by Gibbon that “he
discovered powers for regular debate, which neither his
friends hoped nor his enemies dreaded.” _
But, notwithstanding the brilliancy of his talents and
the reputation he acquired in the House of Commons, the
levity and want of decorum of his private life, the dissi¬
pation in which he indulged, and the embarrassments in
which he was involved, prevented him, for some years,
from obtaining the weight and consideration with opposi¬
tion, due to his extraordinary abilities and exertions. So
late as the beginning of 1778 he was under no engage¬
ments with any set of men; but, though not absolutely
engaged in party connections with the \\ higs, he had de¬
termined on no account to abandon their piinciples; and
from a cool consideration of his own character, and a just
conception of the prevailing sentiments of the country, he
had already fully made up his mind to the fate that ulti¬
mately awaited him. “ People flatter me, he says in a
letter to Mr Fitzpatrick, written in 1778, “ that I continue
to gain rather than to lose character as an orator; and I
am so convinced this is all I ever shall gain (unless I chuse
to be one of the meanest of men), that I never think of
any other object of ambition. I am certainly ambitious
by nature, but I have, or think I have, totally subdued
that passion. I have still as much vanity as ever, which
is a happier passion by far, because great reputation, I
think, I may acquire and keep; great situations I never
can acquire, nor, if acquired, keep, without making sacri¬
fices that I will never make. If I am wrong, and more
sanguine people right, tant mieux, and I shall be as happy
as they can be ; but if I am right, I am sure I shall be hap¬
pier for having made up my mind to my situation.” He
expresses great joy at the prospect of Fitzpatrick’s return,
who he knew would be of his opinion in certain emer¬
gencies that Plight arise. “ I shall be told by prudent
friends that lam under no sort of engagements to any set
of men. I certainly am not; but there are many cases
where there is no engagement, and yet it is dishonour¬
able not to act as if there was one. But even suppose
it were quite honourable, is it possible to be happy in
acting with people of whom one has the worst opinion,
and being on a cold footing (which must be the case)
with all those whom one loves best, and with whom one
passes one’s life ?” With these sentiments it is not to be
wondered at that he rejected overtures made to him by Fox.
Lord Weymouth, in summer 1778, to join administration ;
nor, with his powerful talents and unremitted exertions, the
inflexible steadiness of his public conduct, and the unex¬
ampled force and vehemence of his eloquence, that he
gradually acquired the perfect confidence of the Whigs,
and came at length to be considered as the leading mem¬
ber of the Rockingham party in the House of Commons.
It ought to be recorded to the credit of Mr Burke, that he
witnessed with pleasure, unmixed with envy, the progress
and elevation of his pupil, and cheerfully resigned to him
the station he had so long himself occupied in the party.
The day of triumph at length arrived. A resolution
against the further prosecution of the American war was
carried in the House of Common. Ministers still linger¬
ed in office, but the fears of a direct vote of censure com¬
pelled them to resign. The king, whose pertinacity in
support of his favourite principles of government had been
the chief if not the sole cause of the apparent reluctance
of his ministers to retire from office, was compelled at
length to yield to the wishes of his Commons; but in the
very act of forming a new administration, he contrived to sow
the seeds of disunion in its bosom. The opposition to the
American war had been composed of two parties, united
in their disapprobation of that contest, but disagreeing on
many other points of external as well as of internal policy;
both calling themselves Whigs, but Whigs of difterent
schools; the one consisting of the old W7hig connection,
formed and educated in the principles of Mr Burke; the
other composed of the friends and followers of Lord Chat¬
ham. At the head of the first was the Marquis of Rock¬
ingham, whilst the leader of the second was the Earl of
Shelburne. Flis majesty began by sounding Lord Rock¬
ingham, through the chancellor. The demands of Lord
Rockingham were, to have full power to recognise the in¬
dependence of America, and authority to bring forward,
as ministerial measures in parliament, bills for reducing
the influence of the crown, by abolishing offices, exclude
ing contractors from the House of Commons, and depnvt
ing revenue officers of their votes at elections; and, with
respect to reform in the representation, or limitation of
the duration of parliament, he declined to lay himself un¬
der restrictions. After taking time to consider this an¬
swer, his majesty sent for Lord Shelburne, and had a con¬
ference with him at Buckingham house. Two days after¬
wards he sent for him again, and offered him tlm treasury,
which his Lordship declined, saying that no administra¬
tion suited to the present emergency could be formed un¬
less Lord Rockingham was at the head of it; on which
the king desired him to go to Lord Rockingham with an
offer of the treasury, and to add, that he had full powers
from his majesty to treat both with respect to men and
measures, with one reservation only, that he should him¬
self be one of the secretaries of state. The first impulse
of Lord Rockingham was to decline this offer, upon the
ground, that if it was the king’s intention to place him at
the head of the treasury, his majesty could have no fit ob¬
jections to conversing with him on the arrangement of the
administration ; but his friends persuaded him to overlook
that objection, lest his refusal should be ascribed to pique
or jealousy, at a moment when the public was extreme y
impatient for the formation of a government. Many fatal
consequences ensued from the negotiation 1 15
course and passing through the hands of Lord Shelburne,
No direct communication took place between the mg
and the Rockingham party, who were to compose the ma¬
jority of the cabinet, with respect to the measures to be
pursued, till after the administration had been formed-
Lord Thurlow, a decided partisan of the old system, an
an enemy to every species of reform, was retained as o
Ite c
Iy-T
FOX.
chancellor; Mr Dunning having been prevailed upon by
his friend Lord Shelburne to waive his pretensions to that
office. When this arrangement was communicated to Mr
Fox, he told Lord Shelburne plainly, “ that he perceived
the administration was to consist of two parts, one be¬
longing to the king, the other to the public.” But the
worst effect of all was the impression left on the mind of
Lord Shelburne, that he alone possessed the confidence
of his sovereign, to the exclusion of his colleagues. This
persuasion bred distractions in the cabinet, which soon be¬
came a theatre of dissension and open division ; and these
divisions, whispered about, weakened the government
whilst it lasted, and contributed materially to its fall.
Of this short-lived administration, the principal mea¬
sures were the pacification of Ireland and the bills for eco¬
nomical and parliamentary reform, which, though short of
the public expectation, are still the most important acqui¬
sitions of that description obtained since the accession of
the house of Hanover. The death of Lord Rockingham
dissolved the ministry over which he presided. The trea¬
sury was immediately offered to Lord Shelburne, on pre¬
tence that, having refused it before, it naturally devolved
on him on Lord Rockingham’s death. His acceptance of
it destroyed the former balance of parties in the cabinet,
and overset entirely the balance of power in the govern¬
ment. Accordingly Mr Fox and Lord John Cavendish
immediately resigned, and, after some interval, they were
followed by Lord Keppel. The Duke of Richmond and
General Conway remained in office; the latter from sim¬
plicity, the former from dissatisfaction at seeing the Duke
of Portland preferred to himself as leader of the Whig
party. The other members of the cabinet were friends of
Lord Shelburne.
Mr Fox has been severely blamed for his precipitancy
on this occasion; and, though his resignation was a mea¬
sure that could not long have been deferred, the time at
which it took place makes it perhaps liable to that impu¬
tation. It followed so immediately the appointment of
Lord Shelburne to the treasury, as to have the appearance
of being the result of disappointed personal ambition, ra¬
ther than of any difference on public grounds. It reduced
his friends who were in office to the alternative of imme¬
diately following his example, or of passing for adherents
of Lord Shelburne ; and, as the whole of his motives could
not at that time be explained in public, it gave an oppor¬
tunity to the Duke of Richmond and others to keep their
places without forfeiting their characters. It took place
at the close of a session of parliament, and left Lord Shel¬
burne and the court for six months in undisturbed pos¬
session of the government. It was a cruel disappointment
to the public, which had expected a firm and united ad¬
ministration on the principles of those who had opposed
the American war and the system that gave rise to it.
But to those who judged rightly, the elevation of Lord
Shelburne to the treasury was the utter extinction of
these hopes. The Rockingham party had found in Lord
Shelburne an active and spirited ally in opposition ; but
they had never been confidentially united with him; and
though ready to co-operate with him in a subordinate of¬
fice, they were not prepared to act under him as premier.
It was not the impatience and dissatisfaction of Mr Fox
alone that broke up the administration. As soon as the
appointment of Lord Shelburne to the treasury was known
in Dublin, the Duke of Portland determined to resign his
office of lord-lieutenant of Ireland. Lord John Cavendish
could with difficulty be prevailed upon to postpone his
resignation for a few days. Mr Burke urged strongly to
Mr Fox the impossibility of his remaining long in office
as a clerk under Lord Shelburne; and it must be owned
that, in the subsequent treatment of his colleagues, that
VOL. IX.
nobleman fully justified the apprehensions then entertain¬
ed of his future conduct. Elated with the fancied pos¬
session of court favour, he from that time forward treated
the other ministers as mere ciphers; made additions to
his cabinet without consulting or even apprising them of
his intentions; and is even said to have settled and con¬
cluded the terms of his peace with France, without the
advice or participation of his secretaries of state.
There were, besides, before the death of Lord Rock¬
ingham, differences of such importance in the cabinet as
must have led to a dissolution of the administration. It
vyas the policy of Mr Fox to detach Holland and America
from their unnatural connection with France; and the
great object of his foreign politics was, to form a continen¬
tal alliance as a balance against the house of Bourbon.
The system of Lord Shelburne was to conciliate France,
to cultivate a confidential understanding with her govern¬
ment, and to treat her allies as so many inferior and de¬
pendent powers. Mr Fox had recommended and carried
in the cabinet (23d May 1782) a resolution to instruct
Mr Grenville, his majesty’s plenipotentiary at Paris, to
propose the independence of America in the first instance,
instead of making it a condition of a general treaty; and
this offer, to which his majesty’s consent had been obtain¬
ed, was actually communicated by Mr Grenville to Dr
Franklin. Lord Shelburne, though obliged to acquiesce
in the determination of the cabinet, endeavoured after¬
wards to represent the offer as only conditional, to be re¬
called if not accepted as the price of peace ; and this ex¬
planation having been adopted by a majority of the cabi¬
net after the illness of Lord Rockingham, Mr Fox declar¬
ed his determination to resign. The discovery of a mys¬
terious negotiation at Paris contributed to strengthen this
resolution. It was a great object with Mr Fox, in pursu¬
ance of his system of policy, to open a free and unreserv¬
ed communication with Dr Franklin. Through Mr Gren¬
ville he had hoped to accomplish this design, and he had
nearly succeeded in his purpose, when he had discovered,
to his infinite surprise and indignation, that Lord Shel¬
burne had been carrying on a clandestine intercourse with
Franklin through Mr Oswald, and had received from him
and made to him important communications, which had
not been imparted to his colleagues. This discovery,
which was made before Lord Rockingham’s death, de¬
stroyed all confidence in Lord Shelburne among the friends
of that nobleman, though, from the delicate nature of the
transaction, it was impossible at the time to make it the
subject of public animadversion, or even allusion.
The resignation of Mr Fox and his friends compelled
Lord Shelburne to strengthen his government from every
quarter where support could be obtained. Mr Pitt, who
had declined accepting a subordinate office in the Rock¬
ingham administration, became his chancellor of the ex¬
chequer. Rigby, Dundas, and Jenkinson, old supporters
of the American war, attached themselves to his train.
A negotiation was opened with the remaining partisans
of Lord North, which only failed of success in consequence
of Mr Pitt, with more judgment than feeling, making per¬
sonal objections to Lord North himself, which wounded
the pride, and excited the indignation, of his friends and
family. When parliament met after the signing of the
preliminaries of peace, there were three parties, nearly of
equal strength, in the House of Commons; that of the
minister, reinforced by the court, and several of the most
objectionable members of Lord North’s administration;
the Rockingham party, who had gone into opposition with
Mr Fox; and, lastly, Lord North and his friends. That
three separate parties, so equally balanced, should con¬
tinue to act in the House of Commons without some
coalition, was not to be expected. A re-union of the
5 i
801
Fox.
<
802
Fox.
Whigs would have been most a^usj cept Wng3 a^aMrerte0/a^en^to that revolted state.'-
of Lmaf Shelburne^ rendered such a c0^™" ^'dmaTesty^as hosUe™"an administration,
ble. The personal object,ons, so harsMy a^daCTim ^ of, which had zea]ouslj, concurred m the grant
ously stated, against Lord North, , ;P main. 0f independence to America?
friends against the ministry. Nothing, therefore rema ThePcoa]ition ministry was hardly settled, when a rms-
ed but a junction of the two parties °PP«sl^ * a understanding arose about the establishment of the Prince
this coalition, which time would natura Uy andimpe c p ^ _ anSd s0 skilfully had the affair been managed on
tibly have brought about, was hastened and matured t y ^ of the king) that if his royal highness had not
the coincidence of their opinions against the Face. bnPiUed entil.ely t0 his father’s pleasure, the adm.mstra-
first step was to concert an amendment to the add _ must have been overturned almost as soon as formed,
of thanks on the preliminary articles signed at Versa.ll tbo h no change was attempted before the meeting
and this amendment was carried in t ^ ^ommons y of lia^ent5 his majesty contrived on every occasion to
a small majority, but not without grfat ,nd,Snat isbed shoPvv pi humour to his ministers, and no one in a sitt¬
ing expressed in the house, and a vmlent outcry ra s ^ ^ observe could doubt for a moment that he only
out of doors, at the apparent Junction of the twoj) ^ ^ a favourable opportunity to turn them out.
No coalition had yet taken place. _ Lord North waS S afforded such opportunity. 1 hat measure
at liberty to have formed an admmistraUon without Mr Ihe f as an invasion of chartered rights as
Fox; and it was the opinion of one of the most jutnc establishment of a ministerial oligarchy, independent
ous friends of the latter, that to undertake the gove - ie. The nation, disgusted and
ment with Lord North “ was ^ ^hejr credit 1 ^^^t the coaliLn^ listened with credulity and la¬
the public on very unsafe grounds. the Part ot V « v(mr t0 these accusations. The king, who had carefully
Whigs there seems to have been a momentary hesi at d hi sentiments to the last moment, procured the
SSstsfifc.—?r
Storm 116 IlaU IclibCU, auv* £5“ .
Mr Pitt became alarmed in the progress of the contest,
and the firmness of the Duke of Richmond alone prevent¬
ed him from following the example of his kinsman. Rut,
as the struggle proceeded, the voice of the peopiewas
every day more unequivocally declared in support of the
new"administration. Courtiers and reformers, churc-
men and dissenters, squires and nabobs, joined in exe¬
crating the coalition and applauding the minister, in p
fessions of attachment to the king, and declarations o
hostility to the Commons. After the attempt of the ^ >un
principles, out iium  
The united strength of the two parties procured
censure on the peace. Lord Shelburne, who still flatter¬
ed himself with the possession of court favour, is said to
have proposed an immediate dissolution of the parliament.
But he had served his turn, and was no longer wanted.
His majesty judged rightly, that the time was not yet
come for so bold a measure, and allowed his minister to
Ag long interval ensued before the coalition administra¬
tion was formed. Repeated attempts were made to de¬
tach Lord North from Mr Fox ; and when these had fail- ^onimuus. — - r  .
ed, it was stated as an indispensable preliminary to any t make a new cdalition of parties had fail-
ministerial arrangement, that Lord Thurbw should be try began Jdiminish; and
continued as lord high chancellor. But the fatal e cc » J necessary votes had been obtained, this re-
of a secret enemy in the cabinet had been too severely House of Commons was punished by a premature
and too recently felt to concede a point of so much im- -i^of subserviency to the crown,
portance. A complete change of administration was in- tlss .. .’ts wdj not permit us to follow with the same
sisted upon, and was granted at last, but with the worst _ liti 1 bfe 0f Mr Fox in the subsequent
possible grace, and with every symptom of ill humour and J^ ^t^areef From 178h to 1792 he was
dissatisfaction. It was not merely the triumph of the pai . Jowerful narty in the House of Commons, in
coalition that filled the royal bosom with such indignation, leader of a power up ty^ ti^^ remarkable exertions
His majesty considered the Rockingham party as enemies opposition • gt the Westminster scru-
to his just prerogative. Nor could he forgive them for their dm mg c j oo-aiifst the abatement of impeach-
zeal against the American war, and inflexibility, when they tiny, on ieJe^ rjjament on the libel bill, and
came into office, in insisting on the unconditional acknow- men s by a dl.sso published nor cor-
lodgment of American independence. “ The extraordi- on the Russian armament. one on moving a
nary and never to be forgotten vote of February 1782, reeled any o , P b ofTavist0ck; aml of those which
and the hurry for negotiation that after ensued,” had, in new writ f.or , e | and have since been collected,
ids opinion, lowered the spirit of the country, and given appeared in e ^ ■-PI the o, one g0 wen reported
confidence to its enemies; and in his own mind had produ- his speech on ■ - ^ d ^ notion of his style of
ced such indifference on political subjects, that he felt no as to give t.ie re ‘ } a inent jn procuring justice
anxiety for the arrival of the definitive treaty, or concern speaking. It failed atJ^^^^^i^ression it made
for the delays that retarded its conclusion. When it was for the Westminster e b following year an end
suggested to him that a w;sh on his part to receive a mi- on the house was sue i, . |ece chicanery,
nister from America would be favourably received in that was put to that odious am ‘ P inventorj but dis-
country, and might tend to preserve peace and restore worthy of the pettyfoggmg g countenance and
harmony in future, he is said to have replied with bitter- graceful to the minister w m gc length the re-
ness, that to receive a minister from America, he could support. We have not room unprovided for*
never say would be agreeable to him ; and that he should gency question. Ihe cast w
FOX.
There was no direct precedent, nor legal authority in the
kingdom to make one. Constitutional analogy pointed
out the heir apparent as the fittest person to exercise the
royal authority during the indisposition of the king; and
the same analogy indicated the great council of the realm
as the body most competent to declare the incapacity and
apply the proper remedy. Strict or legal right there was
none on either side. The prince had no legal right to
the regency'; nor till they chose to declare it themselves,
had the two houses of parliament any legal right to elect
a regent, or to fetter him, previous to'his, election, with re¬
strictions. The contrivance to create, first a phantom,
and then a regent, was a clumsy piece of machinery,
nearly allied to treason. The claim of right advanced
for the prince was a flimsy speculation of Lord Loughbo¬
rough, adopted on his authority, without due examination,
by Mr Fox, who returned in haste from Italy, while the
discussions on the regency were pending. As explained
afterwards, the doctrine, if not true, was at least harm¬
less. But the opportunity was skilfully laid hold of by
the minister, for the purpose of making his rival unpopu¬
lar, and of gaining time for the king’s recovery, which
Addington, who had great experience in such maladies,
assured him, from the beginning, would certainly take
place. In his argument against the abatement of im¬
peachment by a dissolution of parliament, Mr Fox had
the support of Mr Pitt, and never was a more triumphant
reply than his answer to the arguments on the other side.
Of the libel bill it is unnecessary to say a word. The
country still profits by it, and regards it as a most impor¬
tant security to our constitutional freedom. By his exer¬
tions on the Russian armament, he had the satisfaction to
save his country from at least one unnecessary, unjust, and
expensive war. We must hasten to an occasion where
his efforts were less successful.
The beginning of the French revolution gave universal
satisfaction to the friends of liberty in this country. Soon
after the taking of the Bastille, Mr Fox describes it “ as
the greatest, and much the best event that ever happened
in the world;” and adds, “ all my prepossessions against
French connections for this country will be at an end,
and indeed most part of my European system of politics
will be altered, if this revolution has the consequence that
I expect.” When the king of France was brought back
from Varennes, a report having been circulated in Eng¬
land that it was the intention of the national assembly to
bring the queen to trial for her life, he composed a letter
to Barnave, one of the leading members of the assembly,
with whom he was personally unacquainted, exhorting
him against such a measure of useless cruelty, which
could not fail to bring disgrace on the cause of liberty.
The letter was never sent, in consequence of the report
proving to be unfounded; but we subjoin some extracts
from it, in order to show the spirit in which it was writ¬
ten. After an apology for obtruding his advice on one
who was unknown to him, except by reputation, and stat¬
ing the bad impression that any unnecessary severity to
the queen would produce in England; after praising the
assembly for the firmness they had displayed on receiving
the news of the king’s escape, and urging them to show
as much clemency and moderation in prosperity, as they
had manifested coolness and resolution in danger; after
stating the argument for sending the queen out of the
country, or, at most, for confining her in a place of secu¬
rity, he proceeds as follows: “ De 1’autre cote, si on la
juge cette malheureuse femme, qu’on la condamne, et
qu’elle subisse son sort, je ne sais que trop bien que ce ser-
aient les ennemis de la liberte qui en triompheront. On
la peindra cette liberte comme feroce et cruelle, on ta-
chera de la rendre odieuse, et parmi les ames faibles on
ne reussira peut-etre que trop bien. Le despotisme a tou-
jours eu 1 addresse de se servir des passions des hommes
pour les subjuguer. II a eu a ses gages la superstition et
1 interet personnel, et il seroit bien facheux que la pitie,
la plus aimable de toutes les faiblesses humaines, se ran-
geat aussi de son cote. Je ne sais si je me trompe, mais
il me parait que vous etes precisement dans la position ou
vous pouvez faire une action belle et genereuse sans le
moindre danger; c’est-a-dire, que vous etes dans la pro-
sperite la moins^ equivoque. Vous avez donne par vos
travaux la liberte a votre patrie, et vous trouvez dans elle
unc lecompense ciussi touclicintc cjuo juste. TrciVciillez
actuellement pour le genre humain, et faites aimer la
liberte a toutes les nations de la terre, en prouvant qu’elle
nourrit dans Tame non seulement les vertus males comme
le courage et la justice, mais aussi la douceur, la modera¬
tion, et la clemence.” Such were the sentiments and con¬
duct of a man, who was afterwards represented to his
countrymen as the blind apologist of all the horrors of the
revolution, and indifferent spectator of the calamities of
the roj'al family of France.
As the revolution departed from its original character
of justice and moderation, its favourers in this country
began to fall off. Mr Burke, scandalized at the confisca¬
tion of church property, was the first of the Whig party
to declare against it. His violent and outrageous quarrel
with Mr Fox in the House of Commons is too well known
to need to be here related. No event of his life had ever
given such unfeigned sorrow to Mr Fox, as this breach
with his old friend and political instructor. But he had
soon many other losses of the same sort to deplore. The
excesses of the revolution, the democratic form it as¬
sumed, the fear lest its example should prove contagious
in England, filled with alarm the older, richer, and more
aristocratic members of the Whig party. Younger and
more ardent spirits, looking to the goodness of the cause,
disregarded the unfitness of the instrument used to pro¬
mote it; and, exulting in the progress of political freedom
abroad, thought the occasion favourable for extending
and enlarging our constitutional rights at home. A schism
was gradually formed in the Whig party, which the forma¬
tion of the Society of the Friends of the People, and the
royal proclamation in May 1792, brought to a public ex¬
plosion. Mr Fox was eagerly courted on both sides; but
if he appeared to hesitate, it was only to keep his friends,
if possible, together, and prevent a permanent separation,
which he foresaw would invest the minister, as it did,
with absolute power. But the revolution of the 10th of
August, the massacres of September, the success of the
French arms under Dumourier, the violence and indiscre¬
tion of the friends of reform at home, spread a panic terror
over the land; and the minister who had trifled and tem¬
porised till it was too late, found himself unwillingly forced
into a war, which he had not wisdom to avert or genius
to conduct.
We cannot follow Mr Fox in his opposition to this dis¬
astrous war, nor in his subsequent efforts for the restora¬
tion of peace. On no occasion was the vigour of his in¬
tellect, the sagacity of his foresight, the firmness and re¬
solution of his character, more conspicuous than during
the struggle he maintained against overwhelming majori¬
ties from 1792 to 1797. Till the Duke of Portland, and
other alarmists of the Whig party, joined administration
in 1794, he always flattered himself with the hope of re¬
newing his connection with his old friends, when their
fears should have subsided ; and at every harsh or violent
act of the government his letters express surprise that
the men with whom he had acted so long should support
such measures. When finally separated from his old aris¬
tocratic connections, and convinced by fatal experience that
804
FOX.
Fox.
the House of Commons had sunk into the passive instru¬
ment of ministerial power, his opinions became gradually
more inclined to parliamentary reform, from utter despair
of seeing the revival of those party connections to which he
had been accustomed to look for the preservation of pub¬
lic liberty. But if he appealed to the constituent body
against their representatives, he only followed the examp e
which the court and his great opponent had given m the
memorable dissolution of 1784. Nothing indisposed him
so much against the House of Commons as the indiffer¬
ence it manifested on every occasion where liberty was
infringed, or injustice committed by the government.
“ Arguments against the war and our alliances, he ob¬
serves, in a letter written in 1794, “ are favourably heard
in the House of Commons, though they do not get us a
vote; but sentiments of liberty, and complaints of oppres¬
sion, are very little attended to, however well founded.
In short, liberty is not popular ; and of those who are at¬
tached to it there are too many who have wild and im¬
practicable schemes of government, to which the miser¬
able state we are in, both with respect to foreign affairs
and our constitution, gives more plausibility and credit
than they are by their own merit entitled to. ihe coun¬
try seems divided (very unequally I admit) between the
majority, who are subdued by fears or corrupted by hopes,
and the minority, who are waiting sulkily for opportuni¬
ties for violent remedies. The few who are neither sub¬
dued enough to be silent through fear, nor desperate
enough to give up regular opposition, in expectation of
more violent measures, are weak both in numbers and
weight; but, though weak, we are right, and that must
be our comfort.” But, however changed the sentiments
of the country, his own opinions of the value of political
liberty were not altered. “ I believe, says he, in anothei
letter to the same correspondent, “ the love of political
liberty is not an error ; but it it is one, I am sure I shall
never be converted from it, and I hope you never will. If
it be an illusion, it is one that has brought forth more of
the best qualities and exertions of the human mind than
all other causes put together; and it serves to give an
interest in the affairs of the world, which without it would
be insipid.” “ We live,” he observes on another occasion,
“ in times of violence and of extremes ; and all those who
are for creating, or even for retaining, checks upon power,
are considered as enemies to order. However, one must
do one’s duty, and one must endeavour to do it without
passion.” After relating the final junction of his old
friends with administration, he adds, “ ^ou will easily
imagine how much I feel the separation from persons with
whom I had been so long in the habit of agreeing; it
seemed in some way as if 1 had the world to begin anew;
and, if I could have done it with honour, what I should
best have liked would have been to retire from politics
altogether; but this could not be done, and therefore
there remains nothing but to get together what remains
of our party, and begin, like Sisyphus, to roll up the stone
again, which, long before it reaches the summit, may pro¬
bably roll down again.”
The last of these extracts shows that, notwithstanding
the defection of some of the friends he most loved and
esteemed, he was still convinced of the necessity of party
connections, in order to maintain the cause of liberty in
this country. He argues tlie question at length with his cor¬
respondent, and concludes by saying, “ But the decisive ar¬
gument upon the subject appears to me to be this : Is there
any other mode or plan in this country by which a rational
man can hope to stem the power and influence of the
crown? I am sure that neither experience nor any well
reasoned theory has ever shown any other. Is there any
other plan which is likely to make so great a number
of persons resist the temptations of titles and emolu¬
ments ; and, if these things are so, ought we to abandon
a system from which so much good has been derived, be¬
cause some men have acted inconsistently ; and because,
from the circumstances of the moment, we are not likely
to act with much effect ?” It was with great reluctance,
however, and with great violence to his own wishes, that
he persevered in this fruitless struggle. “ I am quite
sick of politics,” he says in August 1794, “ and attend to
them only because I think it a duty to do so, and that it
would be unbecoming my character to quit them at such
a moment.” His desire to retire from public life became
stronger in the following year. “ I grow every day to
think less of public affairs,” he says in April 1795; I
wish I could be persuaded that it was right to quit public
business, for I should like it to a degree that I cannot ex¬
press ; but I cannot yet think that it is not a duty to per¬
severe. I am so sure that secession is the measure a
shabby fellow would take in our circumstances, that I
think it can scarcely be right for us; but, as far as wishes,
no man ever wished any thing more. I am perfectly
happy in the country. I have quite resources enough to
employ my mind, and the great resource of literature I
am fonder of every day. However, events and circum¬
stances may happen which may make that right, which I
am sure would be pleasant, and I think it not unlike y
but they may.” . ,
The popular spirit manifested against the treason and
sedition bills, in winter 1795, revived his public zeal, but
was far from giving satisfaction to his mind. “ My view
of things,” he writes in November 1795, “ is, I own, very
gloomy, and I am convinced that in a very few years this
government w ill become completely absolute, or that con¬
fusion will arise of a nature almost as much to be depre¬
cated as despotism itself. Ministers mean to bring on
the first of these evils, and I cannot disguise from myself
that there are but too many who wish for the second.
After his success at the Westminster meeting against the
bills, he says, “ It is clear we have the popularity, and
I suspect we shall have it universally among the lower
classes. I need not tell you how I dislike this state of
things, but I cannot submit quietly to Mr Hume’s eutha¬
nasia, which is coming on very fast ” As he became
more persuaded of the existence of a strong spirit of li¬
berty among the lower classes, he became moie me me
to the popular doctrines of parliamentary reform, n
1796 he expresses himself in the following manner upon
that subject: “ Perhaps, instead of saying nowthat the
power of the House of Commons ought to be first re¬
stored, and its constitution considered afterwards, it vvou d
be better to invert the order, and to say parliament should
first be reformed, and then restored to its just influence.
You will observe that I state this opinion as being mine
now, in contradistinction to those times when the ig
party was only beaten, but not dispersed, and when I cer¬
tainly was of a different opinion. At present I think we
ought to go further towards agreeing with the democratic
or popular party than at any former period, for the Al¬
lowing reasons: We, as a party, I fear can do nothing,
and the contest must be between the court and the emo
crats. These last, without our assistance, will eitfier oe
too weak to resist the court, and then comes Mr um®
euthanasia, which you and I think the worst of all even >
or, if they are strong enough, being wholly unmixe wi
any aristocratic leven, and full of resentment agains
for not joining them, will go probably to greater excesse ,
and bring on the only state of things which can make a
man doubt whether the despotism of monarchy is not me
worst of all evils.” tn
The time at length arrived when the state of things
Fox
FOX.
which he alluded in his letter of April 1795 came to pass.
J His remaining political friends were persuaded that it was
useless to persevere longer in their parliamentary exer¬
tions, and that it was even “ in some degree hurtful, as
tending to deceive the country into an opinion that the
House of Commons was still a place in which it was worth
while to try the effect of argument and reason.” When
he found that no good was to be done in parliament, that
no beneficial impression was to be made on the country,
and that the friends for whom he was ready to sacrifice
his time and inclinations wished him to retire from public
life, with doubt and hesitation in his mind as to the pro¬
priety of the measure, he gave his consent to the seces¬
sion ; resolving no longer to attend his duty in the House
of Commons, unless particularly called upon to do so by
his own constituents.
Having once retired to St Anne’s, he found such en¬
joyment in the calmness and tranquillity of a country life,
that it was with the utmost difficulty he could now and
then be brought back to the House of Commons. The
happiest years of his life were those which he passed in re¬
tirement from 1797 to 1802. He still took a lively interest
in public concerns, and applauded and encouraged the
exertions of his friends when they returned to parliament,
but he could seldom be induced to follow their example.
His time passed placidly and agreeably in books, conversa¬
tion, and the society of his family. He had always been
fond of gardening, and his residence in the country gave
him a turn for farming. Of the amusements of his early
years the love of shooting was the only one in which he
continued to indulge, and the exercise it gave him pre¬
served his health. His passion for literature, which had
never subsided entirely, revived and became stronger than
ever. Poetry and criticism were his favourite pursuits,
and history his amusement. He applied with ardour to
the study of the Greek tragedians, and as his proficiency
increased, he found an agreeable occupation for his mind
in the niceties and difficulties of that noble language.
Some time after his retreat he conceived the plan of
writing a History of the Revolution of 1688. He had
many years before expressed himself in the following
manner, of the work of our great historian : “ I think Mr
Hume’s History of Charles I. the most mischievous book
that ever was written. It is written with infinitely more
art than any other part of his work, and is, I think, in
that view a masterpiece. I do not think any answer to
it or comment on it would do much good, or at least not
so much as another history of the times written with his
art, or even with the half of it, in the opposite view.”
But, though his opinion of the utility of a new history of
the civil war, as an antidote to Hume, may possibly have
first turned his thoughts to a work on English history, the
period he selected for his own labours shows that he had
no intention to set himself up as a rival to that great his¬
torian. His sole object seems to have been, to tell the
story of the Revolution, to explain how it was brought
about, and to show in what its constitutional value con¬
sisted. Had he lived to complete his plan, the criticisms
on Hume, in his introduction, would have formed but a
small part of his book.
Mr Fox went abroad with Mrs Fox in summer 1802,
partly from curiosity to see France after the extraordinary
changes that had taken place in that country, and partly
to collect documents for his history. As the constant
friend of peace, he was received with enthusiasm where-
ever he went by the French people, and treated with
distinguished civility and attention by their government.
He had several long conversations with the first consul,
in which the latter talked to him with the utmost free¬
dom on a variety of topics; on the concordat then re-
-ently made, on the trial by jury, on the licentiousness
or the English newspapers, on the difference between
Asiatic and European society. On one occasion Napo-
eon laving insinuated that Mr Windham was concerned
in the assassination plots against his person, Mr Fox vin¬
dicated his old friend with warmth against so odious and
unfounded an imputation. Having finished his labours at
ai is, during which he collected a large mass of materials
for Ins history he went to La Grange, the country seat
of his friend La Fayette, and after passing some days
there most agreeably, returned to England.
On his arrival in London he found great irritation in
England against the consular government, and an absurd
cry for war raised by the newspapers, and re-echoed bv
all who expected in any way to profit by that calamity.
Ministers were apparently undecided, and, in the hopes
of confirming them in a pacific disposition, he resolved
for a short time to renew his attendance in parliament.
I shall attend on the address, he says, “ because,
though, if the ministry is warlike, I have no hope of dis¬
suading them ; on the other hand, if they are pacific, I
may serve in some degree to encourage them.” Besides
his general objections to war, where it could be avoided
with honour, he thought there was “ in this case a moral
certainty of failing in our object, and of aggrandizing
France still more than we had done.” Peace should be
preserved^ “ if it could be done with honourand he had
no doubt it might, provided our government was so dis¬
posed. If Pitt, who had not yet declared himself, should
be for peace and Addington, there would be no occasion
for the old opposition taking an active part; but if he
should join the war party, or “ hold a conduct between
peace and war,” then Addington will want support, “ and
the support given him will be both useful and honourable.”
He had been told that he should “ be as much abused
for pacific language now as he had been ten years before,
but being in parliament, he was determined not to blink
such a question and, on making the trial, found “ his
speech in favour of peace better received by the house
than any he had made since the Russian armament.”
The country in general, he was persuaded, was inclined
to peace ; and while there was “ hope of contributing to
prevent war, he felt himself in a manner bound” not to
discontinue his attendance in the House of Commons.
When the short session before Christmas closed, he still
thought ministers sincerely desirous of maintaining peace.
“ If I have any fears,” he says on the 29th of December
1802, “ it is only from a suspicion of a want of courage in
ministers to speak out what they really think, and if they
should tony continue to be afraid of speaking bold pacific
language, ill humours may arise, and war begin without
any wish for it in either government.”
It has been invidiously said, that Mr Fox, after his re¬
turn from Paris, was unwillingly dragged from his retire¬
ment by the importunity of his friends, in order to sup¬
port their views in parliament, and that his health and
comfort were sacrificed to their party objects. The fact
is directly the reverse. It was he who urged them to
attend, not they who solicited him. His return to pub¬
lic life was his own spontaneous act, unsolicited and un¬
expected by his friends. His object, in the first instance,
was to assist in the preservation of peace; and when the
message in March 1803 had opened his eyes to the real
intentions of the ministry, his indignation at the hollow¬
ness and duplicity of their conduct made him persevere
in his parliamentary attendance. From the state of par¬
ties in the House of Commons he began also to entertain
hopes of the revival of a Whig opposition, such as had
existed before the fatal schism in 1792 ; and with his opi¬
nions of the necessity of party connections, as the only
805
Fox.
806
FOX.
Fox.
means of maintaining public liberty in this country, there
was no personal sacrifice be was not willing to make for
the attainment of such an end. The revival of his foime
connection with his old friends was the object nearest to
his heart; and in Lord Grenville, though a new associate,
he found, as he had formerly done in Lord North, an ho¬
nourable coadjutor, with whom he could act in perfect
confidence, though they had differed warmly on points
that were no longer the subjects of public Jscuss.on He
was even ready to form a junction with Mr Pitt, till he
discovered that Pitt, though willing to join in opposing
particular measures of administration, would not break
with the court by going into regular opposition. It is a
certain fact, that, of all his party, Mr Fox was the person
most anxious to form a coalition with Lord Grenville ;
and that, whatever difficulties occurred to retard that junc¬
tion, they arose not from him, but from his friends. * e
considered then, as he had done from the time of the
American war, the influence of the crown to be the most
dangerous enemy to good government in this country ;
and the violence expressed for war, after the royal mes¬
sage, contrasted with what lie conceived to have been
previously the general disposition for peace, he regarded
as a strong; confirmation of ah his apprehensions. “ I he
king’s minister,” he says in March 1803, “ be he who he
may, is in peace, at last, all powerful; whether or not, in
case of a war, the universal apprehension of mischief from
the weakness of those men could do any thing, may be
more of a question, but even in that case I think the
crown in earnest would beat us all.” Ibis influence, he
contended, not only governed men’s actions, but even
swayed their opinions. “ I should not be surprised, he
says in January 1804, “ if in a short time the present
minister is reckoned the ablest man in the kingdom ; or,
if that cannot be compassed, it will be thought and main¬
tained, that a minister without abilities is the best for this
country.” He was anxious for a junction of parties, not
from motives of personal ambition, but in order to coun¬
teract this servility. “ A stand should be attempted,
which, though unsuccessful at present, will keep some¬
thing alive against other times. rIo temporise is cer¬
tain," absolutely certain, confirmation of the evil; no na¬
tion ever did, or ever can, recover from slavery by such
methods.”
The first distinct overture for a formal coalition of what
were then called the new and old opposition, was made
in January 1804, and came from the friends of Lord Gren¬
ville. It was proposed to co-operate in a systematic op¬
position, for the purpose of overturning Mr Addington’s
administration, and of substituting in its place one upon
the most comprehensive basis possible. To this proposal
Mr Fox was willing to have acceded at once ; but, owing
to some repugnance on the part of his friends, it was set¬
tled that the two parties should co-operate and concert to¬
gether the measures to be brought forward in parliament,
in order to give to their debates and divisions all the
strength they could, without any formal or compact en¬
gagement in case of success. The same proposition had
been made to Mr Pitt, who owned that the present minis¬
try was weak and inadequate to the crisis, that their dis¬
mission would be a benefit to the country, and that, in
case of such an event, an administration should be form¬
ed on the broadest possible basis. If his majesty, on such
an occasion, were to send for him, he should think it right
to endeavour to comprehend in the arrangement all par¬
ties, and even those who had been most hostile to him ;
but though, on many points, he would support the new
opposition if it took place, he was determined never to
engage with any set of men in systematic opposition.
iSuch was the state of parties at the meeting of parliament
in February 1804. As the session advanced Mr Pitt grew Fox.
more hostile to ministers; and, after the Easter recess,
the three parties in opposition acted in concert with so
much vigour, that Mr Addington thought it prudent to
resign. Mr Pitt, who was sent for to form a new admi¬
nistration, had previously declared that he would endea¬
vour to form one in conjunction with Lord Grenville and
Mr Fox ; but if he found his majesty impracticable, he
should feel himself bound to try one by himself. The result
is well known. His majesty was found to be impracti¬
cable on the subject of Mr Fox. Lord Grenville, though
unfettered by engagements, refused to concur in an ad¬
ministration from which Mr Fox was excluded; and, by
his conduct on this occasion, “ satisfied those” persons of
the old opposition, “ who had been most prejudiced”
against a junction of the two parties. Mr Pitt, abandon¬
ed bv all, except his personal friends and adherents, was
compelled to coalesce with the wrecks of the administra¬
tion he had contributed to destroy.
After various ineffectual attempts, during the recess,
to strengthen the government, Mr Pitt found himself ob¬
liged, before the meeting of parliament, to take back Mr
Addington into office. A fresh quarrel ensued ; and, at
the close of the session, Mr Addington (now Lord Sid-
mouth) and his friends again resigned. Insinuations were
then thrown out of an intention to negotiate with opposi¬
tion ; but, if such overtures had been made, the new en¬
gagements contracted on the Continent, independent of
other reasons, must have put a stop to the negotiation.
Russia, offended at the arrogance of Napoleon, had ex¬
pressed her desire to form a closer connection with Great
Britain. It had been the advice of Mr Fox that advan¬
tage should be taken of this disposition to propose reason¬
able terms of peace to France, under the mediation of
Alexander, and, if these w'ere refused, to conclude a de¬
fensive alliance with Russia, but on no account to provoke
afresh Continental war, which must ruin Austria it unsuc¬
cessful. Unhappily this advice was not taken. Austria
was seduced, or rather bribed, into a declaration of
lities. The war was pre-eminently unfortunate, and all
hope for a time extinguished of any balance to the power
of France upon the Continent. . .
The death of Mr Pitt dissolved the administration ne
had formed. Lord Grenville was sent for by the king,
and had no difficulty in persuading his majesty to accept
of the advice and services of Mr Fox. When the differ¬
ent parts of the new administration w^ere to be cast, Ins
hope and desire of peace induced Mr Fox to take the
office of secretary of state for foreign affairs ; and, before
his fatal illness, he had begun a negotiation for peace, with
every apparent prospect of success. The short time he
was in office prevented him from realizing the sanguine
expectations which his friends and the public had con¬
ceived from his past conduct and principles of govern¬
ment. It ought to be remembered, however, that it was
to his firmness Mr Windham was indebted for the success
of his limited service bill; a measure that had to encoun
ter every opposition which power and prejudice cou
raise against it; and that to his exertions, and to those o
Lord Grenville, was owing a resolution of both houses o
parliament to abolish the slave trade, which Mr I itt,
the plenitude of his power, had failed to obtain.
Mr Fox had inherited an uncommonly vigorous cons •
tution ; but, about two years before his death, he ha a
illness at Cheltenham, which probably laid the foundation
of the malady that occasioned his death. H18 a e
ance on Lord Nelson’s funeral, in January 1806, brougn
on a complaint to which he was ever after oc?asl0"aJ;
liable. The duties of office, and the fatigue of cons
attendance on the House of Commons, did not ten o
Itc.
FOX
store or confirm his health. About the middle of June he
had symptoms of dropsy, both general and local, and soon
afterwards his complaint had made such alarming pro¬
gress as to excite the greatest fears for his life. The uni
versal interest excited in his fate afforded the surest evi-
dence of his great popularity. From the remotest corners
ot the kingdom letters arrived daily to his family, express¬
ing the deepest concern in his situation, and recommend¬
ing remedies of all sorts for his disease. His malady, in the
mean time, gained ground daily, and his physicians were
at length compelled to have recourse to -the common sur¬
gical operation for dropsy of the belly. The relief ob
tamed, as usual, was but temporary. The operation was
repeated, and sopn after he fell into a state of languor,
from which he never recovered He expired on the 13th
of September 1806, having retained his senses and under¬
standing to the last. It has been said that his death was
accelerated by the exhibition of digitalis, administered in
the vain hope of effecting a perfect cure of his disease ;
but the story is utterly false and unfounded, and has been
publicly contradicted by his physicians. The cause of his
complaint was ascertained to be a schirrous affection of
the liver.
“ Mr Fox, to use the words of one who knew him well
during the last fifteen years of his life, and who has de¬
lineated his character with equal truth, force, and discri¬
mination,1 “ united, in a most remarkable degree, the
seemingly repugnant characters of the mildest of men
and the most vehement of orators. In private life he was
gentle, modest, placable, kind, of simple manners, and so
averse from dogmatism, as to be not only unostentatious,
but even something inactive in conversation. His supe¬
riority was never felt but in the instruction which he im-
parted, or in the attention which his generous preference
usually directed to the more obscure members of the com¬
pany. The simplicity of his manners was far from ex¬
cluding that perfect urbanity and amenity which flowed
sti 1 more from the mildness of his nature than from fa¬
miliar intercourse with the most polished society of Eu¬
rope. The pleasantry perhaps of no man of wit had so
unlaboured an appearance. It seemed rather to escape
from his mind than to be produced by it. He had lived
on the most intimate terms with all his contemporaries
distinguished by wit, politeness, or philosophy, or learn¬
ing, or the talents of public life. In the course of thirty
years he had known almost every man in Europe whose
intercourse could strengthen, or enrich, or polish the
mind. His own literature was various and elegant. In
c assical erudition, which by the custom of England is
more peculiarly called learning, he was inferior to few pro-
essed scholars. Like all men of genius, he delighted to
take refuge in poetry, from the vulgarity and irritation of
usmess. FI is own verses were easy and pleasant, and
mig it have claimed no low place among those which the
rench caW vers de societe. The poetical character of his
mind was displayed by his extraordinary partiality for the
poetry of the two most poetical nations, or at least lan¬
guages, of the west, those of the Greeks and of the Ita-
lans. He disliked political conversation, and never wil-
hngly took any part in it.”2
lo speak of him justly as an orator would require a
ong essay. Everywhere natural, he carried into public
fra
807
Sn^eTto^imf Simple an? "eS,igent exterior which Fraoastor.
ueiongeu to him in private. When he began to sneak a ^  '
common observer might have thought him^wkward ami
with tLC°nSUmmate judge C°uld onIy have been struck
rent LlX'nf °f' his ideas’ transpa-
Icl,> of his manners. 15ut no sooner had he
Sr H/fr *,T th^ ',e WaS c,’a"Sed into another
He Sought ordy°of his subject^ T/ tl""S arou"d1hi'”-
kindled as he „4< on. feted firfirhTrZfen^
«3onTtlK.i°r ;mrtU0US f0tl eloquence swepi
along their feelings and conviction. He certainlv nos
sessed above all moderns that union of reason, simdicity
and vehemence, which formed the prince of orators! He
was the most Demosthenean speaker since the days of
wrerf rs;, ‘1 hT him>’ Mr Burke, in a pam^hlel
written after their unhappy difference, ‘ when he was nine-
K nh tinie,he has risen’ by slow degrees, to
the most brilliant and accomplished debater the world
ever saw,
• ! qi!iet tbSnity of a mind roused only by great ob-
jects, the absence of petty bustle, the contempt of show,
tie abhorrence of intrigue, the plainness and downright-
ness, and the thorough good nature, which distinguished
dr box, seem to render him no unfit representative of the
old English character, which, if it ever changed, we should
be sanguine indeed to expect to see it succeeded by a
better. Ihe simplicity of his character inspired confi¬
dence, the ardour of his eloquence roused enthusiasm,
and the gentleness of his manners invited friendship. ‘ I
lid mired, says Mr Gibbon, after describing a day passed
with him at Lausanne, ‘ the powers of a superior man,
as they are blended, in his attractive character, with all
tne softness and simplicity of a child ; no human being
was ever more free from any taint of malignity, vanity, or
falsehood.’ ,
The measures which he supported or opposed may
divide the opinion of posterity, as they have divided those
of the present age. But he will most certainly command
the unanimous reverence of future generations, by his pure
sentiments towards the commonwealth ; by his zeal for the
civil and religious rights of all men; by his liberal prin¬
ciples, favourable to mild government, to the unfettered
exercise of the human faculties, and the progressive civi¬
lization of mankind; by his ardent love for a country of
which the well-being and greatness were, indeed, insepara¬
ble from his own glory; and by his profound reverence for
that free constitution which he was universally admitted
to understand better than any other man of his age, both
in an exactly legal and in a comprehensively philosophi¬
cal sense.” ^ (Q> Q-
FRACAS I OR, Jerome, one of the most learned men
of his time, was born at Verona in the year 1483. Two
singular circumstances are related of him in his infancy;
one that his lips adhered so closely wdien he came into the
world, that a surgeon was obliged to divide them with his
incision knife ; and the other, that his mother was killed
wdth lightning, whilst he, though in her arms at the mo¬
ment, escaped unhurt. Fracastor was a man of such ad¬
mirable parts, and made so great progress in every thing
he undertook, that in time he became eminently skilled not
only in the belles lettres, but in most arts and sciences.
Published in Dr Parr’s Collection, entitled Characters of Mr Fox, by Philo-
1 Character of Mr Fox, by Sir James Mackintosh.
fatris Varvicencis.
Pol*.:1*1,18 1S. true of JVIr Fox in the latter Part of his life only. Till his separation from his old friends in 1793 his mind was too full of
what j ®abjec.ts not to ta^e an eager Pai't in political conversation even in private ; and, w hen a young man, instead of being some-
coin n 1° conversati^ be was very much the reverse. Dr Johnson was mistaken in supposing him habitually silent when iu
pany, and has assigned a reason for his supposed taciturnity quite inconsistent with his real character.
808
FRA
Fraches He was a poet, a philosopher, a physician, an astrono
II and a mathematician; and he was also a man of conse
Fraction. auence in his time, as appears from the tact ot 1 aul ill.
   ' having made use of his authority to remove the council ot
Trent to Bologna, under the pretext of a contagious dis¬
temper, which, as Fracastor declared, made it no longer
safe to continue at Trent. He was intimately acquainted
with Cardinal Bembo, Julius Scaliger, and most ot the
great men of his time. Fracastor died of apoplexy at Casi,
near Verona, on the 8th of August 15o3; and in 1559
town of Verona erected a statue in honour ot him. fracas
tor was the author of many works, both as a poet and a p iy-
sician; but never man was more disinterested in both capa-
cities, for as a physician he practised without fees and a
apt he was indifferent to fame, aaer which the tnnehr
tribe in general so ardently aspire. It is owing to this
that we have so little of his poetry in comparison of what
he wrote ; and that, not to mention other compositions, his
odes and epigrams, which were read in manuscript wit!
infinite admiration, have now been lost. His medical pro¬
ductions are as follow : 1. Syphihdis, stve Morbi Gallia
libri tres, Verona, 1530, in 4to, afterwards fre^ently re¬
printed; 2. DeVini Temperatura, Xenxce, lo34, in 4to ,
3. Homocentricorum, sive de Stelhs liber unus, an e ausis
Criticorum Dierum libellus, Venice, 153o. in 4to; 4. Lh
Svmpathia et Anlipallda'Rerum liber unus; De Conta-
gionibus et contagiosis Morins, eteorum curatione, Mryres,
Venice, 1346, in 4to. All the poetical productions of bra-
castor were collected and printed at Padua, 17~8, 8vo.
His complete works appeared for the first time under it
title of llieronymi Frascatorii Veronemis Opera Omnia, in
unum proxime post illius mortem collecta ; accesserunt An¬
drea Naugerii patricii Veneti Oratwnes dua, Carminaque
nonnulla Venetiis apud Juntas, 1555r in ^.Besides
the works already mentioned, there are included in this
collection the three following, which appeared for the first
time viz.: 1. Naugerius, sive de Poetiea dialogus; lur-
rius', sive de Intellectione dialogus, libri n.; 2. Alcon, sive
de cura Canum Venaticorum ; 3. Frascatonus, sive
Anima dialonus. , _
FRACHES, in the glass trade, are the flat iron pans
into which the glass vessels already formed are put when
in the tower over the working furnace, and by means o
which they are drawn out through the leers, that they may
be taken gradually from the fire, and cool by degrees.
FRACTION, in Arithmetic and Algebra, a part or dm-
• sion of an unit or integer; or a number which stands to
an unit in the relation of a part to its whole. Hie worn
literally imports a broken number. .
Fractions are usually divided into decimal, sexagesima,
and vulgar. See Algebra and Arithmetic.
FRA
FRACTURE, in Surgery, a rupture of a bone, or a so¬
lution of continuity in a bone, when it is crushed or broken
by some external cause. See Surgery.
FRAME, in Joinery, a kind of case, in which a thing is ^
set or enclosed, or even supported; as a window frame, a
picture frame, and the like. , , . , , ,
Frame, among printers, is the stand which supports the
Frvme, among founders, is a kind of ledge enclosing a
board, which, being filled with wetted sand, serves as a
mould to cast their works in.
Frame is more particularly used for a sort ot loom,
on which artificers stretch their linens, silks, or stuffs, to
be embroidered, quilted, or the like.
Frame, among painters, is a kind of square, consisting
of four long slips of wood joined together, whilst the inter¬
mediate space is divided by threads into several little
squares like a net, and hence sometimes called reticula. It
serves to reduce figures from great to small, or to augment
their size from small to great.
FRAMLINGHAM, a market-town of the county ot
Suffolk, of the hundred of Loes, eighty-eight miles from
London. It is an ancient but well-built town, situated on
an elevated spot, near to which is the source ot the river
Ore. There are ruins of an ancient castle, supposed to
have been built by the Saxons, the walls of which are forty-
four feet in height, and eight in thickness. This cattle
was the residence of Queen Mary in 1553. Tim church
is a handsome building, constructed of black flints, the
market-place is large, and on Saturday well supplied. The
population amounted in 1801 to 18o4, in 1811 to 18o4, m
1821 to 2327, and in 1831 to 2445. . . f *
FRAMMERSBACH, a bailiwick of the circle ot the
Lower Maine, in the kingdom of Bavaria, extending over
seventy square miles. It contains one city, thi y S ’
and 764 scattered single houses, with 46o0 inhabitan s.
The city of the same name is situated on the Lahn, and
rrmtnins 452 houses, and 2460 inhabitants.
FRAMPTON ON SEVERN, a town of Gloucester¬
shire, in the hundred of Whitstone, 108 miles from Lon¬
don. There is here a considerable manufactory of iro?^
of wire. At high tides the river Severn occasionally floods
a large part of the parish. The population amounted in
1801 to 860, in 1811 to 864, in 1821 to 996, and in 1831
t0 FR ANCAVILLA, a city of the province of Otranto, m
the kingdom of Naples. It is situated in the centre
the province, and surrounded with several Sl"a11 lakeS' ^
contains 11,108 inhabitants who
make it into various kinds of goods. It also proituces g
wine, and has considerable internal trade.
Fract
. II
Frar;
vili
^ 1
END OF VOLUME NINTH.
Printed and Stereotyped by Thomas Aulan & Co.
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| ren : < >togna, umler the pretext oi cot
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. the like.
uv r printers, is the stand w ■ ‘u; ,
s v founders, is a kind oi iedg- «i-
i. w hich, N -ng filled with wetted «anS'
i' to ca>- ' r works in.
■f is tort particularly used Tor a sort
h artihe rs stretch their linens, silks o =
• nbroidete<l, quilted, or the like.
.Frame, among painters, is a kind of square,
iibur long slips ot wood joined together, w lul
diate space is divider'! by threads into
i p tares like a net, and hence sometimes calk *
•serves to reduce figures from great to small, <
tlieir size from small to great.
1 RAMLINGHAM, a market-town c> t a
Suffolk, of the hundred of Loes. , ighty-eit rc
>n. It t . iciest b-t . 11-b Fit tow -.
n elevated spot, near to which is the sou ee
c)ie. There we ruins of an ancient castU, - ’«
have been built by the Saxons, the wails of w}'
four f t in height, :< d tight in thic
v as the residence of Queen Mary ia i > >3.
is a handsome building, constructed of blue: >
;narket-t>!ace is largo, and on Saturday we;
,u>ptil.itiovi srawnntixl in 1801 to 1854, in 1811 t- g
tower l sine*in the kingdom < IVt.ww, ■-<i-
^vi nf smiare miles. It contains one < ity. :hirt
m,i 764 scattered single houses, with 4
rhe city of the same name is situated on *' 1
]'RAMPTON ON SEVERN, aum <>■
r i«« *■   
r>. Then' is here a considerable mane
f wire. At high tides the fiver Severn o
large part ot the parish. The popui
.801 to 860, in 181 i to 864, in 1821 to OFF.
; hm.u e t0 v\t’aV1ILA acitv ofthepo’ «r
the province, and surrounded wi h w <-
contains U,108 inhabitants, wh gt- ‘ !
make it into various kinds of good'?. 7 ' o , » • !
wine, and has considerable interne tr . w.
sbn of J F « »»*
i* ord
Fran .}» ‘ ,n
r MD OF VOLUME N1 NTH.
vs OF THE MOUTH, 'Pc.
1.
/.abnim.
. l/aruiihu/te.
E NTO M0 J*OGV.
PLATE ('(XX.
J/o/tHi <>/' t i/ttr.r.
Water Net.
I 'Y
/ /a. vt the.
Mode of setting.
/.urntuts ten'us
Underside of 2.
Ttdnuuis.
JJ.
T’orvefts. Mode ot setting.
Ent/il>n (keii'SH-'iUs, Etiin r
  ■■ "t. —-
.Ho at it 0/' /j/ndia am/utrum.
A/o nth of Ne/>'t ■
/v,. / 7'A' rr i.r/.
KNTOMOLO GY.
/ V,. / 7 'A CCA A 7.
^EOPTERA
fif jftdeJ/i svlvtitioi
JfantM'ni Jtari/Jtxui
, l/l/Juii ■/. i/ll/ttUtl
Enceladjjs ou/as.
'Mouth of'
UuhicL 20. guttata.
(trap hip torus muitht attains
Scarites suhterruucus
ftrarhinus ■ Turinei
fa rutieoliis
Head of
Lor. piUeornis.
I’asiagceus tulgipe/iriis.
Rarpalus tricolor.
S'ph/rroderu.t nitidicodis
Oitomus violaceiLt
Mormolgce phyUodes
lamthocdis rutuvnns
Onwphron suiumlis.
(ambus rutiJuris-.
r,EOPTKBul.
entomology
FLATK f'CXXIl.
t §& f '
s' f -i \\.
v.T
CaiuMma, ■ ■’ tvphojtta
J<>n' of /r- ffir.r.
IO.
. H-nne,<*1.
f/mrJ or'lO.
srrnmr/i/s.
J2. \
*i/rvutr sulmtur.
np.-r.rtir huofor.
26.
PiUfius "i 23. lli/ftttx of <ff.
Pint rus rymrix-t.
r"
’ rrtta.r bi.jlUttiltu
Tractu/f cruertfnta..
Elij^rr iatur.
/ '.r.
°cera Chabanni.
Ccraphi/tiun eiatavides.
//cmirrhipus flabelticornis.
Callirhipis Gon/i.
He/id of Cal. Hefea/ui.
Eng?by G.Albruui,Edin r
,E$PTKRul.
entomology.
flat/; crxx/f.
/fra,I or'\ D/yt. / srrriconus.
Ca/Iirhipis Gory,.
Herd of Cal. He/ainu .
E'n>7 d by G-. .Aibruui, E din r
Arlti/Jjdj j ternujijiea.
I
/Ulerocsrus maryi/uitus.
Hydrous piceus.
SphirndMim 4. maadatum.
Hdophorus ai/uatims.
A'ny? by u. Aikman, Edin ^
[EOPTERA.
i: N TO M O LO GY.
PLATE CCXXIII.
Rhipiceni qjaneu.
Larva of 5.
Dirty optcm sang uinta .
Lgcus latissimus.
S.
Drilus fku’escms.
Female.
Omalisus sutumlis.
Lampyris ntn-nUim.
At ale.
Female of 5.
U.
Telephones fieseus.
/.ampyris Sai ignii.
13.
^ecrobia violaceu
/‘arms elegans.
21.
90.
Ptilimts pecdnalus.
26.
Helerocents rnarginaws
27.
Dermestes Lard arias.
E NTO MOEOEY.
n\
i n&ftr
,/m'\
i
^ < w#
■ /
ffptui of 'Oi‘et)\ ,
inJjs
itrod offlu/b '->VT<r.
1\
Xnir.ibtrus m<e.
,. { 'te/uin of Ith
l i
^ ■■ %
I" >•
IflUtdiMio. of 'JJ.
■ • vn Chevivlatu
. tntmrui o/'Jfo/:
if-to.
Jntetma ta MrJ fport's.
f-o/no/?1
■ <• m'
I lIPB E.
i/#Y
utela tiitidissima.
// •. t o Jot. rrUfitSatus.
■
.Serial /iraenntL of Serial.
f/ayunasui.
Area da Kirbu.
A/armspis splenditla..
Melolontha fidlo.
Eng*by G.Aikman.Edi.
/‘LA V/; CCXXTV.
yutda nitiilissinia.
Hexodort redculaMs ■
Sf-rwa
t'lavimana.
Antenna, of Serial.
Melolontha fiillo.
Aren da Kirbu.
VOPTLKA .
ENTOMO LOGY.
Ateur/nis .war.
I tins bipuiu'tati/s.
tTnthopfiagu. r ram. r.
of Fischer.
77.
{teuchus . Ftipptionan.
Head of Aaron p rand is
J V
/iidlweenis fu/rns.
. Ua.rd/a of 2d.
20.
D
Mandible of 2d.
fabium o f 2d.
Srarabteus mentor.
Capris bellator.
Geo trapes Fhickburnei.
Head of Geotr
apes
Head o f Bidbocerus. Antenna, o f 1>?
Antenna of Id.
Antenna of Mel: vu/garis.
J/ale.
Phanens Imp era/nr.
Antenna of Alef. rah/ans.
Female.
Chrpsophora chrysocMona.
Eng*by G. Aikmaji,Ett
KNTOMO LO GY.
/Vw/7/i C’CJ A'r-
KNTOMOI.OGY.
/ 7’A c / .ri r
, ,, , Suwdendron
Ihdodotus Hutnboldw. ajlindricum.
//end of Passalus.
4
Lamprima (mm.
Trachynotus v/itatus.
Pussalw! pcntaphyUns.
AyctduL LuczodJ ■
///fir Goryi.
J/n/uns In tapes.
F.rw ?bi/ G. Aikman,Edin
III
IE OPT Eli A.
ENTOM () LOGY.
/’E.r/'A’ SYVVIV
■ill Ills.
<7 In/ G. rl iknwn,.EJn:'
)LEO PTF.R,!.
KXTOM 01,0 GY
PLATK CCAWY/.
A/ylat>ris rfiirorii.
.Ifcloc /nvsmrabceus.
Coriims
cei/is.
fan tJwris rrsiratoriii.
Diaperis bolett. /Jiiiii/Zionit'iu
Qtnti/Ja.
Seo ti/tux
Bnizi/iensis.
tbrdeUn hisaatti.
\1/
1
irmtus anchonufo.
20.
Orchestea altii.
iW.
/iruchus pisi.
. IntArtbus bit inist/is.
( nay us
nuuulibu/arius.
in rat/to /ii/ustiri.
Zhu-brio mo/itt>r.
Ante/tua of
Ort/wrertt. f t/nt/it •ns.
Bostrichus capucinus.
Scaly/us l ’/mi.
Larva of 2."/.
J)asycents sulcatus.
3J.
Heterotarsus
tenebriaides.
Z'arsus of 20.
('hiroscelis bi/'enestratu.
l.i ms pomp/a tirns.
/ 'pis ccntn//>oit/es.
li/rocitroa,
cardinalis.
/Hpiphorus b imam lot ns.
V v
Tarsus of SO.
Tarsus ot
Zisso/wtus unifasciatus.
Trio ruts Besmareftii.
Trachtp/ercs nu/rofascuiUts.
Ena d by G. Aiktnan.E/lir r
f/ortu its to cm.
Cossyphus
/Toffmanseyt/ii.
(ft/anera podoyrana.
&OPTEIt. I
ENTOMOLOGY.
PLATE C(XXV//.
/v\
Kndtimycfms cocdneus.
(‘orruu'lla ocellata.
I ^ \
{'Jienium bituberculatiun.
} "T \ * i
Clarifier longicornis.
'
SOFTERA.
ENTOMOLOGY.
/'LAW f (XXV//.
Lophorwcems barbiamiis-.
2.
(iramlnfx hirtipej.
Lamia aurodncta.
Xecydalis major.
11.
\ /
Hispa Fabncu.
Timarcha baleariai.
Cassida longicomis.
IS.
C/uysomela humeralis.
F.rvtytus qibbosus.
15.
Eumorphus SunuUrensis.
i.ndornpefius cocdneus.
CocaneUa ocsllata.
Pselaphus hwruUiais.
Engd. by G.AikrrumMdx
Do J° vinw/up’
1
\
TflOPTERA .
ENTOM OLO GY.
/‘L ITE rrx.w///.
MajcRla of
Eorf. auriaduria
Labium of
Eor tiada auricularia
PfiU Ilium sicdfolia
Empusa lobipcs.
BlaUa picta
Forfiada crocapennis.
Phasma a/uuibi/a
Gryllus domesticus.
1
Vy
1 v
' /
Aery dium nuyrutoruirn.
nosa Jus.
Pneu/uom papillosa.
i'ctrlr bipunctata.
Eng i by fr. AiPman.IfBin T
Locusta rirulissima.
-Fuhjom amMana.
. Veidar ti/ndaria.
Gcrris laatstris.
/.'A
(tith/u /h/.)•////.
/7.
J.irhi juncomm.
21.
Coccus cacti.
Female..
//tkJcr YU'H' oC y/.
Engd by G.AikmAn.Edut?
.
Case Worm, or Lan'a of
Pkry qanea.
Tonnes fatale,00 White, Ant,
Gray id Female.
Pfuyganea.
by G.AiXman ,4
ENTOMOLOGY.
PLATE C(X.XX.
xeuroptexa .
Head of/3.
Phryganea.
Eng f by 0. Aiknuw. Edin
/>LATE rrXAA/.
// YM e n o p te h . j .
/•LATE ((XAM.
ENTOMOLOGY.
Cunbt‘. r axillaris.
2.
Ih/lotoma rnstr.
Female of 4.
iOphydria T oamelus.
Oryssus corona tus
Evania (nba\
(/ItfUS
Outline oflO.
S'tephanus T f h/iwtus
Fomas on pens is
/Toad £ neck of 13
l‘elcoin us
polyoeralor
ir msee
monlfestutor.
Pel tastes sut trios.
fha/cis min uta
dorsiqem
enrvspis
STKEPSIPTEIL /
ItirviP of Cynips roste magnified
Pupa 'mil of
Sty lops Ale// itre
fenos Pet kit
E X 1 O M O LOGY.
PLATE crxxxj/.
7 yM K VOJ’Tl-A
PLATE rr.VX.VJ/.
p: xto m o i,o gy.
I/{////A/ roranm
fJeiiychnwi lucidulu/n
/ (Ue</ans
Parnopes airnea
Eorrriica ru/a
Pemale.
Don//us hdyolus.
/v ' Seolia </ no//ri/> u/u 'tu ta
s > irmlt’jis
la mi collaris
Dot a her rest rata
Tn/paiu/ton tit/ulus.
Crabro rn banus
Hasans a/ uformis
f/y/teas
rralov
Mi‘lHaas natron as
Vomada. miniaZa
I'ylooopa y/o/araa
A/ryac/it/r centuncu/aris.
/'surra antrnnata
t)< tsypotla p/utn t/a s
Ip is meUifica
Worker.
Eut/fo&sa f/entaZa
0>mb or't/tr //oast/ Brr,
a i/Jt oar ok the Rat/a/ Oe/ls
, lpis //trMuira
l/a/e or Droar .
/Ipis toe/Ii/ica.
J'ema/e or t/uee/i
Bombas rue/na/tts
* -
71) OP T PR A.
KNTO M OLOGY.
PL ATI: CCXXMY.
Larva of
Ary t/nnis paphia.
Nymphalis Justus
Pavonia aradina.
Vanessa adlithra.
Anp/nnis nwnet/i.
Chrysalis of
Nymphalis ilia.
T,arva of
Nymphalis ilia.
Nymphalis ethea.
Morpko actorion.
. 1 ipnphalis Justus.
Eng*by G. Aikman EdenT'
E \ iOLOGY.
/ /, i '/: rrA ixi .
iepjdoptera .
ENTOMOLOGY.
PIRATE CCXXXV.
/
:/m/« of Morpho p/ddippus.
BrassoHs astyra.
Eummia tairo.
F.rycina vinginiensis.
Satyrus Balder.
Urania BoisduvaUi
Eurybia Carolina.
Zephyrius amor.
Larva of Morpho phidippus.
Jh/rina Jaffra.
*
Larva of
Hepiatus kumuli
NTOMOLOGY
£p]DO PTERA
Ip arista Pales.
Coronis I.earhu
Castnia Aaxrnides
Zygoma tUipenduhr.
jasnunearum
/sura of Sphinx /as-
Chrysalis
Thyris sepulchruUs
jEgocau rectilinea
Zygoma pulchella
I ana of 12.
Sesia asUipennis.
Smerinthus
Macmurtrei
Cossus
Atychia <] pumila
Evens nebulosa
AgLwpe Americana
Cdauwpis FoLLetii
Ixtna of Cossus Ugniperda
Zeuzera
scalaris.
Serimria
mrueivps
fiombyx diyramma
australis.
Lasiocampa pmbosddea
Larva of
Hepialus humuli
Satumia Hauehim/r
F.np* by G.Aiknian, Edm
LEPIDOPTERA.
ENTOM OLOGY
PL APE CL\YXX\7/.
. \ 'otodonta zii uu \
Otyyia drJrita.
J.
Female of ?.
I Mir a of Oryyia gonostigma.
CaUiznorpha Izrontrj.
'/ino of 7.
lioti/s di/utida/is.
Noctua (Uphulrres) Impemtvr.
Hydrocampe mpodi/ls.
Dicnmoum borealis.
PhaUma nuichaonaria
Phahrna pultaria
Erebus hmaa/ut
Ig/ossa dilucidalis.
Crambos reimaUs
Ihjrtdis fagana
Herminia sidonia
Euplot am pus authnuwus.
dhicita as)
Omeades hexadacO/bis.
Pternphoms ptilodactyLus.
Ilithya carneu
Fponommta pusiella
Adda Pegeeretla
Larva of Erebus fOmoptem) putresi
ENTOMOLOGY
-
PLATE CCXXXVI11.
- 'xirvus rtpnm
PLATE CCXXXYIU.
)IPTEPA.
KNTO M OLOGY.
Fsychoda ocellar is.
Chironomus elty/uris.
Jjeris tibialis
My das hisitanicus
Tifji da imperuUis
Tabanus taurinus.
(bn/sops anecutiens.
dthaix maiyinata
Anthrax pandora
Dasypoyon
runmmis. >
Ori/dromia ylahnrnla
Hemerodromia monostiyma
Henops yibbosus.
Spry dins luoorum
Sony us cup reus.
20.
CaZlomyia amcena
Ppunadus (Tal ipes.
Por/r/tyrups diaphanus
Lonrho/item tristis.
Satnopinus tent ■. straits.
Oqyptera
bmssioaria.
Gastrus etyui
Eemalr.
(listms oris.
7‘horn velutina
ffippobosca ef/uina
Gastrus etyui
Male.
Trypeta hyoscycuni
Stomoxys stimulans
Aiktnan K
niAP on a.
r/.'JAAA.fjd-O.
KNTO M O 1.0 CV AND M VK I A 1*0 DA
/*la / /; rrxxM.\
14. a.
(Uorwis- meisyinata,.
, . /
Sciitwe/la ara/teoides.
f A
/ '/>fore//j/s •5; //igurus.
////us sa/uUosus.
Ifac/u/is • poh/pod/i
// /
tor/ur//iis.
JJf’///r/////s /uimanus.
flicinus Pavonis
Jl.a
4.-}
or con/rnou t/ea
/ /
/J. a.
42. a.
/’oi/z/sr/ viliosa.
/‘u/ej’ i pene&utts.
A map.
ro/ydtsmas compiana/a.
Lepisma
vUtata.
ScoZoperulru
ntorsitans.
FLrst.'s Arru circ£x potus.
ETRUSCAN VASES
d by tr. Aikma/i. Edut
KTHUSCAN VASKS
p/.ati: ccxu.
HTMENA EUS
VENERIS ET // ) .U ENA El SACRUA/
3 iTiutVT/ih,
5a <
IYOT77)
JOVIS EESTl 'M ET SACRC’M.
.
r ,|r'*
KTIUJSCAN ANTIQUITIES.
{See AJteali, Italia, J
Plata rrxLJi.
O9u,*4U>e.*0,t
iutufcall]
’irriyt'/tl \ _Socierhd*nnWB
(pwoki
s't'r]x_tJI'<h,tot<r^kjr
f:;.,
’i'r'i'Ax
Kn^lisli .Mil<-
WsJt? tliiiT-.ir Fitr/]
'<*rirn\
5.v'a,Pi&
tuori
k,< fnkopi/uJT>l
Riitjenmitif}
olboyi Mariarwtri
Friedland /.
“ <ulJ
f-** r,.7 ^ Kusti-m)
ffhaffh
bJ NV3>w*V#.7"‘
ElTtLENft,^^
V/7'///,/,,
/*So / - o %
■ h '> ?Aa n (3 v" >>> ^
'•t \J* • T^JiUuKrrt*
by^KRiJ
fvutMn
•hiehurij
mkfuri
ES GLISH CHAXXK/
Kabuch
fOoqau
••rtfau
irrshm
'^Hls
i'7w>o//r
i„*";
/.
Rl It /< >.\-ti
^frimn o a/llnTtbst -h
‘,imo L^MWult
Jw,Frwburq
^frnfunxf
\ *,j,,r
A *««!», .t- vV
■.Rati*b<
MlTMiCHrCsV V’v
\**ahbniy
Kdtuiim
-4<fuiltnii
f>niA'
1
Essed
Jjnawnik
urteillt*
^Toulo^
^ ^ Ltyhoi
°CiutiL.
^Wtha V
rrrVW/*,
L C
™.VtufU*<
1 nMelmnx
A^wy-v,, <J- f;,//
lifsttl </'•/.
N/iV* Gartftm*^
K< )MK\ 7^/Jij
V wmM
nafi.ks^
<:.«f Sapl^
wrft*
iajimtiJ
■ ^ -Spartbntht
F>i/ itfTltirit i'
'CFitssar-
JTalto
ast 15 tixiia Greenwiclx
PlsATX rCXjL/W,
Ena*by o. Aifofian.EdinT
♦
MA rm I r* A rP 1 o XT
pr.ATK crxLvr
Artf Del?
IO 20 JO 60
G K - 12 0
H K =. 90
ISO 240
360 260 Yards
l. '/uf G.Aikman, /\din V
Terri' plein, b - Banquette, c„ Piimpet, il Ba itment, e- Escarp. /*_ Countersc-arp
PLATE CCXLVI.
l: '/uj *by G.Aikman, Zut/n T
Fig.l
FORTI FI CAT1 ON.
VAUB Air's FI B ST SYSTEM.
C' Ti 360
A E , f of A B
Fig.
360 Yanis.
360 Yards
Fidg.3.
iRl B?v-drts />,/!
SYS TEM.
C OEMOM TA J ONE ’S STS TEM.
H K - 90
120 kS°
360 Yards
VA TEAM’S SE C OXI)
Terre plein, b.Banquette, c. Parapet, it BerStment, e. Escarp. r'_ Countcrsciirp.
FORT I FI CAT ION.
/V../77: CCXLVJI.
Co/:h ORA’S
300 Yards
\f O D E R N SYSTEM.
Jlr!'
JtlO Yards
bu G.Aikman Rdinb
a^/Jetaohed. Lunette, b-RYeohe, c-EunnttAV, d. Ronnet, r EntneneLred. ZSa.it/rms, tl Ra/ari/eeu/, o- ZZornH'ork, t/ ('a/'o/uiiere, /• Temiillim
\
F O R rr I F1 ( A T ION.
PLATK ( ( x/xm
P/.AJV of ATTACK of the CJTA />/-./. of ANTWTHP from 29**Novrto 23?JJecTJWJ.
I Ferruindo
t /ii/rde
3 /‘(u-ij’Jto
-V _ /MA-r
3_ AUni j 9_ Port <ie CKst yf/it
6 . Jiatanieau 10 Gen! Cftasse. Casemate
1 - Tort de Seamrs K.Descent into JhtcA>
8 . Port de La li'/Le B'_ Dr car A/
i" J)rsr<;,/ into JJitt it
of tiip fxciyeli//.
1 Miller. Del*ScottishMiP/laiu
FO RTI FI CATI ON.
PLATE CCXLIX.
]■)//. 6'.
Tuy.JO.
Eng ^ by G A ikman, EcUn f